tennessee naturalist program study guides/tnp reptiles and... · • reptiles and amphibians...
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
TennesseeNaturalistProgram
TennesseeReptilesandAmphibiansScutes,Scales,andSkin
EnhancedStudyGuide
7/2018
![Page 2: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
TennesseeNaturalistProgramwww.tnnaturalist.org
InspiringthedesiretolearnandshareTennessee’snature
Thesestudy guidesare designedto reflect and reinforcetheTennesseeNaturalist Program’scoursecurriculumoutline,developedandapprovedby the TNPBoardofDirectors, for use byTNP instructorstoplanandorganizeclassroomdiscussionandfieldworkcomponents andbystudentsasameaningfulresourcetoreviewandenhanceclassinstruction.
ThisguidewascompiledspecificallyfortheTennesseeNaturalistProgramandreviewedbyexpertsinthesedisciplines.Itmaycontaincopyrightedworkfromotherauthorsandpublishers,usedherebypermission.
NopartofthisdocumentmaybereproducedorsharedwithoutconsentoftheTennesseeNaturalistProgramandappropriatecopyrightholders.
2
![Page 3: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
TennesseeReptilesandAmphibiansScutes,Scales,andSkin
ObjectivesPresentanoverviewofreptilesandamphibiansincludingcharacteristicsparticulartothesetwoclassesofanimals.Exploretheirbehavior,physiology,andecology,relatingthesetohabitatneeds,environmentaladaptations,andecosystemroles,includinghumaninteractions.Introducecommonspecies,theirdistinguishingcharacteristicsanddistribution.
TimeMinimum4hours–2inclass,2infield
SuggestedMaterials(*recommendedbutnotrequired;**TNPflashdrive)• ReptilesandAmphibiansEastern/CentralNorthAmerica,ThirdEditionExpanded
(PetersonFieldGuides),RogerConantandJosephT.Collins*• “VocalizationsofTennesseeFrogsandToads,”CD,TAMP(availablefreeuponrequest)• Tennessee’sReptilesandAmphibiansEnhancedStudyGuide,TNP**
ExpectedOutcomesStudentswillgainabasicunderstandingof1. generalcharacteristicsofanddifferencesbetweenreptilesandamphibians2. lifecycle3. breeding,juvenile,andadulthabitsandhabitats4. evolutionarydevelopmentandecosystemroles5. amphibiansasbioindicators6. frogsandtoadsofTennessee7. salamandersofTennessee8. lizards,turtles,andsnakesofTennessee9. rarespecies;threatsandconservationissues
3
![Page 4: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
ReptilesandAmphibiansCurriculumOutline
I. ReptileandAmphibianCharacteristics A. Eggdifferences B. Skindifferences C. Claws D. Ectothermic
II. Amphibianlifecycleandassociatedhabitats A. Eggmasses B. Larvaeandjuvenilestages C. Adults,hibernationandmigration D. Communicationandbreeding 1. amplexusinfrogsandtoads 2. salamanderfertilization E. Evolutionarydevelopmentofsalamanders F. Amphibianecologicalroles 1. bioindicators
III. AmphibiansofTennessee-ClassAmphibia:GeneralCharacteristicsandIdentification A. OrderAnura(notail)-FrogsandToads(voiceID) 1. FamilyBufonidae-truetoads 2. FamilyPelobatidae-spadefoottoads 3. FamilyHylidae-treefrogs 4. FamilyMicrohylidae-narrowmouthtoads 5. FamilyRanidae-truefrogs B. OrderCaudata(tail)-Salamanders 1. FamilyAmbystomatidae-cupmouths 2. FamilySalamandridae-newts 3. FamilyPlethodontidae-lungless 4. FamiliesCryptobranchidae,Proteidae,Amphiumidae,Sirenidae-giants
IV. ReptileLifeCycleandAssociatedHabitats A. Eggsandlivebirth B. Adults,breeding,shedding,hibernation(hibernacula) C. Ecologicalroles
4
![Page 5: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
V. ReptilesofTennessee-ClassReptilia:GeneralCharacteristicsandIdentification A. OrderTestudines-Turtles 1. FamilyChelydridae-snappingturtles 2. FamilyKinosternidae-muskandmudturtles 3. FamilyEmydidae-boxandwaterturtles 4. FamilyTrionychidae-softshellturtles B. OrderSquamata,SuborderLacertilia-Lizards 1. FamilyPolychridae-anoles 2. FamilyScincidae-skinks 3. FamilyPhrynosomatidea,GenusSceloporus-spinylizards 4. FamilyTeiidae-whiptails 5. FamilyAnguidae-glasslizards C. OrderSquamata,SuborderSerpentes-Snakes 1. FamilyColubridae-colubrids,typicalsnakes(non-venomous) 2. FamilyViperidae,SubfamilyCrotalinae-pitvipers(venomous)
VI.ConservationIssues A. Habitatloss B. Commercialexploitation C. Pollution D. Disease 1. Chytridfungus 2.Ranavirus E. Humanmisperception
VII.Resources A.Publications B. Organizations C. Internet
VIII.ReviewQuestions
5
![Page 6: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
TennesseeReptilesandAmphibians
Tennesseehasarichherpetofauna.Herpetofaunaaretheamphibiansandreptilesthatoccurin anarea.ThewordherpetofaunacomesfromtheGreekwordherpetonmeaning“creepinganimal.”Tennessee’samphibiansarethefrogs,toadsandsalamanders.Otheramphibiansincludecaeciliansbuttheyarefoundonlyinthetropics.Ourstate’sreptilesarethelizards,turtlesandsnakes.Otherreptilesincludealligators,crocodilesandtuataras.AChecklistofTennesseeAmphibiansandReptilesisinAppendixA.Hereisalistofthenumbersofspeciesof“herps”thatoccurinourstate.
FrogsandToads–21Salamanders–54Lizards–9Turtles–15Snakes–32
I. ReptileandAmphibianCharacteristics
Differencesbetweenamphibiansandreptilesareasfollows.
Amphibians ReptilesHavemoistskinwithoutscales DryskincoveredinscalesEggsaregelatinous EggshavealeatheryshellNoclawsontoes Whenfeetarepresent,toeshaveclawsBothamphibiansandreptilesareectothermic(cold-blooded)meaningthattheirbodytemperatureisdeterminedbythetemperatureoftheirenvironment.Theyarealsobothvertebrates.
IIandIII.Amphibians--OrderAnura,FrogsandToads
Afrogisanamphibian,ananimalthatlivespartofitslifeinwaterandpartofitslifeonland.Frogsandtoadsaremembersofagroupofanimalscalledanurans.InLatinthismeans“a”(no)and“nuran”(tail).Thus,theybelongtoanorderwhichmeans"notail."AnothernamefortheirorderisSalientiawhichmeans“toleap.”
6
![Page 7: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
EggsandTadpoles Amphibiansareborninthewaterandhatchfromgelatinouseggsintotadpolesorpollywogs.Theeggsofamphibiansareconsideredbyscientiststobeanevolutionaryprecursortothelandadequatereptilianegg.However,theamphibianeggisamarvelinitself.Oncelaidandfertilized,theamphibianeggtakesinwaterandenlarges.Theouterenvelopesealsthegelatinouscontentsinside.Theenclosedfluidsperformasagreenhousecapturingthewarmthofthesunandprotectingtheinnercontents.Theprogenyhaveabufferfromdehydrationwhileeggs.Puddlesmaydryuparoundeggmassesbutifitrainssoontheembryoswillsurvive. Oncetadpoles,theyarenotallottedthisluxury.Ifapuddledries,tadpolesdrownintheterrestrialair,nothavingthelungstotakeinatmosphericoxygen.Iftheycanremainwet,thetransformationfromtadpoletofrogismagical,andthatiswhythattransformationiscalledmetamorphosis.ALatinwordwhichmeans“magicalchange.”Tadpolesappeartobeallheadandtail.Thewordtadpolecomesfromtwowords--"tad"whichmeanstoadand"poll"whichmeanshead.Inotherwords,atoadthatisallhead. Tadpolesseemtobeatotallydifferentcreaturesthanthefrogortoadtheyaretobecome.Theybreathewithgills.Forthemostpart,theyarevegetarianseatingwithscrapingmouthpartsthatscourthesurfacesofrocksandvegetationforalgae.Inrelationtotheirsize,theirintestinaltractsareverylongtobeabletodigestcellulose.Astimegoeson,theydeveloplegs.Backlegsfirstandthenfront,resultinginafourleggedcreature.Theirintestinesshrink.Theirgillstransformintolungs.Theirmouthpartsbecomeequippedtoeatmeat.Thisincludestheirincrediblylong,fastaction,fly-snatchingtongue.Thetimerequiredfortheseeventstooccurdependsonthespeciesoffrog,temperature,foodavailability,etc.Ittakesatleastoneyearandsometimestwoyearsforbullfrogtadpolestometamorphose.Spadefoottoadsontheotherhandcantransforminlessthanamonth. Aftermetamorphosis,thetadpolesbecomefroglets,tinyreplicasoftheiradultparents,whoinmostcasesleftthepondafterthebreedingseasonandegglayingwerecomplete.Oncemetamorphosed,manyfrogspeciesleavethepondortemporarybodyofwaterinwhichtheywereborn.Oftentimes,frogletsortoadletsleavethepondinamassexodusduringorimmediatelyfollowingaraingivingtheappearanceofitrainingfrogs,asfolksoncebelieved.Somespeciesaremorepermanentlyaquaticandspendmostoftheirlivesinoraroundthewater.Bullfrogsandgreenfrogsarethebestexamplesofaquaticfrogspecies.
CourtshipandBreeding Asadults,thefrogsandtoadsfeedandgrow,returningtothewaterannuallytobreedandlayeggs.Malesarriveatthebreedingpoolsfirstandbegintheiradvertisementcall.Frogsmaketheirvocalizationsbypassingairfromtheirlungsoverthevocalchordstothevocalsac,whichresonatestomakethesoundlouder.Males’vocalchordsarelargerandmoredevelopedthanthoseoffemales.Eachspeciesoffrogortoadhasauniqueadvertisementcall.Onlymalessingthiscourtshipsong.Souniquearethesecallsthatjustasbirderscanidentifyabirdspeciesbyitssong,froggerscanidentifyfrogspeciesbytheircalls.Hence,youcanknowwhichspeciesoffrogsliveatyourpondwithouthavingtoseethem.
7
![Page 8: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Onceapairhaveagreedtobreed,maleandfemalefrogsenterthematingposition.Thispositioniscalledamplexus.Themaleclaspsthefemalefrombehind.Heplaceshisfrontarmsaroundherbodyandclaspsherbehindherfrontlegs.Maleswilloftenhaveswollenthumbssothattheycanbettergripthefemale.Theyremaininthispositionsometimesforseveralhours.Thefemalereleasestheeggsandthemalebathestheeggswithsemen.Bothmaleandfemalesexandurinaryorgansarecombinedinonebodypartcalledthecloaca.Fertilizationisexternal.Theprocesssoundssexierthanitreallyis. Theeggsarelaid.Somefrogspecieslaysingulareggs,somelaysmallmassesofeggs,othershavelargeeggmasses,andstillotherslaytheireggsinafilmacrossthewater’ssurface.Theeggshatch.Againthistakesdifferentamountsoftimedependingonthespeciesoffrogortoad.
Communication Frogsandtoadsgiveothercallsoutsidecourtship.Aggressivecallsareterritorialmessagesthataresometimesabrupt,single,loudnoteslikethebullfrogemitsortheycanbeslurredtrillslikethespringpeepergives.Aggressivecallssendthemessagetocompetingmalesthattheyarecrossingturfboundaries.Onecanunderstandhowtheconfusionamongmalefrogscouldarisesinceaspringpeeper’sterritoryisonly11/2squarefeet.Maletreefrogsmustdefendprimeperchingrealestate.Aclearperchexactlyacertainheightdirectlyoverthewaterisn'teasytocomeby,andfemalesknowwhatthey'relookingfor.Sometimesmalegreytreefrogssettleforasatellitepositioninproximitytoaprimelocation.Theywillwaituntilthealphamaleisbusywithapartnerandthenmoveintosettletheterritoryatanopportunemoment,whilethedominantmaleisinamplexus(thematingposition)withafemale.Besides,howisthenextfemaletocomealonggoingtoknowthathedidn’tgettherefirst? Othercallsincludethedistresscallgivenwheneverafrogortoadisbeingpreyedupon.Thiscallisparticularlydisturbingwhenafrogisbeingeatenfeetfirst.Anothertypeofvocalizationis areleasecall.Releasecallsindicatethatwhoeverhasbeengrabbedwantstobesetfree.Sometimesthisisinthesituationofamaleclaspingafemalefrogtobreedwhenthefemaleisn'treadyandsometimesthereleasecallisemittedwhenamalefrogclaspsanothermalefrog.Afrogwillalsoemitareleasecallifapersonpicksitup.Toadswillalsowetonyouwhenyoupickthemupwhichservesthesamepurpose.Thetoadissaying,"Putmedown!"FrogsversusToads "Whatisthedifferencebetweenafrogandatoad?"Thishasbeenthemostaskedquestionsincetheearlydaysofherpetologicalstudy.WhenherpetologybeganinEurope(theUSAdidn'texistyet)theclassificationofanimalswasafledglingpractice.Europeanherpetologistsstartedcategorizinganuransbyplacingthemintotwocategoriesbasedontwocreatures.OneofthoseanimalswasatoadBufobufotheotherwasafrogRanatemporaria,afrogverysimilartoourleopardfrog.Thoseweretheonlytwocategoriesthatexistedatthetime,andasyoucanimagine,somefrogsdidn’tfitintoeithercategoryperfectly,contributingtotheconfusionoffrogsandtoads. Therearesomedifferencesthatyoucantakestockin.TruetoadsarenowinthegenusAnaxyrus.Theyarethedry,wartyanuransthathavelargeparotoidorpoisonglandsontheir
8
![Page 9: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
shoulders.Theylookliketheyarewearingshoulderpads.Theseanuransaremoreterrestrialthanmostfrogs.However,thereareotheranuranswhosecommonnamessuggesttoads,e.g.,narrow-mouthedtoadsandspadefoottoads,thatareconsideredfrogs.ThesefrogsarenottruetoadsofthegenusAnaxyrus,buttheydopossesssomeofthetraitsthatarecharacteristicoftoads.Liketoads,theyhaveshortlegsandthushopversusleap.Theyalsohaveshort"squatty"bodieswithplumpbellies.Keepinmindthisisjustahuman-thingoftryingtomaketheuniversefitintooursystemsoforganization.Thefrogscouldn’tcareless.
TheFrogsandToadsofTennessee
Therearefivefamilies,sevengenera,and21speciesoffrogsandtoadsinTennessee.
Family Genera
Pelobatidae(Spadefoots) Scaphiopus(Spadefoot)
Bufonidae(TrueToads) Anaxyrus(NorthAmericanToads)
Hylidae(Treefrogs) Acris(CricketFrogs),Hyla(Treefrogs),Pseudacris(ChorusFrogs)
Microhylidae(Narrow-mouthedToads) Gastrophryne(Narrow-mouthedToad)
Ranidae(TrueFrogs) Lithobates(TrueFrogs)
YoumaybewonderingwhathappenedtothetoadgenusBufoandthefroggenusRana.Taxonomyistheclassificationoforganismsbasedonnaturalrelationships.Taxonomistsarescientistswhocontinuetoarrangeandrearrangetheorderoforganismsasmoreisdiscoveredaboutthem.TaxonomistshavedeterminedthatNorthAmericantoadsbelongtothegenusAnaxyrus(GreekforChieforKing)andNorthAmericanfrogsbelongtothegenusLithobates.LithobatesisGreek;lithomeans"astone,"batesmeans"onethatwalksorhaunts."ThusLithobatesmeans"rockwalker."
9
![Page 10: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
FamilyBufonidae--TrueToads
ToadsareinthefamilyBufonidaethatincludes25generaand339speciesworldwide.ThefamilyiscosmopolitanexceptforAntarctica,Greenland,NewGuinea,Madagascar,AustraliaandNewZealand.AnaxyrusistheonlygenusofthisfamilythatoccursinNorthAmericawhereitisrepresentedby21speciesandseveralsubspecies.Texashasmoretoadsthananyotherstate.Tennesseehastwospeciesoftoads--Anaxyrusamericanus,theAmericanToadandAnaxyrusfowleri,Fowler’sToad.Bothspecieshavemanycolloquialnamesincludinggardentoad,hoptoadandtoadfrog. AlltruetoadsintheU.S.arenowinthegenusAnaxyrusandhavethefollowingcharacteristics:
• Twoparotoidglands--largepoisonglandsontheshoulders,• Cranialcrests--raisedridgesonthebackofthehead,• Horizontalpupils,• Scantwebbingonthehindfeetand• Onelargeandonesmallspadeontherearfeetfordigging.
OnecouldconfuseEasternSpadefootToads(Scaphiopusholbrookii)withthetruetoads.However,theyhaveverticalpupils,onlyonelargespadeoneachrearfoot,smoother,darkerskinandmuchlessdevelopedparotoidglands. TodistinguishtoadsinTennessee,lookatthenumberofwartsperdorsalspot,therelationshipofthecranialcreststotheparotoidgland,thedevelopmentofthecranialcrestandifthereareenlargedwartsonthethigh.
AmericanToad--AnaxyrusamericanusVoice:CallisalonghightrillthatcanbeheardFebruarythroughthesummermonths,particularlyathigherelevations.HabitatandHabits:Backyards,Gardens,Fields.Oftenbreedsintemporarypoolsofwater,i.e.puddles.Description:Size2.0-3.5inches,(record4.4inches)A.americanusisamedium-sizedbrown,tanorreddishtoadwithprominentparotoidglandsbehindtheeyes.Paratoidglandsdonottouchcranialcrestorareconnectedonlybyaspur.Americantoadshaveoneortwowartsineachdarkspot.Theireggsarelaidinahelicalstring.
FowlersToad--AnaxyrusfowleriVoice:Callisaraspy“Waaaaaa”thatsoundsalittlelikeababycrying.ThecalloftheFowler’stoadmakesitseemlikethetoadisfartherawaythanitreallyis.CallingusuallybeginsinMayandcontinuesintothesummer.
10
![Page 11: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
HabitatandHabits:Fowlerstoadoftenfrequentssandyfloodplainsandriverbottomsbutoccursinalmosteveryterrestrialhabitat,includingroadsides,backyards,fields,pasturesandgardens.Itbreedsinmorepermanentwaters,i.e.ponds,lakes,streams.Description:Size2.5-3.0inches(record3.7)Mediumsizedtan,brownorreddishbrowntoadwithdrywartyskin.Thelargeparotoidglandstouchthecranialcrests.Therearemorethantwowartsineachdarkspotonitsskin.
ThefollowingcomparisonchartshouldreinforcethedifferencesbetweenAmericanToadsandFowler’sToads.
American Toad Fowler’s Toad
1-2 warts per dorsal spot 3 or more warts per dorsal spot
cranial crests do not touch parotoid glands, or if so, by a spur
cranial crests touch parotoid glands
parotoid glands kidney shaped parotoid glands oblong
cranial crests prominent cranial crests slight
chest and underparts mottled underparts clear except for on central breast spot
long musical trill short harsh cry
enlarged warts on tibias no enlarged warts on tibias
typically breeds in March typically breed April-July
Often breeds in temporary water, e.g., puddles
breeds in more permanent waters, e.g., ponds, lakes, streams
11
![Page 12: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
FamilyHylidae--Treefrogs ThefamilyHylidaeincludestreefrogs,chorusfrogsandcricketfrogs.Itconsistsof37generacontaining637species.Membersoccurintropicalandtemperateregionsworldwide.TheyaremorecommoninCentralandSouthAmericaandseemtohaveoriginatedinthetropicsandspreadnorthwardandsouthwardtowardthetemperateregions. TherearefivegeneraofHylidsinNorthAmerica--Hyla(Treefrogs),Osteopilus(CubanTreefrog),Smilisca(MexicanTreefrog),Acris(CricketFrogs),andPseudacris(ChorusFrogs).RepresentativeslivethroughoutNorthAmericaexceptforthemostariddesertsandthemostfrozenarctic.TherearereportsofUplandChorusFrogslivingattheArcticCircle.ThesmallestHylidinNorthAmericaistheLeastTreeFrogmeasuring5/8inch.ThelargestistheCubanTreefrogreachingupto51/2inches.FemaleHylidsarelargerthanmales.Acris,HylaandPseudacrisarethethreegeneraofHylidsinTennessee.Thesegeneraarerepresentedbythefollowing10speciesinTennessee.
Acrisgryllus--SouthernCricketFrogAcriscrepitans--NorthernCricketFrogHylaavivoca--Bird-voicedTreefrogHylachrysoscelis--Cope’sGrayTreefrogHylacinerea--GreenTreefrogHylagratiosa--BarkingTreefrogHylaversicolor--GrayTreefrogPseudacrisbrachyphona--MountainChorusFrogPseudacriscrucifer--SpringPeeperPseudacrisferiarum--SoutheasternChorusFrog
AllNorthAmericanHylidshaveanintercalarydisc--ashortextracartilagebetweenthetoepadandthelastboneofthefingersandtoes.Thisextracartilageallowsthetoepadstoswivelandbeplacedflatagainstverticalsurfacesforclimbing.MostTreefrogs(Hyla)areslenderwaistedwithlonglegs.TheChorusFrogs(Pseudacris)andCricketFrogs(Acris),howeveraremoreterrestrialwithshorterlegs.TreefrogsalsohavelargertoepadsthantheChorusFrogsandCricketFrogs.ScientistsbelievethatallmembersoftheHylidaefamilyoriginatedastreedwellersbutthroughevolutionsomelosttheirtoepadsandbecameterrestrial. ManyHylidshaveflashcolorsthathelpprotectthemfrompredators.Flashcolorsareboldpatternsonthebacksofthefrog’sthighandinthegroinregion.TheflashcolorsoftheGrayTreefrogsareapricotorangewithdark,worm-likevermiculations.Whenthefrogissitting,thefoldsofthelegsconcealtheflashcolors.Thecombinationofbrightcolorsandboldpatternssuddenlyflashwhenthefroglengthensitslegstoleapfromdanger.Thisbolddisplaycatchesthepredator'seyecreatingastrikingsearchimageforthehunter.Whenthefroglandsinasittingposition,thelegsagainconcealthebrightcolors.Searchingfortheblatantcolor
12
![Page 13: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
patterns,thepredatorloosessightofitsprey,fallingvictimtoafalsesearchimagegeneratedbythefrog’sprotectiveflashcolors. Camouflagealsoaidsinthefrogescapingdetection.Mostofthetime,Hylidsarethesamecolorastheirsurroundings.GrayTreefrogscanbethecoloroflichencoveredbark.CricketFrogscanbethebrightgreenofaduckweedcoveredpondorthesandybrownofacreekbank.SeveralspeciesofHylidsseemtobeabletochangecoloratwill.Temperature,humidity,lightandeventhemoodofthefrogmayaffectitscolor.
GenusAcris--CricketFrogs AcrismeanscricketinLatin.ThefrogsofthisgenusaretheCricketFrogs.Theyaresmalllikecrickets,usuallymeasuringlessthanoneinchfromtheirsnouttotheirvent.Theircallsaresimilartothemechanicalsoundsofcricketsbutsoundmoreliketappingchertpebblestogether.Whatismostcricket-likeaboutthesefrogsisthe“popping”soundthattheymakewhentheyjumpandlandindryleavesorgrasses.WealwayslookwhenwehearthissoundhopingforaCricketFrogbutusuallyfindingagrasshopperorcricket.However,onetimewefollowedoneofthosepopsandfoundaNorthernCricketFroginJanuary. CricketFrogsmaybeoverlookedfortheirsize,buttheircolorsareoutstanding.Theydonmetalliccolorsthatmakethemlooklikeglimmeringjewels.Yet,theyremainbeautifullycamouflagedbecausetheyareoftenthesamecolorastheirenvironment.Theyarebrightgreeninapondcoveredwithduckweedorsiennaandtanagainsttheleaflitterofamoistbottomlandforest.Theirbackgroundcolorscanbebrown,tan,gray,greenorblack.Theyhaveastripedowntheirbackthatrangesfromtan,yellow,green,burnt-orangetobrown.Theytypicallyhaveadarktriangleonthebackoftheirhead.Theapexofthetrianglepointsdowntheback.ThedorsalstripeandthistriangleoftenformaY.Thereisablackhorizontalstripeonthebackoftheirthigh.However,youmustcapturethefrogtoseethis,andthatisnoteasy. CricketFrogsescapedanger,ortheinquisitiveherpetologist,byleaping.CricketFrogscanleapverticallyuptothreefeetandhorizontallyfordistancesofuptofourfeet!Theyoftendiveintonearbywaterandhidebeneathdebris.Sometimestheyspringerraticallyoutofreach.Onoccasion,theyleapintothewater,reversetheirdirectionandreturntothebankwheretheystarted.Thisleavesyoupeeringintothedistancefindingonlyemptyleavesandbarebanksjustasfooledasthepredatorsthousandsofyearsbeforeyou. CricketFrogsleadaterrestriallife.Therefore,theyhavelosttheclimbingparaphernalia,suchastheexpandedtoepads,oftheirTreefrogcousins.BothCricketFrogspeciesinTennesseearesometimescalledSwampCricketFrogs.Bothspeciesoccurinbottomlandwetlandsorswamps.Theyalsolivealongwoodedstreams,lakesandponds.Theypreferaquatichabitatsthatareexposedtothesunpartofthedayandhaveemergentplantsthatprovidecover.Theybreedinthewarmermonthsoftheyear.SingingtypicallystartsinAprilorMay.Theysingbothdayandnightandhaveastrangehabitofcrankingupachorusinresponse toloud,vibratingnoisessuchasaplaneflyingoverortherumbleofapassingtrain.
13
![Page 14: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
SimilarSpecies:ItiseasytodistinguishCricketFrogs(Acris)fromtheTreefrogs(Hyla)becauseCricketFrogslacktheexpandedtoepadsoftheTreefrogs.ToseparateCricketFrogsfromChorusFrogs(Pseudacris)usethecharacteristicsinthefollowingchart.
