different teaching and learning processes and roles for educators.

This article discusses issues related to teaching with technologyto creating the learning

environment from the perspective of constructivist learning theory, specifically examining the

Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The learning environment is a key consideration for librarians providing information

literacy instruction. The learning environment communicates expectations about the kind and

depth of learning that is intended and the process through which that learning will occur.

Careful attention must be paid to the environment and the messages that it communicates to

the learners. It seems readily apparent that technology has impacted teaching and learning;

however, uncovering exactly what that impact has been is a complex and challenging task.Technology and the constructivist learning environment:

Implications for teaching information literacy skills

Beth S. WoodardT

Library Administration, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 300 Library, 1408 West Gregory Drive,

Urbana, IL 61801, USA

Available online 21 February 2005

Abstract

The appropriate use of technology affords opportunities to create information-rich environments

and to change how people interact with information and with each other in those settings. This article

discusses general issues related to technology-rich learning environments and the roles for technology

in creating a community of learners, suggesting that instruction for information literacy btakes a virtualvillage.Q This article also examines the crucial relationship between information literacy, discoverylearning, and constructivist pedagogy, arguing that technology serves as a catalyst for qualitatively0734-3310/$ -

doi:10.1016/j.r

T Fax: +1 21E-mail add7 333 1116.see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

esstr.2005.01.001

ress: bswoodar@uiuc.edu.

bm ge;tech ith

oth are

me ch

media and technology are effective in learning; but concedes that there is inadequate

empirical evidence that media and technology are any more effective that other instructionalapproaches. Within librarianship, Kuhlthau (1999) stated that bcomputer technology hassignificantly changed learning environments in schools in the past ten yearsQ (p. 4), astatement with which many researchers agree.

1.1. Impact of technology on learning environments

Setting aside the debate over whether technology and media are any more effective thanas lecture and discussion, media and technology have advantages in terms of repeatability,

transportability, and increased equity of access.

Identifying the value of media and technology in education is more problematic. In a

controversial article in Atlantic Monthly, Oppenheimer (1997) asserted that bthere is no goodevidence that most uses of computers significantly improve teaching and learningQ (p. 45).Norton and Sprague (2001) concur, noting that the promises of technological innovation have

not been realized:

The teaching machines of the 1960s have virtually vanished from educational practice. Instructional television became

merely a btalking headQ and was used little, if at all, in classrooms until the advent of the videocassette (VCR). Currentuse of videocassettes and cable broadcasting rely on commercial and public television rather than on programming

designed specifically as an integral part of the educational process. The fate of the computer is still unknown, and the

struggle to find the most appropriate role for technology continues (p. 2).

Likewise, Clark (1983) sparked a debate with his statement that bmedia do not influencelearning under any conditionsQ (p. 445), arguing that media and technology merely deliverinstruction, while student activities and instructional methods impact learning.

In contrast, Reeves (1998) claims that fifty years of educational research indicate thatothfusion. Reeves (1998) offers an explanation of how the two might be distinguish

edia are the symbol systems that teachers and students use to represent knowled

nologies are the tools that allow them to share their knowledge representations w

ersQ (Executive Summary, para. 3). In other words, technologies enable people to shdia. Reeves goes on to observe that, in comparison to other instructional approaches sucrucial relationship between information literacy, discovery learning, and constructivist

pedagogy. The inherent relationship among these concepts argues for the pursuit of

technology as cognitive tool, particular in the information-rich environments found in todays

world. Though much literature exists on both technology in teaching and constructivist

pedagogy, it is the juxtaposition of the two that reveals the implications of discovery learning

and information literacy instruction.

1. Terminology and value

The terms media and technology have often been used interchangeably, and sometimes

synonymously, by both researchers and practitioners, which can create a great deal of

con ed:

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192182er instructional approaches, it is worth exploring how technology has impacted learning

environments. Goldfarb (1999, p. 85) notes that technology provides greater access to

information. In addition, Gooler (1990) asserts that binformation technologies promise toexpand even further the circle of people who can avail themselves of opportunities to access

all kinds of informationQ (p. 318). As such, technology expands access to information forthose who already have some access and makes possible access for those who lack it.

