Territorial North - Part BTerritorial North - Part BGEG 2109 - 2003GEG 2109 - 2003

A Regional Geography of CanadaA Regional Geography of Canada

Chapter 10Chapter 10

-David Burhoe-David Burhoe

Québec Science April 2003

• The concept of Nordicity The geographer, Louis-Edmond

Hamelin (1979) developed a Scale of

Nordicity (VAPO) of 10 criteria:• Latitude

• Summer heat

• Annual Cold

• Types of Ice (Permafrost, Floating, snow-covered or Glacier)

• Total Precipitation

• Natural Vegetation Cover

• Population

• Degree of Economic Activity

• Air Services

• Accessibility by other than air

• Ex. NO service VAPO 100

• seasonal 1ce/yr 80

• for 6 mos or 2 seasons 40

• year round by 2 means 0

Physical Determinants ofRegionalism

Muskeg inthe Taiga- Southern Arctic

Mackenzie RiverAnd Muskeg

Difficulties and challengesof transportationfor resourceexploitation

Providing infrastructure needswell above the tree-line requiresconsiderable adaptation ofsouthern Canadian “solutions”

Key Topic - Megaprojects

The vast Canadian Shield igneousoutcrops contain valuable depositsof minerals and diamonds (1996)- ex. The Nanisivik mine (N. Baffin)and Polaris Mine (gold, lead/zinc)on Little CornwallisIsland Resource development began

with the Klondike Gold rush (1896) with the myth of theNorthern EldoradoThis typical boom had negativeimpact (social & environmental)

Northern “development” requirescapital, technological know-how,incentives, and success stories.

The vast Interior Plains sedimentarybasins (ex. Mackenzie & Sverdrup)often contain large deposits ofoil and natural gas.

Megaproject Characteristics

• Resources are far from world markets

• Resource development depends on demand

• Development potential limited by physical realities

• Economy sensitive to lower world prices

Faith in Mega-Projects ismixed. Some see them as the economic engine of northerndevelopment. Others see them as exploitive, creating dependencies, environmentallydestructive.

Arctic development is high-risk;needs BIG investments, costlytechnology, costly EIA’s, expertise andexperience. Only big companies canundertake this in resource hinterlands.

Examples: 1) The Mackenzie Valley Pipeline (1970s) was not builtIn 2000, Esso, Gulf, Shell and Exxon Mobil are again looking at it.2) The Norman Wells Project (built 1982-1985) in winter mitigate imp.3) NWT Diamond Project 1996 required draining lakes to access ore

““Mega” ResultsMega” Results The NWT Diamond Project is a major project but The NWT Diamond Project is a major project but

has not generated sufficient economic growth.has not generated sufficient economic growth. Megaprojects focus on short-term profitabilityMegaprojects focus on short-term profitability

– Economic boom during constructionEconomic boom during construction– Few jobs for local peoples Few jobs for local peoples during operation phaseduring operation phase– Without diversity, local economyWithout diversity, local economy dependent on boom/bust ofdependent on boom/bust of world prices and phantom villagesworld prices and phantom villages

Megaprojects provide “boom-and-bust” economic growth Megaprojects provide “boom-and-bust” economic growth eventually leading to disappointment and loss of livelihood eventually leading to disappointment and loss of livelihood and lifestyle. and lifestyle. Should not the “situation of the future Should not the “situation of the future phantom village be faced before putting mines into phantom village be faced before putting mines into operation?” operation?” (Hamelin 1979: 220)(Hamelin 1979: 220)

Demographic/social evolutionDemographic/social evolution Territorial Pop. 50% aboriginal but circum-polar Territorial Pop. 50% aboriginal but circum-polar

links/development increasing.links/development increasing. The highest birth rates in Canada (and lowest death The highest birth rates in Canada (and lowest death

rates) are among the Inuit esp. Nunavut (nat. incr. rates) are among the Inuit esp. Nunavut (nat. incr. North 2%, Canada 0.5%)North 2%, Canada 0.5%)

In isolated villages in all three territories, 90% of the In isolated villages in all three territories, 90% of the population is indigenous living on local food and population is indigenous living on local food and trapping of low “local exchange value”trapping of low “local exchange value”

The very low percentage of indigenous people who The very low percentage of indigenous people who work full-time proved fallibility of employment statistics work full-time proved fallibility of employment statistics and studies.and studies.

