technical - emerpol · 2018. 5. 23. · the technical reference section includes articles covering...

The Technical Reference section includes articles covering regulator

theory, sizing, selection, overpressure protection, and other topics relating

to regulators. This section begins with the basic theory of a regulator

and ends with conversion tables and other informative charts. If there’s

something you need to know about a regulator that’s not covered in this

section, please contact your local sales office.

TECHNICAL

Table of Contents

448

TECHNICAL

Regulator Control TheoryFundamentals of Gas Pressure Regulators ..................... 453Pilot-Operated Regulators ............................................. 454Conclusion ..................................................................... 454

Regulator Components

Straight Stem Style Direct-Operated ............................. 455Lever Style Direct-Operated 4576Loading Style (Two-Path

Control) Pilot-Operated .................................... 457Unloading Style Pilot-Operated .................................... 458

Introduction to Regulators

Specific Regulator Types ............................................... 459Pressure Reducing Regulators ................................. 456Backpressure Regulators and Relief Valves ............ 460Pressure Switching Valves ....................................... 460

Types of Regulators ....................................................... 460Direct-Operated (Self-Operated) Regulators ........... 460Pilot-Operated Regulators ...................................... 460

Regulator Selection Criteria ........................................... 460Control Application ................................................ 460Pressure Reducing Regulator Selection ................... 461Outlet Pressure to be Maintained ............................ 461Inlet Pressure of the Regulator ................................ 461Capacity Required .................................................. 461Shutoff Capability ................................................... 461Process Fluid .......................................................... 461Process Fluid Temperature ..................................... 461Accuracy Required ................................................. 461Pipe Size Required .................................................. 461End Connection Style .............................................. 462Required Materials ................................................. 462Control Lines .......................................................... 462Stroking Speeds ...................................................... 462Overpressure Protection .......................................... 462Regulator Replacement ........................................... 462Regulator Price ....................................................... 462

Backpressure Regulator Selection .................................. 463Relief Valve Selection .................................................... 463

Theory

Principles of Direct-Operated RegulatorsIntroduction .................................................................. 464

Regulator Basics ........................................................... 464Essential Elements ........................................................ 464

Restricting Element ................................................ 465Measuring Element ................................................ 465Loading Element .................................................... 465

Regulator Operation ...................................................... 465Increasing Demand ................................................ 465Decreasing Demand ............................................... 465Weights versus Springs ............................................ 465Spring Rate ............................................................. 466Equilibrium with a Spring ...................................... 466

Spring as Loading Element ........................................... 466Throttling Example ................................................ 466Regulator Operation and P2 .................................... 467Regulator Performance ........................................... 467Performance Criteria ............................................... 467Setpoint ................................................................... 467Droop ..................................................................... 467Capacity ................................................................. 467Accuracy ................................................................ 467Lockup.................................................................... 467

Spring Rate and Regulator Accuracy ............................ 468Spring Rate and Droop ........................................... 468Effect on Plug Travel .............................................. 468Light Spring Rate ................................................... 468Practical Limits ...................................................... 468

Diaphragm Area and Regulator Accuracy .................... 468Diaphragm Area..................................................... 468Increasing Diaphragm Area ................................... 469Diaphragm Size and Sensitivity .............................. 469

Restricting Element and Regulator Performance ........... 469Critical Flow .......................................................... 469Orifice Size and Capacity ....................................... 469Orifice Size and Stability ........................................ 470Orifice Size, Lockup, and Wear .............................. 470Orifice Guideline .................................................... 470Increasing P1 .......................................................... 470

Factors Affecting Regulator Accuracy .......................... 470Performance Limits ....................................................... 470

Cycling ................................................................... 4701esign Variations .................................................... 470Improving Regulator Accuracy with a Pitot Tube... 471Numerical Example ............................................... 471Decreased Droop (Boost) ........................................ 471

Improving Performance with a Lever ............................ 471

Principles of Pilot-Operated RegulatorsPilot-Operated Regulator Basics ................................... 472

Regulator Pilots ...................................................... 472Gain ....................................................................... 472

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Disadvantages ........................................................ 480Monitoring Regulators .................................................. 481

Advantages ............................................................. 481Disadvantages ........................................................ 481

Working Monitor .......................................................... 481Series Regulation ........................................................... 481

Advantages ............................................................. 482Disadvantages ........................................................ 482

Shutoff Devices ............................................................. 482Advantages ............................................................. 482Disadvantages ........................................................ 482

Relief Monitor............................................................... 482Summary ....................................................................... 483

Principles of Relief ValvesOverpressure Protection ................................................ 484Maximum Pressure Considerations ............................... 484

Downstream Equipment ......................................... 484Main Regulator ...................................................... 484Piping ..................................................................... 484

Relief Valves ................................................................. 484Relief Valve Popularity ........................................... 485Relief Valve Types .................................................. 485

Selection Criteria ........................................................... 485Pressure Buildup ..................................................... 485Periodic Maintenance ............................................. 485Cost versus Performance ......................................... 485Installation and Maintenance Considerations ........ 485

Pop Type Relief Valve ................................................... 485Operation ............................................................... 485Typical Applications .............................................. 486Advantages ............................................................. 486Disadvantage ......................................................... 486

Identifying Pilots .................................................... 472Setpoint ................................................................... 472Spring Action.......................................................... 472Pilot Advantage ...................................................... 472

Gain and Restrictions .................................................... 472Stability .................................................................. 472Restrictions, Response Time, and Gain ................... 473

Loading and Unloading Designs .................................. 473Two-Path Control (Loading Design) ....................... 473Two-Path Control Advantages ................................ 473Unloading Control ................................................. 474Unloading Control Advantages .............................. 474

Performance Summary .................................................. 474Accuracy ................................................................ 474Capacity ................................................................. 474Lockup.................................................................... 475Applications ........................................................... 475

Two-Path Control .......................................................... 475Type 1098-EGR ...................................................... 475Type 99 ................................................................... 476

Unloading Design ......................................................... 476

Selecting and Sizing Pressure Reducing RegulatorsIntroduction .................................................................. 477The Natural Gas Regulators Application Guide ........... 477

Quick Selection Guides ........................................... 477Product Pages ......................................................... 477The Role of Experience ........................................... 477Special Requirements .............................................. 477

Sizing Equations ............................................................ 477General Sizing Guidelines ............................................. 478

Body Size ................................................................ 478Construction ........................................................... 478Pressure Ratings ...................................................... 478Wide-Open Flow Rate ............................................. 478Outlet Pressure Ranges and Springs ........................ 478Accuracy ................................................................ 478Inlet Pressure Losses ............................................... 478Orifice Diameter ..................................................... 478Speed of Response ................................................... 478Turn-Down Ratio .................................................... 478

Sizing Exercise: Industrial Plant Gas Supply ............... 478

Overpressure Protection MethodsMethods of Overpressure Protection .............................. 480Relief Valves ................................................................. 480

Types of Relief Valves ............................................. 480Advantages ............................................................. 480

Direct-Operated Relief Valves ....................................... 486Operation ............................................................... 486Product Example .................................................... 487Typical Applications .............................................. 487Selection Criteria .................................................... 487

Pilot-Operated Relief Valves ......................................... 488Operation ............................................................... 488Product Example .................................................... 488Performance ........................................................... 489Typical Applications .............................................. 489Selection Criteria .................................................... 489

Internal Relief ............................................................... 489Operation ............................................................... 489Product Example .................................................... 490Performance and Typical Applications ................... 490Selection Criteria .................................................... 490

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Viscosity Corrections .............................................. 496Finding Valve Size .................................................. 496Predicting Flow Rate .............................................. 497Predicting Pressure Drop ........................................ 497Flashing and Cavitation ......................................... 497Choked Flow .......................................................... 499Liquid Sizing Summary .......................................... 500Liquid Sizing Nomenclature .................................. 501

Sizing for Gas or Steam Service ..................................... 502Universal Gas Sizing Equation .............................. 502General Adaptation for Steam and Vapors .............. 503Special Equation for Steam Below 1000 psig .......... 503Gas and Steam Sizing Summary ............................. 503

Temperature Considerations

Cold Temperature ConsiderationsRegulators Rated for Low Temperatures ........................ 505Selection Criteria ........................................................... 505

FreezingIntroduction .................................................................. 506Reducing Freezing Problems ......................................... 506

Heat the Gas ........................................................... 506Antifreeze Solution ................................................. 506Equipment Selection ............................................... 506System Design ........................................................ 507Water Removal ....................................................... 507

Summary ....................................................................... 507

Sulfide Stress Cracking—NACE MR0175-2002,MR0175/ISO 15156

The Details .................................................................... 508New Sulfide Stess Cracking Standards For Refineries .... 508Responsibility ................................................................ 509Applicability of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 ................. 509Basics of Sulfide Strss Cracking (SSC) and Stress

Corrosion Cracking (SCC) ................................ 509Carbon Steel .................................................................. 510

Carbon and Low-Alloy SteelWelding Hardness Require-ments ................................................................ 510

Selection and Sizing Criteria ......................................... 490Maximum Allowable Pressure ................................ 490Regulator Ratings ................................................... 490Piping ..................................................................... 490Maximum Allowable System Pressure .................... 490Determining Required Relief Valve Flow ............... 490Determine Constant Demand ................................. 491

Selecting Relief Valves .................................................. 491Required Information .............................................. 491Regulator Lockup Pressure ..................................... 491Identify Appropriate Relief Valves ......................... 491Final Selection ........................................................ 491Applicable Regulations ........................................... 491

Sizing and Selection Exercise ........................................ 491Initial Parameters ................................................... 491Performance Considerations .................................... 491Upstream Regulator ................................................ 491Pressure Limits ....................................................... 492Relief Valve Flow Capacity .................................... 492Relief Valve Selection ............................................. 492

Principles of Series Regulation and Monitor RegulatorsSeries Regulation ........................................................... 493

Failed System Response .......................................... 493Regulator Considerations ........................................ 493Applications and Limitations .................................. 493

Upstream Wide-Open Monitors .................................... 493System Values ......................................................... 493Normal Operation .................................................. 493Worker Regulator B Fails ....................................... 494Equipment Considerations ...................................... 494

Downstream Wide-Open Monitors ................................ 494Normal Operation .................................................. 494Worker Regulator A Fails ....................................... 494

Upstream Versus Downstream Monitors ....................... 494Working Monitors ......................................................... 494Sizing Monitor Regulators ............................................ 495

Estimating Flow when Pressure Drop is Critical ..... 495Assuming Pintermediate to Determine Flow ............... 495

Fisher Monitor Sizing Program .................................... 495

Valve Sizing Calculations

Introduction .................................................................. 496Sizing for Liquid Service ............................................... 496

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Low-Alloy Steel Welding Hardness Requirements ... 511Cast Iron ....................................................................... 511Stainless Steel ................................................................ 511

400 Series Stainless Steel ......................................... 511300 Series Stainless Steel ......................................... 511S20910 .................................................................... 512CK3MCuN ............................................................. 512S17400 .................................................................... 512Duplex Stainless Steel ............................................. 512Highly Alloyed Sustenitic Stainless Steels ............... 512

Nonferrous Alloys ......................................................... 513Nickel-Base Alloys ................................................. 513Monel® K500 and Inconel® X750 ........................ 513Cobalt-Base Alloys ................................................. 513Aluminum and Copper Alloys ................................. 514Titanium ................................................................. 514Zirconium ............................................................... 514

Springs .......................................................................... 514Coatings ........................................................................ 514Stress Relieving ............................................................. 514Bolting .......................................................................... 514Bolting Coatings ............................................................ 514Composition Materials .................................................. 515Tubulars ........................................................................ 515Expanded Limits and Materials .................................... 515Codes and Standards ...................................................... 516Certifications ................................................................. 516

Reference

Powder Paint CoatingIntroduction .................................................................. 517Economic Advantages ................................................... 517Environmental Advantages ........................................... 517Mechanical Properties ................................................... 518Corrosion Resistance ..................................................... 518ASTM Test Results ........................................................ 518

Regulator TipsRegulator Tips ............................................................... 519

Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers and MetalsIntroduction .................................................................. 521Elastomers: Chemical Names and Uses ....................... 521General Properties of Elastomers .................................. 522

Fluid Compatibility of Elastomers ................................ 523Compatibility of Metals ................................................ 524

Conversions, Equivalents, and Useful InformationPressure Equivalents ..................................................... 526Pressure Conversion - Pounds per Square Inch

(PSI) to Bar ...................................................... 526Volume Equivalents ...................................................... 526Volume Rate Equivalents .............................................. 527Mass Conversion—Pounds to Kilograms....................... 527Temperature Conversion Formulas ............................... 527Area Equivalents ........................................................... 527Kinematic-Viscosity Conversion Formulas ................... 527Conversion Units ........................................................... 528Other Useful Conversions .............................................. 528Converting Volumes of Gas ........................................... 528Fractional Inches to Millimeters ................................... 529Length Equivalents ....................................................... 529Whole Inch-Millimeter Equivalents .............................. 529Metric Prefixes and Symbols ......................................... 529Greek Alphabet ............................................................. 529Length Equivalents - Fractional and Decimal

Inches to Millimeters ....................................... 530Temperature Conversions .............................................. 531A.P.I. and Baumé Gravity Tables and Weight Factors .... 534Characteristics of the Elements ..................................... 535Recommended Standard Specifications for Valve

Materials Pressure-Containing Castings .......... 536Physical Constants of Hydrocarbons ............................. 539Physical Constants of Various Fluids ............................. 540Properties of Water ........................................................ 542Properties of Saturated Steam ....................................... 542Properties of Saturated Steam—Metric Units ............... 545Properties of Superheated Steam ................................... 546Determine Velocity of Steam in Pipes ............................ 549Recommended Steam Pipe Line Velocities .................... 549Typical Condensation Rates in Insulated Pipes ............. 549Typical Condensation Rates without Insulation............. 549Flow of Water Through Schedule 40 Steel Pipes ........... 550Flow of Air Through Schedule 40 Steel Pipes ................ 552Average Properties of Propane ...................................... 554Orifice Capacities for Propane ....................................... 554Standard Domestic Propane Tank Specifications .......... 554Approximate Vaporization Capacities of

Propane Tanks ................................................. 554Pipe and Tubing Sizing .................................................. 555Vapor Pressures of Propane ........................................... 555Converting Volumes of Gas ........................................... 555

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BTU Comparisons ...................................................... 5555Capacities of Spuds and Orifices ................................... 556Kinematic Viscosity - Centistokes ................................. 559Specific Gravity of Typical Fluids vs

Temperature .................................................... 560Effect of Inlet Swage On Critical Flow

Cg Requirements .............................................. 561ANSI Face-To-Face Dimensions for

Flanged Regulators .......................................... 562Seat Leakage Classifications ......................................... 562Class VI Seat Leakage Allowable .................................. 562Pressure-Temperature Ratings for Valve Bodies ............ 563Diameter of Bolt Circles ................................................ 564

Wear and Galling Resistance Chart of MaterialCombinations ................................................... 565

Equivalent Lengths of Pipe Fittings and Valves ............ 565Pipe Data: Carbon and Alloy Steel—Stainless Steel ..... 566American Pipe Flange Dimensions ............................... 568DIN Cast Steel Flange Standards .................................. 568DIN Standards - DIN Cast Steel Valve Ratings ............. 568Drill Sizes for Pipe Taps ................................................ 570Standard Twist Drill Sizes ............................................. 570

GlossaryGlossary of Terms ......................................................... 571

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Fundamentals of Gas Pressure Regulators

The primary function of any gas regulator is to match the flowof gas through the regulator to the demand for gas placed uponthe system. At the same time, the regulator must maintain thesystem pressure within certain acceptable limits.

A typical gas pressure system might be similar to that shown inFigure 1, where the regulator is placed upstream of the valve orother device that is varying its demand for gas from the regulator.

The loading element can be one of any number of things such asa weight, a handjack, a spring, a diaphragm actuator, or a pistonactuator, to name a few of the more common ones.

A diaphragm actuator and a spring are frequently combined, asshown in Figure 3, to form the most common type of loadingelement. A loading pressure is applied to a diaphragm to producea loading force that will act to close the restricting element. Thespring provides a reverse loading force which acts to overcomethe weight of the moving parts and to provide a fail-safe operat-ing action that is more positive than a pressure force.

If the load flow decreases, the regulator flow must decrease also.Otherwise, the regulator would put too much gas into the systemand the pressure (P2) would tend to increase. On the other hand,if the load flow increases, then the regulator flow must increasealso in order to keep P

2 from decreasing due to a shortage of gas

in the pressure system.

From this simple system it is easy to see that the prime job of theregulator is to put exactly as much gas into the piping system asthe load device takes out.

If the regulator were capable of instantaneously matching its flowto the load flow, then we would never have major transientvariation in the pressure (P

2) as the load changes rapidly. From

practical experience we all know that this is normally not the case,and in most real-life applications, we would expect some fluctua-tions in P2 whenever the load changes abruptly.

Since the regulator’s job is to modulate the flow of gas into thesystem, we can see that one of the essential elements of anyregulator is a Restricting Element that will fit into the flow streamand provide a variable restriction that can modulate the flow ofgas through the regulator.

Figure 2 shows a schematic of a typical regulator restrictingelement. This restricting element is usually some type of valvearrangement. It can be a single-port globe valve, a cage style valve,butterfly valve, or any other type of valve that is capable ofoperating as a variable restriction to the flow.

In order to cause this restricting element to vary, some type ofloading force will have to be applied to it. Thus we see that thesecond essential element of a gas regulator is a Loading Elementthat can apply the needed force to the restricting element.

Figure 1

So far, we have a restricting element to modulate the flow throughthe regulator, and we have a loading element that can apply thenecessary force to operate the restricting element. But, how do weknow when we are modulating the gas flow correctly? How dowe know when we have the regulator flow matched to the loadflow? It is rather obvious that we need some type of MeasuringElement which will tell us when these two flows have beenperfectly matched. If we had some economical method of directlymeasuring these flows, we could use that approach; however, thisis not a very feasible method.

We noted earlier in our discussion of Figure 1 that the systempressure (P2) was directly related to the matching of the twoflows. If the restricting element allows too much gas into thesystem, P

2 will increase. If the restricting element allows too little

gas into the system, P2 will decrease. We can use this convenient

fact to provide a simple means of measuring whether or not theregulator is providing the proper flow.