McClintock (1996) theorizes that technologys major impact on teaching and learning is that

it changes the learning environment from one of a scarcity of information resources to one

with an abundance of information resources. This abundance of information creates a need to

address a number of other issues, including safety, privacy, and ethical conduct. The growing

need to evaluate information is prevalent throughout information literacy discussions and the

controversy over filtering information is particularly prominent in discussions about children

and the Internet.

Not only does technology provide greater access to information in general, but it also

provides access to different kinds of information sources, which then results in students using

a different mix of sources. Philip M. Davis and Suzanne Cohen (Davis & Cohen, 2001) found

that from 1996 to 1999, student citations to books in bibliographies decreased from 30% to

19%, but their use of newspaper sources increased from 7% to 19% and of Web resources

increased from 9% to 21%. From just this one study, it is clear that having access to greater

amounts and kinds of information resources without the traditional safeguards of editorial

review and librarian selection will mean that bnew kinds of searching, categorizing,analyzing, and interpreting skills will be neededQ (Gooler, 1990, p. 318).

As Goldfarb (1999) states, bbecause the Internet organized information in new ways, itdoes not merely provide more resources; it allows different kinds of learningQ (p. 98).Dressang and McClelland (1996) suggest that technology has changed the way children

interact with text and pictures, particularly bnonlinear and non-sequential organization andformat, interactive and connection possibilities, open-ended conclusions, and a multiplicity of

layers of meaningQ (p. 40). Brown (1998) investigated the effects of bbrowsingQ on learning.He provided students with the same information in three different common Web page designs

and found that factual recall was facilitated by single-page hierarchical formats, answering

reconstructive questions was aided by pages with review questions, and overall testing had

some advantage with hypertext, where students could click on additional information,

definitions, or explanations. Gooler (1990) argues that people have greater flexibility in

choosing the learning modality in which they accomplish their learning tasks through

technology. More learners in a variety of situations can take advantage of a variety in learning

tools. They can also exercise greater control over how they learn.

Multimedia can also alter the bways of knowing and the opportunities for participation in thecreation of knowledgeQ (McClintock, 1996, para. 8). Thinking can take many forms includingverbal, visual, auditory, and kinesthetic performances. Printed media have long held primary

status in education as an easily stored and retrieved form of knowledge. Technology allows the

storage and retrieval of resources that heretofore could not be easily stored and retrieved, such

as performances, images, and sounds, thus increasing the range of resources that can be stored,

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192 183retrieved effectively, and used on demand. Learners can thus be given opportunities to explore

information and create new knowledge in a greater diversity of formats.

nat cal

fac re

equ ns.

Wit asblindness, hearing impairments, or mobility limitations can participate in activities that were

once inaccessible. Bilingual learners can access materials in their preferred language or

benefit from automatic translators. Geographically isolated individuals can access the same

variety of resources as individuals in traditionally information-rich learning environments. In

spite of this technological promise, however, some researchers report that access to computers

still bvaries greatly by social class, race, and native languageQ (Sandholtz, Ringstaff, &Dwyer, 1997, p. xi).

Because technology per se can be engaging, student motivation can also be improved

through technology (Goldfarb, 1999). The Apple Classrooms of Tomorrow project found that

students were more excited about learning when using computers, and their excitement was

contagious to their peers and their instructors. Time spent on assignments and projects

increased, including before and after school time. Students went beyond the requirements of the

assignments and, when individuals or small groups independently developed skills or explored

new applications, their activities attracted the interest of other students (Sandholtz et al., 1997).

The use of technology can also improve sustained participation by less able students

(Goldfarb, 1999), although Sandholtz et al. (1997) assert that low-achieving students are

more likely to be assigned to use computers for drill and practice and less likely to use

technology for problem solving or to enhance reasoning. The use of technology can also

increase student achievement in project-based programs (Goldfarb, 1999). Again, because

students find the technology itself interesting, their interest is sustained and students are more

likely to delve deeply into a topic and to find alternative sources of information.

Finally, technology is changing the way people communicate: b(n)ew technologies notonly support . . . collaborative work, they encourage collaborative enterprisesQ (Gooler, 1990,p. 320). Electronic mail and teleconferencing invite individuals who share common interests

to communicate while pursuing those interests. It is now possible to share files and to connect

students with experts with whom they otherwise would not have been able to interact. As

observed by Schrum and Berenfeld (1997):

In a typical classroom, communication occurs primarily between teachers and students or among students.

