technologies for improving grain quality of cereals

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WELCOME

TECHNOLOGIES FOR IMPROVING GRAIN QUALITY OF CEREALS Gurunath UpparattiSr.M.Sc (Agri.)Dept. of Agronomy GKVK ,Bengaluru

Sequence of presentation

Table 1. Daily requirement (g/day) WHO , 2014

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Cereal Protein (g) Fat (g) CHO (g) Crude Fiber (g) Ash (g) Energy (kcal) Calcium (mg) Iron (mg) Thiamin(mg)Niacin(mg)Riboflavin(mg)Wheat11.62.0712.01.6348303.5--5.050.101Brownrice7.92.7761.01.3362331.8--4.310.043Maize9.24.6732.81.2358262.7--3.570.197Sorghum10.93.2732.31.6329274.3--2.830.138Pearlmillet11.05.0692.21.9363253.00.32.00.15Foxtailmillet9.92.57210.03.5351204.9---0.990.099Fingermillet6.01.5753.62.63363505.00.31.40.10Kodomillet11.51.37410.42.6353351.70.15JapaneseBarnyard millet10.84.54914.74.02218.6Proso millet10.64.07012.03.236482.94.540.279

Anon.,2015Table 2. Nutritional composition of cereal grains

Health benefits of cereals

CountryProduction (Metric Tons)1China422,599,1642United States387,397,5463India226,330,0004Russian Federation74,465,0005France69,676,000

Table 3. The top 5 cereal producing countries

FAOSTAT (2014)

Factors affecting grain quality

Growing practicesTime and type of harvest Postharvest handlingStorage management and Transportation practices.

Case studies

Table 4 : Wheat grain quality traits depending on soil complex

Grain quality traitsExperimental factorsGluten content (%) Gluten indexProtein content (%)Very good wheat complex (black earth )29.348.212.5Good wheat complex(brown alluvial) 30.850.512.8Good wheat complex(loess) 32.852.313.2Very good rye complex 31.870.613.4Defective wheat complex Limestone soil 34.377.314.8Good rye complex 32.872.414.1LSD ( 0.05) 2.073.171.55Bryza 32.066.013.6Hewilla 31.951.613.3LSD ( 0.05)NS12NS

Poland

Alicja et al ., 2008

Limestone it improves the uptake of major plant nutrients (nitrogen,phosphorus, andpotassium) of plants growing on acid soilsit permits improved water penetration for acidic soils

It is important to determine the total protein content and gluten content while assessing the quality of wheat. In the present study, the soil quality and weather conditions in the wheat ripening period differentiated the protein content and gluten content in spring wheat grains. The year 2007, in which high temperatures and lack of rainfall were recorded at the ripening period, was more favorable for storing protein.

Gluten content and gluten index were significantly dependent on the soil quality. In 2007, gluten content ranged from 29.3 to 34.8%. Amount of eluted gluten was significantly higher in the grains originating from the wheat cultivated on defective wheat complex soil (limestone soil). The lowest amount of gluten was obtained from wheat grains growing on the soil of very good wheat complex (black earth)

In 2007 wheat grains collected from the defective wheat complex (14.8%) and good rye complex (14.1%) (limestone soil) had significantly highest protein content. The lowest protein content in recorded in the grain of wheat cultivated on a very good wheat (black earth) (12.5%) and good wheat complex (alluvial soil) (12.8%).

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Previous crop(PC)Tillage systems (TS)MeanCTRTHTWheat protein (% )Oats14.312.713.713.4Durum wheat14.212.813.413.6Pea14.713.814.014.2Mean14.413.113.7-LSD0.05 for TS = 0.27, PC = 0.27, TS x PC = 0.62

Table 5. Effect of tillage system and previous crop on grain yield and grain quality of wheat CT = conventional tillage; RT = reduced tillage; HT = herbicide tillage (Glyphosate spray 4 L ha-1)PolandAndrzej et al ., 2014

Year24,70039,50054,30069,10084,000 starch----------------------------------------------------------- % -----------------------------------------------199163.663.463.963.363.8199265.664.865.566.266.2199366.767.168.569.168.8199462.963.063.263.963.8Mean64.764.665.365.665.7

Plant Population (plants ha-1)Table 6 . Extractable starch as influenced by year and plant population interaction effects in maize.Significant Contrasts: (1991 + 1994 vs. 1992 + 1993) Plant Population Linear(1992 vs. 1993) Plant Population Linear(1992 vs. 1993) Plant Population LinearStephen et al., 2008 USA

TreatmentsPlant height(cm)Grain yield (q/ha -1)N content in grainsCrude protein(%)

Control150.0032.000.96 6.0100% RDF*163.0044.001.54 9.6 PSB153.1034.001.41 8.8PSB + 100% RDF164.0045.001.579.8PSB + 50% RDF162.0042.861.51 9.4 PSB + 25% RDF160.0042.001.46 9.1 VAM152.1533.961.30 8.1 VAM + 100% RDF163.3844.961.58 9.9 VAM + 50% RDF161.1042.821.52 9.5 VAM + 25% RDF158.8041.971.48 9.2 VAM + PSB + 50% RDF166.0046.001.60 10.0 VAM + PSB + 25% RDF 160.92 42.20 1.50 9.3 CD0.05 2.451.750.0130.035

*RDF = Recommended dose of P fertilizer(60kg/ha)Table 7. Effect of PSB (Bacillus subtilis) and VAM (endomycorrhiza) on growth, yield and quality of maize (Zea mays L.)Fozia et al., 2015Jammu & Kashmir (India)

Plant height showed a significant increase due to various treatments as compared to control with maximum height (166 cm) in VAM + PSB + 50% RDF treatment which was at par with PSB + 100%RDF This increase may be attributed to the auxin production by PSB and increased supply of phosphorus by PSB and VAM (Fankem et al., 2008). (Fankem, H., Laurette, N.N., Annette, D., John, Q., Wolfgang, M., Franois-Xavier, E. andDieudonn, N. 2008. Solubilization of inorganic phosphates and plant growth promotion by strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens isolated from acidic soils of Cameroon. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 2: 171-178.)The increase in grain yield and plant biomass due to the dual inoculations of VAM and PSB could be attributed to the synergistic action of two organisms which increased the P uptakeMaximum nitrogen and crude protein content of 1.6 and 10.0% was observed in treatment VAM + PSB + 50% RDF which was at par with treatments PSB + 100% RDF and VAM + 100% RDF (Table 1). The effect could be due to the synergistic action of PSB, VAM and phosphorus fertilizer.13