Acris (Cricket Frogs) Pseudacris (Chorus Frogs)
pointed snout rounded snout
small warts on body no warts
no webbing on fingers but broadly-webbed toes
no webbing on fingers or toes
well-defined dark triangle on back of head
if dark triangle occurs on back of head, it is not well defined
black horizontal stripe on back of thigh no black stripe on back of thigh
NorthernCricketFrog--AcriscrepitansVoice:Callsoundsliketwostonesbeingtappedtogether.Thetempoofthetappingsoundsspeedupduringthecallthenslowsbackdown.ThecallingusuallybeginsinlateMarchorearlyAprilandcontinuesintothesummer.HabitatandHabits:A.crepitanscanbefoundatpondmarginsandstreamborders.Description:Size0.6-1.2inchesCricketfrogsarethesmallestfrogsinTennessee.Haveadarktrianglebetweeneyesandusuallyadorsalstripe.Morethan½oflongesttoeonrearfootwebbedManycolorvariations
SouthernCricketFrog--AcrisgryllusVoice:Callsoundsliketwostonesbeingtappedtogether.ThecalloftheSouthernCricketFroghasaheavierinflectionthantheNorthernCricketFrog.Alsothetempoofthetappingsoundsdoesnotspeedup,itremainsconstant.CallingusuallybeginsinlateMarchorearlyAprilandcontinuesintothesummer.HabitatandHabits:A.gryllusoccursattheedgesofpermanentponds,lakesandslowmovingstreams.OnlyoccursinsouthwestcornerofTennessee.Description:Size0.6-1.2inches,CricketfrogsarethesmallestfrogsinTennessee.Asmallfrogwithadarktrianglebetweentheeyesandusuallyadorsalstripe.Therearemanycolorvariationstothisfrogwiththefrogoftenmimickingthecolorschemeoftheenvironmentwheretheylive.Lessthan½oflongesttoeonrearfootiswebbed.
14
![Page 15: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Distinguishingcharacteristicsofthetwocricketfrogspeciesarecomparedinthechartbelow.
Acris gryllus Acris crepitans
pointed snout bluntly pointed snout
1st rear toe partially webbed, 4th rear toe (longest) with 3 joints free
1st rear toe completely webbed, 4th rear toe (longest) with only 1.5 to 2 joints free
smooth dark stripe on rear of thigh ragged dark stripe on rear of thigh
when rear leg is extended alongside body, the heel surpasses the snout
when rear leg extended thusly, heel does not surpass the snout
no prominent pair of anal warts prominent pair of anal warts
usually found in temporary pools near permanent water
usually found on shore of permanent water
typically occurs in southwest corner of Tennessee
occurs nearly statewide
TherestrictedrangeoftheSouthernCricketFrogandtheamountoftoewebbingaretheeasiestwaystodistinguishthesetwospecies.Becauseoftheirsmallsize,onemightconfusethecricketfrogswiththechorusfrogs,butthelatterhaveawhitestripeacrosstheirupperjawandnowebbingontheirrearfeet.
15
![Page 16: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
GenusPseudacris–ChorusFrogs ThechorusfroggenuswasonceChorophilusfromtheGreekwordschoro,abandofdancersorsingers(achorus)andphileo,love--loverofthechorus.OnthefirstwarmeveningsofFebruaryafterthepre-springrainsitiseasytounderstandtheoriginofthisname.Thechorusfrogassembliesaresoloudandwellattendedthattheyheraldtheimminentarrivalofspring,eventhoughtheremaybesixmoreweeksofwinter.PseudacrisiscombinestheGreekpseudes,false,andakris,alocust.Thisgenericnamereferstothesimilarityofthechorusfrogs(Pseudacris)tothecricketfrogs(Acris).Therearethreesimilarspecies.
Pseudacrisbrachyphona Pseudacrisferiarum Pseudacriscrucifer
backwardsparenthesisonback 3 broken stripes on back cross on back
call: fast, short “reek-rake” finger down comb teeth loud peep
dark mask like Wood Frog no dark mask no dark mask
MountainChorusFrog--PseudacrisbrachyphonaVoice:Callisshort,raspyandrisesinpitch.ThecallissimilartocallofUplandChorusFrogbutfasterandshorter.CallcanbeheardFebruarythroughAugust.PeakcallingFebruaryandMarch.HabitatandHabits:FoundinwoodedhabitatsatthehigherelevationsofCumberlandPlateauandtheeasternmountains.MountainChorusFrogsbreedinfloodedroadsideditches,poolsalongstreamsandwheelrutsingravelroads.Eggsarelaidonthepetioleofaleafinshallowwater.Description:Size1.0-1.2inches,(record1.5inches)Asmallchorusfrogmarkedinshadesoftanandblack.“ReverseParentheses”onback,maskbehindeye,whitelineoverlip.ThisfrogresemblesaminiatureWoodFrog.
SoutheasternChorusFrog--PseudacrisferiarumVoice:Callisshort,raspyandrisesinpitch.Thecallsoundslikesomeonedraggingtheirthumbnailovertheteethofacomb.FullbreedingchorusesstartinDecemberandcontinuingthroughthewinterintospringandsummer.Isolatedindividualscallfromthetreesduringthefall.Thesecallsareknownasraincalls.HabitatandHabitats:P.feriarumbreedinfloodedfieldsandditches.Eggmassisapproximately1-1/2incheslong,andembryosareapproximately1/16inchindiameter.Eggsaretypicallyattachedtobladesofgrassandothervegetation.Description:Size0.7–1.4inches.Asmall,tantolightbrownfrogwiththreedarkerstripes(sometimesbroken)runningdownitsback.Adarktriangleoccursbetweentheeyes.
16
![Page 17: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
SpringPeeper--PseudacriscruciferVoice:Callisashort,highexuberant“peep”thatrisesslightlyattheend–ahighpiping“whistle.”Intheeasternmountainshavebeenheardeverymonthoftheyear.FullbreedingchorusesusuallybegininlateJanuaryandcontinuewellintothesummer.Isolatedindividualscallfromthetreesduringthefall.HabitatandHabits:Wetfieldsborderedbytrees.Description:Size0.7-1.2inches,(record1.5inches).P.cruciferisasmall,tantolightorange-brownfrog.Stripesformacrossonitsback.Thereisadarklinebetweentheeyes.Toepadsareslightlyenlarged.
GenusHyla--Treefrogs ThegenusHylacontainsthetruetreefrogs,frogsadaptedforlifeinthetrees.Theseadaptationsincludepronouncedstickytoepadsthathelpthemclingtotreetrunksandbranches andanobviousintercalarydiscthatallowsthetoepadstoswivelforbettercontactwithverticalsurfaces.Theyalsohavelonglegsforclimbing.Theirfingersaresomewhatwebbedandtheirskinisgranular.Manyspeciesevenuselooseskinontheirbelliestohelpthemsticktoslicksurfaces.PeoplehavereportedspeciesofHylaclingingtowindowswhilehuntinginsectsattractedtoindoorlights.ManyHylaspeciesareadeptatchangingcolor,hencenamessuchasversicolor.Thesecolorchangesmaydependonlight,moisture,temperature,stress,oractivity.Duringtheiremergence,manyHylafrogletsdonasolid,brightgreenliverythatcamouflagesthemamidstgrassandothervegetationsurroundingbreedingpools.Manymembersofthisgenusonlycomedowntothegroundtobreed.Afterwards,theyreturntotheshrubsandtreesofswamps,moistwoods,andthickets.MembersofHylaoccurthroughouttherangeoftheHylidaefamily,exceptforAustraliaandNewGuinea.WehavefivespeciesinthegenusHylainTennessee:
Hylaavivoca--Bird-voicedTreefrogHylachrysoscelis--Cope’sGrayTreefrogHylacinerea--GreenTreefrogHylagratiosa--BarkingTreefrogHylaversicolor--GrayTreefrog
17
![Page 18: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
GrayTreefrogComplex--HylachrysoscelisandHylaversicolorNote:Cope’sGrayTreefrogcannotbedistinguishedfromtheGrayTreefrogvisually.Theymustbeidentifiedbyanalyzingthepulserateofthecallatastandardtemperature.Voice:Callisashortraspytrill.Recordingthecallandambienttemperatureallowscomputeranalysistotellspecies.CallingusuallybeginsinMarchandcontinuesthroughoutthesummer.HabitatandHabits:Breedinwetlandsandsmallpools.Thisspeciesisarborealoutsideofbreedingseason.Description:Size1.2-2.0inches(record2.4)GrayTreefrogsaresmallgreentogray-greentreefrogswithenlargedtoepads.Thereisawhiterectanglebeneatheye.Thebackismottled.Thebacksofthethighsarewashedinorangeflashcolors.
BirdvoicedTreefrog--HylaavivocaVoice:Callisaseriesofshortbirdlikewhistles.CallingusuallybeginsinlateMayandJuneandcontinuesthroughoutthesummer.HabitatandHabits:H.avivocabreedsinwetlandsandsloughs.Thisspeciesisarborealoutsideofbreedingseason.Description:Size1.2-1.7inches(record2.1)BirdvoicedTreefrogsaresmallgreentogray-greentreefrogswithenlargedtoepads.Thereisawhiterectanglebeneatheye.Thebackismottled.Theflashcolorsonthighsarelighttransparentgreen.
SimilarSpecies:GrayTreefrogsandBirdvoicedTreefrogscanbedistinguishedbytheflashcolors.GrayTreefrogshavebright,apricotorangeflashcolors.BirdvoicedTreefrogshavelight,transparentgreenflashcolors.
BarkingTreefrog--HylagratiosaVoice:Callisashorthollow-soundingbarkthatsoundslikeabeagleonthetrailofarabbitthatcanbeheardfromJunethroughAugust.Alsomakesashortraspycallfromthetreecanopy.Oneofourlatestfrogstobreed–requireshigherambienttemperatures.HabitatandHabits:Varietyofhabitatsfromcypressorsweetgumpondstofloodedcultivatedfields.Description:Size2.0-2.6inches(record2.7).H.gratiosaisourlargesttreefrog.Theyarebrightgreenwithyellowstripeonsideswithlargetoepads.Mayormaynothavedarkspotsonback.Notecoarsegranulationofskinonback–comparetogranulationonbelly.
18
![Page 19: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
GreenTreefrog--HylacinereaVoice:Callisashortnasal“quonk.”CallfromMaytoAugust.HabitatandHabits:Preferthepermanentwatersofcypressswamps,marshesandriversloughs.Thisspeciesisexpandingintootherhabitatsacrossthestate.Description:Size1.2-2.2inches(record2.5)H.cinereaisabrightgreentreefrogwithyellowishstripedowntheside.Notetoepads.Notefinegranulationofskinonback–comparetocoarsergranulationonbelly
SimilarSpecies:ThefrogmostsimilartotheGreenTreefrog,Hylacinerea,inTennesseeistheBarkingTreefrog,Hylagratiosa.Thesetwospeciescanbesosimilarthattheyhavebeenconfusedinpastliteraturereports.Preservedspecimenshaveevenbeenmisidentifiedandlabeledastheotherspeciesinmuseumcollections.Theyarebothlarge,greentreefrogsbuttherearedifferencesintheirphysicalappearances,habitatsandhabits. TheBarkingTreefrogisthelarger(23/4inches)ofthetwobutthisisdifficulttodeterminewithoutthetwospeciessidebyside.TheBarkingTreefrogcanalsohaveconspicuousround,darkspotsbutthespotsareoftenindistinct.TheGreenTreefrogneverhasdarkroundspotsontheback.ThesidestripeofH.cinereaismoresharplydefinedcomparedtothemorebrokenandirregularstripeofH.gratiosa. Thebestwaytoseparatethesespecieshowever,istocomparethedegreeofgranulationonthebellytothatoftheback.Hylagratiosa’sbackhasthesameamountofgranulationasitsbelly.Boththebackandbellyappearpebbly.Hylacinerea’sbackismuchsmootherthanitsbelly. Theyalsoseemtopreferdifferenthabitats.SometimestherangesofthesetwospeciesoverlapbutmuchofthetimeHylacinereaoccursinareaswhereH.gratiosaisrarelyseensuchasriverswampsandpermanentlakes. BarkingTreefrogsalsooccurinmuchsmallerbreedingchorusesthanGreenTreefrogsandmostlybreedinsinkpondsthatcaneitherbepermanentortemporary.Theirbreedingbehaviorsarealsodifferent.MalesofHylacinereaemitthematingcallfromoutofthewateronoverhangingbranchesandshrubswhereasHylagratiosamalesgivethiscallwhilefloatinginthewater.
19
![Page 20: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
FamilyMicrohylidae--Narrow-mouthedToads
Thisfamilycontains55generaandincludes215species.IntheUnitedStates,thisgroupisrepresentedbytwogeneraandthreespecies.iGastrophrynecarolinensis,theEasternNarrow-mouthedToad,istheonlyspeciesofMicrohylidaeinTennessee.TheoldgenericnameforthisgroupwasEngystomatidae;meaningcontractedorconstrictedmouthreferringtothefrogs’narrowmouths.Theupperjawofthisgroupistoothless.Thereisnowebbingonthetoesandthetympanumishidden.TheGastrophrynegenusiscloselyrelatedtothegenusHypopachus–theSheepFrogs.Mostmembersofthisfamilyarefossorialmeaningthattheyspendmostoftheirtimeinburrows,underrocksorlogs.Theyhaveenlargedtuberclesontheirhindfeetfordigging.Theyaresmallandplumpwithanarrowpointedhead.Theyhaveshortlegsthatmakethemhopinsteadofleap.ThiscombinedwiththeirplumpphysiqueiswhytheyarecalledtoadseventhoughtheyarenotmembersofthegenusAnaxyrus.Theyhaveacharacteristicfoldofskinacrossthebackoftheirheadthatcanbepulledforwardtoprotecttheireyesfromtheirfavoritefood,ants. OthermembersofthefamilyoccurinMexico,CentralandSouthAmerica,Africa,Asia,theIndo-AustralianarchipelagoandNorthernAustralia.ThefamilyapparentlyoriginatedinSoutheastAsiaandhasspreadtoNewGuinea,Africa,MadagascarandtheAmericas.
EasternNarrow-mouthedToad--GastrophrynecarolinensisVoice:Callisalongdrawn-out,high-pitched,nasalinsect-like“Beeeeeeee.”ManylikenthecalltothecryofnewbornlambsorNewYear’sEvepartyhorns.CallfromApriltoOctober.HabitatandHabits:Narrow-mouthedToadsliveinavarietyofhabitatsincludingoldfieldsandcedarglades.Breedingareasaretemporarilyfloodedfieldsandditches.Description:Size0.9-1.2inches(record1.5)G.carolinensisisasmallpotbelliedanuranwithatinyturtle-likeheadandapointedsnout.ThisistheonlyfrogortoadinTennesseethathasroundpupils.Afoldofskinrunsbehindtheeyesandcanbepulledovertheeyeswhileeatingdangerouspreysuchants.Colorsaretanandbrownwithgraybelly.
20
![Page 21: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
FamilyPelobatidae--SpadefootToads ThenamePelobatidaecomesfromtheGreekwordpelosthatmeansearthandtheLatinwordbatillummeaningshovel.Membersofthisfamilyliveamostlyfossorialorundergroundexistence.Theyburythemselvesintotheearthbackwardswithasharpspadeontheirrearfeet.Spadefootsarewellsuitedforaridenvironments.Theyareexplosivebreederswithshortlarvalperiods,bothadaptationsforscarcerainsandephemeralbreedingpools.Spadefootscomeabovegroundtobreedafterheavyrainsoftenassociatedwithviolentweathersuchastornadoes.Amplexusisinguinalmeaningthatthemalegraspsthefemaleinfrontofthehindlegsinsteadofbehindthefrontlegslikeotherfrogsofourarea.Spadefootsaretrulynocturnalandthushaveverticalpupilsgivingthemanotherworldlylook. Membersofthisfamilyareoftencalledspadefoottoads.Theyhavesmallerversionsofparotoidglandsliketoadsbuttheyhavemostlysmoothskinandteethintheirupperjaw,whichisverydifferentfromtoads.Spadefootsalsohaveonlyonespadewhereastoadshavetwospadesontheirbackfeet. ThefamilyPelobatidaeisdividedintotwofamilies,theMegophrinaeandthePelobatinae.TheMegophrinaeonlyoccursintheFarEastandincludessuchbizarrecreaturesastheAsiaticHornedFrogofIndonesia.Eachuppereyelidofthisfrogextendsforwardandupwardtoformalong,thinpointed“horn”andthereisalong,flexibleprojectionofthesnout,thustheanimalappearstohavethreehorns.ThespadefootsofEurope,NorthAfrica,andNorthAmericamakeupthesecondsubfamily,Pelobatinae.Thissubfamilyincludesthegenusofourspadefoots,Scaphiopus. ScaphiopusistheonlygenusofPelobatidaeinNorthAmericaandincludesfivespecies.ThenameScaphiopuscomesfromscaphi–spadeandopus–foot.TheEasternSpadefootScaphiopusholbrookiiistheonlyspeciesofthisgenuseastoftheMississippiRiver.
EasternSpadefoot--ScaphiopusholbrookiiVoice:Callisastrangesoundingdownwardslurred“errrrrgh.”Callsoundssomewhatlikeayoungcrow.HabitatandHabits:EasternSpadefootsaresubterranean,comingabovegroundinwetweathertobreedandforage.Breedingareasaretemporarypoolsformedbywarmweatherthunderstormsandisusuallyofshortduration.EasternSpadefootsburrowbybackingtheirwayintothehole,makingsweepingdiggingmovementswiththeirrearfeet.Description:Size1.7-2.2inches(record2.8)Notetheplump-bellied,humpbackedlook.SpadefootToadsaretoad-likeinshapebutsmoother-skinned.Theskinisdarkwithredwartssometimeswithalightlyreshapeontheback.Smallparotoidglandsarepresent.Thesearenotnearaslargeastheparotodiglandsoftruetoads.SpadefootToadsareTennessee’sonlyanuranswithverticalpupilsthatappeardiamondshaped.Thereis1spadeontheundersideoftheirrearfeet.
21
![Page 22: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
FamilyRanidae–TrueFrogs
TherearesevenRanidsinTennessee.TheyareallcurrentlyinthegenusLithobates.
Lithobatesareolata–NorthernCrawfishFrogLithobatescapito–GopherFrogLithobatescatesbeiana–BullfrogLithobatesclamitans–GreenFrogLithobatespalustris–PickerelFrogLithobatessphenocephalautricularius–SouthernLeopardFrogLithobatessylvatica–WoodFrog
Intheunrestricteduseoftheword,allfrogsandtoadsare“frogs.”However,speciesinthegenusLithobatesareconsidered“truefrogs.”Thesearethelongleggedfrogswithanarrowwaistandsmoothskin.Thehindtoesarewebbed.AglandularfoldofskinextendsdowneachsideofthebackonallspeciesexcepttheBullfrog.Theupperjawcontainsteeth.Theseareourlargestfrogs,theBullfrogbeingourlargestnativeNorthAmericananuran,outsizedonlybytheintroducedMarineToad.TheBullfroghasbeenthelabfrogusedfordissectioninthepast.Thewebbingofleopardfrogfeethasbeenusedinphysiologylabexperimentstodemonstrateforcedmovement.Today,leopardfrogsarethechoicespeciesforfrogdissection.BullfrogsaretheonlyfrogslegallyhuntedinTennesseefortheediblefroglegs.
AmericanBullfrog--LithobatescatesbeianaVoice:Callisadeep“jug-a-rum.”CallsusuallybegininMarchandcontinuethroughAugust.HabitatandHabits:Permanentpondsandotherbodiesofwater.Description:Size3.5-6.0inches(record8.0).BullfrogsarethelargestfrogsinTennessee.Thedorsolateralridgecurvesaroundthetympanumbutdoesnotextenddownback.Maleshaveyellowthroatsduringbreedingseason.Thesizeofthetympanumrelativetotheeyeindicatessex.Ifthetympanumisequaltothesizeoftheeyetheindividualisafemale.Ifthetympanumislargerthantheeyetheindividualisamale.
GreenFrog--LithobatesclamitansVoice:CallsoundsLikealoosebanjostringbeingplucked–ashort,explosive“glunk!”Thiscallcanbegivensinglyorinaseriesoftwotofivenotes.CallsMarchthroughSeptember.HabitatandHabits:Occursinpermanentbodiesofwaterincludingcreeks,rivers,springs,sloughs,reservoirsandponds.
22
![Page 23: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Description:Size2.2-3.5inches(record4.2)Thedorsolateralridgeextendsdownthebackandaroundthetympanum.Maleshaveayellowthroatduringthebreedingseason.LikeBullfrogs,iftympanumislargerthaneyethesexismale.Iftympanumisaboutequaltoeyethesexisfemale.Someindividualscanbeabronzecolorallover
SouthernLeopardFrog--LithobatessphenocephalusVoice:Callisaseriesofclucksinterspersedwithgroansthatsoundlikeahandbeingrubbedoveraballoon.Thecallsoundslikelaughteratadistance.L.sphenocephaluscallsfromJanuaryintothesummermonths,andagaininthefall.Eggmassescanbefoundinbothspringandfall.HabitatandHabits:SouthernLeopardFrogsliveinpondsandsloughs.Theyaresometimescalledgrassfrogsbecausetheyventurefarfromwaterinwetgrassyareas.Description:Size2.0-3.5inches,(record5.0inches)Thesearemedium-sizedgreenorbrownfrograndomlyspottedwithdarkspots.Notethelightspotinthecenterofthetympanum.
PickerelFrog--LithobatespalustrisVoice:TheadvertisementcallofthePickerelFrogisalong,descendingsnore“yeeeeoooow”thatcanbeheardMarchthroughApril,withapeakinearlyApril.HabitatandHabits:Pondswithdensevegetationandcover.Thisfrogcanoftenbefoundinthetwilightzoneofcavesandthecoolwaterofsprings.Description:Size1.7-3.0inches,(record3.5inches)ThePickerelFrogisoneofthemostbeautifulfrogsinTennessee,withanarrayofrectangularspotsonitsbronzetotanback.Apricotorangeflashcolorsonthegroinareconcealedbythethighswhenthefrogisatrest.Notethatthereisnowhitespotinthetympanumoreardrum.
WoodFrog--LithobatessylvaticaVoice:CallisaseriesofcluckssimilartoSouthernLeopardFrog,butmorerandomindeliverywithlittlecarryingpower.HabitatandHabits:Uplanddeciduouswoods.Breedingtakesplaceinwoodlandponds,ruts inwoodlandroadsandroadsideditches.Breedsexplosivelyearlyintheyear,assoonasthefirstwarmrainsinJanuary.BreedingcanextendintoFebruary.Eggmassescanbefoundinlargeclustersduringthewintermonths.Red-spottedNewtsareamongthepredatorsthatpreyontheeggs.
23
![Page 24: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Description:Size1.4-2.7inches,(record3.2inches).L.sylvaticaisamedium-sizedtantodarkbrownfrogwithadarkmaskbehindtheeyeandawhitelineoverthelip.Flashcolorsonthegroinareapaleyellow-orange.Thebodyismostlyunmarked.
CrawfishFrog--LithobatesareolatusVoice:Callisdeep,snoring“Waaaa”withtremendouscarryingpower.BreedingchorusesstartinlateFebruaryandcontinueintoMarch.HabitatandHabits:Inhabitscrawfishburrowsandtheburrowsofsmallanimals.Breedsinsmallpondsandwater-filledborrowpits.Description:Size2.2-3inches,(record3.6inches).Thisisabulky,ratherstrangelookingfrog.Skincolorvariesfromcreamcoloredtodarkbrown,withdarkbrownspotsencircledbyawhiteborder.Thedorsolateralridgesareveryprominent.Thebellyiswhitish.
GopherFrog--LithobatescapitoVoice:Callisadeep,drawnoutsnoreorgrowl.Oftencallsfromunderwater.HasnotbeenheardcallinginTennessee.HabitatandHabits:PoorlyknowninTennessee.R.capitoisknownfromonlyonewetlandnearTullahoma.Whenpickedupoftenplacesitshandsoveritseyes.Description:Size2.5-3.5inches,(record3.9inches).Thisisamedium-sizedstout-lookingfrogwithveryprominentdorsolateralridgesandapronouncedsacralhump.Thethroatandbellyaremottled,unliketheCrawfishFrog.
ConservationConcerns Frogsandtoadsaredecliningworldwideandtherearemanyreasonsforthis.Diseaseisamajorfactorinthedisappearanceofentirepopulationsoffrogsinthetropics.ThemainculpritsaretheChytridfungusandRanavirus.However,inTennesseethenumberonecauseforallwildlifedeclinesishabitatloss.Thelossofwetlandsiscriticalforamphibians.Weshouldmakeeveryopportunitypossibletoconservewetlandsandotheraquatichabitatsacrossthestate.
AmphibiansasBio-indicators Amphibianslivinginwetlands,ponds,orstreamsarecompletelybathedinthemediumoftheirenvironment.Theyabsorbwaterandbreathethroughtheirskinandcloaca.Frogs,toadsandsalamandersaresensitivetofactorsthatdegradetheenvironment.Silt,pesticides,herbicides,fungicides,hormonemimics,pathogensandparasitesnegativelyaffectamphibians.Larger,widespreadissuessuchasclimatechangeandultravioletradiationexposurecanweakentheimmunityofamphibiansmakingthemmoresusceptibletosuchharmful
24
![Page 25: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
environmentalfactors.Becauseofthisintimateconnectionwiththeirenvironment,amphibiansmakeexcellentindicatorsoftheintegrityofaquaticecosystems. Here’sanexample.Poisonssuchaspesticidescanenterthebloodstreamofamphibiansdirectlythroughtheirskin.Insectrepellantsthathumansspray,douseandlatherallovertheirbodiesaredeadlytofrogsandsalamanders.Thisiswhyamphibians,muchlikethecanaryinthemineshaft,canindicatetoxicconditionsinaquatichabitatslongbeforehumanswouldbeawareofanydanger.Ifamphibiansinanareaperish,aredeformedorcannotreproducesuccessfullythisshouldserveasawarningthattheenvironsareunhealthy.