Communication with the real world is generally limited to non-interactive media such as television and film or the

occasional field trip. Contrast this with a classroom with a computer and modem. Now students can communicate with

their peers next door or worldwide, with experts in many fields or eyewitnesses to current events (pp. 2627).

As such, technology both changes the kinds of communication in which students can

engage and the people with whom students can communicate.

Though there are some skeptics, what researchers do seem to agree on is that btechnology

in a

p. 3ions students, regardless of socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, gender, or geographi

torsQ (Executive Summary, item 5, italics in original). Theoretically, technology can ensuitable universal information access to learners of all ages, races, abilities, and locatio

h the use of appropriate technologies, individuals with physical challenges suchEchoing the statements of many writers, the Presidents Committee of Advisors on Science

and Technology (1997) stated that baccess to knowledge-building and communication toolsbased on computing and networking technologies should be made available to all of our

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192184nd of itself is neutral; what matters is how it is appliedQ (Harriman & Fitz Gibbon, 2000,5). Oppenheimer (1997) reports on a study of classroom innovation that found that what

endorse constructivist and discovery approaches to learning and teaching.Many researchers focus on the potential of technology to support certain fundamental

changes in the pedagogical models underlying traditional approaches to teaching and

learning. Within the constructivist paradigm, greater attention is given to the acquisition of

higher order thinking and problem-solving skills, with less emphasis on the assimilation of a

large body of isolated facts. Basic skills are not learned by students in isolation, but in the

course of some undertaking, such as a project, and often on a collaborative basis. These

projects generally utilize higher level breal-worldQ tasks whose execution requires theintegration of a number of skills. Generally, information resources are made available to be

accessed by the student at the point in time when they actually become useful in executing the

particular task at hand. Fewer topics may be covered than is the case within the typical

traditional curriculum, but these topics are often explored in greater depth. Students assume a

more central role as the active director of his or her own knowledge and skills (Hughes &

Mancall, 1999). As the Presidents Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology

(1997) firmly stated, the emphasis should be a bfocus on learning with technology, not aboutthe students learned bhad less to do with the computer and more to do with the teaching. Ifyou took the computers out, there would still be good teaching thereQ (p. 48). Sandholtz et al.(1997) state that btechnology should be viewed as one tool among many and will have littleinfluence unless it is successfully integrated into a meaningful curriculum and instructional

frameworkQ (p. 179). Finally, Marcum (2001) states that bthe most critical part of technologyis not the tool but the human skill that uses it to accomplish a taskQ (p. 103).

As seen, technology has impacted the learning environment in many different ways.

Greater access to information, access to new types of information, support for different kinds

of learning, opportunities for participating in the creation of knowledge, equitable access,

improved student motivation, sustained participation by less able students, increased

achievement in project-based programs, and changed communication patterns have all

resulted from teaching with technology. Technology has also served to spark a re-

consideration of pedagogical approach and it is to that topic that this article now turns.

2. A catalyst for re-considering pedagogy

The report from the Boyer Commission on Educating Undergraduates in the Research

University (1998), Reinventing Undergraduate Education, recommends that instructors

engage students in ba significant question or set of questions, the research or creativeexploration to find answers, and the communications skills to convey the resultsQ (p. 27). TheBoyer report is cited in the Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education

(2000), which continues on by stating that bcourses structured in such a way create student-centered learning environments where inquiry is the norm, problem solving becomes the

focus, and thinking critically is the part of the process.Q The Standards stop short of explicitlystating which pedagogical approach is most appropriate for pursuing a standards-based

information literacy program; however, the language of the Standards appears to implicitly

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192 185technologyQ (Executive Summary, item 1, italics in original).

television, computer-based instruction, or integrated learning systems. Historically, thelearning bfromQ or tutorial approaches have received the most attention and funding. Reeves(1998, Section 2, para. 3) summarizes the steps in learning bfromQ media and technology asfollows:

(1) exposing students to messages encoded in media and delivered by technology;

(2) assuming that students perceive and encode these messages;

(3) requiring a response to indicate that messages have been received; and

(4) providing feedback as to the adequacy of the response.