Figure 2

Figure 3

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Manometers, Bourdon tubes, bellows, pressure gauges, anddiaphragms are some of the possible measuring elements that wemight use. Depending upon what we wish to accomplish, some ofthese measuring elements would be more advantageous thanothers. The diaphragm, for instance, will not only act as ameasuring element which responds to changes in the measuredpressure, but it also acts simultaneously as a loading element. Assuch, it produces a force to operate the restricting element thatvaries in response to changes in the measured pressure. If we addthis typical measuring element to the loading element and therestricting element that we selected earlier, we will have a completegas pressure regulator as shown in Figure 4.

Let’s review the action of this regulator. If the restricting elementtries to put too much gas into the system, the pressure (P

2) will

increase. The diaphragm, as a measuring element, responds tothis increase in pressure and, as a loading element, produces aforce which compresses the spring and thereby restricts theamount of gas going into the system. On the other hand, if theregulator doesn’t put enough gas into the system, the pressure(P2) falls and the diaphragm responds by producing less force.The spring will then overcome the reduced diaphragm force andopen the valve to allow more gas into the system. This type ofself-correcting action is known as negative feedback. Thisexample illustrates that there are three essential elements neededto make any operating gas pressure regulator. They are aRestricting Element, a Loading Element, and a MeasuringElement. Regardless of how sophisticated the system maybecome, it still must contain these three essential elements.

Pilot-Operated Regulators

So far we have only discussed self-operated regulators. This is thename given tot hat class of regulators where the measured

Figure 4

Figure 5

pressure is applied directly to the loading element with nointermediate hardware. There are really only two basic configura-tions of self-operated regulators that are practical. These twobasic types are illustrated in Figures 4 and 5.

If the proportional band of a given self-operated regulator is toogreat for a particular application, there are a number of things wecan do. From our previous examples we recall that spring rate,valve travel, and effective diaphragm area were the three param-eters that affected the proportional band. In the last section wepointed out the way to change these parameters in order toimprove the proportional band. If these changes are eitherinadequate or impractical, the next logical step is to install apressure amplifier in the measuring or sensing line. This pressureamplifier is frequently referred to as a pilot.

Conclusion

It should be obvious at this point that there are fundamentals tounderstand in order to properly select and apply a gas regulatorto do a specific job. Although these fundamentals are profuse innumber and have a sound theoretical base, they are relativelystraightforward and easy to understand.

As you are probably aware by now, we made a number ofsimplifying assumptions as we progressed. This was done in theinterest of gaining a clearer understanding of these fundamentalswithout getting bogged down in special details and exceptions. Byno means has the complete story of gas pressure regulation beentold. The subject of gas pressure regulation is much broader inscope than can be presented in a single document such as this, butit is sincerely hoped that this application guide will help to gain aworking knowledge of some fundamentals that will enable one todo a better job of designing, selecting, applying, evaluating, ortroubleshooting any gas pressure regulation equipment.

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Straight Stem Style Direct-Operated Regulator Components

Type 133L

ORIFICE

INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE

BOOST PRESSURE

VALVE DISC

SPRING SEAT

SPRINGADJUSTOR

SPRING CASE

DIAPHRAGMHEAD

CAGE

VALVE STEMBALANCINGDIAPHRAGM

CLOSING CAP

VENT

EXTERNALCONTROL LINECONNECTIONREGISTRATION

DIAPHRAGM

BODY

DIAPHRAGMCASE

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Lever Style Direct-Operated Regulator Components

Type 627

INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

BODY

VALVE DISC

SPRING

ADJUSTING SCREW

DIAPHRAGM

LEVER

VENT

VALVE STEM

SPRING SEAT

ORIFICE

DIAPHRAGMHEAD

DIAPHRAGMCASE

CLOSING CAP

SPRING CASE

INTERNAL CONTROLREGISTRATION

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INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE

LOADING PRESSURE


Loading Style (Two-Path Control) Pilot-Operated Regulator Components

Type 1098-EGR

TRAVEL INDICATOR

CONTROL LINE(EXTERNAL)

1098 ACTUATOR

PILOT

INLET PRESSURE

INLINE FILTER

BALANCED EGR TRIM

VENT

PILOT SUPPLYPRESSURE

MAIN SPRING

BODY

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Unloading Style Pilot-Operated Regulator Components

Type EZR

2RUN

STA

RT

46

8

INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE

LOADING PRESSURE


TYPE 161EB PILOT

TYPE 252 PILOTSUPPLY FILTER

TYPE 112 RESTRICTOR

STRAINER BODY

VENTEXTERNALCONTROLLINE

TRAVELINDICATOR

PLUG ANDDIAPHRAGMTRIM

CAGE

EXTERNAL PILOTSUPPLY LINE

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Instrument engineers agree that the simpler a system is the betterit is, as long as it provides adequate control. In general,regulators are simpler devices than control valves. Regulatorsare self-contained, self-operated control devices which useenergy from the controlled system to operate whereas controlvalves require external power sources, transmitting instruments,and control instruments.Specific Regulator Types

Within the broad categories of direct-operated and pilot-operated regulators fall virtually all of the general regulatordesigns, including:

• Pressure reducing regulators• Backpressure regulators• Pressure relief valves• Pressure switching valves• Shutoff valves

Pressure Reducing Regulators

A pressure reducing regulator maintains a desired reducedoutlet pressure while providing the required fluid flow to satisfya downstream demand. The pressure which the regulatormaintains is the outlet pressure setting (setpoint) of the regula-tor.

Pressure Reducing Regulator Types

This section describes the various types of regulators. Allregulators fit into one of the following two categories:

1. Direct-Operated (also called Self-Operated)

2. Pilot-Operated

Direct-Operated (Self-Operated) Regulators

Direct-operated regulators are the simplest style of regulators.At low set pressures, typically below 1 psig (0,07 bar), they can

Figure 1. Type 627 Direct-Operated Regulator and Operational Schematic Figure 2. Type 1098-EGR PIlot-Operated Regulator and Operational Schematic

INLET PRESSURE

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSUREOUTLET PRESSURE


INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE

LOADING PRESSURE

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have very accurate (±1%) control. At high control pressures, upto 500 psig (34.5 bar), 10 to 20% control is typical.

In operation, a direct-operated, pressure reducing regulatorsenses the downstream pressure through either internal pressureregistration or an external control line. This downstreampressure opposes a spring which moves the diaphragm andvalve plug to change the size of the flow path through theregulator.

Pilot-Operated Regulators

Pilot-operated regulators are preferred for high flow rates orwhere precise pressure control is required. A popular type ofpilot-operated system uses two-path control. In two-pathcontrol, the main valve diaphragm responds quickly to down-stream pressure changes, causing an immediate correction in themain valve plug position. At the same time, the pilot diaphragmdiverts some of the reduced inlet pressure to the other side ofthe main valve diaphragm to control the final positioning of themain valve plug. Two-path control results in fast response andaccurate control.

A pressure relief valve limits pressure buildup (preventsoverpressure) at its location in a pressure system. The reliefvalve opens to prevent a rise of inlet pressure in excess of aspecified value. The pressure at which the relief valve begins toopen pressure is the relief pressure setting.

Relief valves and backpressure regulators are the same devices.The name is determined by the application. Fisher relief valvesare not ASME safety relief valves.

Shutoff Valves

Shutoff valves will close offthe flow if a pressure signal isoutside adjusted limits.

Pressure Switching Valves

Pressure switching valves are used in pneumatic logic systems.These valves are for either two-way or three-way switching.Two way switching valves are used for on/off service in pneu-matic systems.

Three-way switching valves direct inlet pressure from one outletport to another whenever the sensed pressure exceeds or dropsbelow a preset limit.

Regulator Selection Criteria

This section describes the procedure normally used to selectregulators for various applications. For most applications, thereis generally a wide choice of regulators that will accomplish therequired function. The vendor and the customer, workingtogether, have the task of deciding which of the availableregulators is best suited for the job at hand. The selectionprocedure is essentially a process of elimination wherein theanswers to a series of questions narrow the choice down to aspecific regulator.

Control Application

To begin the selection procedure, it’s necessary to define whatthe regulator is going to do. In other words, what is the controlapplication? The answer to this question will determine thegeneral type of regulator required, such as:

• Pressure reducing regulators• Backpressure regulators• Pressure relief valves

Figure 3. Type 63-EG Backpressure Regulator/Relief Valve and OperationalSchematic

Backpressure Regulators and Pressure Relief Valves

A backpressure regulator maintains a desired upstream pressureby varying the flow in response to changes in upstream pressure.


INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE

LOADING PRESSURE

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The selection criteria used in selecting each of these generalregulator types is described in greater detail in the followingsubsections.

Pressure Reducing Regulator Selection

The majority of applications require a pressure reducingregulator. Assuming the application calls for a pressure reducingregulator, the following parameters must be determined:

• Outlet pressure to be controlled

• Inlet pressure to the regulator• Capacity required• Shutoff capability required• Process fluid• Process fluid temperature• Accuracy required• Pipe size required• End connection style• Material requirements• Control line needed• Overpressure protection

Outlet Pressure to be Controlled

For a pressure reducing regulator, the first parameter todetermine is the required outlet pressure. When the outletpressure is known, it helps determine:

• Spring requirements• Casing pressure rating• Body outlet rating• Orifice rating and size• Regulator size

Inlet Pressure of the Regulator

The next parameter is the inlet pressure. The inlet pressure(minimum and maximum) determines the:

• Pressure rating for the body inlet• Orifice pressure rating and size• Main spring (in a pilot-operated regulator)• Regulator size

If the inlet pressure varies significantly, it can have an effect on:

• Accuracy of the controlled pressure• Capacity of the regulator• Regulator style (direct operated or pilot operated)

Capacity Required

The required flow capacity influences the following decisions:

• Size of the regulator• Orifice size• Style of regulator (direct-operated or pilot-operated)

Shutoff Capability

The required shutoff capability determines the type of diskmaterial:

• Standard disk materials are nitrile and neoprene, thesematerials provide the tightest shutoff.

• Other materials, such as nylon, Teflon (TFE),fuoroelastomer (FKM), and ethylenepropylene (EPDM),are used when standard material cannot be used.

• Metal disks are used in high temperatures and whenelastomers are not compatible with the process fluid;however, tight shutoff is typically not achieved.

Process Fluid

Each process fluid has its own set of unique characteristics interms of its chemical composition, corrosive properties, impuri-ties, flammability, hazardous nature, toxic effect, explosive limits,and molecular structure. In some cases special care must betaken to select the proper materials that will come in contactwith the process fluid.

Process Fluid Temperature

Fluid temperature may determine the materials used in theregulator. Standard regulators use steel and nitrile or neopreneelastomers that are good for a temperature range of -40° to180°F (-40° to 82°C). Temperatures above and below this rangemay require other materials, such as stainless steel,ethylenepropylene (EPDM), or perfluoroelastomer (FFKM).

Accuracy Required

The accuracy requirement of the process determines theacceptable droop (also called proportional band or offset).

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Regulators fall into the following groups as far as droop isconcerned:

• Rough-cut group. This group generally includes many first-stage, rough-cut direct-operated regulators. This groupusually has the highest amount of droop. However, somedesigns are very accurate, especially the low-pressure gas orair types, such as house service regulators, which incorporate a relatively large diaphragm casing.

• Close control group. This group usually includes pilot-operated regulators. They provide high accuracy over alarge range of flows. Applications that require close controlinclude these examples:

• Burner control where the fuel/air ratio is critical toburner efficiency and the gas pressure has a significanteffect on the fuel/air ratio

• Metering devices, such as gas meters, which requireconstantinput pressures to ensure accurate measurement

Pipe Size Required

If the pipe size is known, it gives the specifier of a new regulatora more defined starting point. If, after making an initial selectionof a regulator, the regulator is larger than the pipe size, it usuallymeans that an error has been made either in selecting the pipesize or the regulator, or in determining the original parameters(such as pressure or flow) required for regulator selection. Inmany cases, the outlet piping needs to be larger than theregulator for the regulator to reach full capacity.

End Connection Style

In general, the following end connections are available for theindicated regulator sizes:

• Pipe threads or socket weld: 2-inch (DN 50) and smaller• Flanged: 1-inch (DN 25) and larger• Butt weld: 1-inch (DN 25) and larger

Note: Not all end connections are available for all regulators.

Required Materials

The regulator construction materials are generally dictated bythe application. Standard materials are:

• Aluminum• Cast iron or ductile iron

• Steel• Bronze and brass• Stainless steel

Special materials required by the process can have an effect onthe type of regulator that can be used. Oxygen service, forexample, requires special materials, requires special cleaningpreparation, and requires that no oil or grease be in the regula-tor.

Control Lines

For pressure registration, control lines are connected down-stream of a pressure reducing regulator, and upstream of abackpressure regulator. Typically large direct-operated regula-tors have external control lines, and small direct-operatedregulators have internal registration instead of a control line.Most pilot-operated regulators have external control lines, butthis should be confirmed for each regulator type considered.

Stroking Speed

Stroking speed is often an important selection criteria. Direct-operated regulators are very fast, and pilot-operated regulatorsare slightly slower. Both types are faster than most controlvalves. When speed is critical, techniques can be used to decreasestroking time.

Overpressure Protection

The need for overpressure protection should always be consid-ered. Overpressure protection is generally provided by anexternal relief valve, or in some regulators, by an internal reliefvalve. Internal relief is an option that you must choose at thetime of purchase. The capacity of internal relief is usually limitedin comparison with a separate relief valve. Other methods suchas shutoff valves andmonitor regulators may also be used.

Regulator Replacement

When a regulator is being selected to replace an existing regula-tor, the existing regulator can provide the following information:

• Style of regulator• Size of regulator• Type number of the regulator• Special requirements for the regulator, such as downstream

pressure sensing through a control line versus internalpressure registration

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Backpressure Regulator Selection

Backpressure regulators control the inlet pressure rather thanthe outlet pressure. The selection criteria for a backpressureregulator is the same as for a pressure reducing regulator.

Relief Valve Selection

An external relief valve is a form of backpressure regulator. Arelief valve opens when the inlet pressure exceeds a set value.Relief is generally to atmosphere. The selection criteria is thesame as for a pressure reducing regulator.

Figure 4. Backpressure Regulator/Relief Valve Applications

MAIN VALVE

VENT VALVE B

BLOCK VALVE A

MAIN PRESSURE LINE

NONRESTRICTIVEVENTS AND PIPING

ALTERNATE PILOTEXHAUST PIPING

PILOT

CONTROL LINE

Relief Pressure Control at Relief Valve Inlet

BLOCK VALVE AVENT VALVE B

MAIN VALVE

VENT VALVE D

ALTERNATE PILOTEXHAUST PIPING

VENT VALVE C

PILOT

CONTROL LINE

Backpressure Control

Regulator Price

The price of a regulator is only a part of the cost of ownership.Additional costs include installation and maintenance. Inselecting a regulator, you should consider all of the costs thatwill accrue over the life of the regulator. The regulator with alow initial cost may not be the most economical in the long run.For example, a direct-operated regulator is generally lessexpensive, but a pilot-operated regulator may provide morecapacity per dollar. To illustrate, a 2-inch (DN 50) pilot-operatedregulator can have the same capacity and a lower price than a 3-inch (DN 80), direct-operated regulator.

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Introduction

Pressure regulators have become very familiar items over theyears, and nearly everyone has grown accustomed to seeingthem in factories, public buildings, by the roadside, and even onthe outside of their own homes. As is frequently the case withsuch familiar items, we have a tendency to take them for granted.It’s only when a problem develops, or when we are selecting aregulator for a new application, that we need to look moredeeply into the fundamentals of the regulator’s operation.

Regulators provide a means of controlling the flow of a gas orother fluid supply to downstream processes or customers. Anideal regulator would supply downstream demand whilekeeping downstream pressure constant; however, the mechanicsof direct-operated regulator construction are such that there willalways be some deviation (droop or offset) in downstreampressure.

larger opening and increased flow. Ideally, a regulator shouldprovide a constant downstream pressure while delivering therequired flow.

The service regulator mounted on the meter outside virtuallyevery home serves as an example. As appliances such as a furnaceor stove call for the flow of more gas, the service regulatorresponds by delivering the required flow. As this happens, thepressure should be held constant. This is important because thegas meter, which is the cash register of the system, is oftencalibrated for a given pressure.

Direct-operated regulators have many commercial and residentialuses. Typical applications include industrial, commercial, anddomestic gas service, instrument air supply, and a broad range ofapplications in industrial processes.

Regulators automatically adjust flow to meet downstreamdemand. Before regulators were invented, someone had to watcha pressure gauge for pressure drops which signaled an increase indownstream demand. When the downstream pressure decreased,more flow was required. The operator then opened the regulatingvalve until the gauge pressure increased, showing that down-stream demand was being met.

Essential Elements

Direct-operated regulators have three essential elements:

• A restricting element—a valve, disk, or plug• A measuring element—generally a diaphragm• A loading element—generally a spring

MEASURINGELEMENT

Figure 1. Direct-Operated Regulators

TYPE 630

Regulator Basics

A pressure reducing regulator must satisfy a downstreamdemand while maintaining the system pressure within certainacceptable limits. When the flow rate is low, the regulator plug ordisk approaches its seat and restricts the flow. When demandincreases, the plug or disk moves away from its seat, creating a Figure 2. Three Essential Elements

LOADINGELEMENT (WEIGHT)

RESTRICTINGELEMENT

TYPE HSR

133 SERIES

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Restricting Element

The regulator’s restricting element is generally a disk or plug thatcan be positioned fully open, fully closed, or somewhere inbetween to control the amount of flow. When fully closed, thedisk or plug seats tightly against the valve orifice or seat ring toshut off flow.

Measuring Element

The measuring element is usually a flexible diaphragm thatsenses downstream pressure (P2). The diaphragm moves aspressure beneath it changes. The restricting element is oftenattached to the diaphragm with a stem so that when thediaphragm moves, so does the restricting element.

Loading Element

A weight or spring acts as the loading element. The loadingelement counterbalances downstream pressure (P2). The amountof unbalance between the loading element and the measuringelement determines the position of the restricting element.Therefore, we can adjust the desired amount of flow throughthe regulator, or setpoint, by varying the load. Some of the firstdirect-operated regulators used weights as loading elements.Most modern regulators use springs.