TreatmentsOilcontent(%)Proteincontent(%)O. matterconcentration(%)T15.82 a8.12 g0.72 cT25.80 a8.31 fg0.77 bcT35.47 b8.37 f0.39 gT45.43 b8.82 e0.82 bT54.95 de9.24 c0.61 dT64.90 def9.32 c0.54 eT75.22 c9.02 de0.34 gT84.78 ef9.54 b0.39 gT95.09 cd9.17 cd0.39 gT104.50 g10.26 a1.07 aT114.74 f10.23 a0.52 eT124.72 f10.19 a0.45 fCD0.050.030.230.16

Table 8 - Effect of organic mulches and tillage on grain quality of maize Zamir et al., 2013PakistanT1= conventional tillage, T2= conventional tillage + wheat straw mulch (partially incorporated), T3= conventional tillage + saw dust mulch (partially incorporated), T4= zero tillage, T5= zero tillage + wheat straw mulch (partially incorporated), T6= zero tillage + saw dust mulch (partially incorporated), T7= bar harrow tillage T8= harrow tillage + wheat straw mulch (partially incorporated), T9= harrow tillage + saw dust mulch (partially incorporated),

T10= subsoiler tillage (subsoiler)

T 11= sub soiler tillage + wheat straw mulch (partially incorporated)

T12= subsoiler tillage + saw dust mulch (partially incorporated)

Protein is important quality parameter that depends on the management practices. The mean maximum value of protein 10.26% was observed in T10 (subsoiler tillage) which is statistically at par with those of T11 (subsoiler tillage + wheat straw mulch) [10.23] and T12 (subsoiler tillage + saw dust mulch) [10.19], followed by 9.54%, 9.32% and 9.24% in T8 (bar harrow tillage + wheat straw mulch), T6 (zero tillage + saw dust mulch) and T5 (zero tillage + wheat straw), respectively. The mean minimum value 8.12% was observed in T1 (conventional tillage) followed by T2 (conventional tillage + wheat straw mulch) [8.31%] and T3 (conventional tillage + saw dust mulch) [8.37%]. The combined effect of tillage and mulching showed that wheat straw mulch along with mulching showed better results as compare to sole application of tillage and mulches in the treatments. Organic mulches conserved the water and provided the nutrients (nitrogen) in the soil

The seedwas sown with the help of drill bymaintaining 25 cm PP distance and RRdistance 60 cm. subsoiltillage improved the root length andwater availability as the root was gone for the extraction of storage of waterin the deeper profiles of soil. Subsoiler tillage might have improved the root proliferation of maize crop14

Milling qualityTransplanting datesBR (%)TMR (%)HR (%)D178.970.348.8D279.771.255.4D380.371.359.4D479.97262.8S.D. (Mean) 0.589 0.698 6.016Average79.771.256.6 D1: 5th May D2: 27th May D3: 18th June D4: 10th July

Table 9. Effect of transplanting dates on milling quality of rice BR : brown rice TMR : total milling recovery HR :head rice CGL : coarse grain rice lines Muhammad et al ., 2016

Faisalabad, Pakistan

Results suggest that very early transplanting is more damaging to milling and cooking of both, fine as well as coarse grain rice lines as compared to delayed transplanting. Likewise, much delayed transplanting is more destructive for milling and cooking characters in case of fine grain rice lines as compared to coarse grain type rice lines. In case of studied fine grain rice genotypes, head rice recovery was observed maximum when translated at 18th of June. Similarly, cooked grain length was improved significantly in case of fine rice lines with delay in transplanting. Results suggest fine grain rice varieties to be transplanted before onset of July in order to have least broken rice in milled rice. Delayed sowing date, milling quality, total and head rice recovery, cooked grain length and bursting percentages showed15

Sowing

method VarietyNitrogen in

straw (%)Nitrogen in

grain (%)Protein in

straw (%)Protein in

grain (%)Grain

yield

(t ha-1)S1V1S1V2S1V3S1V4S2V1S2V2S2V3S2V40.278 d 2.035 1.667 d 11.895 d0.281 cd 1.936 1.756 cd 11.315 e0.294 b 2.078 1.825 bc 12.115 c0.315 b 2.085 1.947 bc 12.189 bc0.319 b 2.114 2.010 b 12.312 ab0.310 b 2.123 1.967 bc 11.967 d0.312 b 2.110 1.989 b 12.321 ab 0.456 a 2.131 2.904 a 12.441 a 0.01 NS 0.01 0.01 0.41 3.92 5.01 0.612.29 f2.81 de2.94 c3.04 bc2.69 e2.92 cd3.07 b3.25 aLSNSCV %9.05

Table 10. Interaction effect of sowing method and variety on quality traits and yield of wheatconventional sowing (S1) Bed sowing (S2 )Protiva (V1), Sourav (V2), Shatabdi (V3) and Prodip (V4)Alam , 2012Bangladesh

The interaction effect of sowing method and variety had significant effect on grain protein content. The highest protein content in grain was found in Prodip in bed sowing system and the lowest one was found in Sourav in conventional sowing system . The interaction effect of sowing method and nitrogen was found significant on grain protein content. The highest protein content wasnoticed in bed sowing system at 160 kg N ha-1 and thelowest was found in conventional sowing system at control treatment (Table 3).

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TreatmentGrain yield (kg ha-1 )Protein (g kg-1 )198819891989199019901991Mean198819891989199019901991MeanTillageNT2350a24500b2510a3120a110a104a107b107bCT1750b5060a2790a3200a113a108a113a111aRotationCW1630d3720c1700d2350e107d110a108b109bWS1580d4870b2430c2960d109cd105b104c106cWCP1920c4830b2740b3170c113ab107ab114a111aWFB2270b5430a3580a3760a116a104b115a112aWF2830a5020b2800b3550b112bc106b108b109bN rate (kg ha-1)502020a4400c2560b2990b99c106a99c101c1002130a4820b2730a3230a113b107a108b110b1501990a5110a2650a3250a122a106a123a117aMean2050C4780A2650B3160112A106B110A109

271Table 11. Wheat grain yield, protein as affected by tillage methods, crop rotation and nitrogen rate. NT, no tillage; CT, conventional tillage; CW, continuous wheat; WS, wheatsunflower; WCP, wheatchickpea; WFB, wheatfababean; WF, wheatfallow. IRRIConsuelo , 1992