>40% Terr. North’s pop. in 3 cities Whitehorse 20k, >40% Terr. North’s pop. in 3 cities Whitehorse 20k, Yellowknife 17.3k, Iqaluit 4.2kYellowknife 17.3k, Iqaluit 4.2k

Perspectives on Nordicity

There are so many “norths” within the northThere are so many “norths” within the north– Many “visions” of the Territorial NorthMany “visions” of the Territorial North

The “southern vision”The “southern vision”– The North is a hinterland to be exploited for the benefit The North is a hinterland to be exploited for the benefit

of southern Canadaof southern Canada The “romanticized vision”The “romanticized vision”

– Wilderness must never be touchedWilderness must never be touched The “pessimistic vision”The “pessimistic vision”

– The North is rife with problems (social, physical, The North is rife with problems (social, physical, economic, cultural, etc.)economic, cultural, etc.)

The “developmental vision”The “developmental vision”– Minerals, natural gas, and oil can be developed Minerals, natural gas, and oil can be developed

sustainably and help achieve sustainable communities sustainably and help achieve sustainable communities and lifestylesand lifestyles (Hamelin 1979: 6)(Hamelin 1979: 6)

Perspectives on Nordicity 2

NWT Act (1867) “white” education, administration, justiceNWT Act (1867) “white” education, administration, justice Each of 4 territories differs administratively:Each of 4 territories differs administratively: QC- 1970 Fed-Prov Agreement (QC princ. Administrator)QC- 1970 Fed-Prov Agreement (QC princ. Administrator) YK-Yukon Council would not meet NWT Council YK-Yukon Council would not meet NWT Council NWT-Territorial Council elected (1966) but styled on NWT-Territorial Council elected (1966) but styled on

southern model and feds have power. Northern municipal southern model and feds have power. Northern municipal governments mimic feds ie. Power from above. Former governments mimic feds ie. Power from above. Former NWT Assembly uniquely consultative & approbative NWT Assembly uniquely consultative & approbative (Judiciary Council met at historical site)(Judiciary Council met at historical site)

NU- 1999 Creation of Nunavut seeks to meet its local and NU- 1999 Creation of Nunavut seeks to meet its local and territorial demands:territorial demands: Construction of landing stripsConstruction of landing strips Outside contractors to employ local workersOutside contractors to employ local workers Construction of co-opsConstruction of co-ops Renovate water supply systemsRenovate water supply systems Balanced education to meet local and national challengesBalanced education to meet local and national challenges Raise drinking age from 19 to 21Raise drinking age from 19 to 21

Perspectives on Nordicity

NWT The Arctic reliesheavily on tourism asa form of economicdevelopment that ismore sustainable

Anguhadluk

Cultural practices of the Inuit recognized and respected balancedrelationships between the land, the sea, creatures and themselves.

Development policies of the new government in Nunavut try torespect and preserve as much as possible this relationship.

William Noah, Iqaluit, NU

The “Information Age” has renewedhope for many young Inuit of new employment opportunities

The role of woman in the Inuit culture has evolved in recent yearsas elsewhere and she plays an important role as territorial spokesperson in land claimsand in the territorial government.

Shopping and Living inIqaluit, the new capital of Nunavut

The school programs are rich and variedand related to northern development needs.

The land, theCulture, the art are all linked,are inspiringand are powerful.

Territorial North’s Future Territorial North’s Future (1)(1)

Land claims agreements so far involve 75% Land claims agreements so far involve 75% aboriginals in north. aboriginals in north. The 1984 Inuvialuit Final The 1984 Inuvialuit Final Agreement IFA shifted power from Ottawa to Aboriginal Agreement IFA shifted power from Ottawa to Aboriginal organizations. Created Inuv. Regional Corp. to manage organizations. Created Inuv. Regional Corp. to manage settlement & Inuv. Game Council to secure environment. It settlement & Inuv. Game Council to secure environment. It is only 20% of presettlement claims, but provides for 13 is only 20% of presettlement claims, but provides for 13 kmkm2 2 surface and subsurface mining rights, and 77.7 kmsurface and subsurface mining rights, and 77.7 km2 2

hunting, trapping, fishing rightshunting, trapping, fishing rights It set the model for four It set the model for four

subsequent agreements. subsequent agreements. – Inuvialuit 1984 90.6k kmInuvialuit 1984 90.6k km22

– Gwich’in 1992 22k kmGwich’in 1992 22k km22

– Sahtu/Métis 1993 41k kmSahtu/Métis 1993 41k km22

– Inuit (Nunavut) 1993 350k kmInuit (Nunavut) 1993 350k km22

– Yukon First Nations 1993 41.4kYukon First Nations 1993 41.4kMines of Nunavut 2002

Territorial North’s Future Territorial North’s Future (2)(2)

The The Canadian Arctic and the Oceans Act (2001) establishes the development of participatory environmental research and management

Policy change parallels the emergence of aboriginal land claims and the general political movement towards greater self-government. Increasing political power of northern populations in general, and aboriginal groups in particular, and a modification of the environmental decision-making process, esp. the incorporation of local values, priorities, and traditional environmental knowledge in environmental research and management as a mechanism to implement participatory approaches through co-management

Territorial North’s Future Territorial North’s Future (3)(3)

Seven areas of participatory environmental research and management may be recognized: (1) fish and wildlife co-management; (2) protected areas co-management; (3) marine and coastal integrated management; (4) ecosystem health monitoring; (5) contaminants research; (6) environmental assessment; and (7) climate change research.