Regulator Operation

To examine how the regulator works, let’s consider these valuesfor a direct-operated regulator installation:

• Upstream Pressure (P1) = 100 psig• Downstream Pressure (P2) = 10 psig• Pressure Drop Across the Regulator (P) = 90 psi• Diaphragm Area (AD) = 10 square inches• Loading Weight = 100 pounds

Let’s examine a regulator in equilibrium as shown in Figure 3.The pressure acting against the diaphragm creates a force actingup to 100 pounds.

Diaphragm Force (FD) = Pressure (P2) x Area of Diaphragm (AD)or

FD = 10 psig x 10 square inches = 100 pounds

The 100-pound weight acts down with a force of 100 pounds, soall the opposing forces are equal, and the regulator plug remainsstationary.

Increasing Demand

If the downstream demand increases, P2 will drop. The pressureon the diaphragm drops, allowing the regulator to open further.Suppose in our example P2 drops to 9 psig. The force acting upthen equals 90 pounds (9 psig x 10 square inches = 90 pounds).Because of the unbalance of the measuring element and theloading element, the restricting element will move to allow passageof more flow.

Decreasing Demand

If the downstream demand for flow decreases, downstreampressure increases. In our example, suppose P2 increases to 11psig. The force acting up against the weight becomes 110 pounds(11 psig x 10 square inches = 110 pounds). In this case, unbalancecauses the restricting element to move up to pass less flow orlockup.

Weights versus Springs

One of the problems with weight-loaded systems is that they areslow to respond. So if downstream pressure changes rapidly, ourweight-loaded regulator may not be able to keep up. Always

At Equilibrium

Figure 3. Elements

100 LBAREA = 10 IN2

P2 = 10 PSIGP1 = 10 PSIG

FW = 100 LB

FD = 100 LB

FD = (P2 x AD) = (10 PSIG)(10 IN2) = 100 LB

Open

100 LBAREA = 10 IN2


FW = 100 LB

FD = 90 LB

FD = (P2 x AD) = (9 PSIG)(10 IN2) = 90 LB



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behind, it may become unstable and cycle—continuously goingfrom the fully open to the fully closed position. There are otherproblems. Since the amount of weight controls regulatorsetpoint, the regulator is not easy to adjust. The weight willalways have to be on top of the diaphragm. So, let’s considerusing a spring. By using a spring instead of a weight, regulatorstability increases because a spring has less stiffness.

Spring Rate

We choose a spring for a regulator by its spring rate (K). Krepresents the amount of force necessary to compress the springone inch. For example, a spring with a rate of 100 pounds perinch needs 100 pounds of force to compress it one inch, 200pounds of force to compress it two inches, and so on.

Equilibrium with a Spring

Instead of a weight, let’s substitute a spring with a rate of 100pounds per inch. And, with the regulator’s spring adjustor, we’llwind in one inch of compression to provide a spring force (FS) of100 pounds. This amount of compression of the regulatorspring determines setpoint, or the downstream pressure that wewant to hold constant. By adjusting the initial spring compres-sion, we change the spring loading force, so P2 will be at adifferent value in order to balance the spring force.

Now the spring acts down with a force of 100 pounds, and thedownstream pressure acts up against the diaphragm producing aforce of 100 pounds (FD = P2 x AD). Under these conditions the

regulator has achieved equilibrium; that is, the plug or disk isholding a fixed position.

Spring as Loading Element

By using a spring instead of a fixed weight, we gain bettercontrol and stability in the regulator. The regulator will now beless likely to go fully open or fully closed for any change indownstream pressure (P2). In effect, the spring acts like amultitude of different weights.

Throttling Example

Assume we still want to maintain 10 psig downstream. Con-sider what happens now when downstream demand increasesand pressure P2 drops to 9 psig. The diaphragm force (FD)acting up is now 90 pounds.

FD = P2 x AD

FD = 9 psig x 10 in2

FD = 90 pounds

We can also determine how much the spring will move (extend)which will also tell us how much the disk will travel. To keep theregulator in equilibrium, the spring must produce a force (FS)equal to the force of the diaphragm. The formula for determin-ing spring force (FS) is:

FS = (K)(X)

where K = spring rate in pounds/inch and X = travel orcompression in inches.

AREA = 10 IN2

P1 = 10 PSIG

Spring as Element

At Equilibrium

FS = FDFS = (K)(X)

FD = (P2)(AD)

FS

FD

(TO KEEP DIAPHRAGM FROMMOVING)FD = (10 PSIG)(102) = 100 LB

FS = (100LB/IN)(X) = 100 LB

X = 1-INCH COMPRESSION

FS = 90 LB

FD = 90 LB

P1 = 100 PSIG P2 = 9 PSIG

0.1-INCH

Figure 4. Spring as Element

Figure 5. Plug Travel



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We know FS is 90 pounds and K is 100 pounds/inch, so we cansolve for X with:

X = FS ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ KX = 90 pounds ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ 100 pounds/inchX = 0.9 inch

The spring, and therefore the disk, has moved down 1/10-inch,allowing more flow to pass through the regulator body.

Regulator Operation and P2

Now we see the irony in this regulator design. We recall that thepurpose of an ideal regulator is to match downstream demandwhile keeping P2 constant. But for this regulator design toincrease flow, there must be a change in P2.

Regulator Performance

We can check the performance of any regulating system byexamining its characteristics. Most of these characteristics can bebest described using pressure versus flow curves as shown inFigure 6.

Performance Criteria

We can plot the performance of an ideal regulator such that nomatter how the demand changes, our regulator will match thatdemand (within its capacity limits) with no change in thedownstream pressure (P2). This straight line performancebecomes the standard against which we can measure theperformance of a real regulator.

Setpoint

The constant pressure desired is represented by the setpoint. Butno regulator is ideal. The downward sloping line on the diagramrepresents pressure (P2) plotted as a function of flow for anactual direct-operated regulator. The setpoint is determined bythe initial compression of the regulator spring. By adjusting theinitial spring compression you change the spring loading force,so P2 will be at a different value in order to balance the springforce. This establishes setpoint.

Droop

Droop, proportional band, and offset are terms used todescribe the phenomenon of P2 dropping below setpoint as flowincreases. Droop is the amount of deviation from setpoint at agiven flow, expressed as a percentage of setpoint. This “droop”curve is important to a user because it indicates regulating(useful) capacity.

Capacity

Capacities published by regulator manufacturers are given fordifferent amounts of droop. Let’s see why this is important.

Let’s say that for our original problem, with the regulator set at10 psig, our process requires 200 scfh (standard cubic feet perhour) with no more than a 1 psi drop in setpoint. We need tokeep the pressure at or above 9 psig because we have a low limitsafety switch set at 9 psig that will shut the system down ifpressure falls below this point.Figure 6 illustrates the performance of a regulator that can dothe job. And, if we can allow the downstream pressure to dropbelow 9 psig, the regulator can allow even more flow.

The capacities of a regulator published by manufacturers aregenerally given for 10 percent droop and 20 percent droop. Inour example, this would relate to flow at 9 psig and at 8 psig.

Accuracy

The accuracy of a regulator is determined by the amount offlow it can pass for a given amount of droop. The closer theregulator is to the ideal regulator curve (setpoint), the moreaccurate it is.

Lockup

Lockup is the pressure above setpoint that is required to shutthe regulator off tight. In many regulators, the orifice has a knife

Figure 6. Typical Performance Curve

As the flow rate approaches zero, P2 increases steeply. Lockup is the term applied to the value of P2 at zero flow.

LOCKUP

SETPOINT

DROOP(OFFSET)

WIDE-OPEN

P2

FLOW



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TECHNICAL

edge while the disk is a soft material. Some extra pressure, P2, isrequired to force the soft disk into the knife edge to make a tightseal. The amount of extra pressure required is lockup pressure.Lockup pressure may be important for a number of reasons.Consider the example above where a low pressure limit switchwould shut down the system if P2 fell below 9 psig. Nowconsider the same system with a high pressure safety cut outswitch set a 10.5 psig. Because our regulator has a lockuppressure of 11 psig, the high limit switch will shut the systemdown before the regulator can establish tight shutoff. Obviously,we’ll want to select a regulator with a lower lockup pressure.

Spring Rate and Regulator Accuracy

Using our initial problem as an example, let’s say we now needthe regulator to flow 300 scfh at a droop of 10 percent from ouroriginal setpoint of 10 psig. Ten percent of 10 psig = 1 psig, soP2 cannot drop below 10 - 1, or 9 psi. Our present regulatorwould not be accurate enough. For our regulator to pass 300scfh, P2 will have to drop to 8 psig, or 20% droop.

Spring Rate and Droop

One way to make our regulator more accurate is to change to alighter spring rate. To see how spring rate affects regulatoraccuracy, let’s return to our original example. We first tried aspring with a rate of 100 pounds/inch. Let’s substitute one witha rate of 50 pounds/inch. To keep the regulator in equilibrium,we’ll have to initially adjust the spring to balance the 100 poundforce produced by P2 acting on the diaphragm. Recall how wecalculate spring force:

FS = K (spring rate) x X (compression)

Knowing that FS must equal 100 pounds and K = 50 pounds/inch, we can solve for X, or spring compression, with:

X = FS ÷÷÷÷÷ K, or X = 2 inches

So, we must wind in 2-inches of initial spring compression tobalance diaphragm force, FD.

Effect on Plug Travel

We saw before that with a spring rate of 100 pounds/inch, whenP2 dropped from 10 to 9 psig, the spring relaxed (and the valvedisk traveled) 0.1 inch. Now let’s solve for the amount of disktravel with the lighter spring rate of 50 pounds per inch. Theforce produced by the diaphragm is still 90 pounds.

FD = P2 x AD

To maintain equilibrium, the spring must also produce a forceof 90 pounds. Recall the formula that determines spring force:

FS = (K)(X)

Because we know FS must equal 90 pounds and our spring rate(K) is 50 pounds/inch, we can solve for compression (X) with:

X = FS ÷÷÷÷÷ K

X = 90 pounds ÷÷÷÷÷ 50 pounds/inchX = 1.8 inches

To establish setpoint, we originally compressed this spring 2inches. Now it has relaxed so that it is only compressed 1.8inches, a change of 0.2 inch. So with a spring rate of 50 pounds/inch, the regulator responded to a 1 psig drop in P2 by openingtwice as far as it did with a spring rate of 100 pounds/inch.Therefore, our regulator is now more accurate because it hasgreater capacity for the same change in P2. In other words, it hasless droop or offset. Using this example, it is easy to see howcapacity and accuracy are related and how they are related tospring rate.

Light Spring Rate

Experience has shown that choosing the lightest available springrate will provide the most accuracy (least droop). For example, aspring with a range of 35 to 100 psig is more accurate than aspring with a range of 90 to 200 psig. If you want to set yourregulator at 100 psig, the 35 to 100 psig spring will providebetter accuracy.

Practical Limits

While a lighter spring can reduce droop and improve accuracy,using too light a spring can cause instability problems. Fortu-nately, most of the work in spring selection is done by regulatormanufacturers. They determine spring rates that will providegood performance for a given regulator, and publish these ratesalong with other sizing information.

Diaphragm Area and Regulator Accuracy

Diaphragm Area

Until this point, we have assumed the diaphragm area to beconstant. In practice, the diaphragm area changes with travel.We’re interested in this changing area because it has a majorinfluence on accuracy and droop.



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TECHNICAL

Diaphragms have convolutions in them so that they are flexibleenough to move over a rated travel range. As they changeposition, they also change shape because of the pressureapplied to them. Consider the example shown in Figure 7. Asdownstream pressure (P2) drops, the diaphragm moves down.As it moves down, it changes shape and diaphragm areaincreases because the centers of the convolutions becomefurther apart. The larger diaphragm area magnifies the effect ofP2 so even less P2 is required to hold the diaphragm in place.This is called diaphragm effect. The result is decreased accuracybecause incremental changes in P2 do not result in correspond-ing changes in spring compression or disk position.

Increasing Diaphragm Area

To better understand the effects of changing diaphragm area,let’s calculate the forces in the exaggerated example given inFigure 7. First, assume that the regulator is in equilibrium witha downstream pressure P2 of 10 psig. Also assume that the areaof the diaphragm in this position is 10 square inches. Thediaphragm force (FD) is:

FD = (P2)(AD)FD = (10 psi) (10 square inches)FD = 100 pounds

Now assume that downstream pressure drops to 9 psigsignaling the need for increased flow. As the diaphragm moves,its area increases to 11 square inches. The diaphragm force nowproduced is:

FD = (9 psi) (11 square inches)FD = 99 pounds

The change in diaphragm area increases the regulator’s droop.

SETPOINT

WIDE-OPEN

FLOW

P2

Figure 8. Critical Flow

While it’s important to note that diaphragm effect contributes todroop, diaphragm sizes are generally determined by manufac-turers for different regulator types, so there is rarely a useroption.

Diaphragm Size and Sensitivity

Also of interest is the fact that increasing diaphragm size canresult in increased sensitivity. A larger diaphragm area willproduce more force for a given change in P2. Therefore, largerdiaphragms are often used when measuring small changes inlow-pressure applications. Service regulators used in domesticgas service are an example.

Restricting Element and Regulator Performance

Critical Flow

While changing the orifice size can increase capacity, a regulatorcan pass only so much flow for a given orifice size and inletpressure, no matter how much we improve the unit’s accuracy.As you can see in Figure 8, after the regulator is wide-open,reducing P2 does not result in higher flow. This area of the flowcurve identifies critical flow. To increase the amount of flowthrough the regulator, the flowing fluid must pass at higher andhigher velocities. But, the fluid can only go so fast. Holding P1constant while deceasing P2, flow approaches a maximum whichis the speed of sound in that particular gas, or its sonic velocity.Sonic velocity depends on the inlet pressure and temperature forthe flowing fluid. Critical flow is generally anticipated whendownstream pressure (P2) approaches a value that is less thanor equal to one-half of inlet pressure (P1).

Orifice Size and Capacity

One way to increase capacity is to increase the size of the orifice.

Figure 7. Changing Diaphragm Area

DIAPHRAGM EFFECT ON DROOP

A = 10 IN2

FD1

A = 11 IN2

FD2

WHEN P2 DROPS TO 9

FD = P2 x A

FD1 = 10 x 10 = 100 LB

FD2 = 9 x 11 = 99 LB

CRITICAL FLOW



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TECHNICAL

The variable flow area between disk and orifice depends directlyon orifice diameter. Therefore, the disk will not have to travel asfar with a larger orifice to establish the required regulator flowrate, and droop is reduced. Sonic velocity is still a limiting factor,but the flow rate at sonic velocity is greater because more gas ispassing through the larger orifice.

Stated another way, a given change in P2 will produce a largerchange in flow rate with a larger orifice than it would with asmaller orifice. However, there are definite limits to the size oforifice that can be used. Too large an orifice makes the regulatormore sensitive to fluctuating inlet pressures. If the regulator isoverly sensitive, it will have a tendency to become unstable andcycle.

Orifice Size and Stability

One condition that results from an oversized orifice is known asthe “bathtub stopper” effect. As the disk gets very close to theorifice, the forces of fluid flow tend to slam the disk into theorifice and shut off flow. Downstream pressure drops and thedisk opens. This causes the regulator to cycle—open, closed,open, closed. By selecting a smaller orifice, the disk will operatefarther away from the orifice so the regulator will be more stable.

Orifice Size, Lockup, and Wear

A larger orifice size also requires a higher shutoff pressure, orlockup pressure. In addition, an oversized orifice usuallyproduces faster wear on the valve disk and orifice because itcontrols flow with the disk near the seat. This wear is acceleratedwith high flow rates and when there is dirt or other erosivematerial in the flowstream.

Orifice Guideline

Experience indicates that using the smallest possible orifice isgenerally the best rule-of-thumb for proper control and stability.

Increasing P1

Regulator capacity can be increased by increasing inlet pressure(P1).

Factors Affecting Regulator Accuracy

As we have seen, the design elements of a regulator—the spring,diaphragm, and orifice size—can affect its accuracy. Some ofthese inherent limits can be overcome with changes to theregulator design.

Performance Limits

The three curves in Figure 9 summarize the effects of spring rate,diaphragm area, and orifice size on the shape of the controlledpressure-flow rate curve. Curve A is a reference curve represent-

Figure 9. Increased Sensitivity

ing a typical regulator. Curve B represents the improvedperformance from either increasing diaphragm area or decreas-ing spring rate. Curve C represents the effect of increasingorifice size. Note that increased orifice size also offers higherflow capabilities. But remember that too large an orifice size canproduce problems that will negate any gains in capacity.

Cycling

The sine wave in Figure 10 might be what we see if we increaseregulator sensitivity beyond certain limits. The sine waveindicates instability and cycling.

Design Variations

All direct-operated regulators have performance limits thatresult from droop. Some regulators are available with featuresdesigned to overcome or minimize these limits.

Figure 10. Cycling

SETPOINT

AB

C

FLOW

P2

SETPOINT

TIME

P2

FLOW INCREASED



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TECHNICAL

Improving Regulator Accuracy with a Pitot Tube

In addition to the changes we can make to diaphragm area,spring rate, orifice size, and inlet pressure, we can also improveregulator accuracy by adding a pitot tube. Internal to theregulator, the pitot tube connects the diaphragm casing with alow-pressure, high velocity region within the regulator body.The pressure at this area will be lower than P2 further down-stream. By using a pitot tube to measure the lower pressure, theregulator will make more dramatic changes in response to any

instead of droop. So the use of a pitot tube, or similar device,can dramatically improve droop characteristics of a regulator.

Improving Performance with a Lever

The lever style regulator is a variation of the simple direct-operated regulator. It operates in the same manner, except that ituses a lever to gain mechanical advantage and provide a highshutoff force.

In earlier discussions, we noted that the use of a larger dia-phragm can result in increased sensitivity. This is because anychange in P2 will result in a larger change in diaphragm force.The same result is obtained by using a lever to multiply the forceproduced by the diaphragm as shown in Figure 13.

The main advantage of lever designs is that they provideincreased force for lockup without the extra cost, size, andweight associated with larger diaphragms, diaphragm casings,and associated parts.

Figure 11. Pitot Tube


SENSE PRESSURE HERE

psig to 9 psig, the pressure sensed by the pitot tube may dropfrom 8 psig to 6 psig. Therefore, the regulator opens furtherthan it would if it were sensing actual downstream pressure.