TreatmentsPlantation methods

M1 = 70 cm spaced single rowsGrain starch concentration (GSC) (%)

71.51 bGrain protein concentration (GPC) (%)

9.07 bGrain oil concentration (GOC) (%)

4.63 bM2 = 105 cm spaced double row strips71.76 a9.28 a4.72 aM3 = 70 cm spaced ridges71.75 a9.26 a4.74 aLSD 5%0.080.04Nutrient levels (kg ha-1) N PKSF0 0 00 070.72 c7.84 e4.08 eF1 250 00 069.69 d9.06 d4.55 dF2 250 1500 071.39 b9.34 c4.71 cF3 250 150100 072.31 a9.39 bc4.78 bcF4 250 1501001572.32 a9.64 a4.96 aF5 250 150100 072.46 a9.50 b4.83 bF6 250 1501001572.50 a9.64 a4.96 aLSD 0.05 0.450.130.11

Table 12. Effect of different planting methods and nutrient levels on qualitative traits of hybrid maizeMuhammad et al ., 2004 Faisalabad ,Pakistan

The crop grown in 105 cm spaced double-row strips (M2) and on 70 cm spaced ridges (M3) produced statistically similar starch content with a range of 72.10 to 72.14% which was significantly higher than M1 (71.86%)

Grain protein concentration. The crop planted in 70 cm spaced single-rows (M1) produced significantly less grain protein (9.12%) than that planted either in 105 cm spaced double-row strips (M2) or 70 cm spaced ridges (M3) which were statistically on a par with each other showing GPC of9.33 and 9.29%, respectively

Grain oil concentration :Promotive effect of sulphur in grain oil content may be due to the reason that sulphur is needed for the formation of disulfide bonds between polypeptide chains. Such disulfide linkages stabilize the various enzymes. This in turn, may increase the activity of enzyme. Besides sulphur is required for the synthesis of various metabolites reg. Coenzyme A which is involved in the oxidation and synthesis of fatty acids 18

TreatmentGrain yield ( t /ha)Stover yield ( t/ha)Total N uptake (kg/ha)Total P uptake (kg/ha)Protein content (%)B:C ratioLand configurationLI: Flat sowing2.336.3678.2429.4511.420.88L2: Ridge and furrow sowing2.627.3190.3934.3911.530.98SEm +0.050.131.470.540.070.03CD (P=0.05)0.140.384.361.61NS0.10Nutrient managementFo: Control2.065.8163.4824.1111.080.86F1: 30 kg N + 20 kg P205/ha2.456.6581.4030.6511.480.98F2: 60 kg N +40 kg P205/ha2.707.4597.1437.1311.650.96F3:30 kg N + 20 kg P205 +FYM @ 6 tonnes/ha2.757.5499.1437.4211.850.94F4: FYM @ 6 tonnes/ha2.466.5980.4230.3011.360.91SEm +0.070.202.320.860.110.06CD (P=0.05)0.220.596.892.550.32NS

Table 13. Effect of land configuration and nutrient management practices on quality of pearl milletParihar et al., 2009IARI ,New Dehli

Character Genotype Main culm(MC) Primary tiller(PT) Secondary tiller(ST) Tertiary tiller(TT) MeanCV(%)

Brown rice rate (%)Xiushui 1183.94 a83.51 a83.66 a83.85 a83.670.34Mutant84.49 a*84.03 a84.63 a85.18 a*84.59 **0.56Amylose content of rice (%)Xiushui 1116.32 b17.98 a15.68 bc 14.93 c 16.238.00Mutant16.48 a15.61 a**15.22 a12.93 b*14.58*9.93Protein content of rice (%)Xiushui 1110.72 a10.23 b 9.74 b 10.22 b10.233.89Mutant9.84 a*9.49 b*8.84 c*8.49 d**9.17*6.63

Table 14. Grain yield and panicle characteristics of different tillers in rice *,** indicate significant difference between Xiushui 11 and the mutant for a given characteristic at 95% and 99% probability levels, respectively.Wang et al ., 2007China

starch synthesis as wellas grain quality was affected by climatic factors, especially by temperature at later grain filling stage [13]. Therefore, the more the tillers for a plant, the greater the variation of grain quality within a plant, because the plant with more tillers has more chance of being subjected to different temperatures during grain filling. This may explain for the negative effect of tillering capacity on the uniformity of grain quality within a plant.

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Day/night temperature ( oC) Water a Fertilizerb Protein (%)24/1716. 937/1718 .837/2817. 324/179 .837/1713. 537/2817 .637/1720. 037/1717. 4

a Plants were well-watered () or drought-treated ().b Plants received post-anthesis fertilizer () or did not receive post-anthesis fertilizer ().Table15.Effect of temperature, fertilizer and water on composition of mature grain of spring wheat Altenbach, 2001USA

Apoptosis in endosperm tissue also occurred earlier under high temperatures and coincided with physiological maturity. The addition of drought to the 37/17 C regimen further shortened the time to maximum water content and dry weight and reduced the duration of starch accumulation, but did not inuence the timing of protein accumulation or kernel desiccation21

Table 16. Effect of lodging on milling and baking qualities wheat"Wheat cultivars: samples I, 3, and 5 = Stephens; sample 2 = Twin; sample 4 = Hyslop. Pumphrey et al ., 1994 Washingaton

Equations Used:kg/hL=(lb/bushel) * 1.25(1 lb = 454 g = 0.4536 kg)(kg/hL (kilograms per 100 litres of volume))( 79.6kg/hl = 63.679) lb/bushel=(kg/hL) / 1.25 Lodging effects the movemment of photoassimilates to other grain parts

Wheat with the greatest tendency for lodging had characteristicsassociated with over management (Pinthus 1973). The wheat was planted relatively early and fertilized with great amounts of nitrogen (more than 250 kg/ha) applied before planting or during early tillering in the spring. These practices, combined with favorable growing conditions, resulted in massive vegetative growth before the boot stage of growth.Test weight of the standing grain was 3-10 kg/hi higher than the test weight of the lodged grain (Table I). Grain from the lodged wheat graded one to four grades lower because of the lower test weight (data not shown). Visual observation indicated that the lower test weight of the lodged grain resulted from the large amount of shriveled kernels it contained. Mean test weight of the conditioned grain from standing wheat was 5.7 kg/hi higher than the test weight of the conditioned grain from lodged plants (Table II).Milling ScoreGrain from lodged wheat had a slower feed rate into the mill, which contributed to its lower milling scoreFlourThe plumper kernels of the standing wheat compared to the less plump kernels of the lodged wheat had a higher ratio of flour to bran, as indicated by the flour yield (Table II). Flour from the standing wheat was lower in ash and protein and absorbed less water than flour from lodged wheat (Table II). Low levels of ash, protein, and water absorption are desirable characteristics of soft white wheat flour.