Sources:Souder,William.2000.APlagueofFrogs,TheHorrifyingTrueStory.Hyperion,NewYork.Pp.299.
ImagesandCalls ToseeandhearTennessee’s21speciesoffrogsandtoads,visitwww.leaps.ms.
25
![Page 26: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
IIandIII.Amphibians--OrderCaudata,Salamanders
ThesalamanderssectionofthisguidewastakenfromapapertitledSpringLizardsinTennesseeor“WhattheHeckisaDesmognathusfuscus?”compiledbyPeteWyatt,EastTennesseeTWRANongame/EndangeredSpeciesCoordinatorwithpermissionforusebytheTennesseeNaturalistProgram.
Salamandersareamphibiansandlizardsarereptiles.Inatopographicsenseonemightresembletheother.Eachusuallyhasfourlegs,anoticeabletorso,andadistincttail.Lizards,thereptiles,haveexternalearopenings,dryscalyskinandclawsontheirtoes.Salamanders,theamphibians,donothaveexternalearopeningsanddonothavedryskinbutsmooth,rubberytexturedmoistskinandnoclawsontheirtoes.Lizardslayshelledeggsdepositedinanestwithincubationbeingdonebythesun.Salamanderslaytheireggseitherinthewaterorinamoistcavityshelteredfromthesun,andinmanyspeciesthefemaleprovidessomecareoftheeggsandlarvae,butnotrueincubationbythefemaleoccurs. Almostallsalamandersarevoiceless.Thechemicalmessengers(pheromones)secretedbyhedonicglandsevokecourtshipandspawningbehavior.Fertilizationisexternalinthehellbenderandthesiren.Inallotherspeciesitisinternal.Themaledepositsapacketofspermonagelatinousstalk(spermatophore),andthefemaleclaspsitwithhercloaca.Thespermremaininhercloacainblindsacs(spermathecae)untiltheextrusionoftheeggsfromherovaries,whichbringsthespermandeggcellstogetherintheoviducts.ThistypeoffertilizationisfoundinallspeciesofTennesseesalamandersexceptthehellbenderandsiren.Inthesespecies,themalecoverstheeggswithseminalfluidaftertheyarelaid. Femalesalamandersdeposittheireggsinavarietyofarrangementsandlocations.Theeggsmaybedepositedsingly,orinaclusterheldtogetherbygelatinousenvelopes,orinmasses.Locationsincludeundergroundburrows,rottenlogs,sandstonecrevices,orcaverns,sphagnumbogs,ponds,seepages,andstreamsidedebrisortunnels. Salamanderstypicallyundergoanaquaticlarvalstagelastingfromafewdaystoseveralyears,butintheterrestrialplethodontidsthelarvalstageiscompletedwithintheeggmembranepriortohatching.Thelarvaestageendswithmetamorphosis,aseriesofdefinitivechangesinstructureandlifecycle.Adultsofsomespeciesretainnumerouslarvalfeatures;thesirenandmudpuppiesareclassicalexamples,eachretainingtheirgills. Somespeciesofsalamandersaretotallyaquatic,somesalamandersliveinmoistplacesonlandbutgointothewatertobreed,andothersarecompletelyterrestrial.Surprisingly,fewarearboreal,possiblythathabitatistoohostilealthoughintheAppalachiansofeastTennesseerainfallishigherthanotherpartsofthestateandthetinypigmysalamanderisasemi-treedweller.Mostarenocturnalandremainhiddenunderlogsandrocksorintheirburrowsduringtheday.
26
![Page 27: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Muchvariationinrespirationoccurs.Somespecieshavelungsbutretaingillsthroughoutlife(sirenandmudpuppies),otherswithlungsonlyretainthegillslits(hellbenderandamphiuma),andstillothers(FamilyPlethodontidae)lackbothgillsandlungsandrespiremainlyviatheskin. Mostsalamandersfeedonallsmall,movingorganismsavailableintheirhabitats.Theirfoodusuallyconsistsofsmallworms,insectsandotherinvertebratesbutsomeshowstrongpreferencesforvertebrateprey,liketheSpringSalamanderwhichshowsapreferenceforsmallersalamanders. InTennessee,7Familiesofsalamandersarerepresentedwith14Generaand45species(Redmondetal.1990).Theyrangeinsizefromthehellbender,whichgrowsto29inches,tothe pigmysalamanderwhichmayonlyreach2inches.
FamilyCryptobranchidae Thisfamilycontainstwogeneraoflarge,permanentlyaquaticsalamanders,oneofwhichoccursintheOrientandtheotherintheEasternUnitedStates.TheorientalgenusAndrias,hastwospecies,thelargestofwhichattainsalengthofnearly5feetandistheworld’slargestsalamander.Adultsofthisfamilylackeyelids,haveapairofopengillslits,externalfertilization,andawrinkledfleshyfoldofskinalongeachsidebetweentheforeandhindlimbs(GreenandPauley,1987).
Hellbender--Cryptobranchusalleganiensis Greek:kryptos,hidden;branchis,gill;alleganiensis,oftheAlleghenyMountainsDescription:Ugly,slimyandlargebestdescribesthisgrayishbrownsalamander.Theflatheadbearssmall,lidlesseyes.Thelegsareshortandstoutandalargewrinkledfoldofskinextendsalongthesideofthebody.Adultslackgillsbuthaveagillslitoneachsideofthethroat.Averageadultsrangeinsizefrom12-29inchesinlength(Martof,etal.1980). HabitatsandHabits:Hellbendersliveinmediumtolargefree-flowingstreamsintheTennesseeandCumberlandRiverdrainages(Redmond,etal.1990).Theyaremorefrequentlyfoundincool,clearmountainstreamssuchasthoseoftheAppalachians.Theyspendmuchoftheirtimeunderflatrocksinriverbedsandemergeatnighttoforageforfood(GreenandPauley,1987).TerritorialityhasbeenreportedfromthisspeciesbyHillisandBellis(1971)inthattheywilldefendanareaundertheircoverrocksagainstotherHellbenders.Theymayoccasionallybeseenmovingslowlyonriverandcreekbottoms.Studieshaveshownthattheyprimarilyfeedoncrayfish.ThematingseasonbeginsthelastofAugustandcontinuesforabout2weekswithegglayingtakingplacefromlateAugusttoearlyNovember.Themaleexcavatesanestunderrocksorlogsinthestreambedwherethefemalelaysmarblesizedeggswhichareconnectedinastringlikebeads.Shemaydepositmorethan400eggs.Themalecoversthe
27
![Page 28: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
eggswithseminalfluid.Theeggscompletedevelopmentineightweeks,dependinguponthetemperatureofthewater.Hatchlingsresembletheparentsexcepttheyhavegills.Whentheyoungreachabout5inchesinlengthtowardthesecondyear,thegillsareabsorbed.SexualmaturityisattainedwhentheHellbendersareapproximately13½inchesinlengthandarethreetofouryearsold(GreenandPauley,1987).
FamilyAmbystomatidae–MoleSalamanders Thisfamilycontainsmediumsizedterrestrialsalamandersthatspendmostoftheirtimeinundergroundburrows,andasaconsequence,arerarelyseenoutsidethebreedingseason.Theyarepredominantlyblackordarkbrownincolorbutmayhavemarkingsofsilver,yellow,orbluishgray.Theirprominenteyeshavelids.Theirtrunkbearsdistinctcostalgrooves,andtheroundedsnoutlacksnasolabialgrooves.Mostspeciesemergeinthespring,migrateinlargenumberstospawningpoolsanddepositclustersofgelatinouscoatedeggs.Somedepositeggsinthefallonland.Thisfamilycontainstwolivinggenera,oneofwhichoccursintheUnitedStates(GreenandPauley,1987). Theprincipalgenus,Ambystoma,occursthroughouttherangeofthefamily.FamilyAmbystomatidaerangesfromthesoutherncornerofAlaska,JamesBay,andsouthernLabradorsouthtosouthernborderoftheMexicanPlateauandthenorthernhalfofFlorida,butisapparentlyabsentinnorthernMexicoandmostofthesouthwesternUnitedStates(GreenandPauley,1987). ThegenusAmbystomahas26speciesandfiveoftheseoccurinTennessee.Thegilledlarvaepassthroughanaquaticphasebeforetransformingintotheadultstage.
SpottedSalamander--Ambystomamaculatum Greek:ambyx,theroundedtopofacup;maculatum,spottedDescription:Brightyellowroundspotsintwoirregularrowsonadarkbackgroundidentifythisstout-bodiedspecies.Thespottedsalamanderisalargeburrowingspecieswithadultsreaching6-10inchesinlength(Martof,etal.1980). HabitatandHabits:Thespottedsalamanderoccursstatewideandismostoftenfoundinhardwoodormixedpine-hardwoodforestsnearbothpermanentandtemporarypools(Redmond,1985).Theyavoidbottomlandssubjecttoregularfloodingandpermanentpondscontainingfish(Martof,etal.1980).Thesesalamandersmaybeseenwanderingovertheforestfloorduringrainynights.Theyarediggers,andmostoftheirlifeisspentunderground.Theymaybefoundunderlogs,pilesofdampleaves,ortrash,orinnewlyplowedfields.Mostoftheirabovegroundactivityislimitedtothebreedingseasoninthespringmonths.Theyeatavarietyofinvertebratessuchasearthworms,snails,slugs,pillbugs,crustaceans,insects,andinsectlarvae(GreenandPauley,1987).
28
![Page 29: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
BreedingtakesplaceusuallyinFebruaryorMarchwhenclimaticconditionsareoptimal–airtemperaturearound55degreesF.,rain,disappearanceofsnow,groundsurfacethawed,etc.(GreenandPauley,1987). Duringwarm,rainynights,bothsexesofSpottedSalamandersmigrateenmassetothebreedingpoolswheretheyswingvigorouslybackandforthrubbingandnosingeachother.SpottedSalamandersmaybeobservedaroundthebordersofthebreedingpoolsorcrossinghighwaysenroutetosuchpools.Duringbreeding,themalesdepositspermatophoresonweedstems,grass,leaves,andotherdebrisinthewater.Thefemalespinchoffthespermcapofthespermatophorewiththeircloacallips.Theeggsarethenfertilizedastheypassthroughthecloaca.Theyaredepositedinirregularmasses,roundedorovalinshapeandmeasuring2-4inchesindiameter,whichadheretovegetationinthewater.Eachmassmaycontainfrom12-250eggs(GreenandPauley,1987). Agreensinglecelledalgae(Oophila)isusuallyfoundintheeggclumpsofSpottedSalamanders,aswellasothersalamanderspecies.Thealgaprovideoxygentotheembryosduringthedayandthedevelopinglarvaeprovidecarbondioxideandwasteproductsthatcanbeusedbythealgae,anexampleofsymbiosis(Johnson,1987). Thegilledlarvaehatchinaboutonemonthandaverageabout½inchesinlength.Theyremaininthewatertofeedanddevelopuntiltheendofthesummer.Somelarvaemayoverwinterinthepondandmetamorphoseduringthenextsummer.SpottedSalamanderstake2yearstoreachmaturity.Individualsmayreturntothesamepondtobreedyearafteryear(Johnson,1987).
MarbledSalamander--Ambystomaopacum Latin:opacus,shadeddarkDescription:TheMarbledSalamanderisashort,stout-bodiedsalamanderwhichmayattainatotallengthof5inches.Thedorsalpatternconsistsofalternatinglightanddarkcrossbandsdowntheback.Thelighterbandsaresilveryinmalesandgrayishinfemales.Thesecrossbands areusuallynarrowonthebackandbroaderonthesidesforminganhourglasspattern.Thebellyisblack.Thereare12costalgrooves(GreenandPauley,1987). HabitatandHabits:TheMarbledSalamanderissecretive.Itspendsmostofitstimeunderrocks,logsorforestdebris.Itprefersforestedareasbutisknownfromawidevarietyofhabitatsfrombottomlandhardwoodforeststorelativelydryuplandpineforests.ItisthoughttooccurstatewidealthoughdistributionrecordsarelackingfromnortheastTennessee(Redmond,1985). Unlikemostspeciesofthisgenus,MarbledSalamandersbreedintheautumnandtheycourtonland(Martof,etal.1980).BreedingtakesplacetowardtheendofSeptemberwhenbothmalesandfemalesmigratetowardadriedpondoroxbowareadestinedtobefilledwithwaterfromautumnandwinterrains.Malesinitiatecourtshipbynudgingandpushingeachotherwiththeirsnouts.Followingthisactivity,thefemaleshavingsecuredthespermatophoresdepositedbythemalesonvegetationanddebrisaroundthebreedingarea,seekanestingsite.Inmany
29
![Page 30: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
cases,soilaroundthebasesofBlackWillows(Salixnigra)attheedgeofthepondisselectedforthenests.Thenestisusuallyasmalldepressioninthegroundbeneathashelteringobjectsuchasdriftdebrisalongthemarginofawoodlandstreamorleafmound,logs,bark,orpiecesofwoodonthedrypondbottom(GreenandPauley,1987). Femaleshavebeenfoundtoavoidnestingsitesintheshallowestordeepestendsofapondbecausetheshallowestareaarequicktodryupandthedeepestareamayreceiveenoughrainfallfortheeggstohatchbut,unlessthereisasecondrainfall,notenoughtosupportthelarvae(PetrankaandPetranka,1981).Eachfemaledeposits50-150eggs.Thefemaleguardstheeggsuntiltherisingpondwaterscoverthem(Martof,etal.,1980). Theeggshatchinthefallorearlywinter.Whentheyhatch,theembryosarelessthan1inchinlength.Thenewlyhatchedlarvaearerelativelyinactiveuntilthetemperatureofthewaterwarmsandmorefoodbecomesavailable.Larvaemayremainactivethroughoutthespringfeedingonfairyshrimpandotherinvertebratesaswellasotherlarvaeandtadpoles,especiallythoseofSpringPeepersandWoodFrogs.Atthetimeoftransformation,thelarvaerangeinlengthfrom27/16inchesto27/8inches.RecentlytransformedjuvenileshavebeencollectedfromdriedswampsandotherbreedingsitesinJulyandAugust(GreenandPauley,1987).
MoleSalamander--Ambystomatalpoideum talpa–moleDescription:Thisgray,brown,ordarkbrownsalamanderhasalargehead,ashortstockybodyandrelativelylargelegs.TheMoleSalamanderisthesmallestmemberofthegenusandadultsaverage4-4½inchesinlength.Scatteredbluishwhiteflecksarepresentonthebackandsides.Thebellyisbluishgraywithlightflecks,exceptinrecentlytransformedyoungwhichhaveadarkmedianstripe,aremnantofthelarvalpattern(Martof,etal.1980). HabitatandHabits:MoleSalamandersoccupyundergroundburrowsinforestedandshrubbyswampsfromtheMississippiRiverValley,LoessPlain,CoastalPlainUplands,northernportionsoftheHighlandRim,CumberlandPlateauwestoftheSequatchieValleyandextremesouthernendoftheBlueRidgeMountains(Redmond,etal.1990). AdultMoleSalamandersarenotoftenencounteredexceptduringthebreedingseason,normallyinJanuaryorFebruary,whentheycongregateinshallowwoodlandponds.Thelarvaetransforminsummerandfallbutmayoverwinter.Neotenyoccursonsomepopulations.Neotenyistheproductionofoffspringbyanorganisminitslarvalorjuvenileform;the
eliminationoftheadultphaseofthelifecycle.Thenewlytransformedyoungare2-2½incheslong(Martof,etal.1980).
30
![Page 31: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
SmallmouthSalamander--AmbystomatexanumStreamsideSalamander--Ambystomabarbouri Onceuponatime,StreamsideSalamandersandSmall-mouthedSalamanderswerethoughttobethesamespecies(A.texanum)inTennessee.Itwasn’tuntil1997thatA.barbouriwaslistedasanewspeciesforthestate.Itwasthediscoveryofthedifferentbreedinghabitsandhabitatsthatseparatedthetwo.ItwasalwaysknownthatSmall-mouthedSalamandersbredandmetamorphedinpondsandseasonalpools.ButitwaslaterdiscoveredthatasalamandercloselyresemblingSmall-mouthedSalamandersbredanddevelopedinfirstandsecondorderstreams.Small-mouthedSalamanderslayeggsinsmallclustersonthestemsofaquaticplantsinthestillwaterofpondsorpools.StreamsideSalamanders,ontheotherhand,layeggsinflowingwaterunderneathlarge,flatrocks.A.barbourfemalesdothisbycrawlingbeneaththerock,clingingupsidedownanddepositingtheireggsinsinglerowsontheundersideoftherock.StreamsideSalamandersbreedinwinter.Small-mouthedSalamandersbreedinwinterandearlyspring.Bothspeciesliveundergroundinhardwoodforestsafterthebreedingseason.Distributionistheotherdifferencebetweenthetwo.A.barbouionlyoccursintheCentralBasinofTennessee.A.texanumoccursinthewesternhalfofthestate.Botharemostlygrey,4-5½inchambystomidsbutStreamsideSalamandershaveashort,wideandroundedmouthwhereasSmall-mouthedSalamandershaveanoticeablysmallheadandnarrowermouth(MitchellandGibbons,2010)
Ambystomatexanum,A.barbouriSource:Mitchell,JoeandWhitGibbons.2010.SalamandersoftheSoutheast.UniversityofGeorgiaPress,Athens,GA.Pp.324.
EasternTigerSalamander--Ambystomatigrinum tigrinimreferstothetiger-likestripesonthesidesDescription:TheTigerSalamanderisthelargestAmbystomidspeciesinTennessee.Adultsrangeinlengthfrom7to8¼inches.Irregularlyshapedyellowspotsorblotchesonagraytoblackbackgroundlookalmostlikethe“tigerstripes”fromwhencethecommonnameisderived.Thecostalgroovecountyistypically12-13(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:Thisspeciesreportedly.occurswidelythroughoutthestate,butisapparentlyabsentfromtheBlueRidgeMountainsandalargeareaofnortheasternTennessee(Redmond,etal.1990).EasternTigerSalamandersareusuallyfoundnearponds,swamps,andfloodedwoodlanddepressions(Redmond,etal.1990)andmaysometimesbefoundinwells,basements,androotcellars.Theyspendmostoftheirinburrows,underlogsandrocksandareactiveonlyatnight(Johnson,1987). Preyofthisspeciesincludesanyanimalsmallenoughforthemtoswallow.Commonfoodsincludeearthworms,insects,spiders,slugsandsnails(Johnson,1987). EasternTigerSalamandersbecomemigratoryduringautumnrains,movingtopondswherebreedingwilltakeplace(Johnson,1987).BreedinghabitatsinTennesseeincludeflooded
31
![Page 32: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
woodlands,farmponds,shallow,temporarypondsandalimestonequarrypond(OwenandYeatman,1954). Awinterandearlyspringbreeder(ConantandCollins,1991),malescanbeobservedmigratingtofishlesspondsormarshesduringrainyweather.Femalesmayalsocongregateduringfallandearlyspring.Courtshipandegg-layingtakeplaceinthewater.Courtshipusuallyinvolvesmalesandfemalesrubbingtogether,withmuchtailthrashingandsomenipping.Eventuallythemalemovesawayandthefemalefollows,keepingherheadclosetothecloacaofthemale.Hethendepositsaspermatophoreonthebottomwhichisquicklypickedupbythefemale’scloacaandhereggsarefertilizedastheypassthroughthecloaca(Johnson,1987).Theloose,globular,oroblongeggclustercontainsabout50eggs(Martofetal.1980)buteachfemalemaylayasmanyas1,000eggs(Collins,1982)andisattachedtostemsinshallowponds.Theeggshatchinafewweeksintoapondtypegilledlarvaefeedingonavarietyofaquaticinvertebrates(Johnson,1987).Thelarvaetransforminthelatespringorsummeratanaveragetotallengthof5-7inches.(Martofetal.1980).Thelarvaeofthisspeciesareoftencalledwaterdogs.
FamilyAmphiumidae
ThisstrictlyNorthAmericanfamilyisrepresentedbyonlyonegenus,Amphium,consistingofthreerecognizedspecies,theone-toedamphiuma(Amphiumapholeter),thetwo-toedamphiuma(A.means)andthethree-toedamphiuma(A.triadactylum).Ingeneral,amphiumasarethelongestsalamanderinNorthAmerica,andhavebeenknowntoreachover45inches.Theyhavetinyalmostuselesslegs,smalleyes(whichlackeyelids)andsmoothskin(Johnson,1987).
Three-toedAmphiuma–Amphiumatriadactylym Description:Acompletelyaquaticsalamandershapedlikealongcylinderwithasomewhatpointedhead;ithastinygrayeyes,andverysmallfrontandhindlimbs.Eachlimbhasthreeverysmalltoes.Dorsalcolorisdarkbrownorblack;thebellyislighterbrownorgray.Adultsdonothavegillsbutagillslitispresentoneachsideofthehead.Amphiumashavelungsandmustbreatheairatthesurfaceofthewater.Adultsattainatotalbodylengthof18-30inches(Johnson,1987). HabitatandHabits:Three-toedamphiumasspendthedaylighthoursburiedinsiltorhidingundersubmergedroots,debris,oraquaticplants.Theirheadsandnecksmaybeexposed,andperiodicallytheymustcometothesurfaceforair.Theyventureforthatnightinsearchofsmallfish,crayfish,tadpoles,snails,aquaticinsects,earthworms,andotheraquaticanimals(Johnson,1987).
32
![Page 33: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Thissalamandermakesitshomeinstillwatersuchasslough,sluggishCoastalPlainstreams,oxbowlakesandfloodedditchesinMississippiRiverdrainagesinwestTennessee.AsightrecordfromtheTennesseeRiverdrainageinBentonCountyin1948isquestionable(Redmond,1985). Theseanimalsaredifficulttocollectinthewildbecausetheyarealert,fast,slipperyandmaybiteviciously.Thewesternmudsnake(Faranciaabacura)isknowntopreyonamphiumas(Johnson,1987). Verylittleisknownaboutthebreedinghabitsofthethree-toedamphiumainTennessee.InareaswhereithasbeenstudiedinourstatebySalthe(1973)itisknowntobreedinlatesummerandearlyfall.Afemalelaysanaverageof200eggs.Theeggsarelaidonland,usuallyunderarottenlognearwater.Oncewaterfromautumnrainscoverstheeggs,theycompletedevelopmentandhatch.Larvaehavegillsandarebetween2½to3incheslong.Localscallthissalamandercongoeel,congereel,lampereel,ditcheelandblueeel.
FamilyProteidae[Necturidae]--MudpuppiesandWaterdogs
Themembersofthisfamilyretaincertainlarvalcharacteristicspermanentlyincludingthreepairsofbushyexternalgillsandreducedeyeswithnoeyelids.Twogeneraarerecognized.Thefirst,Proteus,containsonlyonespecies,theEuropeanolm.TheEuropeanolmisaslender,white,blindcavesalamander.Thisspecieshasbrightredgillsandthreetoesoneachofitsfourlimbs.Itinhabitscavestreams(Johnson,1987).
Mudpuppy–Necturusmaculosus Gr.nekton,swimming;L.macula,spottedDescription:Themudpuppyisacompletelyaquaticspecies.Ithasagray-brownbackandpalegraybelly.Mostofthebodyhasnumeroussmall,irregulardarkbrownspots,whichsometimesappearonthebelly.Behindtheheadareplumesofredgills.Thesegillsvaryinsize,dependingontheoxygencontentofthewater.Therearefourtoesonboththefrontandhindlimbs.Theeyesaresmallandlackeyelids.AllNecturusareneotenicgilledadults(Johnson,1987).Adultmudpuppiesrangeinlengthfrom8-13inches(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:InTennessee,thisspeciesisfoundinlargecreeks,riversorreservoirs.Mudpuppiesareinactiveduringtheday.Theyusuallyremainhiddenindeeppoolsundersubmergedlogs,rocksortreeroots.Mudpuppiesareknowntoremainactivethroughouttheyear.Theyfeedatnightonanyaquaticanimalsmallenoughtobecapturedandswallowedincludingcrayfish,mollusks,smallfish,wormsandaquaticinsectsandtheirlarvae(Johnson,1987). Matingtakesplaceinthefall.Fertilizationisinternalbuttheeggsarenotlaiduntilthefollowingspringorsummer.Seventy-fivetoonehundredeggsarelaidbyeachfemaleandare
33
![Page 34: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
attachedtotheundersideofsubmergedrocks.Thefemaleremainswiththeeggsuntilhatchingoccurswhichmaytakefromafewweekstomorethan30days.Theaveragelengthofthelarvaeathatchingis7/8inches.Mudpuppylarvaehavegills,atailfinormediumheight,adarkbrownmid-dorsalstripewhichisborderedbypaleyellowlinesandabroad,darkbrownstripeoneachsidefromtheheadtothetipofthetail.Sexualmaturityisreachedin4-6years(Johnson,1987). Mudpuppiesaretheonlyhostforthelarvaeofthesalamandermussel(Simpsonaiasambigus).Thesmall,darklarvaecallglochidiaattachthemselvestothemudpuppy’sgillsasexternalparasites.Thefreshwatermusselaverages1-1½inchesinlength(Johnson,1987). Mudpuppiesareharmlesstohumansandtonaturalfishpopulations.Fishermenoftencatchthisspeciesonbaitedhook-and-lineorinminnowtraps.Individualscanlivefor20yearsormore.