Decreased Droop (Boost)

The pitot tube offers one chief advantage for regulator accuracy,it decreases droop. As we see in Figure 12, the diaphragmpressure, PD, must drop just as low with a pitot tube as withoutto move the disk far enough to supply the required flow. But thesolid curve shows that P2 does not decrease as much as it didwithout a pitot tube. In fact, P2 may increase. This is called boost

Figure 12. Performance with Pitot Tube

PRESSURE

SETPOINTP2

PD

FLOW

Figure 13. Lever Style Regulator

PIVOT POINT

P2 = DOWNSTREAM PRESSUREPD = PRESSURE UNDER DIAPHRAGM

INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE


change in P2. In other words, the pitot tube tricks the regulator,causing it to respond more than it would otherwise.

Numerical Example

For example, we’ll establish setpoint by placing a gauge down-stream and adjusting spring compression until the gauge reads10 psig for P2. Because of the pitot tube, the regulator mayactually be sensing a lower pressure. When P2 drops from 10


Principles of Pilot-Operated Regulators

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TECHNICAL

Pilot-Operated Regulator Basics

In the evolution of pressure regulator designs, the shortcomingsof the direct-operated regulator naturally led to attempts toimprove accuracy and capacity. A logical next step in regulatordesign is to use what we know about regulator operation toexplore a method of increasing sensitivity that will improve allof the performance criteria discussed.

Identifying Pilots

Analysis of pilot-operated regulators can be simplified byviewing them as two independent regulators connected together.The smaller of the two is generally the pilot.

Setpoint

We may think of the pilot as the “brains” of the system.Setpoint and many performance variables are determined by thepilot. It senses P2 directly and will continue to make changes inPL on the main regulator until the system is in equilibrium. Themain regulator is the “muscle” of the system, and may be usedto control large flows and pressures.

Spring Action

Notice that the pilot uses a spring-open action as found indirect-operated regulators. The main regulator, shown in Figure1, uses a spring-close action. The spring, rather than loadingpressure, is used to achieve shutoff. Increasing PL from thepilot onto the main diaphragm opens the main regulator.

Pilot Advantage

Because the pilot is the controlling device, many of the perfor-mance criteria we have discussed apply to the pilot. For example,droop is determined mainly by the pilot. By using very smallpilot orifices and light springs, droop can be made small.Because of reduced droop, we will have greater usable capacity.Pilot lockup determines the lockup characteristics for thesystem. The main regulator spring provides tight shutoffwhenever the pilot is locked up.

Gain and Restrictions

Stability

While increased gain (sensitivity) is often considered an advan-tage, it also increases the gain of the entire pressure regulatorsystem. If the system gain is too high, it may become unstable.In other words, the regulator may tend to oscillate; over-reacting by continuously opening and closing. Pilot gain can bemodified to tune the regulator to the system. To provide ameans for changing gain, every pilot-operated regulator systemcontains both a fixed and a variable restriction. The relative sizeof one restriction compared to the other can be varied tochange gain and speed of response.

Regulator Pilots

To improve the sensitivity of our regulator, we would like to beable to sense P2 and then somehow make a change in loadingpressure (PL) that is greater than the change in P2. To accom-plish this, we can use a device called a pilot, or pressure ampli-fier.

The major function of the pilot is to increase regulator sensitiv-ity. If we can sense a change in P2 and translate it into a largerchange in PL, our regulator will be more responsive (sensitive) tochanges in demand. In addition, we can significantly reducedroop so its effect on accuracy and capacity is minimized.

Gain

The amount of amplification supplied by the pilot is called“gain.” To illustrate, a pilot with a gain of 20 will multiply theeffect of a 1 psi change on the main diaphragm by 20. Forexample, a decrease in P2 opens the pilot to increase PL 20 timesas much.

Figure 1. Pilot-Operated Regulator

MAINREGULATOR

UPSTREAM PRESSURE, P1

LOADING PRESSURE, PL

DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE, P2


PILOTREGULATOR

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increase PL to the desired level because of the larger fixedrestriction.

Loading and Unloading Designs

A loading pilot-operated design (Figure 2), also called two-pathcontrol, is so named because the action of the pilot loads PLonto the main regulator measuring element. The variablerestriction, or pilot orifice, opens to increase PL.

PILOT

FLOW

PILOT

FLOW

P2

P1

PL

VARIABLERESTRICTION SMALLER FIXED

RESTRICTION

LARGER FIXEDRESTRICTION

VARIABLERESTRICTION

P2P1

PL

P2

P2

TO M

AIN

REGU

LATO

R

TO M

AIN

REGU

LATO

R

Figure 2. Fixed Restrictions and Gain (Used on Two-Path Control Systems)

Figure 3. Unloading Systems

Restrictions, Response Time, and Gain

Consider the example shown in Figure 2 with a small fixedrestriction. Decreasing P2 will result in pressure PL increasing.Increasing P2 will result in a decrease in PL while PL bleeds outthrough the small fixed restriction.

If a larger fixed restriction is used with a variable restriction, thegain (sensitivity) is reduced. A larger decrease in P2 is required to

An unloading pilot-operated design (Figure 3) is so namedbecause the action of the pilot unloads PL from the mainregulator.

Two-Path Control (Loading Design)

In two-path control systems (Figure 4), the pilot is piped sothat P2 is registered on the pilot diaphragm and on the mainregulator diaphragm at the same time. When downstreamdemand is constant, P2 positions the pilot diaphragm so thatflow through the pilot will keep P2 and PL on the main regula-tor diaphragm. When P2 changes, the force on top of the mainregulator diaphragm and on the bottom of the pilot diaphragm

PILOT

FLOW

FIXEDRESTRICTION VARIABLE

RESTRICTION

P2

P1PL P2

TO M

AIN

REGU

LATO

R

Figure 4. Two-Path Control

VARIABLERESTRICTION

FLOW

FIXED RESTRICTION





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changes. As P2 acts on the main diaphragm, it begins reposition-ing the main valve plug. This immediate reaction to changes inP2 tends to make two-path designs faster than other pilot-operated regulators. Simultaneously, P2 acting on the pilotdiaphragm repositions the pilot valve and changes PL on themain regulator diaphragm. This adjustment to PL accuratelypositions the main regulator valve plug. PL on the main regula-tor diaphragm bleeds through a fixed restriction until the forceson both sides are in equilibrium. At that point, flow through theregulator valve matches the downstream demand.

Two-Path Control Advantages

The primary advantages of two-path control are speed andaccuracy. These systems may limit droop to less than onepercent. They are well suited to systems with requirements forhigh accuracy, large capacity, and a wide range of pressures.

Unloading Control

Unloading systems (Figure 5) locate the pilot so that P2 actsonly on the pilot diaphragm. P1 constantly loads under theregulator diaphragm and has access to the top of the diaphragmthrough a fixed restriction.

When downstream demand is constant, the pilot valve is openenough that PL holds the position of the main regulatordiaphragm. When downstream demand changes, P2 changes andthe pilot diaphragm reacts accordingly. The pilot valve adjustsPL to reposition and hold the main regulator diaphragm.

Unloading Control Advantages

Unloading systems are not quite as fast as two-path systems,and they can require higher differential pressures to operate.However, they are simple and more economical, especially inlarge regulators. Unloading control is used with popularelastomer diaphragm style regulators. These regulators use aflexible membrane to throttle flow.

Performance Summary

Accuracy

Because of their high gain, pilot-operated regulators areextremely accurate. Droop for a direct-operated regulator maybe in the range of 10 to 20 percent whereas pilot-operatedregulators are between one and three percent with values underone percent possible.

Capacity

Pilot-operated designs provide high capacity for two reasons.First, we have shown that capacity is related to droop. Andbecause droop can be made very small by using a pilot, capacityis increased. In addition, the pilot becomes the “brains” of thesystem and controls a larger, sometimes much larger, mainregulator. This also allows increased flow capabilities.

DO

WN

STR

EAM

PR

ESSU

RE

(P2)

HIGH CAPACITY

FLOW RATE

MINIMALDROOP

Figure 6. Pilot-Operated Regulator Performance Figure 5. Unloading Control

MAIN REGULATORDIAPHRAGM





FIXEDRESTRICTION

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INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE


LOADING PRESSURE

Figure 8. Type 99, Typical Two-Path Controlwith Integrally Mounted Pilot

Lockup

The lockup characteristics for a pilot-operated regulator are thelockup characteristics of the pilot. Therefore, with small orifices,lockup pressures can be small.

Applications

Pilot-operated regulators should be considered wheneveraccuracy, capacity, and/or high pressure are important selectioncriteria. They can often be applied to high capacity services withgreater economy than a control valve and actuator withcontroller.

Two-Path Control

In some designs (Figure 7), the pilot and main regulator areseparate components. In others (Figure 8), the system isintegrated into a single package. All, however, follow the basicdesign concepts discussed earlier.

Type 1098-EGR

The schematic in Figure 7 illustrates the Type 1098-EGRregulator’s operation. It can be viewed as a model for all two-path, pilot-operated regulators. The pilot is simply a sensitivedirect-operated regulator used to send loading pressure to themain regulator diaphragm.

Identify the inlet pressure (P1). Find the downstream pressure(P2). Follow it to where it opposes the loading pressure on themain regulator diaphragm. Then, trace P2 back to where itopposes the control spring in the pilot. Finally, locate the routeof P2 between the pilot and the regulator diaphragm.

Changes in P2 register on the pilot and main regulator dia-phragms at the same time. As P2 acts on the main diaphragm, itbegins repositioning the main valve plug. Simultaneously, P2acting on the pilot diaphragm repositions the pilot valve andchanges PL on the main regulator diaphragm. This adjustmentin PL accurately positions the main regulator valve plug.

Figure 7. Type 1098-EGR, Typical Two-Path Control

INLET PRESSURE

OUTLET PRESSURE

LOADING PRESSURE


, P1, P2

, PL

, P1, P2

, PL

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As downstream demand is met, P2 rises. Because P2 acts directlyon both the pilot and main regulator diaphragms, this designprovides fast response.

Type 99

The schematic in Figure 8 illustrates another typical two-pathcontrol design, the Type 99. The difference between the Type1098-EGR and the Type 99 is the integrally mounted pilot of theType 99.

The pilot diaphragm measures P2. When P2 falls below the pilotsetpoint, the diaphragm moves away from the pilot orifice andallows loading pressure to increase. This loads the top of themain regulator diaphragm and strokes the main regulator valveopen further.

Unloading Design

Unloading designs incorporate a molded composition dia-phragm that serves as the combined loading and restrictingcomponent of the main regulator. Full upstream pressure (P1) isused to load the regulator diaphragm when it is seated. Theregulator shown in Figure 9 incorporates an elastomeric valveclosure member.

Unloading regulator designs are slower than two-pathcontrol systems because the pilot must first react to changesin P2 before the main regulator valve moves. Recall that intwo-path designs, the pilot and main regulator diaphragmsreact simultaneously.

P1 passes through a fixed restriction and fills the space abovethe regulator diaphragm. This fixed restriction may beadjusted to increase or decrease regulator gain. P1 also fillsthe cavity below the regulator diaphragm. Because the surfacearea on the top side of the diaphragm is larger than the areaexposed to P1 below, the diaphragm is forced down against the

Figure 9. Type EZR, Unloading Design

INLET PRESSURE, P1

OUTLET PRESSURE, P2


cage to close the regulator.

When downstream demand increases, the pilot opens. Whenthe pilot opens, regulator loading pressure escapes down-stream much faster than P1 can bleed through the fixedrestriction. As pressure above the regulator diaphragmdecreases, P1 forces the diaphragm away from its seat.

When downstream demand is reduced, P2 increases until it’shigh enough to compress the pilot spring and close the pilotvalve. As the pilot valve closes, P1 continues to pass throughthe fixed restriction and flows into the area above the mainregulator diaphragm. This loading pressure, PL, forces thediaphragm back toward the cage, reducing flow through theregulator.

2RUN

STA

RT

46

8

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Selecting and Sizing Pressure Reducing Regulators

477

TECHNICALTECHNICAL

Introduction

Those who are new to the regulator selection and sizing processare often overwhelmed by the sheer number of regulator typesavailable and the seemingly endless lists of specifications inmanufacturer’s literature. This handbook is designed to assistyou in selecting a regulator that fits your application’s specificneeds.

The Natural Gas Regulators Application Guide

Although it might seem obvious, the first step is to consider theapplication itself. Some applications immediately point to agroup of regulators designed specifically for that type ofservice. The Natural Gas Regulator Application Guide isdivided into applications sections to help identify regulatorsthat are designed for specific applications. Within each sectionthere is an Application Map, Quick Selection Guide, anApplications section, and Product Pages. The Application Mapshows some of the common applications and the regulatorsthat are used in those applications. The Quick Selection Guidelists the regulators by application, and provides importantselection information about each regulator. The Applicationssection explains the applications covered in the section and italso explains many of the application considerations. TheProduct Pages provide specific details about the regulators thatare suitable for the applications covered in the section. To beginselecting a regulator, turn to the Quick Selection Guide in theappropriate application section.

Quick Selection Guides

Quick Selection Guides identify the regulators with the appro-priate pressure ratings, outlet pressure ranges, and capacities.These guides quickly narrow the range of potentially appropri-ate regulators. The choices identified by using a Quick SelectionGuide can be narrowed further by using the Product Pages tofind more information about each of the regulators.

Product Pages

Identifying the regulators that can pass the required flownarrows the possible choices further. When evaluating flowrequirements, consider the minimum inlet pressure andmaximum flow requirements. Again, this worst case combina-tion ensures that the regulator can pass the required flow underall anticipated conditions.

After one or more regulators have been identified as potentiallysuitable for the service conditions, consult specific Product

Pages to check regulator specifications and capabilities. Theapplication requirements are compared to regulator specifica-tions to narrow the range of appropriate selections. Thefollowing specifications can be evaluated in the Product Pages:

• Product description and available sizes

• Maximum inlet and outlet pressures (operating andemergency)

• Outlet pressure ranges

• Flow capacity

• End connection styles

• Regulator construction materials

• Accuracy

• Pressure registration (internal or external)

• Temperature capabilities

After comparing the regulator capabilities with the applicationrequirements, the choices can be narrowed to one or a fewregulators. Final selection may depend upon other factorsincluding special requirements, availability, price, and individualpreference.

Special Requirements

Finally, evaluate any special considerations, such as the needfor external control lines, special construction materials, orinternal overpressure protection. While overpressure protec-tion may be considered during sizing and selection, it is notcovered in this section.

The Role of Experience

Experience in the form of knowing what has worked in thepast, and familiarity with specific products, has great value inregulator sizing and selection. Knowing the regulator perfor-mance characteristics required for a specific applicationsimplifies the process. For example, when fast speed of re-sponse is required, a direct-operated regulator may come tomind; or a pilot-operated regulator with an auxiliary, largecapacity pilot to speed changes in loading pressure.

Sizing Equations

Sizing equations are useful when sizing pilot-operated regula-tors and relief valves. They can also be used to calculate thewide-open flow of direct-operated regulators. Use the capacitytables or curves in this handbook when sizing direct-operated

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regulators and relief/backpressure regulators. The sizingequations are in the Valve Sizing Calculations section.

General Sizing Guidelines

The following are intended to serve only as guidelines whensizing pressure reducing regulators. When sizing any regulator,consult with experienced personnel or the regulator manufac-turer for additional guidance and information relating tospecific applications.

Body Size

Regulator body size should never be larger than the pipe size.However, a properly sized regulator may be smaller than thepipeline.

Construction

Be certain that the regulator is available in materials that arecompatible with the controlled fluid and the temperatures used.Also, be sure that the regulator is available with the desired endconnections.

Pressure Ratings

While regulators are sized using minimum inlet pressures toensure that they can provide full capacity under all conditions,pay particular attention to the maximum inlet and outletpressure ratings.

Wide-Open Flow Rate

The capacity of a regulator when it has failed wide-open isusually greater than the regulating capacity. For that reason,use the regulating capacities when sizing regulators, and thewide-open flow rates only when sizing relief valves.

Outlet Pressure Ranges and Springs

If two or more available springs have published outlet pressureranges that include the desired pressure setting, use the springwith the lower range for better accuracy. Also, it is not neces-sary to attempt to stay in the middle of a spring range, it isacceptable to use the full published outlet pressure rangewithout sacrificing spring performance or life.

Accuracy

Of course, the need for accuracy must be evaluated. Accuracy isgenerally expressed as droop, or the reduction of outletpressure experienced as the flow rate increases. It is stated inpercent, inchesof water column, or pounds per square inch. It indicates thedifference between the outlet pressure at low flow rates and theoutlet pressure at the published maximum flow rate. Droop isalso called offset or proportional band.

Inlet Pressure Losses

The regulator inlet pressure used for sizing should be mea-sured directly at the regulator inlet. Measurements made at anydistance upstream from the regulator are suspect because lineloss can significantly reduce the actual inlet pressure to theregulator. If the regulator inlet pressure is given as a systempressure upstream, some compensation should be considered.Also, remember that downstream pressure always changes tosome extent when inlet pressure changes.

Orifice Diameter

The recommended selection for orifice size is the smallestdiameter that will handle the flow. This can benefit operation inseveral ways: instability and premature wear may be avoided,relief valves may be smaller, and lockup pressures may bereduced.

Speed of Response

Direct-operated regulators generally have faster response toquick flow changes than pilot-operated regulators.

Turn-Down Ratio

Within reasonable limits, most soft-seated regulators canmaintain pressure down to zero flow. Therefore, a regulatorsized for a high flow rate will usually have a turndown ratiosufficient to handle pilot-light sized loads during periods oflow demand.

Sizing Exercise: Industrial Plant Gas Supply

Regulator selection and sizing generally requires some subjec-tive evaluation and decision making. For those with little



479

TECHNICALTECHNICAL

Q = 95,000 SCFH

P2 = 1 PSIG

GAS

SUPP

LY =

30-

40 P

SIG

METER

INDUSTRIAL PLANT

Figure 1. Natural Gas Supply

experience, the best way to learn is through example. Therefore,these exercises present selection and sizing problems forpracticing the process of identifying suitable regulators.