Pluralistic science extends the range of scientific inquiry beyond the conventional positivist, expert-knows-best science and creates space for the potential contributions of other kinds of locally generated knowledge [9].

The term participatory is used to refer generally to the inclusion of local groups, land claimants and other stakeholders in the decisionmaking process; participatory management may involve both formal co-management agreements and informal joint management.

Co-management can be defined as ‘‘systems that enable a sharing of decision-making power, responsibility and risk between government and stakeholders, local resource users’. In the Canadian Arctic, co-management has been defined as ‘‘institutional arrangements whereby governments and Aboriginal (and sometimes other parties) enter into formal agreements specifying their respective rights, powers and obligations with reference to the management and allocation of resources in a particular area’’.

Territorial North’s Future Territorial North’s Future (4) (4) DefinitionsDefinitions

A policy paper of the Government of the Northwest Territories (the territory that covers part of northern Canada) defines traditional knowledge as ‘‘knowledge and values which have been acquired through experience, observation, from the land or from spiritual teachings, and handed down from one generation to another’’.

The working definition of traditional ecological knowledge, as used in this paper, is ‘‘a cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment’’ 1987 Oceans Policy for Canada November 1994, the DFO Vision for Oceans Management Bill C-26-An act Respecting the Oceans of Canada 1997Source: F. Berkes et al. / Ocean & Coastal Management 44 (2001) 451–469 453

Territorial North’s Future Territorial North’s Future (5) (5) DefinitionsDefinitions

Traditional ecological knowledge is aproven science. It has allowed an Inuitpopulation of as many as 10,000 tosurvive in an environment that challengessophisticated modern science & technology.

Cholesterollevels andheart diseaseare lowest inCanada.

Tourism PotentialTourism Potential 6 key considerations to attracting and promoting inbound tourism: 6 key considerations to attracting and promoting inbound tourism: a)      Researcha)      Research b)      Product Development b)      Product Development c)      Infrastructure (from Geogescu)c)      Infrastructure (from Geogescu)

– Regional Carriers (FirstAir, Creebec, Hawkair, Bearskin) “turf” warsRegional Carriers (FirstAir, Creebec, Hawkair, Bearskin) “turf” wars Serve smaller markets Serve smaller markets DEMAND matters: need people getting on planes 12 months a yearDEMAND matters: need people getting on planes 12 months a year SIZE matters: the right aircraft for the routeSIZE matters: the right aircraft for the route Mostly prop service (some RJs)Mostly prop service (some RJs) Need to be part of larger travel product package COSTS matter: Need to be part of larger travel product package COSTS matter:

labour, fuel are biggest costslabour, fuel are biggest costs Many small airlines supply regional charters (e.g. fly-in fishing, cargo) Many small airlines supply regional charters (e.g. fly-in fishing, cargo) GOVERNMENT matters: Government “take” can come to hundreds GOVERNMENT matters: Government “take” can come to hundreds

of millions of dollars every year; rules and regulations can hamstring of millions of dollars every year; rules and regulations can hamstring business action:business action:

MAY be allied with network carriers (AC, Jazz, Westjet)MAY be allied with network carriers (AC, Jazz, Westjet) d)      Human Resource Development d)      Human Resource Development e)      Marketinge)      Marketing f)f) Visitor Information Services Visitor Information Services

Tourism Expenditures by Commodity Tourism Expenditures by Commodity

(2003)(2003)

Accommodation15%

Transportation36%

Other non-tourism commodities

15%

Other tourism commodities

18%

Food & beverage

17%

Total Tourism Demand: $ 52.1 Billion (2003)

Transportation = largest part of tourist $Transportation = largest part of tourist $

Pond Inlet glaciers 2004Pond Inlet 1960s

Queen Charlotte Is. Boat toursNorthern Lights Festival, Yellowknife

Pangnurtung, NU

Resolute Bay, NU

Polar Bear Swimming

Walrus Colony

Arctic Sea ice & GlaciersArctic Sea ice & Glaciers

Arctic Glaciers & Sea iceArctic Glaciers & Sea ice 90% Newfoundland & Labrador icebergs originate from 100 90% Newfoundland & Labrador icebergs originate from 100

Greenlandic glaciers Greenlandic glaciers 40,000 medium to large sized icebergs calve annually in 40,000 medium to large sized icebergs calve annually in

Greenland and about 1 to 2% (400-800) of those make it as far Greenland and about 1 to 2% (400-800) of those make it as far south as 48o north latitude (St. John's)south as 48o north latitude (St. John's)

Rarely do icebergs last more than one year south of this point. Rarely do icebergs last more than one year south of this point. The glacial ice that icebergs are made of may be more that The glacial ice that icebergs are made of may be more that 15,000 years old!15,000 years old!