FamilyPlethodontidae--LunglessSalamanders
Thisisthelargestandmostsuccessfulfamilyofsalamandersintheworld.Ofthe380totalspeciesofsalamanders,230belongtothisgroup.Thereare18generaand80speciesoflunglesssalamandersthatoccurintheUnitedStatesandCanada.InTennesseethisfamilyisrepresentedby8generaand46forms(thisincludesspeciesandsubspecies). Alladultslacklungsandmostlackgills.Theoxygentheyrequireistakeninfromtheenvironmentthroughtheirskinandthemucousmembraneofthemouth.Onecharacteristicexclusivetothisfamilyisthepresenceofagrooveintheskinrunningfromthenostrildowntothelip.Insomespecies,associatedwiththisgroove(calledthenasolabialgroove)isaprojectionofskinwhichextendsthegroovebelowthelowerlip.Theseprojectionsarecalledcirriandaremorepronouncedonadultmales.Thecirriandgroovesmaybeassociatedwiththesenseofsmell(Johnson,1987).Maleshaveamentalglandontheirchin,andduringbreedingseason,theareasurroundingtheirvent(cloaca)isenlarged. ThefamilyprobablyoriginatedintheSouthernAppalachians.Thislackoflungsisanancestraladaptationtolifeinmountainstreams,wheresomespeciesstarted.Lungsarebuoyant,makingitdifficultforsalamanderstoholdfastinrushingwater. Lunglesssalamandersarefoundinawidevarietyofmoisthabitats.Woodlands,springs,coldstreams,seepages,rockoutcroppings,spruce-firmountaintopsatelevationsoveramilehigh,andcavesandtheirsubterraneanwatersareallhabitatscommonlyassociatedwiththisgroup.
34
![Page 35: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
GreenSalamander–Aneidesaeneus Gr.aneides,shapeless;L.aeneus,bronzeorcopperyThisgenusisknownastheclimbingsalamandersand5speciesarefoundwithintheUnitedStates.ThegreensalamanderistheonlyspeciesfoundeastoftheMississippiRiver. Description:Adultsofthisspeciesaverage3-5½inchesinlength.Toetipsareexpandedtoformadhesivediscs.Thisdorsoventrallyflattenedsalamanderhasgreenoryellowish-greenlichen-likepatchesonabackgroundofdarkbrownorgray(Redmond,1985).Theflattenedheadandbodyandtheexpandedtoetipsaremodificationsforitsmodeoflife. HabitatandHabits:ThegreensalamanderwasfirstdescribedbythefamousherpetologistsEdwardDrinkerCopeandA.S.Packard,Jr.in1881fromtheFaunaofNickajackCave(Amer.Nat.15:877-82).Itisgenerallyfoundinhabitingcrevicesinsandstoneclifffaces,butithasalsobeenreportedunderbarkstripsoffallenlogs,limestonesolutionpockets,andingranitecrevices.Itisevidentthatthegreensalamander’soptimumhabitatiscrevicesinrockfaces,thenatureoftherockformationbeingimmaterial.Intheabsenceofsuchhabitat,thesalamanderwillliveunderbarkontrees,inrottinglogsandsoforth.Inhabitedrockfacesareusuallywellshadedandmoist,butnotwet.Althoughtheymaybeseenoncloudydays,thesalamandersaremostactiveatnightwhentheyemergefromthecrevicesandclimbovertherocksurfacesinsearchoffood.Theyliewiththeirheadsatthemouthofthecrevicesbutretreatrapidlywhendisturbed.Itisdifficulttoextractonefromacrevice.Malestendtobeterritorialtowardsothermales(GreenandPauley,1987). Foodforthegreensalamanderconsistsofsnails,slugs,spidersandsmallinsects.Insectsarethepredominantfood(GreenandPauley,1987). ThedistributioninTennesseeincludestheCumberlandMountains,CumberlandPlateau,andEasternHighlandRim.PopulationshavealsobeenreportedfromtheAppalachianRidgeandValleyinAnderson,Claiborne,Grainger,Hawkins,andSullivancounties,theCentralBasininWilsonCountyandtheBlueRidgeMountainsinSevierCounty(Redmond,etal.1990). Inlatespringorearlysummer,femalesdepositclustersof10-20unpigmentedeggsheldtogetherandattachedontheupperwallsofcrevicesbystrandsofmucous.Thefemalesremainwiththeeggsthroughoutthedevelopmentperiodfrom84-91days.Hatchingoccursinthelatesummerorearlyfall.Thenewlyhatchedyoungarelessthananinchlongandareminiaturereplicasoftheadults.Thesesalamandershibernateinanastomosing(amulti-branchednetwork)crevicesfromNovemberthroughlateMarch(Martofetal.1980).
35
![Page 36: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
GenusDesmognathus–DuskySalamanders Gr.desma,bandorligament;Gr.gnathos,jaw.Thenameofthisgenusendsin–gnathusbecausethelowerjawsofthesesalamandersareheldinpositionbyligamentsjoiningittotheupperpartofthebackbone.Thelowerjawisrelativelyimmovablethusstiffeningtheforwardportionofthebodysotheanimalcanmorereadilyforceitswayunderthings.Thesalamanderopensitsmouthinlargepartbyliftingtheupperjawandhead.Asaresultthejawisopenedbyraisingtheupperjawaswellastheskull(Goin,etal.1978).Thisarrangementproduceslargejawmuscleswhichareobviousinsideview,atraitfrequentlyusedinidentifyingthisgenus.Otherkeycharacteristicsincludealightlinefromtheeyetotheangleofthejawandhindlegsthatarenoticeablylargerthanthefrontones(GreenandPauley,1987). MembersofthegenusDesmognathuscontainmanyperplexingforms.Individualsvarywidelyincolorationandpattern.AquotefromConantandCollins(1991),“Identifyingthesesalamandersislikeworkingwithfallwarblers–onlyworse!” Note–NotallspeciesofDesmognathuswillbecoveredhere.ForafulldescriptionofallspeciesinTennesseeseeMattNiemiller’sAmphibiansofTennessee.
NorthernDuskySalamander–Desmognathusfuscus L.fuscus,brownDescription:Theduskysalamanderisamedium-sizedsalamanderthatexhibitsextremelyvariablecolorpatterns(Redmond,1985).Adultsaveragebetween2-5inchesinlength.Alightlineextendsfromjustbehindtheeyetotheangleofthejaw.Hindlimbsarenoticeablylargerthanforelimbs.Thetailincrosssectionistriangularandmoderatelykeeled.Thejawlineofmatureindividualsisslightlysinuous.Darkfrictionpadsontoesareabsent.Jawteethhavebluntcrowns.Thedorsalgroundcolorrangesfromlightgraytodarkbrown.Dorsaldarkmarkingsmaybeindistinct,randomlyarrangedorconsistofseverallighttan,yellowishorredpairsofdorsalspotsborderedbywavyorsometimesstraightdarkdorsolateralstripes.Youngduskysalamandersusuallyhave5-8pairsofbuffcolored,yelloworreddishorangedorsalspots.Olderspecimensaredarkerandtendtobemelanistic.Thebellyisusuallymottledlightlywithgrayorbrown(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:Duskysalamandersareabundantinstreams,springs,seepages,androck-strewnwoodlandcreeksupto5,300feetinelevation.Likemostsalamanders,theyaremoreactiveatnightandduringthedaytheywillseekshelterindampareasunderleaves,rocks,andlogsalongstreammargins.Theyarequick,agileanddifficulttocaptureandtheirslimycoveringoftenenablesthemtoeludethegraspofawould-becaptor.Theyareactiveburrowersanddigtunnelsinthesoftsoilofthestreambankintowhichtheymayescape.Theyalsoclimbwellandatnightmaybefoundonthesidesofrocksandinlowvegetation.Duskysalamanderswillalsobefoundinbedsofpracticallydrystreamsindeepravines(GreenandPauley,1987). Foodfortheduskysalamanderincludesearthworms,snails,slugs,soft-bodiedinsects,beetlelarvae,mites,spiders,aswellassomesalamandersandtheirlarvae(GreenandPauley,
36
![Page 37: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Breedinghasbeenreportedinthefallaswellasthespring.Incourtshipthemaleappliesthesnout,cheeksandmentalglandtothesnoutofthefemale,whousuallyrespondsbypickingupthespermatophore.Femaleslayaclusterof10to20paleyellow,pigmentedeggs,heldtogetherbytheirthinoutermembranes.Theindividualeggsareabout3mmindiameterandhavethreeenvelopes,thefirstofclearjellyandfairlythick,thesecondthinandtheouterthin,tough,andelasticandwithatotaldiameterofabout4.5mm.Theeggsareusuallyattendedbythefemaleandarefrequentlylyinginthecoilofherbody.Femalesrarelyleavebeforetheeggshatch,evenwhendisturbedrepeatedly.Thenestsaregenerallylocatedincavitiesunderdebris,logs,androcksclosetoasmallwoodlandstream.EgglayingoccursfromJunetoearlyAugustwithhatchingtakingplaceinlatesummerorearlyfall.Seventy-fivepercentofthedepositedeggshatch,althoughfemaleswillabandonthesenestswhendisturbedpriortoovipositing.Theattendantfemalesmaintainphysicalcontactwiththeeggsandlarvae.Thehatchlinglarvaewillclusteronthefemalesbackwhichprobablydecreasesdesiccationoftheclutch.Thenewlyhatchedlarvaemaketheirwayintothestreambyfollowingtunnelsorcrevicesinthesoiluntiltheyreachthewaterlevel.Usuallytheeggmassissituatedsothatthehatchlingsdropintothewaterastheyemergefrotheeggenvelope.Throughouttheirlarvalperiod,approximatelyoneyear,theyswiminshallowpoolsorliebeneathflatrocksandleavesinwoodlandstreams.Transformationmaytakeplaceinlatespringorearlysummerdependingupontemperature,availabilityoffoodandotherfactors.Malesmatureattwoyearsofageandfemalesatthreeyears.Homingbehavior,foodfindingabilityandcourtshipdependsheavilyonolfaction(GreenandPauley,1987).TheduskysalamanderistheonlyspeciesofsalamanderthattheTennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgencyallowstobeusedasfishbait.
PigmySalamander–Desmognathuswrighti Description:ThepigmysalamanderisTennessee’ssmallestsalamanderwithadultsbeingfrom1¾-2¼inchesinlength.Alightlineextendsfromtheeyetotheangleofthejaw.Thehindlegsarenoticeablylargerthantheforelegs.Thetailisroundincrosssectionandisnotkeeled.Dorsalcolorrangesfrombrowntolightgray.Dorsalmarkingstypicallyconsistofnarrowdarklinesformingaherringbonepatternandamedianseriesofchevron-likemarks.Silverypigmentoccursonthelowersidesofthebody.Thebellylackspigmentandthetailisshort.Thesnoutandeyelidsappearrugose(rough).ThementalglandofthemalepigmysalamanderisU-shaped. HabitatandHabits:Thepigmysalamanderisaspeciescharacteristicofspruce-firforests.ItoccursinhighelevationmoistforestsintheBlueRidgeMountains.Theyhavebeenreportedatelevationsfrom2,750to6,500feet(ConantandCollins,1991).LocalitiesareknownfromCarter,Unicoi,Greene,Cocke,andSeviercounties(Redmond,et.al.1990). Pigmysalamandersliveundermoss,leaflitter,rottinglogs,barkonstumps,orrocksinspruce-firforestsorinmoisthardwoodforests.Inwinter,thesediminutivedenizenswillmoveintoseepageareas.Atnight,especiallyinfoggyorrainyweather,itmaybecome“arboreal”ascendingtrunksoftreesasmuchas6or7feetaboveground(ConantandCollins,1991).The
37
![Page 38: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
pigmysalamanderisthemostterrestrialofallDesmognathusspeciesandmayoccuragreatdistancefromseepageandstreams(Redmond,1985). Inlatesummer,thefemaledepositsaclusterofabout10eggsinanundergroundcavitynearaseepageorstream.Thehatchlingshaveconspicuousspotsbutotherwiseresembletheadults(Martof,etal.1980).Thereisnoaquaticlarvalstage.Transformationofthelarvaetakeplacewithintheegg(ConantandCollins,1991).
GenusEurycea–BrookSalamanders Thesearethesalamandersofsmallbrooks,springs,seepageareasandothersmallbodiesofwaterwherefishareabsentorataminimum.Theyarethe“yellowspringlizards”socalleddue totheyellowpigmentfoundinmostofthem,atleastontheundersurfaces.Othercharacteristicsincludeatonguethatisfreeatthemargins,separatevomerineandparasphenoidteeth,aslenderbodyandmaleswithswollensnoutsthatmayhavecirri.Thereisanaquaticlarvalstage(GreenandPauley,1987).Thegenuscontains12species,6ofwhicharefoundinTennessee.We’lldiscuss3here.
SouthernTwo-linedSalamander–Euryceacirrigea Gr.eurys,widecirrigea,withcirriDescription:Adultsrangeinlengthfrom2½to3inches.Aslendersalamanderwithayellowtoreddishorangedorsalbandwithblackdots,spotsorflecks.Adarkdorsolateralstripeextendstoatleastmid-tail.Inthemountainstheposteriorofthetailstripemaybebrokenintospots.Thebellyisyellowtoreddishorange.Breedingmaleshaveslendercirrusextendingdownwardfromeachnostril.Two-linedsalamandershave5toesoneachhindfoot(Martof,etal.1980). HabitatandHabits:Two-linedsalamandersliveinornearsprings,seepagesandstreamsinhardwoodforests.Asecretivesalamander,hidingbeneathalltypesofshelterobjectsincludingmassesofwetleavesincreeksorriverswamps(GreenandPauley,1987).TheSoutherntwo-linedsalamanderisfoundfrombottomlandhabitatsinwestTennesseetotheeasternedgeoftheRidgeandValley(Redmond,etal.1990).Courtshipoccursinthefall,andtheeggsarelaidinthewinterandspring.Thefemaledepositsaflatclusterofeggsontheundersurfacesofarockorlog,usuallyinrunningwater.Sheremainswiththeeggsuntiltheyhatchintoaquaticlarvae(Martofetal.1980).
LongtailSalamander–Eurycealongicauda L.longus,longL.cauda,tailDescription:Thisisaslenderyellowtoreddishorangespecieswithabundantroundblackspotsonthesidesandbackandverticaldarkbarsonthesidesofthetail.Thebellyisunmarked.The
38
![Page 39: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
tailmaybenearlytwo-thirdsthetotallengthoftheofthebodyinlargeadults,whichaverages3½to8inches(Martofetal.1980). HabitatandHabits:ThelongtailsalamanderrangesfromtheWesternHighlandRimeastwardtoapproximatelytheTennessee-NorthCarolinaborderandhasbeenreportedfromtheMississippiRiverbluffsjusteastofReelfootLakeinnorthwesternTennessee(Redmondet.al.1990).Overmostitsrangeitisassociatedwithlimestoneandshalesubstratesandisfoundalongrockystreamsandbottomlandsandcommonlyindampcaves.Theyfeedonsmallterrestrialinsects,mites,centipedesandearthworms(Martofetal.1980). Eggsaverageabout90perclutchandarelaidunderground.Inminesandcavestheeggsareattachedtorocksorboardsinorsuspendedabovethewater.Larvaehatchinwinteratlessthan20mminlengthandtransformationoccursbyearlysummerat40to50mm.Sexualmaturityisattainedthenextsummer(Martofetal.1980).
CaveSalamander–Eurycealucifuga L.lucis,light;L.fugio,tofleeDescription:Thecavesalamanderisamediumsizedsalamanderwhichmayattainalengthof4-6inches.Thebodyisslenderandthetailmayaccountforover60%ofthebodylengthinadults.Theheadisbroadandflatandtheeyesarewelldeveloped.Thedorsalcolormayvaryfromshadesoforangetored.Distinctdarkbrownorblackspotscovermuchofthedorsalsurfaceofthehead,backandtail.Costalgroovesnumberfrom14-15.Cirrimaybepresentinbothsexesbutaremorepronouncedinmales(GreenandPauley,1987). Cavesalamandersarefrequentlyconfusedwithlongtailsalamandersbutmaybeeasilytoldapartbycolor(thelongtailisyellowishandthecavereddish)andbytailpattern,whichinthelongtailalwaysconsistsofwavyverticalbarsthatformachevronorherringbonepattern.Inthe cavesalamandertheblackdotsarescatteredoverthetailandnotmergeintoanyformorpattern(GreenandPauley,1987). HabitatandHabits:Virtuallyrestrictedtolimestoneregions,thisspeciesispartialtothetwilightzoneofcaves,andclimbswellondampwallsandledgesbutisnotatruetroglobite.Duringwetperiodsitmayoccurnearspringsandalongrockybrooksunderlogsandrocks.Heleomyzidfliesmakeupalargepartofthedietofthecavesalamander(Hutchison,1958)aswellasmites,ticks,lepidopteransandpseudoscorpions.Cavesalamandersfeedbyflickingtheirtonguestocatchpreyasdoesotherterrestrialsalamandersandfrogsandtoads(GreenandPauley,1987). FemaleslayeggsfromSeptembertoJanuary.About60eggsaredepositedinrimstonepoolsonthefloorofcaves.Larvaeremaininthepoolsuntilwinterandearlyspringwhenthepoolsbegintooverflow.Thesmallstreamsthusformedcarrythelarvaeintolargerstreamswheretheyremainuntiltransformation(Green,et.al.1967).
39
![Page 40: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
GenusGyrinophilus GenusGyrinophilusarethespringsalamanders.Thesearelargesalamandersthatmaybepinkish,reddishorbrownishincolor.Theyaresemi-aquaticoraquaticandareassociatedwithcoolsprings,caves,orrapidlyflowingmountainsprings.Thegenusisdefinedbyacombinationofcharactersthatincludethetonguefreeallaround,vomerineandparasphenoidteethcontinuous,alightlinebetweentheeyeandnostrilsandanaquaticlarvalstage.Threespeciesarerecognized.TwoarerepresentedinTennessee.
TennesseeCaveSalamander–Gyrinophiluspalleucus Gr.gyrinos,tadpole;philos,loving;palleucus,paleDescription:TheTennesseecavesalamanderisneotenic(attainingsexualmaturitywhileretaininglarvalform)troglobites(cavedwellers)foundinthesubterraneanwatersofcavesandsinkholes.Thesesalamandersspendtheirentireexistencebeneaththegroundinwater.Theyhave3pairsofbrightredexternalgills,lackeyelidsandhaveverysmalleyes.Theheadisbroadandflattened.Atailfinispresent.Thereare16-19costalgroovesandthetotallengthmaybeupto9inches. Thisspeciesrequirespermanentstreamsandpoolsinlimestonecaves.Foodconsistsofarthropodsandothercavedwellinginvertebrates,earthwormsandothersalamanders.
NorthernSpringSalamander–Gyrinophilusporphyriticus Gr.porphyros,purpleDescription:Thisisalargesalamanderfrom4.5-8inchesinlength.Ithasastoutbody,abroadlytruncatesnoutand18costalgrooves.Thebackislightbrownishorangeorsalmon,oftenwithsmalldarkspotsorflecks.Alightlineborderedbelowbyadarklineextendsfromtheeyetothenostril.Thebellyisflesh-coloredandthethroatmaybefleckedwithblack.Springsalamandersresembleredsalamandersbutaremoreagileandhaveabroaderandflattersnout. HabitatsandHabits:Springsalamandersinhabitspringsandsmalltomedium,free-flowingstreams,boggyareasandcaves.Duringthedaytheyhideunderstones,logsanddampleavesneartheedgesofstreams.Theyareneverfoundfarfromwater.Dietincludesothersalamanders,largeinsectsandworms. Femalesattach20-60eggstothelowersurfaceofsubmergedrockusuallyinJulyorAugust.Theeggsareattendedbythefemaleandhatchinabout90days.Thelarvaehaveapurplishcolorthatmaypersistforabout3years.Femalesareabout5yearsoldatreproductivematurity.
40
![Page 41: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Four-toedSalamander–Hemidactyliumscutatum Gr.hemi,half;Gr.daktylos,finger,toe;scutum,scalelikeThegenuscontainsonlyonespecies.Thelifecycleincludesafreeswimminglarvawithaconspicuousdorsalfinandaterrestrialadult.Therearefourtoesoneachhindfoot.Thetongueisattachedinfrontandthevomerineandparasphenoidteethareseparated. Description:Thisisasmallsalamanderwhichmayattainalengthof4inches.Thedorsalcolorisrustybrown.Thebellyisenamelwhitewithmanyscatteredblackmarksthatextendontothetail.Thereisadistinctconstrictionatthebaseofthetailandthehindfeethave4toesinsteadofthestandard. Athatching,thelarvaeareonehalfinchinlengthwithbroadheads,bluntlypointedsnoutsandstronglycompressedtrunkandtails.Gillsareslenderandtippedinorange.Theheadistingedwithyelloworgreen(Echternacht,1980). HabitatandHabits:Adultsliveinhardwoodforestswheretheyseekshelterunderlogs,rocksandleaflitter.Othermossyareasmaybeutilizedifenoughmoistureisavailable(GreenandPauley,1987).Johnson(1987)findsthisspeciesinMissouriinareaswithmossesalongheavilyforestedspring-fedcreeksassociatedwithigneous(Precambrian)rockandalsoinandnearsinkholeponds. Whendisturbedorexposedthefour-toedsalamanderthrowsitselfintoatightcoil,dorsalsideuppermost.Withabackgroundofsimilarrustybrowncolor,theposturecouldbeprotective.Theconstrictionatthebaseofthetailcouldalsoservetheanimalasaprotectivedevice.Thetailisreadilyseveredwhentheanimalisunderstress. Four-toedsalamandersbreedinautumn.Spermarestoredinachamber(spermatheca)insidethecloacaofthefemales(Johnson,1987).Duringspring,startinginearlyMarch,females migratetosphagnumbogs,seepagesorshallowpondswithmoss-coveredlogs,rootsandgrassclumpsoverquietwater(Martof,etal.1980).Theeggsarefertilizedastheypassthroughthefemale’scloaca.About30eggsarelaidinaprotectedpocketofmoss,usuallyoverhangingthewater.Theeggsareusuallyattachedtostrandsorrootsofmosses(Bishop,1943).Afewnestshavebeenobservedonmoundsofpineneedlesinsidelogsandunderbark(GreenandPauley,1987).Thefemalewillremainwiththeeggsandprotectthemfromothersalamanders.Shewillalsoeateggsthatspoil.Thepresenceofafemaleattendingaclusterofeggsincreasesembryonicsurvival(HarrisandGill,1980). Communalnestingmayoccurespeciallywheretherearefewidealnestingsites(Johnson,1987).EggshatchinMay,theincubationperiodisfrom38-60days(Echternacht,1980).Uponhatchingthegilledlarvaefindtheirwaytowaterwheretheyremainforupto2months.Aftermetamorphosis,thejuvenilesthataverage3-4inchesbecometerrestrial.Theymaytakeover2yearstoreachsexualmaturity(Bishop,1943).
41
![Page 42: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
EasternZigzagSalamander–Plethodondorsalis Gr.pleth,tobefull;L.odon,ofteethdorsalis,backDescription:Thissmallsalamanderisfrom2.5-4.5inchesintotallength.Ithasareddish-orangetoreddish-browndorsalbandwithwavyorzigzagedgesatleastontheanteriorhalf.Thebellyisheavilymottledwithblack,whiteandreddish-orange. HabitatandHabits:Zigzagsalamandersareusuallyassociatedwithseepagesnearrockoutcropsonslopesinmixedhardwooduplandsandliveunderleaflitter,rocksandrottenlogs(Martof,1980). Littleisknownaboutthenaturalhistoryofthisspecies.Mostsurfaceactivityoccursintheearlyspring.Individualsbecomeincreasinglyscarceandaredifficulttofindatothertimes.
SlimySalamander–Plethodonglutinosus L.glutinosus,viscous,stickyDescription:Adultslimysalamandersrangeinlengthfrom4¾-6¾inches(Johnson,1987)withtherecordmeasuring81/8inches(ConantandCollins,1991).Theslimysalamanderisblackwithwhiteorcreamflecksscatteredoverthesidesorsometimesonthebackandlimbs(Martofetal.1980).Theshinandbellyaredarkgrayincolor.Malescanbedistinguishedfromfemalesbythepresenceofalightcolored,swollenmentalglandunderthechinduringthebreedingseason(Johnson,1987).Glandsintheskin,especiallyonthetail,exudeastickyprotectiveslimethatisdifficulttoremovefromthehands(Martofetal.1980). HabitatandHabits:Slimysalamandersareactivenearthesurfacefromspringtofallexceptduringdryperiodswhentheymoveunderground.Theyforageatnightandspendthedayinburrowsunderlogs,stonesandleaflitter(Martofetal.1980).Foodincludessmallarthropodsandworms(Johnson,1987). Eggsarelaidinorunderlogsandamongrootsbutarerarelyfound.Inthelowlands,eachfemalelayshereggsonlyeveryotherspring.AswithothermembersofthegenusPlethodon,femalesremainwiththeeggsduringtheincubationperiod.Hatchingprobablytakesplaceinlatesummerorearlyautumn.Thereisnoaquaticlarvalstage,aswithallPlethodonspecies,thehatchlingsresembleadultsbuthaveproportionatelyshortertails(Johnson,1987).
YonahlosseeSalamander–Plethodonyonahlossee NamedfortheoldYonahlosseeRoadonGrandfatherMountain,NorthCarolinaDescription:Plethodonyonahlosseeisalargeplethodontidspecies.Adultsreachtotallengthsrangingfrom4.5-7.5inches.Awideirregularlyshapeddorsalredstripeextendsfromneartheheadontothetail.Thisstripemaybepartiallyinterruptedbyblackspotsorblotches.Lateralsurfacesareheavilymarkedwithwhiteorlightgray.Thethroatislightincolor.Theventerisdarkgrayandusuallyhasnumerousscatteredlightspots(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:Yonahlosseesalamandersinhabitmaturewoodlandsandpopulationsareknownfromelevationsrangingfrom732-1433metersinTennessee(Redmond,1985).
42
![Page 43: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Thisspeciesoccursfrommountainvalleysto1700metersinthemountainsofthesouthernBlueRidgeMountains.Itinhabitshillsidesandravinesoftenwhererockslidesarethicklycarpetedwithmossesandferns.Yonahlosseshaveavarieddietofarthropodsandmollusks.
GenusPseudotriton–RedSalamanders Membersofthisgenushavearobustbody,ashortkeeledtail,andshortsturdylegs.Theymayattainatotallengthof8inches.Theyarestrikinglycoloredrangingfrombrownishtoorangetobrightcoronaryredwithscatteredblackdots,butnootherpattern.Thetongueisfreeatitsmarginsandprotrusible.ThegenusisconfinedtoNorthAmericaeastoftheMississippiRiver(GreenandPauley,1987). TwospeciesofthegenusarerecognizedbothofwhicharefoundinTennessee.Thelarvalstageisaquaticandtheadultsareaquaticorterrestrial.