Online tutorials, email tutorials, and course-specific Web pages are examples of learning

bfromQ technology and can enhance information literacy instruction in a number of ways.Remedial assistance can be offered to those who do not have the skills of the rest of the class.

Drill-based practice, which could be very repetitious in an in-person environment, can be

supported more easily and made more interesting in an electronic environment. Tutorials can

also allow students to explore independently by letting different individuals choose different

areas of interest.

In contrast, learning bwithQ media and technology means that learners bfunction asAs such, this article asserts that the best uses of educational technology and the most

appropriate environments for cultivating information literacy competencies use constructivist

approaches to teaching and learning. Sandholtz et al. (1997) argue that technology is best and

most powerful when used with constructivist teaching approaches that emphasize problem

solving, concept development, and critical thinking rather than simple acquisition of factual

knowledge. While there is no argument that technology can facilitate the process of

transferring facts from one person to another, its integration with learning is best realized

when the teacher aims to empower students to think and to solve problems and when

technology is used to support student inquiry and collaborative exploration. According to

constructivist theory, learning is an active and social process in which students play an active

role in building knowledge, discovering relationships among facts, constructing conceptual

frameworks that explain those relationships, and exploring new arenas. Sandholtz et al.

(1997) suggest that new competencies such as abilities bto collaborate, to recognize andanalyze problems as systems, to acquire and use large amounts of information, and to apply

technology to the solution of real-world problems are valued outcomesQ (p. 183) becomemore important in such technology-supported learning environments.

3. Learning bfromQ and bwithQ technology

There are two major approaches to using media and technology in educational

environments: students can learn bfromQ media and technology, and they can learn bwithQmedia and technology (Jonassen & Reeves, 1996).

Learning bfromQ media and technology is often referred to in connection with instructional

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192186designers using media and technology as tools for analyzing the world, accessing and

meetings, communication technologies can provide students with opportunities for joint

problem solving and shared learning and augment face-to-face contact in the classroom.Some of the ways that technology can be used to facilitate that communication include

computer conferencing, chat discussion sessions, email, and bulletin boards. Computer-

mediated communication can be either synchronous with instant, simultaneous communica-

tion, or asynchronous, which allows each participant to communicate when it is convenient or

useful. Access to communities of practice and knowledgeable experts further expands the

students ability to gather information from beyond their own knowledge communities.

The most frequently cited rationales for using telecommunications to meet pedagogical

goals are as follows (Schrum & Berenfeld, 1997, pp. 4244):

! bringing real-world relevance into the classroom;! helping students perceive knowledge as constructed rather than delivered from a book orteacher;interpreting information, organizing their personal knowledge, and representing what they

know to othersQ (Reeves, 1998, Executive Summary, para. 10). In other words, learningbwithQ technology makes technology more a tool for learning than just for teaching.

The Boyer report notes that bthe best teachers and researchers should be thinking abouthow to design courses in which technology enriches teaching rather than substitutes for itQ(1998, p. 26). Technology used as a tool for learning can serve as a means to seek and process

information, and to reflect on ones understandings, beliefs, and thinking processes.

Technology that allows the learner to access information and explore new content

relationships includes the Internet, simulations, electronic mail, word processing, spread-

sheets, graphics, presentation, and database software. In these applications, the user has a

great deal of control over the pace and direction of information exploration.

4. Roles for technology

Having discussed the impact of technology on learning environments, this article now

turns to the different roles of technology as they relate to constructivist learning theory. The

specific roles discussed were gleaned from a literature review and are suggested as

alternatives or extensions to the more familiar role of technology as simply the means to

transmit information to the user. Understanding these possible roles is important to

maximizing the possible impact of technology on users.

4.1. Technology as a vehicle for educational communication

In bImplementing the Seven Principles: Technology as Lever,Q Chickering and Ehrmann(1996) note that good teaching practice encourages contact between students and faculty and

that good practice develops reciprocity and cooperation among students. By providing

increased access to the instructor and easing the burden of creating time for group project

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192 187! providing students with an effective model of lifelong learning;

! bolstering social, communication, and critical-thinking skills;! meeting standards for inquiry-based learning;! increasing the authenticity of the learning environment;! changing the definition of the learning community;! finding role models for students; and! equity.