Our task is to select a regulator to supply reduced pressurenatural gas to meet the needs of a small industrial plant. Theregulated gas is metered before entering the plant. The selectionparameters are:

• Minimum inlet pressure, P1min = 30 psig

• Maximum inlet pressure, P1max = 40 psig

• Outlet pressure setting, P2 = 1 psig

• Flow, Q = 95,000 scfh

• Accuracy (droop required) = 10% or less

Quick Selection Guide

Turn to the Natural Gas section. Find the Commercial/Industrial Quick Selection Guide. From the Quick SelectionGuide, we find that the choices are:

• Type 133

• Type 1098-EGR

• Type 99

Product Pages

Under the product number on the Quick Selection Guide is thepage number of the Product Page. Look at the flow capacities

of each of the possible choices. From the Product Pages wefound the following:

• At 30 psig inlet pressure and 10% droop, the Type 133 hasa flow capacity of 90,000 scfh. This regulator does not meet therequired flow capacity.

• At 30 psig inlet pressure, the Type 1098-EGR has a flowcapacity of 131,000 scfh. By looking at the Proportional Band(Droop) table, we see that the Type 6352 pilot with the yellowpilot spring and the green main valve has 0.05 psig droop. Thisregulator meets the selection criteria.

• At 30 psig inlet pressure, The Type 99 has a flow capacityof 39,000 scfh. This regulator does not meet the required flowcapacity.

Final Selection

We find that the Type 1098-EGR meets the selection criteria.


Overpressure Protection Methods

480

TECHNICAL

Overpressure protective devices are of vital concern. Safety codesand current laws require their installation each time a pressurereducing station is installed that supplies gas from any system toanother system with a lower maximum allowable operatingpressure.

Methods of Overpressure Protection

The most commonly used methods of overpressure protection,not necessarily in order of use or importance, include:

• Relief Valves (Figure 1)

• Monitors (Figures 2 and 3)

• Series Regulation (Figure 4)

• Shutoff (Figure 5)

Figure 1. Relief Valve Schematic

Relief Valves

A relief valve is a device that vents process fluid to atmosphereto maintain the pressure downstream of the regulator below thesafe maximum pressure. Relief is a common form of overpres-sureprotection typically used for low to medium capacity applica-tions. (Note: Fisher relief valves are not ASME safety reliefvalves.)

Types of Relief Valves

The basic types of relief valves are:

• Pop type

• Direct-operated relief valves

• Pilot-operated relief valves

• Internal relief valves

The pop type relief valve is the simplest form of relief. Pop reliefvalves tend to go wide-open once the pressure has exceeded itsset point by a small margin. The setpoint can drift over time,and because of its quick opening characteristic the pop relief cansometimes become unstable when relieving, slamming open andclosed. Many have a non-adjustable setpoint that is set andpinned at the factory.

If more accuracy is required from a relief valve, the direct-operated relief valve would be the next choice. They can throttlebetter than a pop relief valve, and tend to be more stable, yet arestill relatively simple. Although there is less drift in the setpointof the direct-operated relief valve, a significant amount ofbuildup is often required to obtain the required capacity.

The pilot-operated relief valves have the most accuracy, but arealso the most complicated and expensive type of relief. They usea pilot to dump loading pressure, fully stroking the main valvewith very little buildup above setpoint. They have a largecapacity and are available in larger sizes than other types ofrelief.

Many times, internal relief will provide adequate protection for adownstream system. Internal relief uses a relief valve built intothe regulator for protection. If the pressure builds too farabove the setpoint of the regulator, the relief valve in theregulator opens up, allowing excess pressure to escape throughthe regulator vent.

Advantages

The relief valve is considered to be the most reliable type ofoverpressure protection because it is not subject to blockage byforeign objects in the line during normal operations. It alsoimposes no decrease in the regulator capacity which it isprotecting, and it has the added advantage of being its ownalarm when it vents. It is normally reasonable in cost and keepsthe customer in service despite the malfunction of the pressurereducing valve.

Disadvantages

When the relief valve blows, it could possibly create a hazard inthe surrounding area by venting. The relief valve must be sizedcarefully to relieve the gas or fluid that could flow through thepressure reducing valve at its maximum inlet pressure and in thewide-open position, assuming no flow to the downstream.Therefore, each application must be sized individually. Therequirement for periodic testing of relief valves also creates anoperational and/or public relations problem.

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TECHNICAL

Monitoring Regulators

Monitoring is overpressure control by containment. When theworking pressure reducing valve ceases to control the pressure, asecond regulator installed in series, which has been sensing thedownstream pressure, goes into operation to maintain thedownstream pressure at a slightly higher than normal pressure.The monitoring concept is gaining in popularity, especially inlow-pressure systems, because very accurate relay pilots permitreasonably close settings of the working and monitoringregulators.

The two types of wide-open monitoring are upstream anddownstream monitoring. One question often asked is, “Whichis better, upstream or downstream monitoring?” Using twoidentical regulators, there is no difference in overall capacity witheither method.

When using monitors to protect a system or customer who mayat times have zero load, a small relief valve is sometimes installeddownstream of the monitor system with a setpoint just abovethe monitor. This allows for a token relief in case dust or dirt inthe system prevents bubble tight shutoff of the regulators.

Advantages

The major advantage is that there is no venting to atmosphere.During an overpressure situation, monitoring keeps thecustomer on line and keeps the downstream pressure relativelyclose to the setpoint of the working regulator. Testing isrelatively easy and safe. To perform a periodic test on a monitor,increase the outlet set pressure of the working device and watchthe pressure to determine if the monitor takes over.

Disadvantages

Compared to relief valves, monitoring generally requires ahigher initial investment. Monitoring regulators are subject toblocking, which is why filters or strainers are specified withincreasing frequency. Because the monitor is in series, it is anadded restriction in the line. This extra restriction can some-times force one to use a larger, more expensive working regula-tor.

Figure 2. Monitoring Regulators Schematic

Working Monitor

A variation of monitoring overpressure protection that over-comes some of the disadvantages of a wide-open monitor is the“working monitor” concept wherein a regulator upstream of theworking regulator uses two pilots. This additional pilot permitsthe monitoring regulator to act as a series regulator to controlan intermediate pressure during normal operation. In this way,both units are always operating and can be easily checked forproper operation. Should the downstream pressure regulatorfail to control, however, the monitoring pilot takes over thecontrol at a slightly higher than normal pressure and keeps thecustomer on line. This is pressure control by containment andeliminates public relations problems.

Figure 3. Working Monitor Schematic

Figure 4. Series Regulation Schematic

Series Regulation

Series regulation is also overpressure protection by containmentin that two regulators are set in the same pipeline. The first unitmaintains an inlet pressure to the second valve that is within themaximum allowable operating pressure of the downstreamsystem. Under this setup, if either regulator should fail, theresulting downstream pressure maintained by the other regula-tor would not exceed the safe maximum pressure.

This type of protection is normally used where the regulatorstation is reducing gas to a pressure substantially below themaximum allowable operating pressure of the distributionsystem being supplied. Series regulation is also found frequentlyin farm taps and in similar situations within the guidelinesmentioned above.

08TechOver.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM481


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TECHNICAL

Advantages

Again, nothing is vented to atmosphere.

Disadvantages

Because the intermediate pressure must be cut down to apressure that is safe for the entire downstream, the second-stageregulator often has very little pressure differential available tocreate flow. This can sometimes make it necessary to increasethe size of the second regulator significantly. Another drawbackoccurs when the first-stage regulator fails and no change in thefinal downstream pressure is noticed because the systemoperates in what appears to be a “normal” manner withoutbenefit of protection. Also, the first-stage regulator andintermediate piping must be capable of withstanding andcontaining maximum upstream pressure.

The second-stage regulator must also be capable of handling thefull inlet pressure in case the first-stage unit fails to operate. Incase the second-stage regulator fails, its actuator will be sub-jected to the intermediate pressure set by the first-stage unit.The second-stage actuator pressure ratings should reflect thispossibility.

Advantages

By shutting off the customer completely, the safety of thedownstream system is assured. Again, there is no public relationsproblem or hazard from venting gas or other media.

Disadvantages

The customer may be shut off because debris has temporarilylodged under the seat of the operating regulator, preventing tightshutoff. A small relief valve can take care of this situation.

On a distribution system with a single supply, using a slam-shutcan require two trips to each customer, the first to shut off theservice valve, and the second visit after the system pressure hasbeen restored to turn the service valve back on and re-light theappliances. In the event a shutoff is employed on a service linesupplying a customer with processes such as baking, meltingmetals, or glass making, the potential economic loss could dictatethe use of an overpressure protection device that would keep thecustomer online.

Another problem associated with shutoffs is encountered whenthe gas warms up under no-load conditions. For instance, aregulator locked up at approximately 7-inches w.c. could experi-ence a pressure rise of approximately 0.8-inches w.c. per degreeFahrenheit rise, which could cause the high-pressure shutoff totrip when there is actually no equipment failure.

Figure 5. Shutoff SchematicFigure 6. Relief Monitor Schematic

Shutoff Devices

The shutoff device also accomplishes overpressure protection bycontainment. In this case, the customer is shut off completelyuntil the cause of the malfunction is determined and the device ismanually reset. Many gas distribution companies use this as anadded measure of protection for places of public assembly suchas schools, hospitals, churches, and shopping centers. In thosecases, the shutoff device is a secondary form of overpressureprotection. Shutoff valves are also commonly used by boilermanufacturers in combustion systems.

Relief Monitor

Another concept in overpressure protection for small industrialand commercial loads, up to approximately 10,000 cubic feet perhour, incorporates both an internal relief valve and a monitor. Inthis device, the relief capacity is purposely restricted to preventexcess venting of gas in order to bring the monitor into operationmore quickly. The net result is that the downstream pressure isprotected, in some cases to less than 1 psig. The amount of gasvented under maximum inlet pressure conditions does not exceedthe amount vented by a domestic relief type service regulator.

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TECHNICAL

With this concept, the limitation by regulator manufacturers ofinlet pressure by orifice size, as is found in “full relief” devices, isovercome. Downstream protection is maintained, even withabnormally high inlet pressure. Public relations problems arekept to a minimum by the small amount of vented gas. Also, theunit does not require manual resetting, but can go back intooperation automatically.

Dust or dirt can clear itself off the seat, but if the obstruction tothe disk closing still exists when the load goes on, the customerwould be kept online. When the load goes off, the downstreampressure will again be protected. During normal operation, themonitoring portion of the relief monitor is designed to moveslightly with minor fluctuations in downstream pressure or flow.

Summary

From the foregoing discussion, it becomes obvious that thereare many design philosophies available and many choices ofequipment to meet overpressure protection requirements. Also,

assume the overpressure device will be called upon to operatesometime after it is installed. The overall design must include ananalysis of the conditions created when the protection deviceoperates.

The accompanying table shows:

• What happens when the various types of overpressureprotection devices operate

• The type of reaction required

• The effect upon the customer or the public

• Some technical conditions

These are the general characteristics of the various types ofsafety devices. From the conditions and results shown, it iseasier to decide which type of overpressure equipment bestmeets your needs. Undoubtedly, compromises will have to bemade between the conditions shown here and any others whichmay govern your operating parameters.

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08TechOver.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM483

Principles of Relief Valves

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TECHNICAL

Overpressure Protection

Overpressure protection is a primary consideration in the designof any piping system. The objective of overpressure protectionis to maintain the pressure downstream of a regulator at a safemaximum value.

that all the downstream equipment can be subjected to.

Main Regulator

Pressure reducing regulators have different pressure ratingswhich refer to the inlet, outlet, and internal components. Thelowest of these should be used when determining the maximumallowable pressure.

Piping

Piping is limited in its ability to contain pressure. In addition toany physical limitations, some applications must also conformto one or more applicable pressure rating codes or regulations.

Relief Valves

Relief involves maintaining the pressure downstream of aregulator at a safe maximum pressure using any device thatvents fluid to a lower pressure system (often the atmosphere).Relief valve exhaust must be directed or piped to a safe location.Relief valves perform this function. They are considered to be

NATURAL G

AS

TRANSMISSION LI

NEREGULATOR

RELIEF VALVE

RELIEF VALVEREGULATOR

Type 289 Direct-Operated

Type 627 with Internal ReliefType 289P-6358 Pilot-Operated

H200 Series Pop Type

In the system shown in Figure 1, a high-pressure transmissionsystem delivers natural gas through a pressure reducingregulator to a lower pressure system that distributes gas toindividual customers. The regulators, the piping, and the devicesthat consume gas are protected from overpressure by reliefvalves. The relief valve’s setpoint is adjusted to a level estab-lished by the lowest maximum pressure rating of any of thelower pressure system components.

Maximum Pressure Considerations

Overpressure occurs when the pressure of a system is above thesetpoint of the device controlling its pressure. It is evidence ofsome failure in the system (often the upstream regulator), and itcan cause the entire system to fail if it’s not limited. To imple-ment overpressure protection, the weakest part in the pressuresystem is identified and measures are taken to limit overpressureto that component’s maximum pressure rating. The mostvulnerable components are identified by examining the maxi-mum pressure ratings of the:

• downstream equipment• low-pressure side of the main regulator• piping

The lowest maximum pressure rating of the three is the maxi-mum allowable pressure.

Downstream Equipment

The downstream component (appliance, burner, boiler, etc.) withthe lowest maximum pressure rating sets the highest pressure Figure 2. Types of Relief Valves

Figure 1. Distribution System

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TECHNICAL

one of the most reliable types of overpressure protectionavailable and are available in a number of different types. Fisherrelief valves are not ASME safety relief valves.

Relief Valve Popularity

Relief valves are popular for several reasons. They do not blockthe normal flow through a line. They do not decrease thecapacities of the regulators they protect. And, they have theadded advantage of being an alarm if they vent to atmosphere.

Relief Valve Types

Relief valves are available in four general types. These include:pop type, direct-operated, pilot-operated, and internal reliefvalves.

Selection Criteria

Pressure Buildup

Cost versus Performance

Given several types of relief valves to choose from, selecting onetype is generally based on the ability of the valve to provideadequate protection at the most economical cost. Reducedpressure buildup and increased capacity generally come at anincreased price.

Installation and Maintenance Considerations

Initial costs are only a part of the overall cost of ownership.Maintenance and installation costs must also be considered overthe life of the relief valve. For example, internal relief may beinitially more economical than an external relief valve. However,maintaining a regulator with internal relief requires that thesystem be shut down and the regulator isolated. This may involveadditional time and the installation of parallel regulators andrelief valves if flow is to be maintained to the downstream systemduring maintenance operations.

PRESSURE BUILDUP

RELIEF VALVE SETPOINT

FLOW

PRES

SURE

LOADING SPRING

POPPET

SOFT DISK

SEAT RING

Figure 3. Pressure BuildupFigure 4. Pop Type Relief Valve Construction and Operation

A relief valve has a setpoint at which it begins to open. For thevalve to fully open and pass the maximum flow, pressure mustbuild up to some level above the setpoint of the relief valve. Thisis known as pressure buildup over setpoint, or simply, buildup.

Periodic Maintenance

A relief valve installed in a system that normally performs withindesign limits is very seldom exercised. The relief valve sits andwaits for a failure. If it sits for long periods it may not performas expected. Disks may stick in seats, setpoints can shift overtime, and small passages can become clogged with pipelinedebris. Therefore, periodic maintenance and inspection isrecommended. Maintenance requirements may influence theselection of a relief valve.

Closed Closed Wide-Open

POP Type Relief Valve

The most simple type of relief valve is the pop type. They areused wherever economy is the primary concern and somesetpoint drift is acceptable.

Operation

Pop type relief valves are essentially on-off devices. They operatein either the closed or wide-open position. Pop type designsregister pressure directly on a spring-opposed poppet. Thepoppet assembly includes a soft disk for tight shutoff against theseat ring. When the inlet pressure increases above setpoint, thepoppet assembly is pushed away from the seat. As the poppetrises, pressure registers against a greater surface area of the



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TECHNICAL

poppet. This dramatically increases the force on the poppet.Therefore, the poppet tends to travel to the fully open positionreducing pressure buildup.

Buildup Over Setpoint

Recall that pressure buildup relates capacity to pressure; increas-ing capacity requires some increase in pressure. In throttling reliefvalves, pressure buildup is related to accuracy. In pop type reliefvalves, buildup over setpoint results largely because the device is arestriction to flow rather than the spring rate of the valve’sloading spring.

Fixed Setpoint

The setpoint of a pop type valve cannot be adjusted by the user.The spring is initially loaded by the manufacturer. A pinnedspring retainer keeps the spring in position. This is a safetymeasure that prevents tampering with the relief valve setpoint.

Typical Applications

This type of relief valve may be used where venting to theatmosphere is acceptable, when the process fluid is compatiblewith the soft disk, and when relief pressure variations areallowable. They are often used as inexpensive token relief. Forexample, they may be used simply to provide an audible signal ofan overpressure condition.

These relief valves may be used to protect against overpressurestemming from a regulator with a minimal amount of seatleakage. Unchecked, this seat leakage could allow downstreampressure to build to full P1 over time. The use of a small pop typevalve can be installed to protect against this situation.

These relief valves are also commonly installed with a regulator ina natural gas system farm tap, in pneumatic lines used to operateair drills, jackhammers, and other pneumatic equipment, and inmany other applications.

Advantages

Pop type relief valves use few parts. Their small size allowsinstallation where space is limited. Also, low initial cost, easyinstallation, and high capacity per dollar invested can result ineconomical system relief.

Disadvantages

The setpoint of a pop type relief valve may change over time.The soft disk may stick to the seat ring and cause the poppressure to increase.

DIAPHRAGMSPRING

VALVE

VENT

FLOW

SYSTEM PRESSURE LOWER-PRESSURE SYSTEM (USUALLYATMOSPHERE)

Figure 5. Direct-Operated Relief Valve Schematic

As an on-off device, this style of relief valve does not throttleflow over a pressure range. Because of its on-off nature, thistype of relief valve may create pressure surges in the down-stream system.

If the relief valve capacity is significantly larger than the failedregulator’s capacity, the relief valve may over-compensate eachtime it opens and closes. This can cause the downstreampressure system to become unstable and cycle. Cycling candamage the relief valve and downstream equipment.

Direct-Operated Relief Valves

Compared to pop type relief valves, direct-operated relief valvesprovide throttling action and may require less pressure buildupto open the relief valve.