MudSalamander–Pseudotritonmontanus Gr.pseudes,false;Gr.triton,newt;L.mont,belongingtothemountainsDescription:Themudsalamanderisarelativelylargespecieswithaslenderbodyform.Adultsattaintotallengthof3-7.5inches(Redmond,1985).Dorsalandventralgroundcolormaybecoral-pink,redorreddishbrown.Afewwelldefinedroundedblackspotsareusuallypresentonthedorsum.Thebellyisusuallyunspotted(Redmond,1985).Theirisoftheeyeofmudsalamandersisbrown. HabitatandHabits:ExcludingthehighelevationsoftheBlueRidgeMountains,therangeofthemudsalamanderincludestheeasternone-halfofTennessee.Themudsalamanderinhabitsmuddyareasoffloodplains,woodlandstreams,swampsandseepageareas(Redmond,1985).Theymaybefoundinthefine,blackmuckbeneathlogsandrocksorinburrowsalongthebanks ofseepages,springs,brooksorboggyareas(Martofetal.1980). Courtshipoccursinearlyfall,spawninginDecemberandhatchinginFebruary(Martofetal.1980).Duringheavyrainsinearlyspringandfalltheymaybeseeninlargenumberscrossinghighwaysandalongstreambanks(GreenandPauley,1987). Theaveragefemalelaysabout127eggs(66-192)everyotheryear.Mostlarvaetransformin17monthsbutsomerequireanextrayear.Theaveragesnouttoventlengthathatchis10mmand36mmatmetamorphosis.Malesmaturein3years,femalesin4years(Martofetal.1980)
NorthernRedSalamander–Pseudotritonruber L.rubeo,toberedDescription:Theredsalamanderisalargestout-bodiedspeciesthatreachesadulttotallengthsof7-15cm.ThisspeciesisverysimilartoP.montanusbuthasastockierbodyandsmallerhead.Dorsalandventralgroundcolorrangesfrombrightredtodullpurplishbrown.Dorsalmarkings
43
![Page 44: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
typicallyconsistofmanysmallirregularlyshapeddarkspotsthatmayfuseinolderindividuals.Theventralsurfaceofthechinmaybelightlyfleckedorheavilypigmentedwithblack.Theventermaybespottedwithdarkmarkingsunspotted(Redmond,1985).Theirisoftheeyeofredsalamandersisyellow. HabitatandHabits:Thissalamanderoccursnearmanywoodlandaquatichabitatsincludingcreeks,springsandspringrunsandseepageareas.Itmayoccasionallybefoundinmesictorelativelydrywoodlands(Redmond,1985). Adultsliveinleafaccumulationsinspringfedbrooksandnearbycrevicesandburrows.Theymayalsobefoundunderlogs,boards,rocksandleavesinmoreterrestrialhabitats.Earthworms,insectsandsmallersalamandersaretheirchieffood(Martofetal.1980). Courtshipoccursinsummer,spawninginOctoberandhatchinginearlyDecember.Anaverageclutchcontainsabout70eggs.Thelarvalperiodlastsabout32months.Theaveragenewlymetamorphosedanimalis70mmlong(Martofetal.1980).
FamilySalamandridae–“True”Salamanders
Themembersofthisfamilymetamorphosecompletelyandmostspendatleastpartoftheirlivesonland.Larvaeoftheeasternnewttypicallymetamorphoseintobrightredeftsthatmayliveonlandforaslongas7years,afterwhichtheyreturntothewaterandbecomesexuallymature.Newtshaverough,granularskin,lackcostalgroovesandpossesslungs(GreenandPauley,1987).Fewpredatorswilleatnewtsfortheirskin-glandsecretionsaretoxicoratleastirritatingtomucousmembranes(ConantandCollins1991).
Red-spottedNewt–Notophthalmusviridescens Gr.notos,theback;Gr.ophthalmos,theeye;L.viridescens,greenishDescription:Notophthalmusviridescenshasadistinctterrestriallarvalformandanaquaticadultform.Neitherformtypicallyhasexternalgills.Theterrestrialstagecommonlycalledaneftisbrightredororangewithdorsalredorblackspots.Totallengthrangesfrom1.5-3.5inches.The skinofeftsisveryspinoseorrough.Adultcolorationrangesfromyellowishgreentobrownwitheithernumerousredspotsborderedbyblackorwithonlysmallblackspots(Redmond,1985).Notophthalmusreferstothedorsaleyespotsofboththeeftandtheadultnewt. HabitatandHabits:Adultsinhabitponds,poolsalongandwithinstreams,oxbowsandfloodedditches.Eftsaremostoftenencounteredunderrocksandlogsinuplandwoodedhabitats(Redmond,1985). Anelaboratecourtshipoccursinthespringandfall.Thefemaledepositshereggssinglyonleavesofsubmergedplantsinpondsorlakesinlatewinter,springandearlysummer.Shemayfoldaleafaroundeachegg,effectivelyhidingitfromview.Hatchingoccursafteradevelopmentalperiodofupto35daysandthenewlyemergedlarvaeaverages7.5mlong.
44
![Page 45: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
Transformationofthelarvalterrestrialeftstakesplaceinthesummerorfall.Newlytransformedyoungareabout36-41mmlong.Newtsfeedonavarietyofaquaticinvertebratesincludinginsects,crustaceansandmollusks.Theyalsoeattheeggsofothersalamanders(FauthandResetarits,1991)andfrogs.
FamilySirenidae–Sirens
ThisfamilyofcompletelyaquaticsalamandersisrestrictedtoNorthAmerica.Thereareonly3speciesrepresentedby2genera–Siren(2species)andPseudobranchus(1species).Allmembersofthisfamilyhaveexternalgills,aresomewhateel-likeinappearanceandhaveonlyfrontlegs.Thedwarfsirens(Pseudobranchus)aresmall,slendersalamandersfoundintheextremesoutheasternUnitedStates.ThelessersirenandthegreatersirenaremuchlargerthanPseudobranchusandarefoundthroughoutthesoutheastandsouthcentralUnitedStatesandtheGulfCoastofMexico.Thegreatersiren(Sirenlacerina)isoneofthelongestsalamandersintheUnitedStateswithamaximumlengthofover3feet(Johnson,1987).InTennessee,thefamilyisrepresentedbythewesternlessersiren(Sirenintermedianettingi).
WesternLesserSiren--Sirenintermedianettingi Description:Apermanentlyaquaticspeciesthatiseel-likeinappearance.S.intermediapossesswelldevelopedexternalgills.Adultsreachtotallengthsof7-27inches.Frontlimbsarepresent.Hindlimbsareabsent.Dorsalcolorationvariesfromgray,brownorblackandmayincludesmalldiffuselightspots.Lateralbodysurfacesandventermayhavelightcoloredflecks(Redmond,1985). HabitatandHabits:Thewesternlessersirenoccursinsluggishstreams,oxbowsandfloodedditchesintheMississippiRiverValley,LoessPlainandCoastalPlainUplandsofwestTennessee.ItisalsoknownfromseveralsitesalongthelowerCumberlandRiverbelowNashville(Redmondet.al.1990).Snyder(1972)noteditsoccurrenceinasmallimpoundmentadjacenttoBarkleyReservoirjustnorthoftheStewartCounty,Tennessee-TriggCounty,Kentuckyboundaryline. Bythedaythewesternlessersirenremainshiddenunderclumpsofaquaticplantsandsubmergedrootsorbranchesbutbecomesactiveatnighttosearchforfood.Itsdietincludessmallcrayfish,aquaticinsects,snailsandworms(Johnson,1987).Altig(1967)foundthatthisspeciescanapparentlyobtainfoodbyfilterfeedingthroughbottommaterialandinaquaticvegetation.Hereportedthatsmallcrustaceansmayaccountforupto87%ofthetotalnumberoffooditemseaten. Westernlessersirensareknowntoproduce2kindsofsoundswhichmaybeusedasmeansofcommunicationbetweenindividuals.Theseincludeclickingsoundsmadebyanindividualwhenapproachedbyanotherandayelpsoundmadewhencaptured(GehlbachandWalker,1970).
45
![Page 46: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
Ifthepondorsloughwhereawesternlessersirenlivesbeginstodryup,theanimalwillburrowintothebottommud.Asthemudbeginstodryout,thesiren’sskinglandsproduceaparchment-likecocoonwhichcoversthewholebodyexceptthehead.Thecoveringpreventsthesalamanderfromdryingoutandallowsittoaestivate(summerdormancy)manymonthsuntilrainsagainfloodthepond(Gelbachetal.1973). Courtshipandmatinghavenotbeenobservedinthisspecies.Inthespringeachfemalelaysupto200eggsinasmallpocketinthebottommudofapondorditch.Theyoungathatchingareabout3/8inchesintotallength.Maturityisreachedafter2years.(Martof,1973).
46
![Page 47: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
IVandV.Reptiles,TurtlesofTennessee
TheTurtlesofTennesseewascompiledbyR.L.PeterWyatt,TWRAUnicoiCountyWildlifeOfficer.ItisrevisedandusedbytheTennesseeNaturalistProgrambypermission.
Turtlesarethemostancientofalllivingreptiles.TheyhavechangedlittlesincetheiroriginearlyintheTriassicperiod,over200millionyearsago.Theseuniquevertebratespossessashell,aprotectivestructurecomposedofanupperpart,calledthecarapace,andalowerpart,theplastron.Theshellsofmostspeciesarebonyandcoveredwithhornyscutesmadeofaproteincalledkeratin,thesametypeoflivingtissuethatourfingernailsaremadeof.Unlikethoseofothervertebrates,thelimbgirdlesareenclosedinthegreatlyexpandedribcage.Inotherwords,turtlesaretheonlyvertebrateswiththeirshoulderbladesinsidetheirribcage!Thefeetoftheboxturtleareelephantineforaterrestrialexistence,andtheaquaticformshavewebbedfeet.Thejawslackteethandarecoveredbyahornybeak. Mostturtlesareomnivorousbutsomearecarnivorousandafewareherbivorous.Insomespecies,thejuvenilesarecarnivorousandbecomeherbivorousasadults.Allmustbreatheair.Twosetsofabdominalmusclescontractalternatelyforbreathing.Allexceptboxturtlesgointoastateofdormancyunderwater,someforfiveorsixmonths.Completelyburiedinmud,theygetoxygenfromthewaterthroughtheliningsofthemouth,throat,andposteriorendofthegutandinsoftshellturtles,throughtheskincoveringtheshellandbody. Mostspeciescourtandmateinthefallaswellasthespring.Allspeciesareoviparous(egglayers).Theeggsareusuallylaidinaholeduginthesoil.Aftertheeggsarelaidandcovered,thefemalesleavethenestsite.Theydonotincubatetheeggsorcarefortheyoung.Mostspeciesovipositinlatespringbutsomealsolayoneormoretimesinthesummer.Theeggsina clutchmayvaryfrom1-50dependingonthespecies.Itisnotalwayseasyformalestofindfemalesbutturtleshaveevolvedaremarkableabilitytostoreviablesperminthefemaleforaslongassevenyears.InTennessee,hatchingusuallytakesplaceinlatesummerorfallandtheyoungofseveralspeciesmayoverwinterinthenest. Maninteractswithturtlesinmanyways.Heeatstheirfleshandeggsandpreparesnumerousproductsfromtheirskins,shellsandbones.Liveturtles,especiallyhatchlings,onceconstitutedalucrativepartofthepettrade.Likemanyorganisms,turtlesareadverselyaffectedbyman’sgeneraldestructionofthehabitat:drainage,pollution,landclearing,andstripmining.Withoutadoubt,theautomobileisoneofthegreatestthreatstoturtlesandeachyearmanythousandsarekilledontheroads.Severalspeciesarethreatenedwithextinctionandonlyafewareprotectedbylaw. AppendixBillustratesidentifyingcharacteristicsofturtles.
47
![Page 48: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
FamilyChelydridae--SnappingTurtles
CommonSnappingTurtle--Chelydraserpentina Otherlocalandcommonnamesforthisturtleis“turkle,”loggerheadandmudturtle.Thebigbrownishturtlesaremeanandaggressive.Sizerangesfrom8-18inchesandcanweighupto40pounds,therecordis18½inchesand57pounds.Thisturtlehasalargehead,longtaperingtailarmedabovewithlargescales;smallcrossshapedplastron;andcarapacewiththreelongitudinalkeelsprominentintheyoung.Inmales,thecloacaliesposteriortotheedgeoftheshell,infemalesanterior. Thecommonsnappingturtleisfoundstatewideexceptathigherelevationsalongtheextremeeasternborderorthestateandinhabitsvirtuallyanypermanentbodyofwater,natural orman-made.Snappingturtlespreferbodiesofwaterwithamudbottom,abundantaquaticvegetationandsubmergedlogsandsnags.Theytendtospendalotoftimehiddeninthemudinshallowwater.Theybecomemoreactiveatnightwhentheyforageforfood.Naturalfoodofthisspeciesincludesinsects,crayfish,fish,snails,earthworms,amphibians,snakes,smallmammals,birds,otherturtlesandaquaticvegetation.Upto36%ofasnappingturtle’sdietmayconsistofplantmaterial.Carrionisalsoconsumed. CourtshipandmatingmaytakeplaceanytimebetweenAprilandNovemberbutmostbreedingactivityoccursinlatespringandearlysummerwhenwatertemperaturesarewarm.Matingtakesplaceinthewater.Courtshipbetweenapairofsnappingturtlesusuallyinvolvesthetwoturtlesfacingeachotherandwavingtheirheadsfromsidetosideinoppositedirections.Actualmatingbeginswhenthemalemountsafemaleandgripshercarapacewithhisclaws.Themaletheninsertshispenisforspermtransmission.Likemanyspeciesofturtles,thefemalesnappingturtleisabletoretainviablespermforanumberofyears. Juneistheusualmonthforegglaying.Thefemaleselectsanareawithdeepsandorloosesoilwhereshewilldigoutanest4-7inchesdeepwithherhindlegs.Afemalemaylayfrom20-30eggs;morethanoneclutchmaybelaidperseason.Theeggsarecreamcoloredandaboutthesameshapeandsizeasping-pongballs.Hatchingwilloccurbetween55and125days aftertheeggsarelaiddependingonnesttemperatureandhumidity.Youngturtlesarefrom1-1½inchesincarapacelength.Malesreachsexualmaturityin4or5yearswhentheyattainaplastronlengthofapproximately6inches. ThecommonsnappingturtleisoneofthefeweconomicallyviablespeciesofturtlesinTennessee.Manypeopleactivelypursuethisspeciesfortheirmeat,whichcanmakeafinestew,anexcellentsoupandwhenfriedproperlyisdelicious.TheshellsandcarcassofthisspeciesareusedforNativeAmericancraftrattlesandcanbeseenatfleamarketsacrossthestate.Thedriedfeetoflargespecimensareusedtomakeknifehandles,theheadsadornwalkingsticksandshellsareformedintobowlsandsoldatMountainManRallies.Therefore,thisspeciesisbeingcommercializedwithinTennessee. Overtheyearsmanypeoplehavedevelopedanintensehatredofthisspeciesduemainlyfrommisinformationandlackofunderstanding.Fieldstudieshaveproventhatthisturtlewillnotharmgamefishpopulationsinnaturalbodiesofwater.Contrarytopopularbelief,snapping
48
![Page 49: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
turtlesdonotcausesubstantialdamagetowaterfowlyoungundernaturalconditions(Lagler,K.F.1943.FoodhabitatsandeconomicrelationsoftheturtlesofMichiganwithspecialreferencetofishmanagement.AmericanMidlandNaturalist29:257-312).Howeverinartificialpondswherefishorwaterfowlproductionisenhanced,thisspeciesmaybecomeaseriousnuisanceandrequirecontrolmeasuressuchastrapping.
AlligatorSnappingTurtle--Macroclemystemminckii Thealligatorsnappingturtleisoneofthelargestfreshwaterturtlesintheworldwiththerecordweightbeing219pounds.ThestatusofthisspeciesisinquestionthroughoutitsrangeandislistedbytheU.S.FishandWildlifeServiceasapotentialcandidateforfutureadditiontotheFederallistofthreatenedandendangeredspecies.InTennessee,thisspeciesislistedas“InNeedofManagement”andisprotected. Thisisahugeaquaticspecieswithanoticeablylargehead.Thecarapacehasthreeprominentridges–onealongthecenterlineandoneoneitherside.Thelargeheadterminatesinasharp,stronglyhookedbeak.Theeyesarepositionedonthesideoftheheadandtheorbitscannotbeseenfromabove.Thetailislongandmuscular.Skinonthehead,neck,andfrontlegshasanumberoffleshyprojectionsortubercles.Theplastronisreducedinsizeandaffordslittleprotectiontotheventralarea.Adultshavedarkbrownheads,legs,andshells.Skinontheneckandotherareasmaybeyellowish-brown.Maleshavealongertailthanfemales. Adultalligatorsnappingturtlesrangeincarapacelengthfrom16-26incheswithweightrangesfrom35-100ormorepounds.Thealligatorsnappingturtleistotallyaquaticandseldomclimbsoutofthewaterontoobjectstobaskinthesun.Mostspecimensseenoutofthewaterareapparentlyfemalesinsearchofanegg-layingsite.Themajorityoftheirtimeisspentindeepwaterinmudandotherhidingplacessuchasrootsnags.Theyspenddaylighthoursinhidingandbecomeactiveatnight.Thisspeciesseldomattemptstoswim.Itnormallymovesaboutbyslowlywalkingonthebottom. ThisspeciesisuniqueamongNorthAmericanturtlesinhavingtheabilitytolurefishintoitsmouth.Thetongueofthisspecieshasaspecialappendageshapedlikeawormthatcanbemovedatwillbytheturtlewhileitlaysmotionlessonthebottomofariverorslough.Nearbyfishareattractedtothewriggling“worm”andarecapturedandeatenwhentheyventuretooclose. Preferredhabitatofthisspeciesincludesdeepsloughs,oxbowlakes,anddeepmuddypoolsoflargerivers.ThedistributioninTennesseeislimitedtotheMississippiRiverValleyandlowerTennesseeRiversystem.However,ithasbeenreportedfromtheStone’sRiverbelowPercyPriestDam. Courtshipandbreedingtakeplaceinthewater.Itispresumedtooccurinlatespring.FemalesemergefromthewaterduringMayandJunetodiganestandlayeggs.Afemalemaylayfrom16-50eggs.Theeggsareround,whiteandhardshelled.Hatchingtakesplaceinlatesummer,afteranincubationperiodof100-108days.Thereareindicationsthatsomefemales
49
![Page 50: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
produceeggsonlyeveryotheryear.Hatchlingsaverage1¾inches,shellcolorisbrownorblackwithdarkgrayskin. Asinthecaseofmostspeciesofaquaticorwetlandecosystemsthealligatorsnappingturtlefacesmanyproblemscausingthedeclineofpopulations.Waterpollution,habitatalteration,areductioninegg-layingsitesandillegalharvesting,aswellasbeingharvestedasanon-target,areobstaclestoovercomeforthisspeciestohaveafutureinTennessee.
FamilyEmydidae--CommonWaterTurtles
PaintedTurtle--Chrysemyspicta ThisbrightlycoloredturtlehasthebroadestdistributionofallturtlesinNorthAmerica.InTennessee,3subspeciesarefound.Thecarapaceisflattened,smooth,andunkeeled.Itisblacktoolivebrownincolorandmarkedwithpatternsofredandyellow.Themarginalscalesalwaysbearredmarkings.Theplastronisunhingedandyellowandisjoinedwiththecarapacebyawidebonybridge.ThecarapaceoftheEasternformhaslightbordersacrossalignedseamsofrearlateralandcentrallaminee.Theplastronisunmarked.Themidlandformhasasmallcentralfigureontheplastron.Thesouthernformhasamedianlightlinedownthecarapacewiththeplastronunmarked.Tofurthercomplicatematterstheseformswillintergrade.Thefeetaremoderatelywebbed.Maleshaveelongatedclawsontheirforefeetandlongertailsthanfemales.Thereisapairofyellowspotsbehindtheeyes.Markingsonthelegsandothersoftpartsarered. Paintedturtlesarecommoninareaswherecreeks,rivers,sloughs,pondsandswampsprovideahabitatwithmudorsiltybottomandanabundanceofaquaticvegetation.Theyarefondofbaskingandaresometimesencounteredwanderingoverlandpresumablyinsearchofanewhabitatornestingsite.Estimatesofover200turtlesperacreofwaterhavebeenreportedfromNorthCarolina.Paintedturtlesareomnivorousfeederseatingavarietyofplantandanimalfood.Theyhibernateinthemudatthebottomofapondorotherquietbodyofwater,emerginginMarchorApril. Courtshiptakesplacesometimeafteremergencefromhibernation.Anelaborateritualtakesplace.Themaleswimsbackwardinfrontofthefemaleandvibrateshiselongateclawswhilestrokingherlores(sidesofherheadbetweentheeyesandnostrils).Thefemaleresponds bystrokingthemale’slimbs.Copulationfollows.Nestdiggingandegglayingtakeplacefrommid-MaytoJuly.Thefemalemaywanderseveralhundredyardsfromwaterinsearchforasuitableplacetodighernest.Theflaskshapedcavityisdugwithherhindfeet,usingfirstoneandthentheother.Inlateafternoon,shedropsfrom1-10eggsintothenest,arrangingthemwithoneofherhindfeet.Afterafinalwateringdownoftheareawiththecontentsofherurinarybladder,shefillstheneckofthenestwithaplugofmudandmovesbackandforthoverthenestwithherplastronuntilalltheevidenceofthenestisobliterated.Theaverage
50
![Page 51: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
incubationperiodis77days.EvidencefromstudiesconductedinMinnesota,PennsylvaniaandConnecticutshowthatthenestlingsoverwinterinthenestandemergeinspring.
BogTurtle--Glyptemysmuhlenbergii Thisisoursmallestturtle.Ithasadarkbrowncarapaceandablackishplastron.Thebrightorangeoryellowblotchoneachsideoftheheadandneckmakesidentificationeasy.Sexualdimorphismisnotstriking.Thefemalehasashortertailthanthemaleandaflatterplastronwithawidenotchatitsposteriormargin. Bogturtlesinhabitdamp,grassyfields,boggyareas(actuallyfinns),withmuckymudbottomswithornearpermanentwater.Whendisturbedtheyquicklyburrowintothemudordebris.Bogturtleseatmostlyinsectsbutwillalsoeatworms,snails,amphibians,seeds,andcarrion.InJuneorJuly,onaveragethreeeggsarelaidinashallownestinmossofloosesoilwithinthebog.Theyhatchinabout55days.Hatchlingsarebarelyoneinchlongandaboutthecutestlittlelifeformsyou’veeverseen! ThebogturtleisathreatenedspeciesinTennesseeandassuchisaffordedthemostprotectionrelativetootherturtlesinthestate.TheU.S.FishandWildlifeServicesliststhisspeciesasaCategory2animalandthroughitsrangeitiscloselyscrutinizedwithconcernforitsmanagement.Onlytwosmall,separatebogs,lessthan5acrescombinedinJohnsonCountyare hometothisanimalintheVolunteerstate.Itisestimatedthatabout100BogTurtlesliveinthesetwobogs.Collectionforthepettradeisoneproblemthisspeciesfaces.Drainageofhabitat,nestpredationandpollutionarealsothreatstoitspopulations.
NorthernMapTurtle--Graptemysgeographica Themapturtleisafairlylargeturtleandmayattainacarapacelengthof11inches,malesaresmallerthanfemales.Averagelengthforadultmalesis4-6inchesandfemalesaverage7-10.5inches.Thecarapaceissomewhatflattenedwithadistinctdorsalkeelandaflared,serrateposterioredge.Theshelliscoveredwithanintricatedesignofyellowlinesonagreenishbackgroundthatresemblesthelinesonaroadmap.Theplastronisyellowishandgenerallyunmarked.Theheadisgreenishandstreakedwithnumerouslongitudinalyellowlines.Theheadpatternnearlyalwaysinvolvesalongitudinallyelongatespotbehindtheeye.Bothsexeshaveverybroad,smoothjawsurfacesandtheareaaroundthemouthispaleasif“lipstick”hasbeenapplied. Mapturtlesoccurinreservoirsandlarge,quietriversontheWesternHighlandRimandeastward.Itpreferslargewaterswithoutstrongcurrents.Itoftenbasksonlogsandsnagsbutiswaryandhardtoapproach.ItisactivefromMarchtoOctober.Foragingforfoodtakesplaceinearlymorningandlateevening.Rivers,sloughsandoxbowlakesarepreferredhabitatsformapturtles,providedthereisanabundanceofbaskingsites,amudbottom,andadequateaquaticvegetation.Mapturtleseatmollusks,snails,crayfishandsomeinsects. Courtshipandmatingtakesplaceinthewater,probablyfromlateMarchthroughMay.Thisspecieshasbeenobservedbreedinginautumninotherstates.Femalemapturtleswillleavethewaterandmaymoveaconsiderabledistancebeforelocatingasuitablesitetolaytheireggs.
51
![Page 52: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
Nestsmaybedugalongtheedgeofplowedfields,inpatchesofsandorinclaybanks.EggsareproducedfromlateMaythroughearlyJuly.From10-16eggsmaybeproducedfromamaturefemale.Eggsareabout11/3incheslong,white,andelliptical.Hatchingtakesplaceinlatesummerorearlyfall,ortheyoungturtlesmaynothatchuntilthefollowingspring.Hatchlingsaverageabout1¼inchesinlength. OthermapturtlesincludetheOuachitaMapTurtle,FalseMapTurtle,andtheMississippiMapTurtle.