As students develop information literacy skills, telecommunications can allow students to

communicate with others, whether they are experts in the field, individuals in their local

community, or simply people with the same interests who are distributed geographically. In the

classroom, guest lecturers can participate in class discussions through audio and video

teleconferencing. Students in classrooms in different cities can participate in discussions and

share ideas on topics. The use of telecommunications expands students interaction with others.

4.2. Technology as a cognitive tool

Media and technology can be used as cognitive tools that enable and facilitate critical

thinking and higher order learning. According to Reeves (1998), bcognitive tools refer totechnologies, tangible or intangible, that enhance the cognitive powers of human beings

during thinking, problem-solving, and learningQ (Section 3, para. 1). In other words,technology as a cognitive tool enables students to process and communicate information more

effectively and efficiently.

Technology can facilitate critical thinking and higher order learning by supporting the deep

reflective thinking that is necessarily for meaningful learning. Technology allows case studies

and sample projects to be situated in realistic contexts with results that are personally

meaningful for learners. Examples include databases, spreadsheets, expert systems,

communication software such as teleconference programs, online collaborative knowledge

construction environments, multimedia/hypermedia construction software, and computer

programming languages.

The Boyer report notes that faculty should concern themselves with the need to bgive theirstudents the tools with which they can explore deeply as well as widely, with which they can

discriminate, analyze, and create rather than simply accumulateQ (1998, p. 26). The Web canbe used by instructors as a cognitive tool to help students explore, analyze, and evaluate

resources. Students can also report their findings in projects by creating Web pages or

electronic portfolios. Technology can certainly facilitate students ability to explore

information and express their fluency with information.

4.3. Technology as a discovery system

Many individuals have described libraries as learning organizations, yet Marcum (2001)

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192188points out that the definition bplaces the emphasis on what the organization learns, and that is

use on

pre on

disc hedevelopment of information literacy and demands a constructivist approach to pedagogy.

Resonating with the discovery-based view of information exploration, Brown (1991)

suggests that education at all levels should be restructured around an inquiry approach to

learning. McClintock (1996) asserts that binquiry, study, problem solving can become theprime educational activities in a system making full use of digital resourcesQ (p. 47). This kindof learning requires that students be at the center of inquiry learning.

Libraries and media centers in all sorts of educational institutions have a critical role to

play in facilitating students exploration of informationin print, digital, or alternative

formsand supporting instructors who are learning a new role of guiding students in their

exploration. The Boyer report argues that instructors are the bexperienced, focused guidesQwho should be helping students bbecome a more intelligent consumer in this supermarketof informationQ (1998, p. 27).

4.4. Technology as a means to create a community of learners

Finally, beyond the individual-based discovery, the Boyer report asserts that ba sense ofcommunity is an essential element in providing students with a strong undergraduate

education,Q noting that a bpersonal awareness of connections cannot occur unless there is aresponsiveness to place and communityQ (1998, p. 34). In an increasingly fragmented campusenvironment where students, on average, work more than 20 hours a week, and more and

more students live off-campus or take online classes, finding opportunities for shared in-

person experiences becomes more challenging. Campuses attempt to create learning

communities in residential spaces, via shared classes over the course of more than one

term or semester, or through freshman experience courses. Assigning peer or faculty mentors

is another approach used to foster this sense of community. Some campuses are

supplementing these experiences with electronic bcommunitiesQ as well.Oberg (1999) suggests that this concept of a community of learners challenges deeply held

beliefs about the role of the education in society:

It means creating a vision of a school as a center for teaching and learning for adults as well as for young people, a

place where improvement comes through inquiry and problem solving, and a place where there is a commitment to

caring about and serving others (p. 302).