concluded that lodging at heading reduced yield of small grain27-30%, reduced test weight, increased the N (protein) content ofthe grain, and might have reduced the milling quality of wheat

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Figure 1 View of the lodging induction method applied: A General and B Detailed Intensity 1 50% lodging or plants inclined45 Intensity 2 100% lodging or plants inclined 90

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Protein (%)Treatments 20042005Wheat sole crop11.2%10.2%Wheat +Faba bean13.0%12.5%

Table 17. Average protein content (%) in wheat grown as a sole crop or intercropped with faba beans.Isobel et al ., 2008

Europe

Faba bean-wheat mixtures seem to be the most reliable and economically viable option. Kasyanova et al (2006) conducted field experiments in three successive growing seasons (2002/03 to 2004/05) at different sites within Europe. Treatments included wheat intercropped with faba bean in both replacement and additive designs, both autumn and spring sowing, and at one site, wheat intercropped with pea. Irrespective of design, sowing season, site, or grain legume used, intercropping increased the N and S concentration, and the N:S ratio in wheat grain. The rheological (deformation and flow) properties of doughs made from wheat flour, and hence the characteristics of many wheat-based products, are strongly influenced by the amount and type of storage proteins in wheat endosperms. The crude protein concentration (e.g. N x 5.7) of wheat grain is, therefore, a commonly used quality criterion for marketing wheat. Achieving sufficient N concentration in organic wheat can be a challenge in high yielding areas of Europe (Gooding et al. 1999) as it is heavily dependant on nitrogen availability, particularly during grain filling. Sulphur is also an important component of wheat proteins and provides the inter- and intra-chain disulphide bonds that help maintain gluten functionality.

Prins, U. and Wit, J. de (2006) Intercropping cereals and grain legumes: a farmers perspective. Paper presented at Joint Organic Congress, Odense, Denmark, May 30-31, 2006. Org Print 729724

YearFactorsGrain yield(t ha-1 )1000 kernel weight (g)Protein content (%)VarietyWater2013EGA-GregoryRainfed1.63b24b11.9aIrrigated3.65a37a6.9bLivingstonRainfed1.99b27b8.7aIrrigated3.00a34a7.5bLSD5%

variety irrigation0.841.22014EGA-GregoryRainfed4.68b35c8.7bIrrigated6.01a40a7.6bLivingstonRainfed4.21b36bc10.3aIrrigated4.53b37b7.5bLSD5%

variety irrigation0.4721.4

Table 18. The average grain yield and grain qualities of wheat .Nendel et al.,2015Australia

The non-irrigated wheat had a 50% higher protein content compared to that of the irrigated wheat which might be due to dilution effect of higher yield from the irrigated wheat. There was no interaction effect of year variety and variety water on protein content.25

TreatmentsGrain yield

Plant -1(g)1000-grain

weight (g)Grain protein

content (%)I11.91a45.75a14.95dI21.61b43.00ab15.25cI31.46c40.76b15.25cI41.23d42.40ab15.90bI50.91e31.21c17.30aLSD0.050.144.460.10

I1 = 7 irrigation (Control), I2 = 6 irrigations, I3 = 5 irrigations, I4 = 4 irrigations, I5 = 3 irrigations.Table 19. Means of five irrigation treatments for yield and yield components traits of barley (data over two seasons). Saied et al., 2014 Egypt

. Furrow irrigation was applied at 30 days intervals to all experimental plots for establishment of plants till they were 60 days old. Life irrigation or first irrigation was started after 30 days from sowing at tillering stage and thesecond irrigation after 60 days from sowing at booting stage. Booting was defined to growth stage (GS) (approximately flag leaf sheath opening). Irrigation treatments were applied thereafter. The crop during grown seasons received 7 irrigations (control) including planting irrigation

Complete irrigation: irrigation was applied every 10 days after booting7stage.7Irrigation was applied every 15 days after booting stage.6Irrigation was applied every 20 days after booting stage.5Irrigation was applied every 25 days after booting stage.4Cut irrigation after booting stage (irrigation was stopped till the end ofthe season).3

that the maximum protein content (17.3%) was recorded in I5 (three irrigations) treatment. Grain protein content (17.3%) was significantly higher when crop was grown under three irrigation regimes than grain protein content (14.95%) in control, when crop was given normal irrigations, and grain protein content (15.25, 15.25 and 15.90%),

Protein yield (kg ha-1) Protein yield per unit area is the ultimate target in growing high-protein barley genotypes and it is in direct dependence on grain yield and protein concentration. According to ANOVA (Table 4), irrigation regimes affected significantly protein yield (P 0.01). The means of the five irrigation treatments were compared to study the significant differences among the treatments (Table 2). According to the least significant difference test, the results suggested that the highest (442.6 kg h-1) and the lowest (161.3 kg ha-1) protein yield belonged to I1 and I5, respectively. Data (Table 4) revealed that highest protein yield (442.6 kg h-1) was produced under I1 treatment which, on an average, was 27.88, 72.01, 118.24 and 174.39% higher than protein yield produced under I2, I3, I4 and I5 treatments, respectively. The extents of these reductions were related to the variations in grain yield of barley under different irrigation regimes.