RiverCooter--Pseudemysconcinna RiverCootersarefoundinTennesseefromthewesternedgeoftheWesternHighlandRimwesttotheMississippiRiver.Adultcootersrangeincarapacelengthfrom9-13inches.Malescanbetoldapartfromfemalesbytheirlongforeclawsandlargetails. Theshellisbroadcompressedandhaslightdorsalmarkingsthatformapatternthatismoreirregularorconcentric,usuallywithalightC-shapedmarkonthefirstorsecondpleuralscute.Theplastronisnormallyyellow.Itmaybeeitherdevoidofmarkingsorhavegray-brownmarkingsalongscuteseams,especiallyanteriorly.Exposedskinmaybeolive-brownorblackwithyellowlines. Thisspeciesspendsaconsiderableamountoftimebaskingonlogsandwillquicklyslideintothewaterattheslightestdisturbance.Foragingisdoneduringearlymorningorlateafternoon.Thisspeciesisfoundinriversandsloughsbutwilltakeupresidenceinlargereservoirs. Cootersarepredominantlyvegetarian.Awidevarietyofaquaticplantsareconsumed.Mollusks,crayfish,andinsectshavealsobeenreportedinthefooditems. Courtshipandmatingtakeplaceinthewater.Themalewillswimabovethefemaleandoccasionallytitillatetheheadofthefemalewithrapidvibrationsofhislongforeclaws.Ifcopulationensues,thepairwillsinktothebottomandremainthereuntilcompletion.EgglayingispresumedtotakeplaceinMaythroughJune.Freshlylaideggsareelongatewithasoft,palepink,leatheryshell.Theeggsaverageabout19/16inchesinlength.Upto20eggsarelaidperfemale.HatchingnormallytakesplaceinlateAugustorSeptember.
EasternBoxTurtle--Terrapenecarolina OneofthebestknownandabundantreptilesinTennessee,theboxturtle,alsocalled“tar-pin”or“drylandtar-pin,”isfoundthroughoutthestate.Thiswellknownterrestrialturtleaverages4½to6½inchesincarapacelength.Thecarapaceisdomeshaped,variouslymottledwithyellowororangewithahingedplastronthatallowstheturtletowithdrawandencloseitshead,limbsandtailwithintheshell.Adultmaleshaveconcaveplastronsandoftenredeyes.Theeasternboxturtlelivesinforestedhabitatsthroughoutthestateuptoabout4,000feetintheAppalachians.Althoughtheseturtlesarelargelyterrestrial,theyoftenenterwaterduringhot,dryweather.Malesespeciallywillformaggregationsaroundcertainareascalled“loafingsites.”Intheearlymorningandafterrains,individualsfrequentlywanderacrossroadswhere
52
![Page 53: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
manyarekilledbycars.Boxturtleseatavarietyofplantsandsmallanimalsespeciallyterrestrialgastropods(landsnails),andslugs.Severalkindsofpoisonousmushroomsareincludedintheirdiet,andcasesofsecondarypoisoningareknowninsomepersonswhohaveeatenthesereptiles.ZooarchaeologicalremainsoftheboxturtleinprehistoricIndiansettlementsitesthroughoutTennesseeshowittohavebeenanimportantelementinthedietofTennessee’searlysettlers.Motifsinpottery,artisticdesigninshellworkandsymbolicuseoftheturtleasareligiousentityshowtheboxturtlewasheldinhighesteembysomegroupsofNativeAmericans. BoxturtlesbecomeactivesoonafterthelastkillingfrostusuallybetweenthelateMarchandlateApril,dependingonthephysiographicregionofthestate.Theturtlesenteroverwinteringretreatsshortlyafterthefirstkillingfrostofautumn,frommid-SeptembertoearlyNovember.Theturtle’sinabilitytodigdeepenoughintotheleaflitterandsoilduringcoldwinterweathermaycauseahighincidenceofwintermortality.Althoughverysmallturtlesprobablymakeupasizableportionofapopulation,theirsecretivenesscausesthemtoseemscarce. Dailyactivitybeginswithaperiodfeedingfollowedbybaskinginthesuninanopenarea.Inwarmweather,boxturtleswillcrawlintoaclumpofdensegrassordeadleavesandrest.Earlyeveningactivityusuallyconsistsofsearchingforasuitableretreatforthenight.Homerangesforadultswillvaryfrom2-5acres. CourtshipandmatingoccursfromlateApriluntillateJuneorearlyJulybutmaybeobservedinlatesummer.Amaleboxturtlecourtsafemalebystandingafewinchesfromherholdinghisheadhighandpulsatinghisorangecoloredthroat.Whenthefemalemovesclosertohim,hebeginstostimulateherbymountinghershellwhilehescratcheswithallfourlegs.Hemaynipattheforwardpartofhershell,thenmovebackwardandresthiscarapaceontheground,atwhichtimebreedingtakesplace. InTennesseemostegglayingprobablytakesplacefrommid-MaytoearlyJuly.Afemalewillselectanelevatedopenpatchofloosesoilorsandanddiga3-4inchholewithherhindlegs.Thisusuallybeginsatduskandtheeggsarelaidatnight.Fromthreetoeightelongatedwhiteeggsmaybelaidbyafemale.Theeggsare13/16to19/16inchesinlength.Thebabyturtlewillhatchinabout3monthsbuteggslaidinlatesummerwillnothatchuntilthefollowingspring.Ahatchlingwillhaveacarapacelengthof13/16to1¼inches.Hatchlingboxturtleshaveaflattercarapacecomparedtoadultsandadistinctdorsalridge.Youngboxturtlesareunabletoclosetheirplastrontoprotectthemselves. Femaleboxturtleshavetheabilitytostoreviablespermandproducefertilizedeggsuptofouryearsaftermating. Boxturtlesandyoungarepreyeduponbyskunks,foxes,raccoons,opossums,andwildturkeys.Theprimarycausesofdeathofadultsareextremecoldandman.Thousandsofthesereptilesarekilledannually,someintentionally,whilecrossingroadsandhighways. ThepettortoisemarkethasvirtuallydriedupforcollectorsinEuropeandAsia,analternativeisthisomnivorousquietpetfromNorthAmerica.Indiancraftrattles,bowls,jewelryaswellas“tortoise”inlayingunstocksarebeingmadeandsoldfromthecarapaceofthese
53
![Page 54: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
nativereptiles.BecauseofthesethreatstheEasternBoxTurtleislistedasaSpeciesofGreatestConservationNeedbytheTennesseeWildlifeResourcesAgency.
PondSlider--Trachemysscripta Thepondslider,onceknownasthered-earedslider,isamedium-sizeturtlewithapatchofredoneachsideofthehead.Thecarapaceisolive-brownwithanumberofblackandyellowlines.Plastronisyellowwitheachscutenormallyhavingalargedarkbrownorblackblotch.Exposedskinisdarkgreenwithnarrowblackandyellowlines.Awideredororangestripeispresentoneachsideoftheheadbehindtheeye.Oldspecimenssometimeshaveanexcessofblackpigmentwhichobscuresmostoftheyellowstripesontheskinandshell,includingtheredstripebehindtheeye.Thisconditionisknownas“melanism”andisassociatedwitholdmales.Adultpondslidersrangeincarapacelengthfrom5-8inches.Adultmaleshavetheelongatedforeclawsasinmanyspeciesofbaskingturtles. ThisturtlebecomesactiveinMarch,whentheairtemperaturereaches50degreesFahrenheitorhigherandremainsactiveuntilmid-October.Foragingtakesplaceinearlymorningandlateafternoon.Onsunnydays,baskinginthesunonlogsorotherobjectsprojectingfromthewaterbeginsinmidmorningandgenerallylastsuntilmid-afternoon.Atnight,thesesliderswillsleepwhilerestingonthebottomorfloatingonthesurface.Bothaquaticplantsandanimalsareeaten. Theseslidersinhabitalmostanyrelativelyquiet,permanentbodyofwaterhavingamudbottomandabundantaquaticvegetation.Theywillbaskinaggregationsometimesstackingoneontopoftheother. Courtshipandmatingtakeplacebetweenmid-Marchandmid-June.Thecourtshipritualissimilartothatofthepaintedturtle.Femalesreadytolaytheireggsleavethewaterandsearchforasuitableegg-layingsite.Aclutchof4-20eggsarelaidperfemalebetweenAprilandmid-July.Somefemalesmaylaymorethanoneclutchduringaseason.Theeggsareovalwithawhite,granularshell,theyaverageabout11/3inchesinlength.Hatchingusuallytakesplaceinlatesummerorearlyautumnbutyoungturtlesmayoccasionallyoverwinterintheeggandhatchthefollowingspring.Newlyhatchedyoungaverageabout1½inchesinlength. Formanyyearspondslidersweresoldin“dimestores”forpets.Itwasnotuntil1970thatthispettradeceasedduetothepossibleSalmonellacontaminationwhichcouldbetransmittedtochildrenbyhandlingtheturtlesorthewaterinwhichtheywerekept.Literallymillionsofbabypondsliderseitherdiedduetolackofcareorweretakentothenearestbodyofwaterandreleasedwhentheywerenolongerwantedorbecamesick.QuestionsaboutgeneticmixingfromimportedturtlesaswellasrangeextensionofthisspeciesinTennesseehavenotbeenanswered.
54
![Page 55: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
FamilyKinosternidae--MudandMuskTurtles
EasternMudTurtle--Kinosternumsubrubrum Thissmallturtleaveraging3-5inchesisappropriatelynamed,reflectingbothitscoloranditshabitat.ItdiffersfromtheEasternMuskTurtlebylackingstripesontheheadandthepectoralscutesmeetonlynarrowlyonthemidlineoftheplastron,whichishingedbothbeforeandaftertheabdominalscutes. Exceptforfastflowingstreams,mudturtlescanbefoundinmostaquatichabitats.Mudturtlesusuallyhidebydayandforageunderwateratnight.Insects,mollusks,carrion,andvegetationarethemajordietaryitems.Theseturtlesemergefromhibernationinearlytomid-Aprilandstayactiveuntilmid-October.Duringwarmermonthstheycanbeseenprowlingalongthebottomofcreeks,ditches,ponds,andlakes.Ifthehabitatdriesup,theturtlesmaymoveoverlandtoapermanentbodyofwaterorburrowintothemudandaestivate.Theyarefrequentlyseencrossingroadsmanyarekilleddoingso.Somemudturtlesaremildtemperedwhileothersarefeistyanddononothesitatetobite. Adultsbecomesexuallymatureat5-7yearsofage.Breedingtakesplacefrommid-ApriltoMay,sometimesaslateasOctober(multipleclutchesarepossible).Thefemaledigsanestinsoftsoilnearthewateranddeposits3-5ellipticaleggs.Hatchingoccursinabout100dayslaterbuttheyoungmayremainnestbounduntilthenextspring. Occasionallyfishermenwillcatchoneofthesesmallturtlesonhookandlinewhenusingminnows,worms,orcrayfishforbait.Duetotheirsmallsizethisturtleisprobablynevertakenforfoodbypeople.
StripeneckMuskTurtle--Sternotherusminor Thissmallturtleaverages3-4½inchesincarapacelength.Ithasdarkstripesontheheadandneck,arelativelyhighbrownorgraycarapacewithdarkmarkingsandayellowish,usuallyunspottedplastron.Thecarapaceofjuvenilesusuallybearsadistinctmid-dorsalkeelandtraces ofanadditionalkeeloneachside.Adultstypicallylackcarapacekeels.Therearetwobarbelsonthechinbutnoneonthethroat.TheEasternMudTurtleissimilarbutlackstheprominentwhitestripesontheheadandbarbelsonboththeheadandthroat. StripeneckMuskTurtlesarehighlyaquatic.Theypreferrivers,streams,andspringfedcreekswithmuddybottomsnearsubmergedlogsorotherobjects.InTennessee,theyarefoundfromtheCumberlandPlateaueastward. Thisactiveturtleisdiurnalandforagesmainlyduringthemorninghours.Theycanbefrequentlyseencrawlingalongthebottomamongrockssubmergedlogsandvegetation.Juvenilesfeedprimarilyoninsects,adultsareomnivorousbutpreferaquaticinsectsandsnails. Thenaturalhistoryofthisspeciesispoorlyknown.Itisthoughttolay1-4clutchesof2-3ellipticaleggsthataverage11/8inchinlength.Theydeposittheireggsinamoundabout5incheshighalongaspringrun.Theeggswhenfirstlaidhavebrittleporcelain-likeshellsandare
55
![Page 56: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
translucentpink.Astheembryodevelopmentcontinuestheeggsturnopaquewhite.Incubationtakesabout13-16weeks. AswiththeEasternMudTurtle,thesesmallturtlesareoccasionallycaughtbyfishermenusingnaturalbait.Becauseoftheirpugnaciousattitudeandabilitytoexpelmusk,peoplearequicktoreleasethemfromtheirlinesandtheyarenotconsideredtablefare.
EasternMuskTurtle--Sternotherusodoratus OthernamesforthisturtleareStinkpot,StinkingJimandMuskTurtle.Thisdrablittleturtlehasanaveragecarapacelengthof3-5½inches.Thisturtleisnotedforitsmuskyodor,awarningtopredators.Whendisturbeditsecretesafoulsmelling,yellowishfluidfrom2pairsofmuskglandsundertheborderofthecarapace. Itsheadbearstwopairsofbarbelsonthechinandthroatandalightlineabovetheeyeandanotherbelowtheeye.Theselinesmaybeobscureorlostinoldmales.Theplastronissmallandthesuturebetweenthehumeralscutes(anteriorpair)isaboutaslongasthatbetweenthepectorals(secondpair).IntheMudTurtle,thepectoralsutureismuchshorterandthepectoralsaretriangular.IntheStinkpot,onlytheanteriorlobeoftheplastronishinged. Adultmalescanbedistinguishedfromfemalesbylonger,thickertailsendinginsmall,claw-likeprojectionsandbythepresenceofbroadfleshyareasalongthecenteroftheplastron. Thisturtleisfoundstatewide,inhabitingpermanentbodiesofwater,includingshallowmarginsofreservoirs,largeriversandsmallerfastflowingstreams.Highlyaquatic,stinkpotsrarelyleavethewaterbuttheywilloccasionallyclimbtreestobask.Inearlyspringitlikestobaskinshallowsoramidfloatingvegetationwiththecenterofitscarapaceexposedtothesun. TheactiveseasonfortheStinkpotprobablylastsfromMarchtoNovemberandtheyaremostactiveduringearlymorningandlateevening.Thefoodforthisspeciesincludesaquaticinsects,earthworms,crayfish,fisheggs,minnows,tadpoles,algaeanddeadanimals. CourtshipandmatingprobablytakeplacefromlateAprilthroughJune.EggsarelaidinlateJunethroughAugust.From2-5eggsarelaidperfemales.Theeggsarewhiteandellipticalaveragingaboutaninchlong.Theyhaveathickbrittleshell.Ittakestwotothreemonthsfortheeggstohatch.Athatchingtheyoungturtlesaveragelessthananinchlong. Thisturtleisalsocaughtbyanglersusingnaturalbait.Theseturtlesareaggressiveandbitereadily.Stinkpots’longneckscanbringitsjawsbackasfarasitshindlimbs.Duetoitbeingcalled“StinkingJim”itisdoubtfulthattheseguysendupinaskilletorpotveryoften.
56
![Page 57: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
FamilyTrionychidae--SoftshellTurtles
SmoothSoftshell--Apalonemutica Thisisaratherplain-lookingmemberofthesoftshellgroup.Thefrontofthecarapacelackssmallbumpsorspinesandtheoverallshellisquitesmooth.Thecarapacemaybeolive-grayorbrown;malesandyoungmayhavefaintmarkingsintheformofdotsanddashes.Adultfemales haveamottledcarapacewithblotchesofgrayoroliveorbrown.Theplastroniscreamcoloredandlacksanymarkingsbuttheunderlyingbonesareusuallyvisible.Uppersurfacesoftheneckandlimbsareoliveorgray.Theundersideiscreamorlightgray.Alightlineborderedbyblackextendsbackwardfromeacheyealongsidesofthehead.Adultmalesaresmaller,havealonger,thickertailandlongerforeclawsthanfemales.Femaleshavelongerhindclaws.Adultfemalesrangeincarapacelengthfrom7-14inches,males’carapacelengthabout5-7inches. ThishighlyaquaticandseldomseeninhabitantofriversandlargestreamsmayrangeovernearlytheentirestatebutitsoccurrenceinextremeeasternTennesseehasnotbeenwelldocumented.Thespeciesfavorsbodiesofwaterwithmud,silt,orsandbottoms. TheSmoothSoftshellisactivefromearlyApriltomid-October.Itismoreaquaticthanothersoftshellsanddoesnotbaskinthesunasoftenasotherturtles.IfaSmoothSoftshellemergestobask,itwillusuallydosoonasandbarormudflat.Theslightestdisturbancewillcauseittodashintothewaterforprotection.Softshellsactivelysearchforfoodduringthemorningandlateevening.Whenrestingtheywillburythemselvesinsandormudinshallowwaterwithonlytheheadexposed.Airistakeninbyprotrudingthetipofthesnorkel-likesnoutoutofthewater.Inthisway,theturtlesareinconspicuous.Theseturtlescanalsoremainsubmergedandcarryongaseousexchangesfromthewaterbypumpingwaterinandoutofthemouthandcloaca.Softshellsprotectthemselvesfromfreezingweatherbyburyingthemselvesinthemudatthebottomofriverpools. Thisspeciesisprimarilycarnivorous.Itfeedsonfish,crayfish,salamanders,tadpoles,frogs,snails,andaquaticinsects.Althoughnearlyanyspeciesoffishmaybepreyeduponbysoftshells,thereisnoevidencetoshowthattheyharmafishpopulationinnaturalwaters. SmoothSoftshellsbreedinAprilandMay.Autumnbreedinghasalsobeenreported.Femalesaresexuallymatureatacarapacelengthof7½inchesattheageof6-7years.Thesmallermalesmatureatacarapacelengthof42/3inches.Duringthebreedingseasonamalewillrapidlyswimafterafemalewithhisneckextended.Hewilloccasionallyprobetheundersideofhershellwithhishead.Ifthefemaleisreceptive,shewillbecomestillandthemalewillmountherfromabove. EgglayingtakesplacefromlateMaythroughJune.Thenumberofeggsproduceddependsonthesizeofthefemale.Ithasbeenreportedthatfemaleslayfrom4-33eggs,withanaverageclutchof18-22eggs.Afemalewillselectasandbarorriverislandonwhichtodighernest,alwaysindirectsunlight.Theeggsmaytakeupto2½monthstohatch.Hatchlingsaverageabout1¼to1¾inchesincarapacelength.Youngofthisspeciesareolivewithdistinctdotsandshortlinescoveringthecarapace.
57
![Page 58: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
Thisturtleanditsrelative,theSpinySoftshell,arebothcaughtasgameanimalsinTennessee.TheeaseofcleaningtheseturtlescomparedtotheCommonSnappingTurtlemakes themarealfind.InrecentyearssoftshellshavebeenonthedeclineinMidwesternstates.Channelizationofrivers,siltationandwaterpollutioncontributetoadecliningpopulationofthefastswimming,riverdwellingreptiles.
SpinySoftshell--Apalonespinifera TheSpinySoftshellisamediumtolargeturtlewithadultfemalesrangeincarapacelengthfrom7-18inches.Adultmalesaresmallerandhavecarapacesthatrangefrom5-9¼inches.Theseareverydistinctiveturtleswithflat,pancake-likeshellswithflexiblemargins.Thecarapaceisgrayorolivewithmanydarkeyespotsalongthefrontarea.Thesemarkingsarefewertowardtherear.Theanteriorareaofthecarapacehasnumeroussmallspinesor“ocelli”whichimpartarough,sandpapersurfacetotheshell.Theplastronissmall,cruciformandleavesmuchofthesoftunderpartexposed.Thefeetarestronglystreakedandspotted.Theheadislongwithapointedsnoutandthenostrilshavealateralridgeextendingfromtheseptum.Thereisadark-borderedlightstripeoneachsideofthehead.Anotherlightstriperunsfromtheangleofthejawontotheneck. InTennessee,thisturtlerangesovertheentirestate.Itinhabitslargestreams,rivers,lakesandpondswithamuddy,sandyorgravelbottom.Softshellsarestrictlyaquaticandarefoundonlandonlywhendepositingeggs.Theyareequallyathomeinshallowordeepwaterandtheirexcellentswimmingabilitymakesthemdifficulttocatch.Theymayoccasionallybefoundbaskingonlogsbuttheyprefertofloatonthesurfaceoflargebodiesofwater. TheSpinySoftshellisactivebetweenMarchandOctober.Dailyactivityincludesforagingforfoodinearlymorning,baskinginthesunonlogsoralongthebank,andrestinginshallowwaterwiththeshellcoveredwithmudorsandandonlytheirsnorkel-likesnoutstuckabovethesurface.Thereisashortperiodoffeedingtimeduringtheeveningthatmayextendintothenight.Spinysoftshellshaveahabitoffloatingnearthesurfaceofdeepwaterbutwilldivequicklywiththeslightestdisturbance. Theyaredifficultanimalstoholdbecauseoftheirshorttailsandlongclawswhichcanproducedeepscratches.Theirlongneckscanbeextendedsuddenlyandtheirsharpjawscaninflictapainfulwound.Theyareilltemperedandwilltrytobiteifcaptured. Toescapethecoldtemperaturesofwinter,thisspecieswilldigtwotofourinchesinthemudatthebottomofariverorlake.AdultsemergefromhibernationinMarchorApril.Matingoccursshortlyafteremergence.CourtshipbehaviorisprobablysimilartotheSmoothSoftshell.MaleSpinySoftshellsbecomesexuallymatureatacarapacelengthoffrom35/8–4inches.Femalesareprobablymaturewhentheircarapacereaches71/8to77/8inches. EggsarelaidfromlateMaytoJuly.Agravidfemalewillselectasandorgravelbarorasandyopeningnearwatertonest.From4-32round,whiteeggsmaybelaid,depositedinthebottomofaholeandcoveredwithsoil.Thisprocessisrepeateduntiltheclutchiscompleteandthecavityfilled.Thefemalepacksthesoildownandreentersthewater.Hatchingoccurs
58
![Page 59: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
lateAugusttoOctoberbuthatchlingsmayremaininthenestuntilthefollowingspring.Theyoungturtlesareabout11/3inchesincarapacelengthathatching. SpinySoftshellsaremostlycarnivorous,eatinginsectadultsandlarvae,crayfish,worms,snails,fish,tadpolesandsalamanders.Somefoodstudieshaveshownthatafairamountofplantmaterialisconsumedintentionallyorincidentally. Thefleshofsoftshellsishighlyesteemedandaturtlehunterwillcatchthemby“noodling”or“grabbling”—creepingalongthebankandrunningtheirhandandarmupintotheundersideofthebankintoacreviceormuskratburrowhopingtograsptheturtlefrombehind.Thismethodisalsousedtocatchcatfishincertainpartsofthestate.
59
![Page 60: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
IVandV.Reptiles,LizardsofTennessee
ThisportionofthecurriculumhasbeentakenfromAmphibiansandReptilesofTennesseeapublicationpreparedanddistributedbytheTennesseeGameandFishCommissioninAugust1965.TheLizardsofTennesseewasareprintedarticlebyRalphSinclairfromTheTennesseeConservationistmagazine.TheTennesseeNaturalistProgramreceivedpermissionfromTheTennesseeConservationisttoreviseandusethisarticleforourcurriculum.
ThereisawidegapbetweentheKing’sPalaceandadustyroadside,agapwhichfewbeggarscancross.Yettheubiquitouslizardisfoundinbothandvirtuallyallplacesbetween.ThewisemanSolomonmentionsinProverbsthatthelizardtakesholdandisfoundeveninpalaces.Suchaplaceisabitpretentiousevenforalizard,butregardless,lizardsmanytimesmaytakeupabodenearmanandeveninhishome. Lizardsarefoundinlargecities,invacantlots,gardens,railroadright-of-ways,andmanyotherplacesincludingofcoursewoodsandfields.Theyareratherwellfittedfortheirenvironmentevenifatfirstitseemsoutofplaceforthem.Thebrickwallofthemodernhomesubstitutesverywellforalimestonecliff.Inthetropics,lizardsarequiteoftenfoundinhomes.MostofthesearethenocturnalGeckoswhichhavepadsontheirfeetenablingthemtoclingtosmoothsurfaces,evenupsidedown.GeckosarenativetopartsoftheSouthwestandFlorida.TropicalGeckoshaveaccidentallyfoundtheirwayintothiscountryandhavebecomewellestablishedinafewcoastalcitiesintheSouth. Tennesseeonlyhas9lizardspecieswhereasCaliforniahasover50.Contrarytopopularbelief,noneofournativelizardsarepoisonous.Infact,theonlypoisonouslizardfoundinthiscountryistheGilamonsterthatisfoundinthedesertsoftheSouthwest. Tennesseelizardsaremostlyterrestrial.SomespendmuchoftheirtimeintreesandsomeliketheGroundSkinkasitsnameimplies,livesintheleaflitteroftheforestfloor.AlthoughnearlyalllizardsaregoodswimmersnoneintheUnitedStatesareaquatic.Anoccasionallizardiscaughtbyabasswhentakingtowater.Otherenemies,besidesman,includecats,hawks,owls,snakesandevenlargerlizards.Theirbestdefenseagainstenemiesistheirblendingcolorationandspeedandagility.The“Chameleon”hereaftercalledAnole,canchangecolorfrombrowntogreen.However,theAnoledoesnotalwaysmatchabrownorgreenbackground.Otherfactorssuchastemperatureandexcitemententerintocolorchanges.Probablythemostinterestingdefensemechanismis“taildropping.”Mostlizardsareabletoseverthetailvoluntarilyoratleasttopartwithitwhenthetailistouched.Thebreakoccursatthemiddleofthevertebraeandasphincterautomaticallycutsoffflowofbloodfromthecaudalartery.Thetailboundsandwigglesaboutasif“alive.”Whiletheenemyisattractedtothetailtheownerhasescaped.Manyalizardowesitslonglifetothisabilitytodistractanenemy.Curiouslyenoughsomelizardshavebeenknowntodroptheirowntailandtheneatit.Thetailsoonbeginstoregenerate,thoughitwillnotgrowtobeaslongnorwillitbecoveredwiththesamesizeandcolorscalesastheoriginal. Generally,ourlizardsareinsectivorous.Somewesternlizardseatflowersaswellasother
60
![Page 61: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
vegetablematter.Smallinsectsandmillipedesarechewedmomentarilyandthenswallowedentirely.Ifthepreyistoolargetobeswallowedentirely,thelizardmayshakeitvigorouslyorteatitintosmallpieces.Becauseofthetremendousnumberofinsectseaten,lizardsshouldbeconsideredbeneficial. AllTennesseelizardslayeggs.TheHornedLizardbearsitsyoungalive.Severallizardsstaywiththeireggs,coilingaboutthemandevenkeepingthemtogether.Theeggsareusuallylaidunderlogsorstones.Mostlayoneclutchofeggsayearduringthesummerandtheyhatchoutbyfall. Themostcommonreptilesandamphibianstobeconfusedarethesalamandersandlizards.Buddingherpetologistsjustneedtorememberthatthelizardswillhavescalesandclawsontheendsoftheirtoes,whereas,salamanderswillhavesmooth,moistskinwithnoscalesandnoclaws.