Oberg (1999) also points out the connection between constructivism and learning

communities: ba community of learning in this information age must be built upon aconstructivist view of learning and teaching: an understanding that students learn by activelycon

thisr-centered and objective) and information retrieval from fixed collections (which focuses

cision and recall)Q (p. 102). The Web represents an open environment for informatiovery and learning. This open environment be it the Web or the library is crucial to tnot the core purpose of the library. That purpose, ultimately, is to promote learning- and

discovery- among its patronsQ (p. 101).Marcum (2001) goes on to assert that bthere is a growingrecognition of the differences between information discovery in an open environment (which is

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192 189structing, rather than acquiring, knowledge; and that the purpose of instruction is to support

construction of knowledge, rather than the communication of informationQ (p. 310).

stud ng

kno

T of

learning, their capacity to teach critical thinking and inquiry, their determination toempower students to be responsible for their own learning, and their own technological

skillsQ (p. 114).McClintock (1996) notes that technology has created a paradigm shift from bstrategies for

disbursing scarce knowledge to enabling people to use undiluted access to the resources of

our cultureQ (para. 47). Kuhlthau (1999) also notes this same shift in emphasis withinformation literacy:

Information literacy incorporates both library skills and information skills, but adds the critical component of

understanding the process of learning in information-rich environments. Information literacy extends library skills

beyond the use of discrete skills and strategies to the ability to use complex information from a variety of sources to

develop meaning or solve problems (p. 11).

This change in focus from selecting and presenting appropriate tools and resources for

students use to helping students develop their own skills to make those selection decisions

based upon context-specific needs is challenging in many respects. It is impossible for

students to learn this skill in a one-time application. Each instance will be unique withhigher education in incorporating technology in creating communities of learning for their

students, primary and secondary school students often have the technology skills required to

use the Web, write emails, and participate in chat rooms. The capacity to harness this

immersion in the electronic environment for learning varies greatly by school and school

district. Teachers and librarians can work together to help students use these technologies in

safe and ethical ways to expand their communities of learning.

5. Technology and the roles of teachers and librarians

In a community of learning, the role of instructors and librarian changes from a

transmitter of knowledge to a facilitator of learning. Instructors and librarians assist students

in managing information overload, finding meaning by bmaking sense of numerous anddiverse messages that do not fit together in a predigested, prepared textQ (Kuhlthau, 1999, p.7), and bhelping them to rethink and debug their emerging mental models, and provideencouragement, direction and assistance as neededQ (Presidents Committee, 1997, Section4.4, para. 2). Hughes and Mancall (1999) suggest that teachers and librarians also take on

roles as change agents, resource guides, leaders, and learners. Goldfarb (1999) echoes this

sentiment about the teachers need to be continually learning: btechnology, then, has placedincreased demands on teachers own information literacy skills, their ability to facilitatenumlibrarians can maximize student learning. Information Power (1998) observed t

ents need to become full members of the learning community, actively pursui

wledge and information.

hough elementary schools and high schools are not usually as far along as institutionsTeachers and librarians, in collaboration, have a key role to play in making sure that

students are engaged in the learning process. By making student engagement with

information seeking challenging, interesting, learner-centered, and inquiry-based, teachers

and hat

B.S. Woodard / Research Strategies 19 (2003) 181192190erous factors to consider. Constructivist learning environments provide mechanisms to

students can apply skills in new situations, then constructivist learning environments need to

be created and instructors and librarians need to take on new roles of facilitating students

445459.Davis, P. M., & Cohen, S. (2001). The effect of the Web on undergraduate citation behavior, 19961999. Journal

of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 52, 309314.

Dressang, E. T., & McClelland, K. (1996, July). Radical changes. Booklinks, 5(1), 4046.learning with traditional and technological tools. Savvy information literacy instructors will

capitalize on the these intertwined relationships and consciously use technology as a cognitive

tool to help students analyze and evaluate resources; as a discovery system which focuses on

the students exploration of the learning resources in their technological and traditional

environments; and as a means to create learning communities so students can engage with

each other and with potential guides. These new roles for instructors and librarians will then

result in better attainment and retention of information literacy skills for students.

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Technology creates information-rich environments and changes how people interact with

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the issues facing all educatorsinformation literacy instructors, faculty, elementary and

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Technology and the constructivist learning environment: Implications for teaching information literacy skillsTerminology and valueImpact of technology on learning environments

A catalyst for re-considering pedagogyLearning from and with technologyRoles for technologyTechnology as a vehicle for educational communicationTechnology as a cognitive toolTechnology as a discovery systemTechnology as a means to create a community of learners

Technology and the roles of teachers and librariansConclusionReferences