The glutamate pathway accounts for major proline accumulation during osmotic stress. The proline is synthesized from glutamatic acid via intermediate '-pyrroline-5-carboxylate (P5C). The reaction is being catalyzed by '-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase (P5CS) and '-pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductase (P5CR) (Fig.1).23P5CS is encoded by two genes whereas P5CR is encoded by only one in most plant species.16,24,25Proline catabolism occurs in mitochondria by means of the chronological action of proline dehydrogenase or proline oxidase (PDH or POX) producing P5C from proline and P5C dehydrogenase (P5CDH) converts P5C to glutamate. Two genes encode PDH, whereas a single P5CDH gene has been identified in Arabidopsis and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum).26-29PDH transcription is activated by rehydration and proline but repressed by dehydration, thus preventing proline degradation during abiotic stress26

Stress

intensityPeriodNerica 1Nerica 4Nerica 7Arica 4Arica 5L0 FCDS 20139.49.39.09.09.0L1 LS9.49.39.08.89.1L2 MS 9.810.010.29.79.6L3 SS10.89.911.611.010.0Mean9.99.610.09.69.5CV (%)6.74.412.310.24.8LSD0.81.20.81.51.0L0 FC WS 20149.09.38.59.09.0L1 LS 9.39.09.09.29.2L2 MS 9.89.910.09.89.810.911.111.711.210.8L3 SS Mean9.89.89.89.89.7CV (%)8.59.214.410.28.1LSD.050.40.51.00.60.5

Table 20.Effect of different soil moisture levels on protein content of tested varieties of rice during dry season(DS) 2013 and wet season(WS) 2014.Roseline et al., 2014Nigeria L0 : Field capacity L1:Low stress L2: Moderate stress L3: Severe water stress NERICAs (New Rice for Africa) , ARICA (Advanced Rice for Africa)

L0: In the first treatment, plots were maintained at the soil moisture content close to field capacity throughout the experiment (Tensiometer readings were maintained within0 to -5Kpa throughout the trial);* L1:Low stress intensity; plots were maintained at tensiometers readings fluctuated between -30 to -40Kpa from 49 days (7 weeks) after planting until harvesting;* L2: Moderate stress in which water supply was withdrawn until harvesting and the soil moisture maintained between -50 and -60Kpa;* L3: Severe water stress in which tensiometers readings were maintained between-70 and -85Kpa from 7 weeks after planting to harvesting.The decrease in the head rice ratio observed could be due to the increase of chalkiness related to improper grain filling as reported by Fofana et al. (2011) or fissured grain ( Fofana M, Futakuchi K, Manful JT, Bokossa IY, Dossou J,BleoussiRTM(2011). Rice grain quality: a comparison of imported varieties, local varieties with new varieties adopted in Benin.Food Control,2:1821-1825.)

this study indicate that water deficit during the reproductive phase reduced the amylose content and the gel consistency of all the varieties regardless of trialJane et al. (1999) showed that rice pasting properties are affected by amylose content and by the branch chain length distribution of amylopectin (Jane J, Chen YY, Lee LF, McPherson AE, Wong KS, RadosavljevicM, Kasemsuwan T(1999). Effects of amylopectin branch chain length and amylose content on the gelatinization and pasting properties of starch. Cereal Chem. 76: 629-637.)

The amylose content is generally thought to be a critical determinant of starch pasting properties because amylose suppresses starch swelling. The amylose helix has an internal hydrophobic tube, providing a space for hydrophobic complexing agents such as lipids Protein is one of the factors that mainly influence the eating quality of rice (Adu-Kwarteng et al., 2003; Futakuchi et al., 2008). (Adu-Kwarteng E, EllisWO, OduroI, Manful J T (2003).(Futakuchi K,Watanabe H, Jones MP (2008). Relationship of grain protein content to other Grain Quality Traits in Interspecific Oryza sativa L x Oryza glaberrima Steud. Progenies. Agric. J. 3(1): 50-57) Rice grain quality: a comparison of local varieties with new varieties under study in Ghana. Food Control, 14:507-514)Protein content correlates with cooked rice texture. Protein is also involved in providing structural support to the rice kernel during cooking, thereby restricting starch granule swelling. Thus, treatment with protease, an enzyme that cleaves protein, significantly decreases cooked rice firmness (Saleh and Meullenet, 2007). Negative correlation was found between amylose content and protein content for stressed samples in this study

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Starter Fertilizer Yield(g m-2) Protein Grain size >2.5mm (%) concentration(%) Applied 343.2a 11.1a 97.8aNot applied354.6a10.7a98.6aSoil locationsLaxmans karp311.9b11.3a96.8bLunnarp385.8a10.5b99.6aTreatmentsTreatment 1296.9a11.7a96.0bTreatment 2326.9a10.9b97.6abTreatment 3389.5a10.5b99.6aTreatment 4382.2a10.5b99.6a

TreatmentsSoil locationStarter fertilizer1Laxmans karpApplied2Laxmans karpNot applied3LunnarpApplied4LunnarpNot applied

Malik et al., 2012 SwedenTable 21.Mean values of yield and quality parameters at maturity of spring malting barley at starter fertilizer dosage, two soil locations and four different treatments

The cultivar Prestige was grown in two different soils (Lunnarp and Laxmanskarp) More nitrogen rich and low humus content soil (Lunnarp) resulted in higher grain yield and polymerization of proteins and lower protein concentration than the other soil28

TreatmentZn (g g-1 )Fe (g g-1 )Protein (%)S1 = Control without Zn and Fe12.4231.347.93S2 = ZnSO4 at 20 kg per ha+ FeSO4 at 10 kg per ha through Soil application20.6857.1010.99S3 = ZnSO4 at 0.2 % and FeSO4 at 0.1 % as Seed treatment21.7371.9610.75S4 = ZnSO4 at 0.2 % and FeSO4 at 0.1 % as Seed treatment + Foliar spray of ZnSO4 at 0.5 % and FeSO4 at 0.1 % at panicle initiation and boot leaf stage23.6985.4412.24S.Em0.725.350.62C.D0.052.1415.911.85

Table 22 : Zn, Fe and Protein content in dehusked rice as influenced by agronomic biofortification Meena et al.,2015V.C. Farm, Mandya

enzyme carbonic anhydrase accelerating carbohydrate formation, the maximum requirements Zn were enough to accumulate suitable carbohydrate contents. It also activate glutamic dehydrogenase enzyme, synthesis of RNA and DNA enhancing gliadin and glutenin content, which are main protein components of gluten accumulated in the later stages of grain filling

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Sowing method N levelNitrogen in

straw (%)Nitrogen in

grain (%)Protein in

straw (%)Protein in

grain (%)Grain yield

(t ha-1)S1N0S1N1S1N2S1N3S2N0S2N1S2N2S2N30.215 h 1.878 d 1.350 e 10.956 g0.241 g 1.945 d 1.507 de 11.378 f0.325 d 2.089 ab 2.067 c 12.201 c0.384 b 2.241 a 2.315 b 13.021 a0.246 f 2.056 abc 1.524 d 11.535 e0.273 e 2.027 bcd 1.656 d 11.856 d0.369 c 2.167 ab 2.301 b 12.645 b 0.536 a 2.245 a 3.356 a 13.088 a 0.01 0.05 0.01 0.010.41 3.92 5.01 0.611.74 e2.69 d3.22 c3.42 bc1.81 e2.84 d3.48 b3.81 aLS CV %0.059.05

Table 23.Interaction effect of sowing method and N rates on quality traits and yield of wheatconventional sowing (S1) Bed sowing (S2 )0 (N0), 60 (N1), 110 (N2) and 160 (N3) kg N ha-1.Alam, 2012Bangladesh

The highest value of nitrogen and protein content and was observed at 160 kg N ha-1. Among the varieties, Prodip is the best one for bed sowing system to maximize the production.