FamilyPolychridae(Anoles)
GreenAnole--Anoliscarolinensis TheGreenAnole(Anoliscarolinensis)isfoundonlyinthesouthernpartoftheState.Thisisthelizardoncesoldinpetshopsandcarnivalsbythename“Chameleon.”Actually,theAnoleisnotaChameleon.TheGreenAnolewasoncethoughttobeveryrareinTennesseebutwearefindingitregularlyinHickmanCountyandplaceslikeBearHollowMountainandtheWallsofJerichoNaturalArea.Thislizardcanbegreenorbrown.ThetrueChameleonisfoundinpartsoftheOldWorld.Thelatterisapeculiarbeast.Besideschangingcolorithasaprehensiletailwhichitwrapsarounditsperch.Italsocanrotateeacheyeballindependentlyoftheother.The footisagraspingorganandshapedsomewhatlikeapairofpliersdividedintotwotoesononesideandthreeontheother.Inthepast,AnoleswerealsothoughttobeintheIguanafamily.
FamilyTeiidae(Whiptails)
Six-linedRacerunner--Aspidoscelissexlineata TheSix-linedRacerunnerisfoundinmanyhabitatsfromtheriverbottomsofWestTennesseetoanaltitudeof1200feetintheSmokyMountains.ItseemstopreferawelldrainedenvironmentandisquitecommoninthecedargladesofMiddleTennessee.Itisanassociatewiththerear-fangedsnake(Tantillacoronata).
61
![Page 62: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
FamilyPhrynosomatidae(Earless,Spiny,Tree,Side-blotchedandHornedLizards)
EasternFenceLizard--Sceloporusundulates OncecalledtheFenceSwifttheEasternFenceLizardisfoundinallpartsofthestate.Itiseasilyidentifiedbytheroughscalescoveringitandbelongstoagroupoflizardscalledrough-scaledorspinylizards.Fencelizardsarebynomeansconfinedtorailfencesbutarefoundontreesandstonewallsaswellasontheground.Theyarefoundinwoodedareasandalsoinopenhabitats.NootherTennesseelizardshavesuchpronouncedsexuallydimorphism(malesandfemalescoloreddifferently).Botharebrownorgrayabovebutthemalehasintenseblueandblackflecks.Duringthematingseasonthemakestakesoutaparticularterritory.Upontheapproachofanothermaleheinflateshimselfandraisesonesidetoshowthebluecolor.Themalesarequiteaggressive,fightingwithoneanotherwhenonecomesintotheothers’territory.Inexperiments,whenthemale’scolorispaintedovertoresembleafemale,othermalesacceptitasafemale.
FamilyAnguidae(GlassLizardsandAlligatorLizards)
SlenderGlassLizard--Ophisaurusattenuatus TheGlassLizardsometimescalledthe“glasssnake”isactuallyaleglesslizard.Uponcloseexaminationitsmovableeyelidsandexternalearopeningsrevealittobealizardandnotasnake.Itisfairlyfragile,thelongtailbreakingoffeasily.Popularlegendhasitthat“thejointsnake”uponbeinghitbyastickwillbreakintopieces.Afterwardsthepieceswillseekeachotheroutandjointogetheragain.Asmuchashalfofthelizard’slengthcanbetail.Likealllizardsitwillregenerateanewtail,whichmayhavesomethingtodowiththeoriginofthistale.Glasslizardsareseldomfound.Thisisprobablyduetotheirsecretivenatureandnottotheirbeingrare.Theyoccasionallyarefoundinthecityinparksandyards.Theselizardsarepeculiartohavingalateralfolddowntheside.TheircloserelativesbelongingtothesamefamilyarefoundintheWesternUnitedStates.ThesearetheAlligatorLizards.AlligatorLizardshavethissamepeculiarfolddowneachside.However,theyhavefourlegs.GlassLizardsappeartobemuchlikesnakes.Theillusionstopsthereforsnakeshavemovableribswhichenablethemtomovetheirventralplates(bellyscales)inawellcoordinatedfashion.GlassLizardsdonothavethisarrangementandmustdependonmovingfromsidetosideinasnake-likefashion.Fromthisstandpointtheyareratherclumsy.Theyaremostlyinsectivorousbutalsoeatsmallsnakesandlizards.
62
![Page 63: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
FamilyScincidae(Skinks)
TheskinksarethelargestgroupoflizardsfoundwithintheUnitedStates.Thisgroupmaybedistinguishedfromallothersbythepresenceofabsolutelysmooth,polishedscales;notgranularorroughasintheotherlegged-lizardsofTennessee.
LittleBrownSkink--Scincellalateralis TheLittleBrownSkinkuntilrecentlywascalledGroundSkink.Thisskinkisfoundstatewideinavarietyofhabitats,generallyinleaflitterontheforestfloor.Itisasmall(under4inches)brownlizardwhichrarelycomestotheattentionofanybutapersonfamiliarwiththeirhabits.Theyaresometimesfoundunderstonesbutarebestfoundbywalkingcarefullythroughthewoodslisteningintently.Whenstartledfromcovertheymakearustlingsoundthroughtheleaflitter.Itissurprisingsometimestohearthenoisethatoneofthesediminutivelizardscanmake.Iftheeyeissharpandthehandquick,theymaybeeasilylocatedandcaught.Adistinguishingfeaturethancanbeseeninthehandisthepresenceofalargesinglewindow-likescaleinthelowereyelid.ThislizardhasbeenfoundactiveinDecember,January,andearlyMarch.
CoalSkink--Plestiodonanthracinus TheCoalSkinkisrareinTennesseebeingfoundsofaronlyintheeasternmountainousarea.ItshouldbefoundinpartsofMiddleTennessee.Damphabitatsseemtobepreferredanditreadilytakestowatertoescapecapture.Itmaybedistinguishedfromothersmallskinksbythelightmid-dorsallinewhichifpresentdoesnotreachthehead.
CommonFive-linedSkink--PlestiodonfasciatusSoutheasternFive-linedSkink--PlestiodoninexpectatusBroad-headedSkink--Plestiodonlaticeps The“Blue-tailed”Skinksaredifficulttotellapartbythebeginner.Thisdifficultyarisesduetothefactthatallgothroughmuchthesamecolorpatternsfromyoungtoadult.Theyoungaregenerallyblackabovewithfiveyellowstripes(themiddleoneforkingtothehead)andthetailisbrightblue.Astheymaturetheylosethebrightcolorsandthestripesarelost.Themales haveabrightorangecoloronthesidesofthehead.Sincecolorisoflittlehelpintellingthese3speciesapart,scalecharacteristicsmustbereliedupon.Thiscanonlybedoneinthehand.Thesubcaudal(beneaththetail)scalesoftheFive-linedandBroad-headedSkinkhaveanenlargemiddlerowofscales.ThesubcaudalscalesoftheSoutheasternFive-linedSkinkareallaboutthesamesize.ToseparatetheFive-lineSkinkandtheBroad-headedSkinklookatthelabial(abovethelip)scales.Five-linedSkinkshave4labialscales.Broad-headedSkinkshave5labialscales.ThesecharacteristicscanbeseeninthePetersonFieldGuidebyRogerConantandJosephCollins(1991)onpages264and265.
63
![Page 64: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
TheBroad-headedSkinkisthelargestofthe3,reachingnearlyafootinlength.Itisconsideredtobemoreofatreedwellerthantheother2.Thisskinkisfoundonstonewalls,trees,andevenhousewalls.Itisoccasionallyfoundwithitsheadstickingoutofanoldwoodpeckerhole.Becauseofitssizeandshapeandcolorofthehead,manybelieveittobepoisonous.Infactacommonnamebylocalpeopleisthename“Scorpion.”Skinkswillbiteifhandledbuttheskinisrarelybrokenbythebiteandthereisnopoison.Thebrightbluetailisalsoharmless.
64
![Page 65: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
IVandV.Reptiles,SnakesofTennessee
ThisportionofthecurriculumhasbeentakenfromAmphibiansandReptilesofTennesseeapublicationpreparedanddistributedbytheTennesseeGameandFishCommissioninAugust1965.TennesseeSnakeswasareprintedarticlebyRalphSinclairfromTheTennesseeConservationistMagazine.TheTennesseeNaturalistProgramreceivedpermissionfromTheTennesseeConservationisttoreviseandusethisarticleforthiscurriculum.
Manypeoplerevoltateventhethoughtofsnakes.Becauseoflackofknowledgeaboutthesecreaturesmanyfalseideasaboutthemareearnestlybelieved.Peoplethatwouldnotthinkofgoingtothe“grannywoman”foraprescriptionstillbelieveallsortsofnonsenseaboutsnakes.Thosewhowillseekoutthetruefactsaboutsnakeswilllearnthatonlyaverysmallpercentageareactuallyvenomous(thesearenotoftenencountered)andthatsnakeshaveanimportantparttoplayinthecommunityoforganisms. Snakesareectothermic(coldblooded)limblessvertebrateslackingexternalearopeningsandeyelidsandcoveredwithscales.Theyaredefinitelynotslimy.Theymaybesmoothandpolished.Sincetheirtemperaturewillbeclosetothatofsurroundingobjects,theymaybecooltothetouch.BecauseoftheirbodyformtheyareveritableHoudinisevenescapingfromsnakeproofcages.Forthisreasonandthedangerinhandlingthem,venomoussnakesshouldnotbekeptbyamateurs.Thereisnoneedtoinvolveotherswithrisksyoumaybewillingtotakeyourself.Anyonewhohandlesvenomoussnakes,nomatterhowexpert,shouldrealizethattheriskofbeingbittenishigh,forseveralprofessionalherpetologistswithyearsofexperiencehavediedasaresultofhandlingvenomoussnakes.Theconsequencesofsuchabitearenevertobetakenlightly.Therearejustasmanyrewardsandmuchinformationtobegainedfromastudyofournativeharmlesssnakes,whichinvolvenorisks.
FamilyColubridae--ColubridSnakes
WaterandGarterSnakes PerhapsthemostcommonsnakesinTennesseebelongtothisgroup,thewatersnakes(Nerodia)andthegartersnakes(Thamnophis). Thewatersnakesaremoreaquaticthanthegarters.Springisthebesttimetolookforsnakesbutwatersnakesarefoundanytimeduringthewarmermonths.Largenumberscanbefoundturningoverstonesalongstreamsandponds.Theymayalsobefoundatnightbyusinga light.Watersnakesandgartersnakeslikemanyothersnakesarewellequippedwithmuskglands.Whendisturbedtheythrashaboutdischargingthismuskinlargeamounts.Thishabitmakesthemunpleasanttohandle.Watersnakesalsohavesharpteethwhichtheyusetogoodadvantage.
65
![Page 66: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
TherearefivespeciesofNerodiainTennessee.ThemostubiquitousisperhapstheNorthernWatersnake(N.sipedon).Itisfoundinnearlyeverypartofthestate.Ithasdarkcrossbandsontheneckandthesebecomealternatingblotchesfurtherback.TheMississippiGreenWatersnake(N.cyclopean)isdarklycoloredwithlittleindicationofpatternandlightspotsorhalf-moonsonadarkbelly.N.cyclopeanisonlyfoundinNorthwestTennessee.TheDiamond-backedWatersnake(N.rhombifer)hasadarkchainlikepatternabovewithalightbellymarkedwithspotsofhalf-moons.N.rhombiferisfoundinthewesternhalfofthestate.ThePlain-belliedWatersnake(N.erythrogaster)isdarklycoloredabovewithnomarkingonthebelly.Thereare2subspeciesofN.erythrogaster,theCopperbellyWatersnakewithacopperish,orangish-pinkbellyandtheYellowbellyWatersnakewithasyoucanguessayellowbelly.Theyoungofthesesnakeshavedarkblotchesandbandsabove. Thewatersnakes(Nerodia)aregenerallyknownas“watermoccasins”whereastheWesternCottonmouth,avenomouspitviper,isreferredtoasthe“cottonmouthwatermoccasin.”Thesenamesareoflittlesignificanceandconfusepeople.Especiallyfearedisthecreaturecalledthe“stumptailedmoccasin.”Thismaybenothingmorethanoneofourcommonharmlesswatersnakeswithaportionoftailmissing.Theseareoftenfoundandareonlysnakesthathavebeendeprivedofapartoftheirtailbysometurtle,heron,orotherpredator.CertainlyanyonewhoisincottonmouthterritoryshouldlearntotelltheharmlessNerodiafromtheformer.Mostofthewatersnakeshaveahabitofsunningintreesandbushesoverhangingthewater(cottonmouthsmayalsodothis),anddroppinginwithasplashwhendisturbed.Thoughmuchoftheirfoodisfish,theydonotharmfishpopulations. Gartersnakesaregenerallyfoundclosetowaterandmaytakerefugeinitwhenalarmed.TheyarenotascloselyrestrictedtowaterastheNerodiahowever.TheCommonGarterSnake(Thamnophissirtalis),EasternRibbonSnake(Thamnophissauritus)andWesternRibbonSnake(Thamnophisproximus)havethreestripes.Usuallythestripesarelightcolored.Theyarehighlyvariableincolorandpattern.Comparedtotheribbon,thegartersnakeisheavybodied.Ribbonsnakeshaveamuchlongerandmoreslendertailwhichis¼to1/3ofthetotallength.Gartersnakesarefoundstatewide. AccordingtotheAtlasofReptilesinTennessee(http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/reptatlas/frames_file.htm),WesternRibbonSnakesarelimitedtofourcountiesintheextremewesternpartofthestate.TheEasternRibbonSnakeisknownfromWestTennesseeandfromseveralcountiesontheHighlandRiminsouthernandwesternMiddleTennessee. AllofthesnakesinthegeneraNerodiaandThamnophisareovoviviparous.Ovoviviparousmeansthattheyoungarebornalivebutthereisnoplacentalconnectionandtheunbornyoungarenourishedbyeggyolk.Commongartersnakes(Thamnophissirtalis)howeverareknowntoprovidealotofnutritiontotheirembryosanddisposeofembryonicwastesmakingthematleastviviparous-like.Viviparousbeinglivebirthwiththeoffspringnourishedviaaplacenta.
66
![Page 67: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
GroundSnakes Becauseoftheirsecretivehabits,groundsnakesareseldomnoticedbytheaverageperson.Theymaybefoundundercoversuchaslogsandstones.Mostareburrowersandarewellmadeforthispurpose.Practicallyallsnakesinthisgroup,withtheexceptionoftheMudSnake,areusuallyunderafootinlengthandareratherinoffensive,notattemptingtobite.OfthisgrouptheBrownSnakesandEarthSnakesareovoviviparous.Therestareoviparous(femalelayseggs). TheMudSnake(Faranciaabacura)isourlargestburrowerandmayreachalengthoffivefeet.Itisalsocalledthe“hoopsnake”or“stingingsnake.”Itneitherrollsnorstings.Looselycoiledspecimensmayhavegivenrisetothehoopmyth.Asforthesting,thissnakeandanotherburrower,theWormSnake(Carphophisamoenus)haveasharpterminalscalewhichtheypressagainstoneshandwhenheld.Thisisnotstrongenoughtobreaktheskinandthespineisnotvenomous.TheWormSnakeisfoundstatewide,generallyinwoodedareasunderstonesandlogs.BothMudSnakesandWormSnakesaredarkabovewithapinkorredbelly.However,theMudSnakeismuchlargerthantheWormSnake. TheBrownSnake(Storeriadekayi)andtheRed-belliedSnake(Storeriaoccipitomaculata)asthenamesimpliesaredarkabove.Theyarebothfoundstatewide.S.dekayiisplainbelow.Aboveithasapatternofdarknarrowcrosslines.TheRed-belliedSnakehaslightspotsatthebackoftheheadandaplainredbelly.Red-belliedSnakesarenotfoundasoftenasBrownSnakes. TheEarthSnakes(VirginiavaleriaeandV.striatula)aredarkabovewithplainlightcoloredbellies.TheSmoothEarthSnakehasbeenfoundacrossTennessee.TheRoughEarthSnake(striatula)isknownonlyfromafewcountiesinsouthwesternTennessee,withmostrecordscomingfromthemetropolitanMemphisarea. TheRing-neckedSnake(Diadophuspunctatus)iseasilyidentifiedbyitscolorandpattern–darkabove,yellowororangebelow,usuallywithblackdotswhichmayformrowsandaringaroundtheneckwhichmaybebroken.Whenfirsthandledtheysecreteandunpleasantmusk.Thesesnakeseagerlyeatwormsandsalamanders. TheCrownedSnake(Tantillacoronata)isarear-fangedsnake.Ithasgroovedfangsattherearoftheupperjaw,butawelldevelopedvenomsystemisabsent.Insomelocalitiesitisquiteabundant.Itiseasytoidentifybyitspattern–ablackheadcap,followedbyalightcollarattherearofthehead,andablackneckring.
67
![Page 68: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Racers,King,Bull,Rat,Green,HognosedandScarletSnakes Theseareourlargerlandsnakes.Somemayclimbtreesinsearchofnestlingbirdsoreggs.The“racers”haveabadreputationforchasinghelplesshumans.Whenthechasingisdone,itis alwaystheherpetologistchasingdownthepoorracerifhehopestocaptureit.Theseareourmostdefensivesnakesandifcorneredwillgenerallylungeforwardstrikingviciously.Thisseemstobethecaseparticularlyinearlyspringduringthematingseason. TheBlackRacer(Coluberconstrictor)isnotaconstrictor.Therat,king,andpinesnakesare.TheBlackRacerisalustroussatinyblackorblue-blackabovewithaslateorbluishbellyandawhitechinorthroat.Thesesatiny,flatscalesarecalledsmoothscales.Snakescalesareeithersmoothorkeeled.Keeledscaleshavearaisedridgeinthecenterofthescale.Smoothscalesdonot.TheCoachwhip(Coluberflagellum)isnotnearlyascommonastheracer.Thissnakeiseasytoidentifybecauseoftheuniquecolorpattern.Theyareblackordarkanteriorlybecominglightbrowntowardthetail. Kingsnakesareimmunetothevenomofournativepitvipers.Theirdietisnotconfinedtothesevenomoussnakesasismistakenlybelieved.Anysnakes,venomousornot,evenanotherkingsnakeisanopportunityforanothermeal.Thefactthatthevictimismuchlargermattersnot.Snakesareanimportantitemintheirdietbutsoareotheranimalssuchasrodents.TheCommonKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetulus)isblackabovewithyellowspecksandyellowbelowwithblackmarkings.Theanalplateissingle.TheanalplateofBlackRacersisdivided. OthermemberofthegenusLampropeltisaretheMilksnakes.Thesearebeautifulsnakes.TheScarletKingsnake(Lampropeltistriangulumelapsoides)isremarkablysimilartotheCoralSnake,whichisnotfoundinTennessee.Thereareeasy-to-seedifferencesthough.TheScarletKingsnakehasaredsnout.TheCoralSnakehasablacksnout.AlsotheScarletKingsnake’sredringsareseparatedfromtheyellowbyblack.TheredandyellowringstouchontheCoralSnake.Asthesaygoes,“Redonyellow,killsafellow;redonblack,friendofJack.”TheEasternMilksnake(Lampropeltistriangulumtriangulum)andtheRedMilksnake(Lampropeltistriangulumsyspila)whenyoungaremarkedwithredsaddles.Withagetheseturntobrownintheeastern,whiletheredretainsthesamecolor. Forhelpingtocontrolrodentsaroundbarnsanddwellings,themilksnakeisusuallykilled.Toaddinsulttoinjury,itisrumoredthatthesnakehascometothebarntostealmilkfromthefarmer’scows.Whenpeopletell(inallsincerity)suchoutlandishtales,itisdifficulttokeepastraightface. ThePrairieKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligastercalligaster)andtheMoleKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligasterrhombomaculata)aremuchalikewhenyoung,beingspottedabove.Theprairieretainsthiswell-markedpatternofblotchesandthemolebecomesdarker. ThePineSnake(Pituophismelanoleucus)canputonashowwhenencountered.Itstrikesvigorously,vibratesitstailandmakesaloudhissingsoundbyexpellingair(thisapparentlyvibratestheepiglottis).Itisoftencalledagoosesnakeorbullsnakeduetothisloudnoise. TheRedCornsnake(Pantherophisguttata)hasredororangeblotchesabove.AnothernameforP.guttataisredratsnakebecausetheyareintheratsnakegenusPantherophis.Unlikeourotherratsnakes,theundersurfaceofthecornsnake’stailisstriped.Cornsnakesarenotas
68
![Page 69: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
commoninthewildasGrayRatsnakes(Pantherophisspiloides).GrayRatsnakesareoftencalledchickensnakes.Thesesnakesareamongthemostwellknownbytheruraldweller,andinallfairnesstheydohaveanappetiteforchickeneggs.However,theydofarmoregoodthanillbecauseofthenumberofratsandmicethattheyconsume.Ratsnakesareveryadeptatclimbing,evengoingupsmoothbarkedtreesoflargediameter.Thesesnakesdischargelargeamountsofmuskifhandled. TheRoughGreensnake(Opheodrysaestivus)haskeeledscalesandspendsmuchtimeintreesandshrubs.Thesesnakesaregreenaboveandlightbelow.Thisisaverycommonsnakebutitisrarelyseenbecauseitblendssowellwithitssurroundings.Greensnakesareveryslenderandifseenlooklikeavineclimbinginthefoliage.ThescientificnameOpheodrysaestivusmeansaestivus–summer,drys–tree,opheo–snake;summertreesnake. TheHognoseSnake(Heterodonplatirinos)iscommonlyreferredtoasa“puffadder,”“spreadingadder”or“blowviper.”Whenencountereditflattensitsheadandneck,inflatesitsbodyreleasingitwithaloudhissandstriking.Thisispurebluff,foriffurtherdisturbeditwillrolloveronitsbackandplay‘possum.Anyattempttorightitwillonlyresultinthesnakevigorouslyrollingoveronitsbackagain.Itevenhangsoutitstonguegettingitdirty.Manyalarmedbythefirstact,seldomstayforthesecondactwhichhumorouslyshowsupitsshambehavior.Thenamehognoseisderivedfromthemhavinganupturnedsnout.Thispig-likesnoutisusedtorootuptheirnaturalprey–toads. Hognosesnakesarerear-fangedandpossessmildvenomthatenablesthemtoovercometoadstoswallowthem.Therearfangsbothdeflatethetoadanddeliverthevenom.Theirvenomisnotknowntobetoxictohumans,andinfacthognosesnakeshavemilddispositionsandrarely,ifever,offertobitetheircaptors.Mostarebrightlypatternedabovebutoccasionallyasolidblackindividualisfound. TheScarletsnake(Cemophoracoccinea)iscoloredsomewhatlikeScarletKingsnake.Itissecretiveandseldomseen.
FamilyViperidae
PitVipers TwospeciesofAgkistrodonarefoundinTennessee,theCopperhead(A.contortrix)andtheCottonmouth(A.piscivorus).Thesetwospeciesaresimilarlypatternedwhenyoung.Theybothhaveabrightyellowtailtheirfirstyear.TheCottonmouthgenerallylosesthispatternwithmaturityandsomearecompletelydarkabove.TheCottonmouthisthoroughlyaquaticandasthenameimpliesitisafisheater.AstudybyRogerBarbourinKentuckyshowedthatalargeiteminitsdietwasthesiren(atwo-leggedsalamander).Otheritemssuchasfishandfrogswerealsotaken.AsthenameCottonmouthsuggests,thisspecieshasacottonywhitemouththatisseenwhenthesnakeis“gaping”apolitewarningtopassersby.
69
![Page 70: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Copperheadsareopportunisticwhenitcomestofood,eatingwhateverseemstobemostabundantsuchasfrogs,mice,andevencicadas.Thissnakehaschestnutbrowndorsalmarkings thatformhourglassshapesdownitsbody.Thispatterniswideonthesnake’ssidesandnarrowinthemiddle.ManyNorthernWatersnakesareconfusedwithCopperheads.NorthernWatersnakeshavebrownsaddlemarksdowntheirback.Theseblotchesarenarrowonthesidesandwideinthecenter.Thisformsasaddleshapecompletewithstirrupsandseat.Copperheadsofcoursehaveacoppery-redhead. ThePygmyRattlesnake(Sistrurusmilearius)isquitesmall,seldomreachingtwofeet.Itsdiminutiverattlemakesabuzzmorelikethatofaninsectthananangryrattler.ThePygmyRattlesnakeoccursinscatteredlocalitiesontheWesternHighlandRim.ItisrareandisaThreatenedSpeciesinTennessee. TheTimberRattlesnake(Crotalushorridus)occursstatewide,persistingonlyinareaswherehumanoccupationanddisturbanceareminimal.TheTimberRattlesnakeislistedasaSpeciesofGreatestConservationNeedduetopersecutionbyhumans. Mostyoungareborninthefalloftheyearandenterhibernationwiththeirparents.Allpitvipersareovoviviparous.Theyoungarebornalive.Thisshouldbeacomforttohomeownerswhofindsnakeeggsintheiryard.InTennessee,allsnakeeggsbelongtoharmless,non-venomoussnakes.Hereareotherwaystodistinguishbetweenvenomousandnon-venomoussnakes.