Operation

A schematic of a direct-operated relief valve is shown in Figure5. It looks like an ordinary direct-operated regulator except that



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TECHNICAL

FLOW

CONTROL LINE

PILOT

RESTRICTION

MAIN RELIEFVALVE

PILOTEXHAUST

CONTROL LINE

PILOT

RESTRICTION

MAIN RELIEFVALVEPILOT

EXHAUST

ELASTOMERICELEMENT

INLET PRESSURE LOADING PRESSURE EXHAUST

ELASTOMERIC ELEMENT MAIN VALVE

PLUG AND SEAT RING MAIN VALVE

it senses upstream pressure rather than downstream pressure.And, it uses a spring-close rather than a spring-open action. Itcontains the same essential elements as a direct-operatedregulator:

• A diaphragm that measures system pressure

• A spring that provides the initial load to the diaphragm andis used to establish the relief setpoint

• A valve that throttles the relief flow

Opening the Valve

As the inlet pressure rises above the setpoint of the relief valve,the diaphragm is pushed upward moving the valve plug awayfrom the seat. This allows fluid to escape.

Pressure Buildup Over Setpoint

As system pressure increases, the relief valve opens wider. This

Low pressure near the end of the pitot tube draws fluid out ofthe volume above the relief valve diaphragm and creates a partialvacuum which helps to open the valve. The partial vacuumabove the diaphragm increases the relief valve capacity with lesspressure buildup over setpoint.


Direct-operated relief valves are commonly used in natural gassystems supplying commercial enterprises such as restaurantsand laundries, and in industry to protect industrial furnaces andother equipment.

Selection Criteria

Pressure Buildup

Some direct-operated relief valves require significant pressure

LOADING SPRING

PITOT TUBE

DIAPHRAGM

VALVE DISK

SEAT RING

Figure 7. Pilot-Operated Designs

Figure 6. Type 289 Relief Valve with Pitot Tube

allows more fluid to escape and protects the system. Theincrease in pressure above the relief setpoint that is required toproduce more flow through the relief valve is referred to aspressure buildup. The spring rate and orifice size influence theamount of pressure buildup that is required to fully stroke thevalve.

Product Example

Pitot Tube

The relief valve shown in Figure 6 includes a pitot tube to reducepressure buildup. When the valve is opening, high fluid velocitythrough the seat ring creates an area of relatively low pressure.

MAINREGULATOREXHAUST

MAIN REGULATOREXHAUST

FLOW



488

TECHNICAL

buildup to achieve maximum capacity. Others, such as thoseusing pitot tubes, often pass high flow rates with minimalpressure buildup. Direct-operated relief valves can provide goodaccuracy within their design capacities.


The purchase price of a direct-operated relief valve is typicallylower than that of a pilot-operated design of the same size.However, pilot-operated designs may cost less per unit of capacityat very high flow rates.

Pilot-Operated Relief Valves

Pilot-operated relief valves utilize a pair of direct-operated reliefvalves; a pilot and a main relief valve. The pilot increases theeffect of changes in inlet pressure on the main relief valve.

Operation

The operation of a pilot-operated relief valve is quite similar tothe operation of a pilot-operated pressure reducing regulator.In normal operation, when system pressure is below setpoint ofthe relief valve, the pilot remains closed. This allows loadingpressure to register on top of the main relief valve diaphragm.Loading pressure on top of the diaphragm is opposed by anequal pressure (inlet pressure) on the bottom side of thediaphragm. With little or no pressure differential across thediaphragm, the spring keeps the valve seated. Notice that a light-rate spring may be used because it does not oppose a largepressure differential across the diaphragm. The light-rate springenables the main valve to travel to the wide-open position withlittle pressure buildup.

Increasing Inlet Pressure

When the inlet pressure rises above the relief setpoint, the pilotspring is compressed and the pilot valve opens. The open pilotbleeds fluid out of the main valve spring case, decreasingpressure above the main relief valve diaphragm. If loadingpressure escapes faster than it can be replaced through therestriction, the loading pressure above the main relief valvediaphragm is reduced and the relief valve opens. Systemoverpressure exhausts through the vent.

Decreasing Inlet Pressure

If inlet pressure drops back to the relief valve setpoint, the pilotloading spring pushes the pilot valve plug back against the pilot

valve seat. Inlet pressure again loads the main relief valvediaphragm and closes the main valve.

Control Line

The control line connects the pilot with the pressure that is to belimited. When overpressure control accuracy is a high priority,the control line tap is installed where protection is most critical.

Product Example

Physical Description

This relief valve is a direct-operated relief valve with a pilotattached (Figure 8). The pilot is a modified direct-operated reliefvalve, the inlet pressure loads the diaphragm and flows througha restriction to supply loading pressure to the main relief valvediaphragm.

Operation

During normal operation, the pilot is closed allowing loadingpressure to register above the main relief valve’s diaphragm. Thispressure is opposed by inlet pressure acting on the bottom ofthe diaphragm.

Figure 8. Pilot-Operated Relief Valve

INLET

EXHAUST

LOADING PRESSURE


PILOT

MAIN VALVEDIAPHRAGM



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TECHNICAL

If inlet pressure rises above setpoint, the pilot valve opens,exhausting the loading pressure. If loading pressure is reducedabove the main relief valve diaphragm faster than it is replacedthrough the pilot fixed restriction, loading pressure is reducedand inlet pressure below the diaphragm will cause the mainregulator to open.

If inlet pressure falls below the relief set pressure, the pilotspring will again close the pilot exhaust, increasing loadingpressure above the main relief valve diaphragm. This increasingloading pressure causes the main valve to travel towards theclosed position.

Performance

Pilot-operated relief valves are able to pass large flow rates witha minimum pressure buildup.


Pilot-operated relief valves are used in applications requiringhigh capacity and low pressure buildup.

Selection Criteria

Minimal Buildup

The use of a pilot to load and unload the main diaphragm andthe light-rate spring enables the main valve to travel wide-open

with little pressure buildup over setpoint.

Throttling Action

The sensitive pilot produces smooth throttling action when inletpressure rises above setpoint. This helps to maintain a steadydownstream system pressure.

Internal Relief

Regulators that include internal relief valves may eliminate therequirement for external overpressure protection.

Operation

The regulator shown in Figure 9 includes an internal relief valve.The relief valve has a measuring element (the main regulatordiaphragm), a loading element (a light spring), and a restrictingelement (a valve seat and disk). The relief valve assembly islocated in the center of the regulator diaphragm.

Buildup Over Setpoint

Like other spring-loaded designs, internal relief valves will onlyopen wider if the inlet pressure increases. The magnitude ofpressure buildup is determined by the spring rates of the loading

Figure 9. Internal Relief Design

Regulators that include internal relief valves often eliminate the requirement for external overpressure protection. The illustration on the left shows the regulator with both the relief valve and the regulator valve in the closedposition. The illustration on the right shows the same unit after P2 has increased above the relief valve setpoint. The diaphragm has moved off the relief valve seat allowing flow (excess pressure) to exhaust through thescreened vent.

RELIEF VALVE CLOSED

MAIN VALVE CLOSED

RELIEF VALVE CLOSED

MAIN VALVE CLOSED

LARGE OPENING FOR RELIEF



490

TECHNICAL

spring plus the main spring. Both springs are consideredbecause they act together to resist diaphragm movement whenpressure exceeds the relief valve setpoint.

Product Example

A typical internal relief regulator construction is shown inFigure 9. The illustration on the left shows the regulator withboth the relief valve and regulator valve in the closed position.The illustration on the right shows the same unit after the inletpressure has increased above the relief valve setpoint. Thediaphragm has moved off the relief valve seat allowing theexcess pressure to exhaust through the vent.

Performance and Typical Applications

This design is available in configurations that can protect manypressure ranges and flow rates. Internal relief is often used inapplications such as farm taps, industrial applications whereatmospheric exhaust is acceptable, and house service regulators.

Selection Criteria

Pressure Buildup

Relief setpoint is determined by a combination of the relief valveand regulator springs; this design generally requires significantpressure buildup to reach its maximum relief flow rate. For thesame reason, internal relief valves have limited relief capacities.They may provide full relief capacity, but should be carefullysized for each application.

Space

Internal relief has a distinct advantage when there is not enoughspace for an external relief valve.


Because a limited number of parts are simply added to theregulator, this type of overpressure protection is relativelyinexpensive compared to external relief valves of comparablecapacity.

Maintenance

Because the relief valve is an integral part of the regulator’sdiaphragm, the regulator must be taken out of service when

maintenance is performed. Therefore, the application should beable to tolerate either the inconvenience of intermittent supply,or the expense of parallel regulators and relief valves.

Selection and Sizing Criteria

There are a number of common steps in the relief valveselection and sizing process. For every application, the maxi-mum pressure conditions, the wide-open regulator flowcapacity, and constant downstream demand should be deter-mined. Finally, this information is used to select an appropriaterelief valve for the application.

Maximum Allowable Pressure

Downstream equipment includes all the components of thesystem that contain pressure; household appliances, tanks, tools,machines, outlet rating of the upstream regulators, or otherequipment. The component with the lowest maximum pressurerating establishes the maximum allowable system pressure.

Regulator Ratings

Pressure reducing regulators upstream of the relief valve haveratings for their inlet, outlet, and internal components. Thelowest rating should be used when determining maximumallowable pressure.

Piping

Piping pressure limitations imposed by governmental agencies,industry standards, manufacturers, or company standardsshould be verified before defining the maximum overpressurelevel.

Maximum Allowable System Pressure

The smallest of the pressure ratings mentioned above should beused as the maximum allowable pressure. This pressure levelshould not be confused with the relief valve setpoint whichmust be set below the maximum allowable system pressure.

Determining Required Relief Valve Flow

A relief valve must be selected to exhaust enough flow toprevent the pressure from exceeding the maximum allowablesystem pressure. To determine this flow, review all upstream



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TECHNICAL

components for the maximum possible flow that will causeoverpressure. If overpressure is caused by a pressure reducingregulator, use the regulator’s wide-open flow coefficient tocalculate the required flow of the relief valve. This regulator’swide-open flow is larger than the regulating flow used to selectthe pressure reducing regulator.

Sizing equations have been developed to standardize valve sizing.Refer to the Valve Sizing Calculations section to find theseequations and explanations on how they are used.

Determine Constant Demand

In some applications, the required relief capacity can be reducedby subtracting any load that is always on the system. Thisprocedure should be approached with caution because it may bedifficult to predict the worst-case scenario for downstreamequipment failures. It may also be important to compare thechances of making a mistake in predicting the level of continu-ous flow consumption with the potential negative aspects of anerror. Because of the hazards involved, relief valves are oftensized assuming no continuous flow to downstream equipment.

Selecting Relief Valves

Required Information

We have already reviewed the variables required to calculate theregulator’s wide-open flow rate. In addition, we need to knowthe type and temperature of the fluid in the system, and the sizeof the piping. Finally, if a vent stack will be required, anyadditional buildup due to vent stack resistance should beconsidered.

Regulator Lockup Pressure

A relief valve setpoint is adjusted to a level higher than theregulator’s lockup pressure. If the relief valve setpoint overlapslockup pressure of the regulator, the relief valve may open whilethe regulator is still attempting to control the system pressure.

Identify Appropriate Relief Valves

Once the size, relief pressure, and flow capacity are determined,we can identify a number of potentially suitable relief valvesusing the Quick Selection Guide in the front of each applicationsection in this handbook. These selection guides give relief set

(inlet) pressures, capacities, and type numbers. These guides canthen be further narrowed by reviewing individual product pagesin each section.

Final Selection

Final selection is usually a matter of compromise. Relief capaci-ties, buildup levels, sensitivity, throttling capabilities, cost ofinstallation and maintenance, space requirements, initial pur-chase price, and other attributes are all considered whenchoosing any relief valve.

Applicable Regulations

The relief valves installed in some applications must meetgovernmental, industry, or company criteria.

Sizing and Selection Exercise

To gain a better understanding of the selection and sizingprocess, it may be helpful to step through a typical relief valvesizing exercise.

Initial Parameters

We’ll assume that we need to specify an appropriate relief valvefor a regulator serving a large plant air supply. There is suffi-cient space to install the relief valve and the controlled fluid isclean plant air that can be exhausted without adding a ventstack.

Performance Considerations

The plant supervisor wants the relief valve to throttle opensmoothly so that pressure surges will not damage instrumentsand equipment in the downstream system. This will require theselection of a relief valve that will open smoothly. Plant equip-ment is periodically shut down but the air supply systemoperates continuously. Therefore, the relief valve must also havethe capacity to exhaust the full flow of the upstream system.

Upstream Regulator

The regulator used is 1 inch in size with a 3/8-inch orifice. Theinitial system parameters of pressure and flow were determinedwhen the regulator was sized for this application.



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TECHNICAL

Pressure Limits

The plant maintenance engineer has determined that the reliefvalve should begin to open at 20 psig, and downstreampressure should not rise above 30 psig maximum allowablesystem pressure.

Relief Valve Flow Capacity

The wide-open regulator flow is calculated to be 23,188 SCFH.

Relief Valve Selection

Quick Selection Guide

Find the Relief Valve Quick Selection Guide in this ApplicationGuide; it gives relief set (inlet) pressures and comparative flowcapacities of various relief valves. Because this guide is used to

identify potentially suitable relief valves, we can check the reliefset (inlet) pressures closest to 20 psig and narrow the range ofchoices. We find that two relief valves have the required flowcapacity at our desired relief set (inlet) pressure.

Product Pages

If we look at the product pages for the potential relief valves,we find that a 1-inch 289H provides the required capacitywithin the limits of pressure buildup specified in our initialparameters.

Checking Capacity

Capacity curves for the 1-inch Type 289H with this spring areshown in Figure 10. By following the curve for the 20 psigsetpoint to the point where it intersects with the 30 psigdivision, we find that our relief valve can handle more than the23,188 SCFH required.

CAPACITIES IN THOUSANDS OF SCFH (m³/h(n)) OF AIR

INLE

T PR

ESSU

RE, P

SIG

INLE

T PR

ESSU

RE, B

AR

A-15 PSIG (1,0 BAR)1D751527022

B-10 PSIG (0,69 BAR)1D751527022

C-4 PSIG (0,28 BAR)D-1 PSIG (0,069 BAR)

1F782697052

1-INCH TYPE 289HVENT SCREEN INSTALLED

50 PSIG (3,4 BAR)1D745527142

40 PSIG (2,8 BAR)1D745527142

30 PSIG (2,1 BAR)1D745527142

20 PSIG (1,4 BAR)1D751527022

A

B

C

D

0

0 7.75(0,208)

15.5(0,415)

23.3(0,624)

31(0,831)

38.8(1,04)

46.5(1,25)

54.3(1,46)

62(1,66)

40

50

70

60

10

30

20

0

2,8

3,4

4,8

4,1

0,69

2,1

1,4

Figure 10. Type 289H Flow Capacities


Principles of Series Regulation and Monitor Regulators

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TECHNICAL

SETPOINT = 10 PSIG

SETPOINT = 15 PSIG

P1100 PSIG

P210 PSIG

PINTERMEDIATE

A B

MONITOR REGULATOR WORKER REGULATOR

Series Regulation

Series regulation is one of the simplest systems used to provideoverpressure protection by containment. In the example shownin Figure 1, the inlet pressure is 100 psig, the desired down-stream pressure is 10 psig, and the maximum allowable operat-ing pressure (MAOP) is 40 psig. The setpoint of the down-stream regulator is10 psig, and the setpoint of the upstreamregulator is 30 psig.

tation is reducing pressure to a value substantially below themaximum allowable operating pressure of the downstreamsystem. Farm taps are a good example. The problem of low-pressure drop across the second regulator is less pronouncedin low flow systems.

Upstream Wide-Open Monitors

The only difference in configuration between series regulationand monitors is that in monitor installations, both regulatorssense downstream pressure, P2. Thus, the upstream regulatormust have a control line.

SETPOINT = 30 PSIG SETPOINT = 10 PSIG

P1100 PSIG

P210 PSIG

PINTERMEDIATE30 PSIG

A B

Figure 1. Series Regulation

Failed System Response

If regulator B fails, downstream pressure (P2) is maintained atthe setpoint of regulator A less whatever drop is required topass the required flow through the failed regulator B. Ifregulator A fails, the intermediate pressure will be 100 psig.Regulator B must be able to withstand 100 psig inlet pressure.

Regulator Considerations

Either direct-operated or pilot-operated regulators may be usedin this system. Should regulator A fail, PIntermediate will approachP1 so the outlet rating and spring casing rating of regulator Amust be high enough to withstand full P1. This situation maysuggest the use of a relief valve between the two regulators tolimit the maximum value of PIntermediate.

Applications and Limitations

A problem with series regulation is maintaining tight control ofP2 if the downstream regulator fails. In this arrangement, it isoften impractical to have the setpoints very close together. Ifthey are, the pressure drop across regulator B will be quite small.With a small pressure drop, a very large regulator may berequired to pass the desired flow.

Because of the problem in maintaining close control of P2, seriesregulation is best suited to applications where the regulator

In wide-open monitor systems, both regulators sense downstream pressure. Setpoints may be very closeto each other. If the worker regulator fails, the monitor assumes control at a slightly higher setpoint. Ifthe monitor regulator fails, the worker continues to provide control.

Figure 2. Wide-Open Upstream Monitor

System Values

In the example shown in Figure 2, assume that P1 is 100 psig,and the desired downstream pressure, P2, is 10 psig. Also assumethat the maximum allowable operating pressure of the down-stream system is 20 psig; this is the limit we cannot exceed. Thesetpoint of the downstream regulator is set at 10 psig tomaintain the desired P2 and the setpoint of the upstreamregulator is set at 15 psig to maintain P2 below the maximumallowable operating pressure.

Normal Operation

When both regulators are functioning properly, regulator Bholds P2 at its setpoint of 10 psig. Regulator A, sensing apressure lower than its setpoint of 15 psig tries to increase P2 bygoing wide-open. This configuration is known as an upstreamwide-open monitor where upstream regulator A monitors thepressure established by regulator B. Regulator A is referred to asthe monitor or standby regulator while regulator B is called theworker or the operator.

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TECHNICAL

Worker Regulator B Fails

If regulator B fails open, regulator A, the monitor, assumescontrol and holds P2 at 15 psig. Note that pressure PIntermediate isnow P2 plus whatever drop is necessary to pass the requiredflow through the failed regulator B.