The highest grain yield in bed sowing system was due to the maximum tillers plant-1, highest no of grains spike-1 and higher 1000-grain weight. Connor et al. (2003) reported that bed sowing showed significantly higher grain yield as compared to flat sowing.

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TreatmentN (%)Ca (%)Fe (ppm)Zn (ppm)Protein (%)Total Amino Acid (%)CHO (%)T1: RDF*1.31.8230.033.78.52.4065.3T2: 150 % RDF1.41.6220.235.18.82.4667.7T3:T1+ZnSO4 @ 50 kg ha-I as soil application1.01.1200.271.26.71.8061.7T4:T1 + ZnSO4 @0.5 % foliar spray1.01.2216.175.96.51.9061.3T5: T1+ FeSO4@ 0.2 % foliar spray1.11.4722.334.67.02.4365.0T6: T1+ ZnSO4 soil application + FeSO4 0.2 % foliar spray1.11.5720.884.57.02.2064.3T7: T1 + ZnSO4 0.5 % foliar spray + FeSO4 0.2 % foliar spray1.22.6712.087.37.62.4366.0T8: T2+ ZnSO4 @ 50 kg ha-1 as soil application1.02.0219.362.76.52.7064.7T9: T2 + ZnSO4 0.5 % foliar spray1.22.4250.786.97.53.5068.3T10: T2+ FeSO4 0.2 % foliar spray1.42.2725.731.88.73.9066.0T11: T2+ ZnSO4 soil application + FeSO4 0.2 % foliar spray1.32.3698.976.38.04.1068.3T12: T2+ ZnSO4 0.5 % foliar spray + FeSO4 0.2 % foliar spray1.42.7753.285.79.04.3369.3CD (P = 0.05)0.0490.643.84.50.30.332.5

Sanwer et al.,2012HyderabadTable 24.Grain quality parameters of finger millet as influenced by nutrient management practices * RDF 40:20:20 N:P2O5: K2O


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Levels of Zn*(kg ha-1)Yield(t ha-1)Total Zn uptake (g ha-1)Total Carbohydrate (%)Wet gluten (%)GrainStraw 03.884.76214.3960.0110.05 1.253.934.81222.7061.1510.30 2.504.044.88246.1964.3710.93 5.004.245.09271.5665.6011.8910.004.625.42295.9369.2012.1920.004.665.44327.7470.3712.37Mean4.235.06263.0865.1211.28C.D. (5%)0.450.5635.334.350.86

Table 25. Effect of Zn application on yield and total Zn uptake by wheat in Vertisol (Pooled data of two year)Keram et al ., 2012Jabalpur *RDF (120N: 60 P2O5: 40 K2O kg ha-1)+ZnSO4

total carbohydrate and wet gluten content on wheat grain (70.37 and 12.37 per cent, respectively) was recorded with treatment comprising (DTPA-Zn )20 kg Zn ha-1, which was significantly higher than the control. The treatment with application of 2.50, 5 and 10 kg Zn ha-1 was at par to 20 kg Zn ha-1 on both total carbohydrate and wet gluten content on wheat grain. The minimal total carbohydrate and wet gluten content on wheat grain (60.01 and 10.05 per cent, respectively) was recorded in control, which was statistically at par to the treatments with the application of 1.25 kg Zn ha-1 on total carbohydrate and wet gluten content on wheat grain. This indicates that there is value to increase Zn level more than 1.25 kg ha-1 for obtaining high total carbohydrate and wet gluten, of grains. This might be due to Zn contributed in photosynthesis, chlorophyll, metabolism of starch formation and


. The recommended doses of N, P and K were applied @ 120 N: 60 P2O5: 40 K2O kg ha-1 32

Nitrogen fertilizer treatment* (kg/ha) Rough Head RiceYield (t/ha)Head Rice (%)Head rice yield (t/ha)Protein (%)PPMTPIPLTotal000005.3c37.5c2.0c5.6c12006001809.3b47.1b4.4b7.6b606060452259.9a57.7a5.7a9.6a

Table 26. Effect of rate and timing of nitrogen fertilizer application on rice yield and quality characteristics.Consuelo et al.,1992 IRRIPP- preplant, MT-Max.tilliring , PI-Panicle intition , PL-Flowering

Table 27. Effect of herbicide treatments on mean carbohydrate% and protein% of maize, in 2013 and 2014 seasonsCarbohydrate (%)Protein (%)TreatmentsRate a.i. g/fed*2013 season2014 Season2013 season2014 seasonAcetochlor 84% EC (Harness)84075.61 cd77.5 cd7.9 bc6.9 eAcetochlor 84 % CS1680 84.39 ab86.5 ab9.5 ab9.0 abSulcotrione 15% SC300 81.62 b83.4 bc8.2 b8.0 abMetribuzin 70%WG420 g87.27 a88.4 a10.1 a9.5 aPendimethalin 45.5% CS (Stomp Extra)682.5 80.17 bc75.3 de7.5 c7.2 cdePendimethalin 45.5% SC1365 81.12 b81.9 c7.9 bc7.5 bcHand hoeingTwice82.55 ab83.8 bc8.3 b7.5 bcUnweeded (control)--------------71.7 e72.42 e6.8 e6.6 g

Shaba et al., 2015

Egypt*feddan = 4200 m2

feddan= 4200 m2metribuzin inhibits photosynthesis by blocking electron transfer from compound Q to plastoquinone in photosystem II (Fedtke, 1982) and hence prevent the reduction of NADP+ required for CO2 fixation.