Venomous Non-venomous
Haveverticalorellipticalpupils Pupilsareround
Haveapitorholebetweentheeyeandnostril
Nopitbetweeneyeandnostril
Bodyshapeincludeslargehead,narrowneckandchunkybody
Bodyshapelong,slender,withnodistinctiveneck
Rattlesnakeshaverattle Norattlebutmanyharmlesssnakeswillshaketheirtailwhenalarmed
Venomoussnakeshavefangs Haverowsofteeth
Bitewouldresultin2puncturemarks Bitelookslikecurvedrowofteeth(horseshoeorupsidedownU)
1rowofsubcaudal(beneaththetail)scales 2rowsofsubcaudalscales
Thislastcharacteristicisimportantwhenexaminingashedsnakeskin.InTennessee,acarefullookatthescalesbeneaththetailwillrevealwhetherthesnakethatshedtheskinwas
70
![Page 71: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
venomousornot.Thiscanbecomfortingtothehomeownerthatfindsafive-footshedskinintheirgarage. Here’sanothercomfortingthought,Tennesseehas32speciesofsnakesonlyfourofthesearevenomous.Oneofthosevenomoussnakesisthreatenedandisthereforeveryrarewithalimitedrange.TheWesternCottonmouthisknowntoonlyoccurinthewesternhalfofthestateonlyrangingasfareastasCheathamCounty.So,MiddleTennesseeeastwardonlyhastwospeciesofvenomoussnakes,theCopperheadandRattlesnake.TheCopperheadistheleastvenomousofourvenomoussnakesandpeopleoftenrecoverfrombitesevenwithoutmedicalattention. Toavoidbeingbittenbyavenomoussnakealwaysbeabletoseewhereyouareplacingyourhandsandfeet.Ifyouarebitten,staycalmandgettoahospitalassoonaspossible.Ifyouaregivenmedicaltreatmentwithinacoupleofhoursyoushouldexperienceafullrecoveryunlessthereareconfoundingcircumstances,i.e.heartcondition,diabetes.
71
![Page 72: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
VII.Resources
Publications
Altig,R.1967.FoodoftheSirenintermedianettingiinaspring-fedswampinSouthernIllinois.AmericanMidlandNaturalist77(1):239-241.
Bishop,S.C.1943.Handbookofsalamanders:thesalamandersoftheUnitedStates,ofCanada,andoftheLowerCalifornia.ComstockPubl.Co.,Ithaca,NewYork.Pp.555.
Buhlman,Kurt,TraceyTubervilleandWhitGibbons.2008.TurtlesoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.252.
Conant,RogerandJosephT.Collins.1991.ReptilesandAmphibiansofEastern/CentralNorthAmerica,PetersonFieldGuides.HoughtonMifflinCo.,NewYork,Boston.Pp.616.
Dorcas,MikeandWhitGibbons.2008.FrogsandToadsoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.238.
Elliott,Lang,CarlGerhardtandCarlosDavidson.2009.TheFrogsandToadsofNorthAmerica,AComprehensiveGuidetoTheirIdentification,BehaviorandCalls.HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,NewYorkandBoston.Pp.343.
Fauth,J.E.andW.J.Resetarits.1991.InteractionsbetweenthesalamanderSirenintermediaandthekeystonepredatorNotophthalmusviridescens.Ecology.72(3):827.
Gehlbach,F.R.andB.Walker.1970.Acousticbehavioroftheaquaticsalamander,Sirenintermedia.Bio.Science.20:1107-1108.
Gentry,Glenn(Editor).1965.AmphibiansandReptilesofTennessee.TennesseeGameandFishCommission.Pp.28.
Gibbons,Whit,JudyGreeneandTonyMills.2009.LizardsandCrocodiliansoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.235.
Gibbons,WhitandMikeDorcas.2005.SnakesoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.253.
Goin,C.J.,O.B.GoinandG.Zug.1978.IntroductiontoHerpetology.3rdEdition.W.H.FreemanandCo.,SanFrancisco.Pp.378.
![Page 73: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
Green,N.B.andT.K.Pauley.1987.AmphibiansandReptilesofWestVirginia.UniversityofPittsburgPress,Pittsburg.
Green,N.B.,P.BrantJuniorandB.Dowler.1967.EurycealucifugainWestVirginia,itsdistribution,ecologyandlifehistory.Proc.W.VirginiaAcad.Sci.39:297-304.
Hillis,R.E.andE.D.Bellis.1971.Someaspectsoftheecologyofthehellbender,CryptobranchusalleghaniensisinaPennsylvaniastream.J.Herpetology5:121-126.
Hutchison,V.H.1958.Thedistributionandecologyofthecavesalamander,Eurycealucifuga.EcologyMonogram28:1-20.
Johnson,T.R.1987.TheAmphibiansandReptilesofMissouri.MissouriDept.ofConservation,JeffersonCity.Pp.368.
Martof,B.S.1973.Sirenintermedia.CatalogueofAmericanAmphibiansandReptiles.127.1-127.3.
Martof,B.,W.MPalmer,J.R.BaileyandJ.R.Harrison.1980.AmphibiansandReptilesoftheCarolinasandVirginia.UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,ChapelHill.
Mitchell,JoeandWhitGibbons.2010.SalamandersoftheSoutheast.TheUniversityofGeorgiaPress,AthensandLondon.Pp.324.
Niemiller,Matthewl.andB.GrahamReynolds.2011.TheAmphibiansofTennessee.TheUniversityofTennesseePress,Knoxville.Pp.369.
Niemiller,Matthew,R.GrahamReynoldsandBrianT.Miller.2013.TheReptilesofTennessee.TheUniversityofTennesseePress,Knoxville.Pp.366.
Owen,H.M.andH.C.Yeatman.1954.Atigersalamander,AmbystomatigrinumfromFranklinCounty,Tennessee,Copeia:1954(1):67-68.
Petranka,J.W.andJ.G.Petranka.1981.Ontheevolutionofnestsiteselectioninthemarbledsalamander,Ambystomaopacum.Copeia1981:387-391.
Redmond.W.H.1985.AbiogeographicstudyoftheamphibiansinTennessee.Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofTennessee,Knoxville.Pp.290.
Redmond,W.H.,A.C.Echternacht,andA.F.Scott.1990.AnnotatedChecklistandBibliographyofAmphibiansandReptilesofTennessee(1835through1989).Misc.PublicationsCenterforFieldBiologyAustinPeayStateUniversity,Clarksville,TN.Pp.173.
73
![Page 74: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
Salthe,S.N.1973.Amphiumatridactylum.CatalogueofAmericanAmphibiansandReptiles.Pp.149.1-149.3.
Smith,H.M.andE.D.BrodieJr.1982.AGuidetoFieldIdentificationofReptilesofNorthAmerica.GoldenPress,NewYork.Pp.240.
Snyder,D.H.1972.AmphibiansandreptilesofLandbetweentheLakes.TennesseeValleyAuthority,GoldenPond,Kentucky.Pp.90.
Souder,William.2000.APlagueofFrogs,TheHorrifyingTrueStory.Hyperion,NewYork.Pp.299.
Internet
TWRATennessee’sWatchableWildlife www.tnwatchablewildlife.org
LEAPSEnvironmentalConsulting,FrogandToadimagesandcalls www.leaps.ms
VirginiaHerpetologicalSociety,agoodsourceforetymology http://www.virginiaherpetologicalsociety.com
AustinPeayStateUniversityAtlasofReptilesinTennessee,images,descriptions,distribution http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/reptatlas/
AustinPeayStateUniversityAtlasofAmphibiansinTennessee,images,descriptions,distribution http://apbrwww5.apsu.edu/amatlas/
74
![Page 75: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
AppendixA
Checklist of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Tennessee
Date_______________Time____________County____________________Location(Lat/Long)_______________________________________________Weather________________________________________________________Observers______________________________________________________
ClassAmphibiaOrderAnura(Frogs)
FamilyPelobatidae(Spadefoots)___EasternSpadefoot(Scaphiopusholbrookii)
FamilyBufonidae(TrueToads)___AmericanToad(Anaxyrusamericanus)___EasternAmericanToad(Anaxyrusamericanusamericanus)___DwarfAmericanToad(Anaxyrusamericanuscharlesmithi)___Fowler’sToad(Anaxyrusfowleri)
FamilyHylidae(Treefrogs)___NorthernCricketFrog(Acriscrepitans)___Blanchard’sCricketFrog(Acriscrepitansblanchardi)___EasternCricketFrog(Acriscrepitanscrepitans)___SouthernCricketFrog(Acrisgryllus)___CoastalPlainCricketFrog(Acrisgryllusgryllus)___Bird-voicedTreefrog(Hylaavivoca)___WesternBird-voicedTreefrog(Hylaavivocaavivoca)___Cope’sGrayTreefrog(Hylachrysoscelis)___GreenTreefrog(Hylacinerea)___BarkingTreefrog(Hylagratiosa)___GrayTreefrog(Hylaversicolor)___MountainChorusFrog(Pseudacrisbrachyphona)___SpringPeeper(Pseudacriscrucifer)___NorthernSpringPeeper(Pseudacriscrucifercrucifer)___UplandChorusFrog(Pseudacrisferiarum)
FamilyMicrohylidae(Narrow-mouthedToads)___EasternNarrow-mouthedToad(Gastrophrynecarolinensis)
75
![Page 76: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
FamilyRanidae(TrueFrogs)___CrawfishFrog(Lithobatesareolatus)___NorthernCrawfishFrog(Lithobatesareolatuscirculosa)___GopherFrog(Lithobatescapito)___DuskyGopherFrog(Lithobatescapitosevosa)SubspeciesUnconfirmed___AmericanBullfrog(Lithobatescatesbeianus)___GreenFrog(Lithobatesclamitans)___BronzeFrog(Lithobatesclamitansclamitans)___NorthernGreenFrog(Lithobatesclamitansmelanota)___PickerelFrog(Lithobatespalustris)___SouthernLeopardFrog(Lithobatessphenocephalus)___SouthernLeopardFrog(Lithobatessphenocephalusutricularius)___WoodFrog(Lithobatessylvaticus)
OrderCaudata(Salamanders)
FamilyCryptobranchidae(GiantSalamanders-Hellbenders)___Hellbender(Cryptobranchusalleganiensis)___EasternHellbender(Cryptobranchusalleganiensisalleganiensis)
FamilyProteidae(GiantSalamanders–MudpuppiesandWaterdogs)___Mudpuppies(Necturusmaculosus)___CommonMudpuppy(Necturusmaculosusmaculosus)
FamilyAmphiumidae(CongerEels)___Three-toedAmphiuma(Amphiumatridactylum)
FamilySirenidae(Sirens)___LesserSiren(Sirenintermedia)___WesternLesserSiren(Sirenintermedianettingi)
FamilyAmbystomatidae(MoleSalamanders)___StreamsideSalamander(Ambystomabarbouri)___SpottedSalamander(Ambystomamaculatum)___MarbledSalamander(Ambystomaopacum)___MoleSalamander(Ambystomatalpoideum)___Small-mouthedSalamander(Ambystomatexanum)___TigerSalamander(Ambystomatigrinum)___EasternTigerSalamander(Ambystomatigrinumtigrinum)
![Page 77: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
FamilySalamandridae(Newts)
___EasternNewt(Notophthalmusviridescens)___CentralNewt(Notophthalmusviridescenslouisianensis)___Red-spottedNewt(Notophthalmusviridescensviridescens)
FamilyPlethodontidae(LunglessSalamanders)
___GreenSalamander(Aneidesaeneus)___SeepageSalamander(Desmognathusaeneus)___CarolinaMountainDuskySalamander(Desmognathuscarolinensis)___SpottedDuskySalamander(Desmognathusconanti)___NorthernDuskySalamander(Desmognathusfuscus)___ImitatorSalamander(Desmognathusimitator)___Shovel-nosedSalamander(Desmognathusmarmoratus)___SealSalamander(Desmognathusmonticola)___AlleghenyMountainDuskySalamander(Desmognathusochrophaeus)___OcoeeSalamander(Desmognathusocoee)___BlueRidgeDuskySalamander(Desmognathusorestes)___Black-belliedSalamander(Desmognathusquadramaculatus)___SanteetlahDuskySalamander(Desmognathussanteetlah)___BlackMountainSalamander(Desmognathuswelteri)___PygmySalamander(Desmognathuswrighti)___SouthernTwo-linedSalamander(Euryceacirrigera)___Three-linedSalamander(Euryceaguttolineata)___JunaluskaSalamander(Euryceajunaluska)___Long-tailedSalamander(Eurycealongicauda)___Long-tailedSalamander(Eurycealongicaudalongicauda)___CaveSalamander(Eurycealucifuga)___BlueRidgeTwo-linedSalamander(Euryceawilderae)___BerryCaveSalamander(Gyrinophilusgulolineatus)___TennesseeCaveSalamander(Gyrinophiluspalleucus)___BigMouthCaveSalamander(Gyrinophiluspalleucusnecturoides)___PaleSalamander(Gyrinophiluspalleucuspalleucus)___SpringSalamander(Gyrinophilusporphyriticus)___BlueRidgeSpringSalamander(Gyrinophilusporphyriticusdanielsi)___KentuckySpringSalamander(Gyrinophilusporphyriticusduryi)___NorthernSpringSalamander(Gyrinophilusporphyriticusporphyriticus)___Four-toedSalamander(Hemidactyliumscutatum)___TellicoSalamander(Plethodonaureolus)___EasternRed-backedSalamander(Plethodoncinereus)___White-spottedSlimySalamander(Plethodoncylindraceus)___NorthernZigzagSalamander(Plethodondorsalis)
77
![Page 78: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
___NorthernSlimySalamander(Plethodonglutinosus)___Red-cheekedSalamander(Plethodonjordani)___CumberlandPlateauSalamander(Plethodonkentucki)___SouthernGray-cheekedSalamander(Plethodonmetcalfi)UnconfirmedinTennessee___MississippiSlimySalamander(Plethodonmississippi)___SouthernRavineSalamander(Plethodonrichmondi)___SouthernRed-backedSalamander(Plethodonserratus)___SouthernAppalachianSalamander(Plethodonteyahalee)___SouthernZigzagSalamander(Plethodonventralis)___Wehrle’sSalamander(Plethodonwehrlei)___Weller’sSalamander(Plethodonwelleri)___YonahlosseeSalamander(Plethodonyonahlossee)___MudSalamander(Pseudotritonmontanus)___MidlandMudSalamander(Pseudotritonmontanusdiastictus)___RedSalamander(Pseudotritonruber)___BlueRidgeRedSalamander(Pseudotritonrubernitidus)___NorthernRedSalamander(Pseudotritonruberruber)___Black-chinnedRedSalamander(Pseudotritonruberschencki)___SouthernRedSalamander(Pseudotritonrubervioscai)
ClassReptiliaOrderTestudines
FamilyChelydridae(SnappingTurtles)___SnappingTurtle(Chelydraserpentina)___EasternSnappingTurtle(Chelydraserpentinaserpentina)___AlligatorSnappingTurtle(Macrochelystemminckii)
FamilyKinosternidae(MuskandMudTurtles)___EasternMudTurtle(Kinosternonsubrubrum)___EasternMudTurtle(Kinosternonsubrubrumsubrubrum)___LoggerheadMuskTurtle(Sternotherusminor)___Stripe-neckedMuskTurtle(Sternotherusminorpeltifer)___EasternMuskTurtle(Sternotherusodoratus)
78
![Page 79: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
FamilyEmydidae(BoxandWaterTurtles)___PaintedTurtle(Chrysemyspicta)___SouthernPaintedTurtle(Chrysemyspictadorsalis)___MidlandPaintedTurtle(Chrysemyspictamarginata)___EasternPaintedTurtle(Chrysemyspictapicta)___BogTurtle(Glyptemysmuhlenbergii)___NorthernMapTurtle(Graptemysgeographica)___OuachitaMapTurtle(Graptemysouachitensis)___OuachitaMapTurtle(Graptemysouachitensisouachitensis)___FalseMapTurtle(Graptemyspseudogeographica)___MississippiMapTurtle(Graptemyspseudogeographicakohnii)___FalseMapTurtle(Graptemyspseudogeographicapseudogeographica)___RiverCooter(Pseudemysconcinna)___EasternRiverCooter(Pseudemysconcinnaconcinna)___EasternBoxTurtle(Terrapenecarolina)___EasternBoxTurtle(Terrapenecarolinacarolina)___Three-toedBoxTurtle(Terrapenecarolinatriunguis)___PondSlider(Trachemysscripta)___Red-earedSlider(Trachemysscriptaelegans)___Yellow-belliedSlider(Trachemysscriptascripta)___CumberlandSlider(Trachemysscriptatroostii)
FamilyTrionychidae(SoftshellTurtles)___SmoothSoftshell(Apalonemutica)___MidlandSmoothSoftshell(Apalonemuticamutica)___SpinySoftshell(Apalonespinifera)___EasternSpinySoftshell(Apalonespiniferaspinifera)
OrderSquamata(LizardsandSnakes)SuborderLacertilla(Lizards)
FamilyPolychridae(Anoles)___GreenAnole(Anoliscarolinensis)___NorthernGreenAnole(Anoliscarolinensiscarolinensis)
FamilyPhrynosomatidae(Earless,Spiny,Tree,Side-blotchedandHornedLizards)___EasternFenceLizard(Sceloporusundulatus)
79
![Page 80: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
FamilyTeiidae(Whiptails)___Six-linedRacerunner(Aspidoscelissexlineata)___EasternSix-linedRacerunner(Aspidoscelissexlineatasexlineata)
FamilyScincidae(Skinks)___CoalSkink(Plestiodonanthracinus)___NorthernCoalSkink(Plestiodonanthracinusanthracinus)___SouthernCoalSkink(Plestiodonanthracinuspluvialis)___CommonFive-linedSkink(Plestiodonfasciatus)___SoutheasternFive-linedSkink(Plestiodoninexpectatus)___Broad-headedSkink(Plestiodonlaticeps)___LittleBrownSkink(Scincellalateralis)
FamilyAnguidae(GlassLizardsandAlligatorLizards)___SlenderGlassLizard(Ophisaurusattenuatus)___EasternSlenderGlassLizard(Ophisaurusattenuatuslongicaudus)
SuborderSerpentes(Snakes)
FamilyColubridae(Colubrids)___EasternWormsnake(Carphophisamoenus)___EasternWormsnake(Carphophisamoenusamoenus)___MidwesternWormsnake(Carphophisamoenushelenae)___Scarletsnake(Cemophoracoccinea)___NorthernScarletsnake(Cemophoracoccineacopei)___NorthAmericanRacer(Coluberconstrictor)___NorthernBlackRacer(Coluberconstrictorconstrictor)___SouthernBlackRacer(Coluberconstrictorpriapus)___Ring-neckedSnake(Diadophispunctatus)___NorthernRing-neckedSnake(Diadophispunctatusedwardsii)___MississippiRing-neckedSnake(Diadophispunctatusstictogenys)___RedCornsnake(Pantherophisguttatus)___GrayRatsnake(Pantherophisspiloides)___Red-belliedMudsnake(Faranciaabacura)___WesternMudsnake(Faranciaabacurareinwardtii)___EasternHog-nosedSnake(Heterodonplatirhinos)___Yellow-belliedKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligaster)___PrairieKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligastercalligaster)___MoleKingsnake(Lampropeltiscalligasterrhombomaculata)___CommonKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetula)
80
![Page 81: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
___EasternKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetulagetula)___SpeckledKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetulaholbrooki)___EasternBlackKingsnake(Lampropeltisgetulanigra)___Milksnake(Lampropeltistriangulum)___ScarletKingsnake(Lampropeltistriangulumelapsoides)___RedMilksnake(Lampropeltistriangulumsyspila)___EasternMilksnake(Lampropeltistriangulumtriangulum)___Coachwhip(Coluberflagellum)___EasternCoachwhip(Coluberflagellumflagellum)___MississippiGreenWatersnake(Nerodiacyclopion)___Plain-belliedWatersnake(Nerodiaerythrogaster)___Yellow-belliedWatersnake(Nerodiaerythrogasterflavigaster)___Copper-belliedWatersnake(Nerodiaerythrogasterneglecta)___SouthernWatersnake(Nerodiafasciata)___Broad-bandedWatersnake(Nerodiafasciataconfluens)___Diamond-backedWatersnake(Nerodiarhombifer)___NorthernDiamond-backedWatersnake(Nerodiarhombiferrhombifer)___NorthernWatersnake(Nerodiasipedon)___MidlandWatersnake(Nerodiasipedonpleuralis)___CommonWatersnake(Nerodiasipedonsipedon)___RoughGreensnake(Opheodrysaestivus)___NorthernRoughGreensnake(Opheodrysaestivusaestivus)___Pinesnake(Pituophismelanoleucus)___NorthernPinesnake(Pituophismelanoleucusmelanoleucus)___QueenSnake(Reginaseptemvittata)___DeKay’sBrownsnake(Storeriadekayi)___NorthernBrownsnake(Storeriadekayidekayi)___MidlandBrownsnake(Storeriadekayiwrightorum)___Red-belliedSnake(Storeriaoccipitomaculata)___FloridaRed-belliedSnake(Storeriaoccipitomaculataobscura)___NorthernRed-belliedSnake(Storeriaoccipitomaculataoccipitomaculata)___SoutheasternCrownedSnake(Tantillacoronata)___WesternRibbonsnake(Thamnophisproximus)___Orange-stripedRibbonsnake(Thamnophisproximusproximus)___EasternRibbonsnake(Thamnophissauritus)___CommonRibbonsnake(Thamnophissauritussauritus)___CommonGartersnake(Thamnophissirtalis)___EasternGartersnake(Thamnophissirtalissirtalis)___RoughEarthsnake(Virginiastriatula)___SmoothEarthsnake(Virginiavaleriae)___WesternSmoothEarthsnake(Virginiavaleriaeelegans)___EasternSmoothEarthsnake(Virginiavaleriaevaleriae)
81
![Page 82: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
FamilyViperidae(Vipers)
SubfamilyCrotalinae(PitVipers)___Copperhead(Agkistrodoncontortrix)___SouthernCopperhead(Agkistrodoncontortrixcontortrix)___NorthernCopperhead(Agkistrodoncontortrixmokasen)___Cottonmouth(Agkistrodonpiscivorus)___WesternCottonmouth(Agkistrodonpiscivorusleucostoma)___TimberRattlesnake(Crotalushorridus)___PygmyRattlesnake(Sistrurusmiliarius)___WesternPygmyRattlesnake(Sistrurusmiliariusstreckeri)
AllstandardcommonandscientificnamestakenfromtheSocietyfortheStudyofAmphibiansandReptilesHerpetologicalCircularNumber37,ScientificandStandardEnglishNamesofAmphibiansandReptilesofNorthAmericaNorthofMexicowithCommentsRegardingConfidenceinourUnderstanding,6thEdition(2008).
82
![Page 83: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
AppendixBTurtleCharacteristics
83
![Page 84: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
84
![Page 85: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/85.jpg)
85
![Page 86: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/86.jpg)
VIII.ReviewQuestions
1.Whichofthebelowcharacteristicsofamphibiansisincorrect? a.smoothskin b.ectothermic c.claws d.laysgelatinouseggs e.vertebrate
2.Ofthethirty-twospeciesofsnakesinTennessee,howmanyarevenomous? a.3 b.4 c.7 d.1
3.Ofallthechallengesfacingherppopulationstoday,whichisthemostsignificant? a.unsupervisedchildrenmishandlingherps b.lossofhabitatordegradationofhabitat c.roadmortality d.intentionalvandalismofherps
4.Whichofthebelowcharacteristicsofreptilesisincorrect? a.Ectothermic,scaledskin b.laysleatheryorhardshelledeggs c.invertebrate d.clawsonfeet(iftheyhavefeet,i.e.snakes)
5.Twocharacteristicsofavenomoussnakeare__________________. a.smoothscalesandblunttail. b.narrowheadandroundpupils. c.slenderbodywithlongtail. d.broadheadwithpitsandverticalpupils.
6.Alizardhasclawsandscaleswhereasasalamanderhasnoclawsandsmoothskin. T F
7.EachyearintheUSmorepeoplewilldieofsnakebitesthantheydoofbeeorwaspstings. TF
86
![Page 87: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/87.jpg)
8.WhichtwospeciesareconsideredtruetoadsinTennessee? a.Americanbullfrogandgraytreefrog b.northerngreenfrogandAmericanbullfrog c.Fowler’stoad,Americantoad d.northernspringpeeperandgraytreefrog
9.Ashedsnakeskinbelongedtoanon-venomoussnakeifithas a.tworowsofsubcaudalscales b.onerowofsubcaudalscales c.nosubcaudalscales d.asinglesubcaudalscale
10.ThemostterrestrialturtleinTennesseeis a.EasternMuskTurtle b.NorthernMapTurtle c.CommonSnappingTurtle d.EasternBoxTurtle
11.Toavoidpredators,lizards a.usetheircrypticcoloration b.havegreatagilityandspeed c.“drop”theirtails d.alloftheabove
12.Ratsnakesareveryadeptat a.swimming b.burrowing c.climbing d.flippingontotheirbacks
13.Mostsalamandersfeedon a.algae b.wormsandinsects c.babysalamanders d.plants
14.“Lungless”salamandersinthefamilyPlethodontidae a.absorboxygenthroughtheirskinandmouthmembranes b.absorboxygenthroughsmallporesintheirfeet c.actuallyhavelungsthatareverytiny d.don’tneedoxygen
87
![Page 88: Tennessee Naturalist Program study guides/TNP Reptiles and... · • Reptiles and Amphibians Eastern/Central North America, Third Edition Expanded (Peterson Field Guides), Roger Conant](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042320/5f0a284a7e708231d42a49fe/html5/thumbnails/88.jpg)
15.Boldflashcolorsontreefrogs(Hylids) a.attractmates b.confusepredators c.havenopurpose d.providethermalregulation
Answers:1.c 2.b 3.b 4.c 5.d6.T 7.F 8.c 9.a 10.d11.d 12.c 13.b 14.a 15.b
88