Equipment Considerations

Wide-open monitoring systems may use either direct- or pilot-operated regulators, the choice of which is dependent on othersystem requirements. Obviously, the upstream regulator musthave external registration capability in order to sense down-stream pressure, P2.

In terms of ratings, PIntermediate will rise to full P1 when regulatorA fails, so the body outlet of regulator A and the inlet ofregulator B must be rated for full P1.

Downstream Wide-Open Monitors

The difference between upstream and downstream monitorsystems (Figure 3) is that the functions of the two regulators arereversed. In other words, the monitor, or standby regulator, isdownstream of the worker, or operator. Systems can bechanged from upstream to downstream monitors, and vice-versa, by simply reversing the setpoints of the two regulators.

Worker Regulator A Fails

If the worker, regulator A, fails in an open position, themonitor, regulator B, senses the increase in P2 and holds P2 at itssetpoint of 15 psig. Note that PIntermediate is now P1 minuswhatever drop is taken across the failed regulator A.

Upstream Versus Downstream Monitors

The decision to use either an upstream or downstream monitorsystem is largely a matter of personal preference or companypolicy.

In normal operation, the monitor remains open while theworker is frequently exercised. Many users see value in changingthe system from an upstream to a downstream monitor atregular intervals, much like rotating the tires on an automobile.Most fluids have some impurities such as moisture, rust, orother debris, which may deposit on regulator components, suchas stems, and cause them to become sticky or bind. Therefore,occasionally reversing the roles of the regulators so that bothare exercised is sometimes seen as a means of ensuring thatprotection is available when needed. The job of switching isrelatively simple as only the setpoints of the two regulators arechanged. In addition, the act of changing from an upstream to adownstream monitor requires that someone visit the site sothere is an opportunity for routine inspection.

Working Monitors

Working monitors (Figure 4) use design elements from bothseries regulation and wide-open monitors. In a working monitorinstallation, the two regulators are continuously working asseries regulators to take two pressure cuts.

SETPOINT = 10 PSIG

SETPOINT = 15 PSIG

P1100 PSIG P2

10 PSIG

PINTERMEDIATE

A B

MONITOR REGULATORWORKER REGULATOR

The only difference between upstream wide-open monitor systems and downstream wide-open monitorsystems is the role each regulator plays. Workers and monitors may be switched by simply reversing thesetpoints.

Figure 3. Wide-Open Downstream Monitor

Normal Operation

Again, assume an inlet pressure of 100 psig and a controlledpressure (P2) of 10 psig. Regulator A is now the worker so itmaintains P2 at its setpoint of 10 psig. Regulator B, the monitor,is set at 15 psig and so remains open.

SETPOINT = 10 PSIG

MONITOR PILOT(SETPOINT—15 PSIG)

P1100 PSIG

P210 PSIG

PINTERMEDIATE45 PSIG

WORKER PILOT(SETPOINT—45 PSIG)

Figure 4. Working Monitor

Working monitor systems must use a pilot-operated regulator as the monitor, which is always in theupstream position. Two pilots are used on the monitor regulator; one to control the intermediatepressure and one to monitor the downstream pressure. By taking two pressure drops, both regulatorsare allowed to exercise.



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TECHNICAL

Downstream Regulator

The downstream regulator may be either direct- or pilot-operated. It is installed just as in a series or wide-open monitorsystem. Its setpoint controls downstream pressure, P2.

Upstream Regulator

The upstream regulator must be a pilot-operated type because ituses two pilots; a monitor pilot and a worker pilot. The workerpilot is connected just as in series regulation and controls theintermediate pressure PIntermediate. Its setpoint (45 psig) is atsome intermediate value that allows the system to take twopressure drops. The monitor pilot is in series ahead of theworker pilot and is connected so that it senses downstreampressure, P2. The monitor pilot setpoint (15 psig) is set slightlyhigher than the normal P2 (10 psig).

Normal Operation

When both regulators are performing properly, downstreampressure is below the setting of the monitor pilot, so it is fullyopen trying to raise system pressure. Standing wide-open, themonitor pilot allows the worker pilot to control the intermedi-ate pressure, PIntermediate at45 psig. The downstream regulator is controlling P2 at 10 psig.

Downstream Regulator Fails

If the downstream regulator fails, the monitor pilot will sensethe increase in pressure and take control at 15 psig.

Upstream Regulator Fails

If the upstream regulator fails, the downstream regulator willremain in control at 10 psig. Note that the downstreamregulator must be rated for the full system inlet pressure P1 of100 psig because this will be its inlet pressure if the upstreamregulator fails. Also note that the outlet rating of the upstream

regulator, and any other components that are exposed toPIntermediate, must be rated for full P1.

Sizing Monitor Regulators

The difficult part of sizing monitor regulators is that PIntermediateis needed to determine the flow capacity for both regulators.Because PIntermediate is not available, other sizing methods areused to determine the capacity. There are three methods forsizing monitor regulators: estimating flow when pressure dropis critical, assuming PIntermediate to calculate flow, and the FisherMonitor Sizing Program.

Estimating Flow when Pressure Drop is Critical

If the pressure drop across both regulators from P1 to P2 iscritical (assume PIntermediate = P1 - P2/2 + P2, P1 - PIntermediate > P1,and PIntermediate - P2 > 1/2 PIntermediate), and both regulators arethe same type, the capacity of the two regulators together is 70to 73 percent of a single regulator reducing the pressure from P1to P2.

Assuming PIntermediate to Determine Flow

Assume PIntermediate is halfway between P1 and P2. Guess aregulator size. Use the assumed PIntermediate and the Cg for eachregulator to calculate the available flow rate for each regulator.If PIntermediate was correct, the calculated flow through eachregulator will be the same. If the flows are not the same, changePIntermediate and repeat the calculations. (PIntermediate will go to thecorrect assumed pressure whenever the flow demand reachesmaximum capacity.)

Fisher Monitor Sizing Program

Fisher offers a Monitor Sizing Program on the Fisher RegulatorLiterature CD. Call your local sales office to request a copy ofthe CD. Please reference P/N D102220X012. To locate your localsales office, log on to www.fisherregualtors.com.



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Introduction

Improper valve sizing can be both expensive and inconvenient.A valve that is too small will not pass the required flow, and theprocess will be starved. An oversized valve will be moreexpensive, and it may lead to instability and other problems.

The days of selecting a valve based upon the size of the pipelineare gone. Selecting the correct valve size for a given applicationrequires a knowledge of process conditions that the valve willactually see in service. The technique for using this informationto size the valve is based upon a combination of theory andexperimentation.

Sizing for Liquid Service

Using the principle of conservation of energy, Daniel Bernoullifound that as a liquid flows through an orifice, the square of thefluid velocity is directly proportional to the pressure differentialacross the orifice and inversely proportional to the specificgravity of the fluid. The greater the pressure differential, thehigher the velocity; the greater the density, the lower the velocity.The volume flow rate for liquids can be calculated by multiply-ing the fluid velocity times the flow area.

By taking into account units of measurement, the proportional-ity relationship previously mentioned, energy losses due tofriction and turbulence, and varying discharge coefficients forvarious types of orifices (or valve bodies), a basic liquid sizingequation can be writtenas follows:

Q = C P / Gv ∆ (1)

where:

Q = Capacity in gallons per minute

C v = Valve sizing coefficient determined experimentally foreach style and size of valve, using water at standardconditions as the test fluid

∆P = Pressure differential in psi

G = Specific gravity of fluid (water at 60°F = 1.0000)

Thus, Cv is numerically equal to the number of U.S. gallons ofwater at 60°F that will flow through the valve in one minutewhen the pressure differential across the valve is one pound persquare inch. Cv varies with both size and style of valve, butprovides an index for comparing liquid capacities of differentvalves under a standard set of conditions.

To aid in establishing uniform measurement of liquid flow

capacity coefficients (Cv) among valve manufacturers, the FluidControls Institute (FCI) developed a standard test pipingarrangement, shown in Figure 1. Using such a piping arrange-ment, most valve manufacturers develop and publish Cvinformation for their products, making it relatively easy tocompare capacities of competitive products.

To calculate the expected Cv for a valve controlling water orother liquids that behave like water, the basic liquid sizingequation abovecan be re-written as follows:

C = Q GPv ∆ (2)

Viscosity Corrections

Viscous conditions can result in significant sizing errors in usingthe basic liquid sizing equation, since published Cv values arebased on test data using water as the flow medium. Althoughthe majority of valve applications will involve fluids whereviscosity corrections can be ignored, or where the correctionsare relatively small, fluid viscosity should be considered in eachvalve selection.

Fisher has developed a nomograph (Figure 2) that provides aviscosity correction factor (Fv). It can be applied to the stan-dard Cv coefficient to determine a corrected coefficient (Cvr) forviscous applications.

Finding Valve Size

Using the Cv determined by the basic liquid sizing equation andthe flow and viscosity conditions, a fluid Reynolds number canbe found by using the nomograph in Figure 2. The graph ofReynolds number vs. viscosity correction factor (Fv) is used todetermine the correction factor needed. (If the Reynoldsnumber is greater than 3500, the correction will be ten percent orless.) The actual required Cv (Cvr) is found by the equation:

Figure 1. Standard FCI Test Piping for Cv Measurement

PRESSUREINDICATORS∆∆∆∆∆P ORIFICE

METER

INLET VALVE TEST VALVE LOAD VALVE

FLOW

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TECHNICAL


Figure 2. Nomograph for Determining Viscosity Correction

Nomograph InstructionsUse this nomograph to correct for the effects of viscosity. When assembling data, all units mustcorrespond to those shown on the nomograph. For high-recovery, ball-type valves, use the liquidflow rate Q scale designated for single-ported valves. For butterfly and eccentric disk rotaryvalves, use the liquid flow rate Q scale designated for double-ported valves.

Nomograph Equations

1. Single-Ported Valves: NR = 17250

Q

C v csν

2. Double-Ported Valves: NR = 12200Q

C v csν

Nomograph Procedure1. Lay a straight edge on the liquid sizing coefficient on Cv scale and flow rate on Q scale.

Mark intersection on index line. Procedure A uses value of Cvc; Procedures B and C use valueof Cvr.

2. Pivot the straight edge from this point of intersection with index line to liquid viscosity onproper n scale. Read Reynolds number on NR scale.

3. Proceed horizontally from intersection on NR scale to proper curve, and then verticallyupward or downward to Fv scale. Read Cv correction factor on Fv scale.

3000

3,000

4,000

6,000

8,00010,000

20,000

30,000

40,000

60,000

80,000100,000

200,000

300,000

400,000

600,000

800,0001,000,000

1 2 3 4 6

CV CORRECTION FACTOR - FV

RE

YN

OL

DS

NU

MB

ER

- N

R

VIS

CO

SIT

Y -

SA

YB

OL

T S

EC

ON

DS

UN

IVE

RS

AL

LIQ

UID

FL

OW

RA

TE

- G

PM

(S

ING

LE

PO

RT

ED

ON

LY

)

LIQ

UID

FL

OW

CO

EF

FIC

IEN

T-

CV

CV

Q

INDEX FVHR

8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200

1 2 3 4 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 200

2000

2,000

1,000

2,000

2,000

3,000

3,000

4,000

4,000

6,000

6,000

8,000

8,000

10,000

10,000

800

600

400300

200

10080

60

40

30

20

108

6

4

3

2

1

1,000

1,000

2,000

2,000

3,000

3,000

4,000

4,000

6,000

6,000

8,000

8,000

10,000

10,000

20,000

20,000

30,000

30,000

40,000

40,000

60,000

60,000

80,000

80,000

100,000

100,000

200,000

300,000400,000

800

800

600

600

400

400

300

300

200

200

100

100

80

80

60

60

40

40

3532.6

30

20

1086

43

2

1

.8

.6

.4

.3

.2

.1.08

.06

.04

.03

.02

.01

1,000

1,000

800600

800

600

400

300

200

10080

60

40

30

20

400300

200

1008060

4030

20

10

10

8

8

6

6

4

4

3

3

2

2

1.8

.6

.4

.2

.1

.3

1.8.6

.4

.3

.2

.1.08.06

.04

.04

.06

.08

.03

.03

.02

.02

.01

.01

.008

.008.006

.006.004

.004.003

.003.002

.002

.001

.001.0008

.0008.0006

.0006.0004

.0004.0003

.0003.0002

.0002

.0001

.0001

1000800

600

400300

200

10080

60

40

30

20

108

6

4

3

2

1.8

.6

.4

.3

.2

.1

.08

.06

.04

.03

.02

.01

KIN

EM

AT

IC V

ISC

OS

ITY

- C

EN

TIS

TO

KE

SC

S

FOR PREDICTING PRESSURE DROP

FOR SELECTING VALVE SIZE

FOR PREDICTING FLOW RATE

LIQ

UID

FL

OW

RA

TE

- G

PM

(D

OU

BL

E P

OR

TE

D O

NL

Y)

CV CORRECTION FACTOR - FV

11TechVsize.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM497


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TECHNICAL

less.) The actual required Cv (Cvr) is found by the equation:

C = F Cvr v v (3)

From the valve manufacturer’s published liquid capacityinformation, select a valve having a Cv equal to or higher thanthe required coefficient (Cvr) found by the equation above.

Predicting Flow Rate

Select the required liquid sizing coefficient (Cvr) from themanufacturer’s published liquid sizing coefficients (Cv) for thestyle and size valve being considered. Calculate the maximumflow rate (Qmax) in gallons per minute (assuming no viscositycorrection required) using the following adaptation of the basicliquid sizing equation:

Q = C P / Gmax vr ∆ (4)

Then incorporate viscosity correction by determining the fluidReynolds number and correction factor Fv from the viscositycorrection nomograph and the procedure included on it.

Calculate the predicted flow rate (Qpred) using the formula:

Q = QFpredmax

v(5)

Predicting Pressure Drop

Select the required liquid sizing coefficient (Cvr) from thepublished liquid sizing coefficients (Cv) for the valve style andsize being considered. Determine the Reynolds number andcorrect factor Fv from the nomograph and the procedure on it.Calculate the sizing coefficient (Cvc) using the formula:

C = CFvc

vr

v(6)

Calculate the predicted pressure drop (∆Ppred) using the formula:

∆Ppred vc = G (Q /C )2 (7)

Flashing and Cavitation

The occurrence of flashing or cavitation within a valve can havea significant effect on the valve sizing procedure. These two

related physical phenomena can limit flow through the valve inmany applications and must be taken into account in order toaccurately size a valve. Structural damage to the valve andadjacent piping may also result. Knowledge of what is actuallyhappening within the valve may permit selection of a size orstyle of valve which can reduce, or compensate for, the undesir-able effects of flashing or cavitation.

The “physical phenomena” label is used to describe flashing andcavitation because these conditions represent actual changes inthe form of the fluid media. The change is from the liquid stateto the vapor state and results from the increase in fluid velocityat or just downstream of the greatest flow restriction, normallythe valve port. As liquid flow passes through the restriction,there is a necking down, or contraction, of the flow stream.The minimum cross-sectional area of the flow stream occursjust downstream of the actual physical restriction at a pointcalled the vena contracta, as shown in Figure 3.

To maintain a steady flow of liquid through the valve, thevelocity must be greatest at the vena contracta, where crosssectional area is the least. The increase in velocity (or kineticenergy) is accompanied by a substantial decrease in pressure (orpotential energy) at the vena contracta. Further downstream,as the fluid stream expands into a larger area, velocity decreases

Figure 3. Vena Contracta

Figure 4. Comparison of Pressure Profiles forHigh and Low Recovery Valves

VENA CONTRACTA

RESTRICTION

FLOW

FLOW

P1 P2

P1

P2

P2

P2

HIGH RECOVERY

LOW RECOVERY

P1

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TECHNICAL

Valve Sizing Calculationsand pressure increases. But, of course, downstream pressurenever recovers completely to equal the pressure that existedupstream of the valve. The pressure differential (∆P) that existsacross the valve is a measure of the amount of energy that wasdissipated in the valve. Figure 4 provides a pressure profileexplaining the differing performance of a streamlined highrecovery valve, such as a ball valve and a valve with lowerrecovery capabilities due to greater internal turbulence anddissipation of energy.

Regardless of the recovery characteristics of the valve, thepressure differential of interest pertaining to flashing andcavitation is the differential between the valve inlet and the venacontracta. If pressure at the vena contracta should drop belowthe vapor pressure of the fluid (due to increased fluid velocity atthis point) bubbles will form in the flow stream. Formation ofbubbles will increase greatly as vena contracta pressure dropsfurther below the vapor pressure of the liquid. At this stage,there is no difference between flashing and cavitation, but thepotential for structural damage to the valve definitely exists.

If pressure at the valve outlet remains below the vapor pressureof the liquid, the bubbles will remain in the downstream systemand the process is said to have “flashed.” Flashing can produceserious erosion damage to the valve trim parts and is character-ized by a smooth, polished appearance of the eroded surface.Flashing damage is normally greatest at the point of highestvelocity, which is usually at or near the seat line of the valve plugand seat ring.

However, if downstream pressure recovery is sufficient to raisethe outlet pressure above the vapor pressure of the liquid, thebubbles will collapse, or implode, producing cavitation. Collaps-ing of the vapor bubbles releases energy and produces a noisesimilar to what one would expect if gravel were flowing throughthe valve. If the bubbles collapse in close proximity to solidsurfaces, the energy released gradually wears the material leavinga rough, cinderlike surface. Cavitation damage may extend tothe downstream pipeline, if that is where pressure recoveryoccurs and the bubbles collapse. Obviously, “high recovery”valves tend to be more subject to cavitation, since the down-stream pressure is more likely to rise above the liquid’s vaporpressure.

Choked Flow

Aside from the possibility of physical equipment damage due toflashing or cavitation, formation of vapor bubbles in the liquidflowstream causes a crowding condition at the vena contractawhich tends to limit flow through the valve. So, while the basicliquid sizing equation implies that there is no limit to the

amount of flow through a valve as long as the differentialpressure across the valve increases, the realities of flashing andcavitation prove otherwise. If valve pressure drop is increasedslightly beyond the point where bubbles begin to form, a chokedflow condition is reached. With constant upstream pressure,further increases in pressure drop (by reducing downstreampressure) will not produce increased flow. The limiting pressuredifferential is designated ∆Pallow and the valve recovery coeffi-cient (Km) is experimentally determined for each valve, in orderto relate choked flow for that particular valve to the basic liquidsizing equation. Km is normally published with other valvecapacity coefficients. Figures 4 and 5 show these flow vs.pressure drop relationships.