Nitrate accumumulation morein 34

TreatmentKernel protein concentration(%)Kernel amylose concentration(%)2008200920082009No weeding6.61 e6.54 e18.63 f18.56 fHand weeding7.99 a7.96 a22.31 a22.23 aHoeing7.96 a7.93 a22.18 b22.08 bTine cultivator7.56 b7.48 b21.30 c21.22 cHerbicide PoE (Nominee)7.31 c7.22 c19.27 d19.16 dSpike hoeLSD 0.057.05 d0.156.94 d0.0918.95 e0.0718.84 e0.10

Table 28. The effect of various weed control measures on grain quality of direct-seeded dry riceMuhammad et al., 2008Pakistan

In the 2008 harvest, grain protein concentration was highest in the hand weeded plots (7.99%) followed by the tine cultivated ones (7.56%), the herbicide treated ones (7.31%), the spike hoed ones (7.05%) and the non-weeded control ones (6.61%). Similarly, protein concentration in the 2009 harvest varied from 7.96% (hand weeded plots) to 6.54% (non-weeded plots). The amylose concentration of grain from the hand weeded plots was 22.31% in 2008 and 22.23% in 2009; from the hoed plots the proportions were 22.18% and 22.08%; from the tine cultivated plots 21.30% and 21.22%; from the herbicide treated plots 19.27% and 19.16%; from the spike hoed plots 18.95% and 18.84%, and from the non-weeded control plots 18.63% and 18.56%. The grains water absorption ratios in the 2008 and 2009 harvests were 4.47 and4.39 (hand weeded plots), 4.33 and 4.24 (hoed plots), 4.08 and 3.94 (tine cultivated plots), 3.68 and 3.57 (herbicide treated plots),3.33 and 3.22 (spike hoed plots) and 2.94 and 2.86 (non-weeded control plots).

The herbicide treatment (bispyribac sodium @250 mL ha-1 (Nominee 100 SC) ) showed generally less effectiveness than that of hand weeding, hoeing and tine cultivator, but better than that of control and spike hoe. This difference in effectiveness may be a result of the active ingredient of the herbicide and its mode of action, as it inhibits acetolactate synthase(ALS).

35

Weed control practices KernelLength(mm)Chalkykernels (%) Kernel proteinconcentration(%) Kernel amyloseconcentration(%) Kernel waterAbsorption ratio Control (weedy check)7.65 d23.36 b7.23 b20.56 b3.30 cdHand pulling (30, 45 and 60

days after sowing)7.83 a25.82 a7.97 a22.39 a4.35 aMechanical hoeing

(30,45 and 60 days after sowing)7.81 a24.85 ab7.95 a22.04 a3.89 abButachlor (1.8 kg a.i. ha-1)7.75 c24.14 ab7.30 ab19.89 c3.76 bcPendimethalin (1.65 kg a.i. ha-1)7.77 bc25.52 a6.52 c18.76 d2.92 bPretilachlor (1.25 kg a.i. ha-1)7.80 ab24.10ab7.50 ab19.33 cd3.74 bcLSD at p 5%0.031.800.680.620.52

Table 29. Effect of weed control practices on quality parameters of direct sown rice Nadeem et al ., 2011Pakistan

Kernel protein and amylose contents were noted maximum for the hand pulling and mechanical hoeing followed by the weedy check while they were noted minimum for the chemical weed control treatments (Table 4). Kernel water absorption ratio was noted maximum in the hand pulling treatment and the minimum in pendimethalin

Mechanical hoeing resulted in significant increase (25.1 %) in grain yield over control despite lower percentage inhibition in total weed density and dry weight over control compared with the other weed control treatments. This may be due tothe enhanced nutrient availability due to soil stirring during carrying out the mechanical hoeing (Arif et al. 2004)(Arif M, Awan IU, Khan HHU (2004) Weed management strategies in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Pak J Weed Sci Res 10:11-16

Begum M, Juraimi AS, Amartalingam R, Man BA, Rastans- Bin-Syed SO (2006) The effects of sowing depth and flooding on the emergence, survival, and growth of). Higher harvest index recorded in hand pulling and pretilachlor was due to more grain yield and comparatively lower straw yield recorded in these treatments. Higher percentage of sterile spikelets, opaque and chalky kernels in the weedy check compared with the weed control treatments may be the result of rigorous competition among crop and weeds for nutrients, space, light and carbon dioxide (Tindal et al. 2005).(Tindall KV, Williams BJ, Stout MJ, Geaghan JP, LeonardBR, Webster EP (2005) Yield components and quality of rice in response to graminaceous weed,density and rice stink bug populations. Crop Protec 24: 991-998) Weed free environment was helpful in improving the kernel quality of rice (Singh, 2008c; (Singh S, Ladha JK, Gupta RK, Bhushan L, Rao AN (2008a)Weed management in aerobic rice systems under varying establishment methods. Crop Protec 27: 660-671)Better kernel quality like increased grain length and improved amylose and protein concentrations in the weed control treatments compared with the weedy check were due to less weed competition and healthy rice kernels 36

Table 30. Dehulling quality of pearl millet grains.Dehulled grain recovery (%)Hand poundingBarley pearlerTADD*DehulledDehulledDehulledCultivarGrain Hardness (kg)GrainBrokensTotalGrainBrokensTotalGrainBrokensTotalMossi Local3.677.210.387.586.0 1.6 87.687.21.288.4WC-C753.475.311.987.286.80.787.586.21.487.6SAD 4483.072.012.084.086.60.787.385.50.686.1CJVT II3.471.714.386.089.50.690.188.30.688.9SE0.I3 1.940.871.161.300.700.701.080.230.98

*TADD: Tangential Abrasive Dehulling Device.Grain hardness was measured as the kg-force required break the grain using a Kiya hardness tester.Jambunathan , 2000ICRISAT

Total soluble sugars (%) Total available lysine (%) Storage time (months) 10 oC25 oC45oC10 oC25 oC45 oCRice

04.40 0.2a4.40 0.1a4.40 0.1a1.90 0.1a1.90 0.1a1.90 0.1a34.50 0.3b5.10 0.1b4.10 0.2b1.80 0.1b1.00 1.0b1.40 0.1b64.65 0.1c5.80 0.2c2.80 0.2c1.70 0.2c1.45 0.2c1.25 0.1cMaize

03.60 0.1a3.60 0.2a3.60 0.2a2.80 0.2a2.80 0.2a2.80 0.2a33.90 0.2b4.00 0.2b3.00 0.2b2.70 0.1b2.50 0.2b2.45 0.2b64.15 0.2c4.35 0.2c2.00 0.3c2.60 0.2c2.40 0.2c2.22 0.2cWheat

03.44 0.2a3.44 0.3a3.44 0.4a2.92 0.2a2.92 0.2a2.92 0.1a33.58 0.2b3.68 0.1b2.83 0.1b2.82 0.2b2.64 0.1b2.48 0.1b63.76 0.3c3.85 0.1c2.16 0.2c2.73 0.1c2.39 0.1c2.26 0.2c

Table 31.Storage eects on total soluble sugars and total available lysine contents of cereal grains (means SD, triplicate samples)Rehman, 2006Pakistan

The decrease in total available lysine during storageat different temperatures could be the result of somestructural changes which inhibited proteolysis and aminoacid solubility (Martin-Cabrejas et al., 1995; Sowunmi,1981).