Snow accumulates over thousands of years. Successive layers Snow accumulates over thousands of years. Successive layers compress earlier accumulations until, at depths below 60 to 70 compress earlier accumulations until, at depths below 60 to 70 meters, glacial ice is formed. Glaciers "flow" or "creep" meters, glacial ice is formed. Glaciers "flow" or "creep" outward under their own weight like a viscous fluid.outward under their own weight like a viscous fluid.

Arctic sea ice has receded by about 40 percent since 1979. By Arctic sea ice has receded by about 40 percent since 1979. By the end of this century the region could be ice free during the the end of this century the region could be ice free during the summer months.summer months. (Michael Oppenheimer, Princeton University NJ." National (Michael Oppenheimer, Princeton University NJ." National

Geographic News, February 25, 2005)Geographic News, February 25, 2005)

IPY 2007-2008 IPY 2007-2008 further Arctic research plannedfurther Arctic research planned

1950 – 1991 Soviet Union field studies in the Central 1950 – 1991 Soviet Union field studies in the Central Arctic Basin collected data from “drifting stations”Arctic Basin collected data from “drifting stations”

““North Pole 32” (2003-2004) revealed significant North Pole 32” (2003-2004) revealed significant changes of climate in the Arctic Basin:changes of climate in the Arctic Basin:– positive anomalies of daily mean air surface temperature and positive anomalies of daily mean air surface temperature and

more often strong temperature and air pressure changes, more often strong temperature and air pressure changes, – frequencies of storm winds and snow precipitation had been frequencies of storm winds and snow precipitation had been

observed. observed. – During ²Fram² drift in summer 1895, air temperature above During ²Fram² drift in summer 1895, air temperature above

freezing point only three times. freezing point only three times. – In 1950s-1980s, the mean value of days with positive In 1950s-1980s, the mean value of days with positive

temperature was 6 per year. temperature was 6 per year. – On “North Pole-32”, drifted northern to ”Fram” route the number On “North Pole-32”, drifted northern to ”Fram” route the number

of such days exceeded 26. On the same station more days with of such days exceeded 26. On the same station more days with precipitation had been observed (more than 20 days each month precipitation had been observed (more than 20 days each month from June to September). from June to September).

AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements

Images: Coppermine couple, Inuit Cultural groups of Canada, US and Images: Coppermine couple, Inuit Cultural groups of Canada, US and Greenland; whales; polynyas; tundra; taiga; Mackenzie River; Map and Greenland; whales; polynyas; tundra; taiga; Mackenzie River; Map and chart of nordicity; from Canadian Encyclopedia Deluxe Edition 1999, chart of nordicity; from Canadian Encyclopedia Deluxe Edition 1999, CD-ROM resource Collection, McClelland & Stewart PublishersCD-ROM resource Collection, McClelland & Stewart Publishers

Images: Iqaluit 2002-2003; airport; throatsingers; sculptor William Images: Iqaluit 2002-2003; airport; throatsingers; sculptor William Noah; art of Jessie Oonark; personal collection of Maureen Flynn-Noah; art of Jessie Oonark; personal collection of Maureen Flynn-Burhoe.Burhoe.

Cover, heart attacks/infarctus, (Catherine & Laurent Fontaine) Québec Cover, heart attacks/infarctus, (Catherine & Laurent Fontaine) Québec Science, Avril 2003. Science, Avril 2003.

Inuktitut Syllabic alphabet from Canadian Encyclopedia Deluxe Edition Inuktitut Syllabic alphabet from Canadian Encyclopedia Deluxe Edition 1999, CD-ROM resource Collection, McClelland & Stewart Publishers, 1999, CD-ROM resource Collection, McClelland & Stewart Publishers, Land of the Inuit.Land of the Inuit.

Concept and Scale of Nordicity: Hamelin, Louis-Edmond. 1979. Concept and Scale of Nordicity: Hamelin, Louis-Edmond. 1979. Canadian Nordicity: It’s Your North, Too. Montreal: Harvest House Ltd.Canadian Nordicity: It’s Your North, Too. Montreal: Harvest House Ltd.

Berkes, Fikret, Jack Mathias, Mina Kislalioglu, Helen Fast. 2001.Ocean & Coastal Management 44, Winnipeg, MB: Natural Resources Institute, U. Manitoba,