The increase in the soluble sugarscould be the result of activity of endogenous amylases(Kramer, Guyer, & Ide, 1949) whereas the decrease insoluble sugars at 45 C might be due to their involvementin Maillard reactions (Glass, Ponte, Christensen,& Gedder, 1959)Decreases in protein and starch digestibilities could be the result of Maillard reactions, during which free amino groups of protein and carbonyl groups of reducing sugars form complex intermediate compounds by interacting with each other during storage. These complex compounds might have inhibited the activity of proteolytic and amy- lolytic enzymes which ultimately caused distinct reductions in protein and starch digestibilities

Nutritional quality of cereal gains was adversely affected as a result of storage at elevated temperatures. Protein and starch digestibilities of cereal grains de- creased to various extents on storage at 25 and 45 C for six months. Signicant losses of lysine and thiamine occurred on storage of cereal grains at 25 and 45 C. At 45 C, losses in soluble sugars were also observed during six month s storage of cereal grains. In view of these facts, it is suggested that cereal grains (wheat, maize and rice) should not be stored above 25 C in order to minimize nutrient losses during storage.

38

Independent

variablesDependent variablesGrain moisture (%)Aflatoxin

(g/kg)Weight loss

(%)Seed germination (%)Starch

(%)Falling number

(second)Storage systemFerrocement bin12.75b3.900b0.740b83.0a65.16a296.7aRoom type store13.93a8.975a2.025a76.0b63.32b292.5bLSD 0.050.00730.04680.004520.45320.004530.4053Storage duration3 months13.69a3.400d0.44d89.5a65.39a302.5a6 months12.95d5.550c0.90c85.5b65.0b298.5b9 months13.15c7.250b1.74b77.5c63.89c293.5c12 months13.55b9.550a2.45a65.5d62.68d284.0dLSD 0.050.01030.06620.006410.64090.00640.5732

Table 32. Wheat quality parameters based on storage system and storage duration.Shakeel et al., 2015Pakistan

Grain stored for one year in ferrocement bin retained better germination percentage, starch content and falling number than grain stored in room type store. Ferrocement bin protected stored wheat from deterioration caused by fungi, aflatoxin, and insects while wheat stored in conventional room type store suffered severe damages. Ferrocement bin showed lower grain moisture and grain weight loss throughout the storage period than room type store. The quality of wheat in traditional room type storage system was low and this storage system was inadequate for protecting stored wheat from deterioration. Therefore ferrocement bin has proven to be a promising solution for storage of good quality grain.starch content The higher rate of decrease of starch content in room type store could be due to higher moisture and temperature conditions.decrease in starch content of cereal grains due to the consumption of carbohydrates as a source of energy for growth of fungi during storage

Thus, the alpha amylases quickly hydrolyse the starch in the endosperm of the wheat grain, forming sections ofglucose sub-units called maltodextrins. The maltodextrinsare then hydrolysed by maltase into glucose. Kruger andTipples (1980) reported that pre-harvest sprouting of grain or sprouting during grain storage at high temperature and moistness builds the level of - amylase enzyme. The raise in alpha-amylase activity has a very drastic effect on the dough and bread making process. The flour with high - amylase activity produces a sticky bread crumb together with a low volume, which are detrimental for bread making quality 39

Fig 2.Ferrocement bin

Relative humidity and ambient temperature conditions of the study area ranged from 24.53 to 41.42 C and 63 to 77%, respectively. This high humidity and temperature condition was suitable for insects and fungal growth which deteriorate stored grain quality. The insects that grow inside the stored grains are actually thermophillic in nature hence they survive even in higher temperature. Insects start to develop when the temperature of grain reach at 18 C and continue to rise in quantity even at 25 to 35 C 40

Fig 3. Eect of drying method on percentage of head rice obtained for KDML 105 rice samples stored as whole grains for 10 months.Sugunya et al ., 2003Thailand

On average, the percentages of whiteness of milled rice was 44.30%, and 44.79%, as obtained from paddy dried by high temperature hot air (70C) and modied air at 30 C, respectively

sun-drying and the drying methods using hot air at 40 and 50 C and modied air at 40 C resulted in higher percentages of whiteness of the milled rice.

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Fig 4 . Whiteness of KDML 105 rice samples subjected to the 6 methods of drying at monthly intervals up to 10 months of storage.Sugunya et al ., 2003Thailand

The drying method and storage time, as important post-harvest processing variables for rice grains, have signicant eects on the aroma and milling quality of aromatic rice KDML 105 stored as whole grains. An appropriate post-harvest treatment for KDML 105 rice, according to this study, should be one which employs drying methods with low temperature, for example, modied or hot air at 3040 C, together with as short a storage time as possible to ensure better aroma quality. From the results of this work, drying by hot air at 70 C should be discounted as it gives a percentage of head rice less than one half of that obtained by the other drying methods, regardless of the storage time42

Conclusion Inoculations of both VAM and PSB have attributed the synergistic effect on grain yield and protein content in maize crop.Crop rotation of wheat with fababean increases grain yield and protein content and restores soil fertility.Application of FYM with inorganic fertilizer enhances the yield and improves grain quality and along with physico-chemical and biological properties of soil in pearl millet.Foliar spray of micronutrients hastens the grain quality parameters in finger millet.

Future line of work Agronomic investigation on improvement of quality of cereals is required. Relationship between nutrients and quality of grain has to be studied. Effect of irrigation and weed management practices on grain quality of cereals should be brought to limelight.

Thank you.!

technologies for improving grain quality of cereals

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