Use the following equation to determine maximum allowablepressure drop that is effective in producing flow. Keep in mind,however, that the limitation on the sizing pressure drop, ∆Pallow,does not imply a maximum pressure drop that may be con-trolled by the valve.

Figure 5. Flow Curve Showing Cv and Km

Figure 6. Relationship Between Actual DP and DP Allowable

CHOKED FLOW

PILOT OF EQUATION (1)

P1 = CONSTANT

∆∆∆∆∆P (ALLOWABLE)Cv

Q(gpm) Km

∆ P

∆ P

∆∆∆∆∆P (ALLOWABLE)

ACTUAL ∆∆∆∆∆P

PREDICTED FLOW USINGACTUAL ∆∆∆∆∆P

Cv

Q(gpm)

ACTUALFLOW

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TECHNICAL

∆Pallow m 1 c v = K (P - r P ) (8)

where:

∆Pallow = maximum allowable differential pressure for sizingpurposes, psi

Km = valve recovery coefficient from manufacturer’sliterature

P1 = body inlet pressure, psia

rc = critical pressure ratio determined from Figures 7and 8

Pv = vapor pressure of the liquid at body inlet tempera-ture, psia (vapor pressures and critical pressures formany common liquids are provided in the PhysicalConstants of Hydrocarbons and Physical Con-stants of Fluids tables; refer to the Table of Con-tents for the page number).

After calculating ∆Pallow, substitute it into the basic liquid sizingequation Q v= C P / G∆ to determine either Q or Cv. If theactual ∆P is less the ∆Pallow, then the actual ∆P should be used inthe equation.

The equation used to determine ∆Pallow should also be used tocalculate the valve body differential pressure at which significantcavitation can occur. Minor cavitation will occur at a slightlylower pressure differential than that predicted by the equation,but should produce negligible damage in most globe-stylecontrol valves.

Consequently, it can be seen that initial cavitation and chokedflow occur nearly simultaneously in globe-style or low-recoveryvalves.

However, in high-recovery valves such as ball or butterfly valves,significant cavitation can occur at pressure drops below thatwhich produces choked flow. So while ∆Pallow and Km are usefulin predicting choked flow capacity, a separate cavitation index(Kc) is needed to determine the pressure drop at which cavitationdamage will begin (∆Pc) in high-recovery valves.

The equation can be expressed:

∆Pc c = K (P - P1 v ) (9)

This equation can be used anytime outlet pressure is greater thanthe vapor pressure of the liquid.

Addition of anti-cavitation trim tends to increase the value ofKm. In other words, choked flow and insipient cavitation willoccur at substantially higher pressure drops than was the casewithout the anti-cavitation accessory.

Liquid Sizing Summary

The most common use of the basic liquid sizing equation is todetermine the proper valve size for a given set of service condi-tions. The first step is to calculate the required Cv by using thesizing equation. The ∆P used in the equation must be the actual

Figure 7. Critical Pressure Ratios for Water Figure 8. Critical Pressure Ratios for Liquid Other than Water

Use this curve for water. Enter on the abscissa at the water vapor pressure at the valve inlet. Proceedvertically to intersect the curve. Move horizontally to the left to read the critical pressure ratio, rc, on theordinate.

Use this curve for liquids other than water. Determine the vapor pressure/critical pressure ratio by dividing the liquid vapor pressure at the valve inlet bythe critical pressure of the liquid. Enter on the abscissa at the ratio justcalculated and proceed vertically to intersect the curve. Move horizontally tothe left and read the critical pressure ratio, rc, on the ordinate.

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

CRIT

ICAL

PRE

SSUR

E RA

TIO—

r c

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500

VAPOR PRESSURE, PSIA

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

CRIT

ICAL

PRE

SSUR

E RA

TIO—

r c

0 .20 .40 .60 .80 1.0

VAPOR PRESSURE, PSIACRITICAL PRESSURE, PSIA

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TECHNICAL


valve pressure drop or ∆Pallow, whichever is smaller. The secondstep is to select a valve, from the manufacturer’s literature, with aCv equal to or greater than the calculated value.

Accurate valve sizing for liquids requires use of the dualcoefficients of Cv and Km. A single coefficient is not sufficientto describe both the capacity and the recovery characteristics ofthe valve. Also, use of the additional cavitation index factor Kcis appropriate in sizing high recovery valves, which may developdamaging cavitation at pressure drops well below the level of thechoked flow.

Liquid Sizing Nomenclature

Cv = valve sizing coefficient for liquid determinedexperimentally for each size and style of valve, usingwater at standard conditions as the test fluid

Cvc = calculated Cv coefficient including correction for

viscosity

Cvr = corrected sizing coefficient required for viscousapplications

∆P = differential pressure, psi

∆Pallow = maximum allowable differential pressure for sizingpurposes, psi

∆Pc = pressure differential at which cavitation damagebegins, psi

Fv = viscosity correction factor

G = specific gravity of fluid (water at 60°F = 1.0000)

Kc = dimensionless cavitation index used in determining∆Pc

Km = valve recovery coefficient from manufacturer’sliterature

P1 = body inlet pressure, psia

Pv = vapor pressure of liquid at body inlet temperature,psia

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Q = C P / Gv ∆

C = Q GPv ∆

C = F Cvr v v

Q = C P / Gmax vr ∆

Q = QFpredmax

v

C = CFvc

vr

v

∆Ppred vc = G (Q /C )2

∆Pallow m 1 c v = K (P - r P )

∆Pc c = K (P - P1 v)

11TechVsize.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM501


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TECHNICAL

Q = flow rate capacity, gallons per minute

Qmax = designation for maximum flow rate, assuming noviscosity correction required, gallons per minute

Qpred = predicted flow rate after incorporating viscositycorrection, gallons per minute

rc = critical pressure ratio

Sizing for Gas or Steam Service

A sizing procedure for gases can be established based onadaptions of the basic liquid sizing equation. By introducingconversion factors to change flow units from gallons per minuteto cubic feet per hour and to relate specific gravity in meaningfulterms of pressure, an equation can be derived for the flow of airat 60°F. Since 60°F corresponds to 520° on the Rankine absolutetemperature scale, and since the specific gravity of air at 60°F is1.0, an additional factor can be included to compare air at 60°Fwith specific gravity (G) and absolute temperature (T) of anyother gas. The resulting equation can be written:

Q = . C P P

P

GTscfh v59 64520

11

∆ (A)

The equation shown above, while valid at very low pressure dropratios, has been found to be very misleading when the ratio ofpressure drop (∆P) to inlet pressure (P1) exceeds 0.02. Thedeviation of actual flow capacity from the calculated flowcapacity is indicated in Figure 8 and results from compressibilityeffects and critical flow limitations at increased pressure drops.

Critical flow limitation is the more significant of the twoproblems mentioned. Critical flow is a choked flow conditioncaused by increased gas velocity at the vena contracta. Whenvelocity at the vena contracta reaches sonic velocity, additionalincreases in ∆P by reducing downstream pressure produce noincrease in flow. So, after critical flow condition is reached(whether at a pressure drop/inlet pressure ratio of about 0.5 forglove valves or at much lower ratios for high recovery valves) theequation above becomes completely useless. If applied, the Cvequation gives a much higher indicated capacity than actuallywill exist. And in the case of a high recovery valve which reachescritical flow at a low pressure drop ratio (as indicated inFigure 8), the critical flow capacity of the valve may be over-estimated by as much as 300 percent.

The problems in predicting critical flow with a Cv-basedequation led to a separate gas sizing coefficient based on air flowtests. The coefficient (Cg) was developed experimentally for each

Figure 9. Critical Flow for High and Low RecoveryValves with Equal Cv

type and size of valve to relate critical flow to absolute inletpressure. By including the correction factor used in the previousequation to compare air at 60°F with other gases at otherabsolute temperatures, the critical flow equation can be written:

Q = C P 520 / GTcritical g 1 (B)

Universal Gas Sizing Equation

To account for differences in flow geometry among valves,equations (A) and (B) were consolidated by the introduction ofan additional factor (C1). C1 is defined as the ratio of the gassizing coefficient and the liquid sizing coefficient and provides anumerical indicator of the valve’s recovery capabilities. In general,C1 values can range from about 16 to 37, based on the individualvalve’s recovery characteristics. As shown in the example, twovalves with identical flow areas and identical critical flow (Cg)capacities can have widely differing C1 values dependent on theeffect internal flow geometry has on liquid flow capacity througheach valve. Example:

High Recovery ValveCg = 4680Cv = 254C1 = Cg/Cv

= 4680/254= 18.4

Low Recovery ValveCg = 4680

∆P/P1

HIGH RECOVERY

LOW RECOVERY

Cv

Q ∆PP

= 0.151

∆PP

= 0.51

11TechVsize.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM502

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TECHNICAL


Cv = 135C1 = Cg/Cv

= 4680/135= 34.7

So we see that two sizing coefficients are needed to accuratelysize valves for gas flow—Cg to predict flow based on physicalsize or flow area, and C1 to account for differences in valverecovery characteristics. A blending equation, called the Univer-sal Gas Sizing Equation, combines equations (A) and (B) bymeans of a sinusoidal function, and is based on the “perfect gas”laws. It can be expressed in either of the following manners:

Q = 520GT

C P SIN 59.64

C

PP

rad.scfh g 11 1

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

⎡

⎣

⎢⎢

⎤

⎦

⎥⎥

∆(C)

OR

Q = 520GT

C P SIN 3417

C

PP

Deg.scfh g 11 1

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

⎡

⎣

⎢⎢

⎤

⎦

⎥⎥

∆(D)

In either form, the equation indicates critical flow when the sinefunction of the angle designated within the brackets equalsunity. The pressure drop ratio at which critical flow occurs isknown as the critical pressure drop ratio. It occurs when thesine angle reaches π/2 radians in equation (C) or 90 degrees inequation (D). As pressure drop across the valve increases, thesine angle increases from zero up to π/2 radians (90°). If theangle were allowed to increase further, the equations wouldpredict a decrease in flow. Because this is not a realistic situa-tion, the angle must be limited to 90 degrees maximum.

Although “perfect gases,” as such, do not exist in nature, thereare a great many applications where the Universal Gas SizingEquation, (C) or (D), provides a very useful and usable approxi-mation.

General Adaptation for Steam and Vapors

The density form of the Universal Gas Sizing Equation is themost general form and can be used for both perfect and non-perfect gas applications. Applying the equation requiresknowledge of one additional condition not included in previousequations, that being the inlet gas, steam, or vapor density (d1) inpounds per cubic foot. (Steam density can be determined fromtables.)

Then the following adaptation of the Universal Gas SizingEquation can be applied:

Q = 1.06 d P C SIN 3417C

P

P Deg.lb/hr 1 1 g

1 1

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

∆(E)

Special Equation Form for Steam Below 1000 psig

If steam applications do not exceed 1000 psig, density changescan be compensated for by using a special adaptation of theUniversal Gas Sizing Equation. It incorporates a factor foramount of superheat in degrees Fahrenheit (Tsh) and also asizing coefficient (Cs) for steam. Equation (F) eliminates the needfor finding the density of superheated steam, which was required inEquation (E). At pressures below 1000 psig, a constant relation-ship exists between the gas sizing coefficient (Cg) and the steamcoefficient (Cs). This relationship can be expressed: Cs = Cg/20.For higher steam pressure applications, use Equation (E).

Q =C P

1 + 0.00065T SIN

3417C

P

P Deg.lb/hr

s 1

sh 1 1

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

⎡

⎣⎢⎢

⎤

⎦⎥⎥

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

⎡

⎣

⎢⎢

⎤

⎦

⎥⎥

∆

(F)

Gas and Steam Sizing Summary

The Universal Gas Sizing Equation can be used to determine theflow of gas through any style of valve. Absolute units oftemperature and pressure must be used in the equation. Whenthe critical pressure drop ratio causes the sine angle to be 90degrees, the equation will predict the value of the critical flow.For service conditions that would result in an angle of greaterthan 90 degrees, the equation must be limited to 90 degrees inorder to accurately determine the critical flow.

Most commonly, the Universal Gas Sizing Equation is used todetermine proper valve size for a given set of service conditions.The first step is to calculate the required Cg by using theUniversal Gas Sizing Equation. The second step is to select avalve from the manufacturer’s literature. The valve selectedshould have a Cg which equals or exceeds the calculated value.Be certain that the assumed C1 value for the valve is selectedfrom the literature.

It is apparent that accurate valve sizing for gases that requiresuse of the dual coefficient is not sufficient to describe both thecapacity and the recovery characteristics of the valve.

Proper selection of a control valve for gas service is a highlytechnical problem with many factors to be considered. Leadingvalve manufacturers provide technical information, test data,sizing catalogs, nomographs, sizing slide rules, and computer orcalculator programs that make valve sizing a simple and

11TechVsize.pmd 2/14/2005, 10:06 AM503


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TECHNICAL

accurate procedure.

C1 = Cg/Cv

Cg = gas sizing coefficient

Cs = steam sizing coefficient, Cg/20

Cv = liquid sizing coefficient

d1 = density of steam or vapor at inlet, pounds/cu. foot

G = gas specific gravity (air = 1.0)

P1 = valve inlet pressure, psia

∆P = pressure drop across valve, psi

Qcritical = critical flow rate, scfh

Qscfh = gas flow rate, scfh

Qlb/hr = steam or vapor flow rate, pounds per hour

T = absolute temperature of gas at inlet, degreesRankine

Tsh = degrees of superheat, °F

Gas and Steam Sizing Nomenclature

Q = 520GT

C P SIN 59.64

C

PP

rad.scfh g 11 1

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

⎡

⎣

⎢⎢

⎤

⎦

⎥⎥

∆

Q = C P 520 / GTcritical g 1

Q = . C P P

P

GTscfh v59 64520

11

∆

Q = 520GT

C P SIN 3417C

P

P Deg.scfh g 1

1 1

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

⎡

⎣

⎢⎢

⎤

⎦

⎥⎥

∆

Q = 1.06 d P C SIN 3417C

P

P Deg.lb/hr 1 1 g

1 1

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

∆

Q = C P

1 + 0.00065T SIN

3417C

P

P Deg.lb/hr

s 1

sh 1 1

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

⎡

⎣⎢⎢

⎤

⎦⎥⎥

⎛

⎝⎜

⎞

⎠⎟

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Regulators Rated for Low Temperatures

In some areas of the world, regulators periodically operate intemperatures below -20°F (-29°C). These cold temperaturesrequire special construction materials to prevent regulatorfailure. Fisher offers regulator constructions that are RATEDfor use in service temperatures below -20°F (-29°C).

Selection Criteria

When selecting a regulator for extreme cold temperature service,the following guidelines should be considered:

• The body material should be 300 Series stainless steel,LCC, or LCB due to low carbon content in the materialmakeup.

• Give attention to the bolts used. Generally, specialstainless steel bolting is required.

• Gaskets and O-rings may need to be addressed ifproviding a seal between two parts exposed to the cold.

• Special springs may be required in order to preventfracture when exposed to extreme cold.

• Soft parts in the regulator that are also being used as aseal gasket between two metal parts (such as a dia-phragm) may need special consideration. Alternatediaphragm materials should be used to prevent leakagecaused by hardening and stiffening of the standardmaterials.

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Introduction

Freezing has been a problem since the birth of the gas industry.This problem will likely continue, but there are ways to mini-mize the effects of the phenomenon.

There are two areas of freezing. The first is the formation of icefrom water travelling within the gas stream. Ice will form whentemperatures drop below 32°F (0°C).

The second is hydrate formation. Hydrate is a frozen mixtureof water and hydrocarbons. This bonding of water around thehydrocarbon molecule forms a compound which can freezeabove 32°F (0°C). Hydrates can be found in pipelines that aresaturated with water vapor. It is also common to have hydrateformation in natural gas of high BTU content. Hydrateformation is dependent upon operating conditions and gascomposition.

Reducing Freezing Problems

To minimize problems, we have several options.

1. Keep the fluid temperature above the freezing point byapplying heat.

2. Feed an antifreeze solution into the flow stream.3. Select equipment that is designed to be ice-free in the

regions where there are moving parts.4. Design systems that minimize freezing effects.5. Remove the water from the flow stream.

Heat the Gas

Obviously, warm water does not freeze. What we have to knowis when heat is needed, then apply the heat.

Gas temperature is reduced whenever pressure is reduced. Thistemperature drop is about 1°F (1°C) for each 15 psi (2 bar)pressure drop. Potential problems can be identified by calculat-ing the temperature drop and subtracting from the initialtemperature. Usually ground temperature, about 50°F (10°C) isthe initial temperature. If a pressure reducing station droppedthe pressure from 400 to 250 psi (27 to 17 bar) and the initialtemperature is 50°F (10°C), the final temperature would be40°F (5°C).

50°F - (400-250 psi) (1°F/15 psi) = 40°F

(10°C - (27 - 17 bar) (1°C/2 bar) = 5°C)

In this case, a freezing problem is not expected. However, if thefinal pressure was 25 psi (3 bar) instead of 250 psi (27 bar), thefinal temperature would be 25°F (-2°C). We should expectfreezing in this example if there is any moisture in the gas

stream.

We can heat the entire gas stream with line heaters where thesituation warrants. However, this does involve some largeequipment and considerable fuel requirements.

Many different types of large heaters are on the market today.Some involve boilers that heat a water/glycol solution which iscirculated through a heat exchanger in the main gas line. Twoimportant considerations are: (1) fuel efficiencies, and (2) noisegeneration.

In many cases, it is more practical to build a box around thepressure reducing regulator and install a small catalytic heater towarm the regulator. When pilot-operated regulators are used,we may find that the ice passes through the regulator withoutdifficulty but plugs the small ports in the pilot. A small heatercan be used to heat the pilot supply gas or the pilot itself. Aword of caution is appropriate. When a heater remains in usewhen it is not needed, it can overheat the rubber parts of theregulator. They are usually designed for 180°F (82°C) maxi-mum. Using an automatic temperature control thermostat canprevent overheating.

Antifreeze Solution

An antifreeze solution can be introduced into the flow streamwhere it will combine with the water. The mixture can passthrough the pressure reducing station without freezing. Theantifreeze is dripped into the pipeline from a pressurizedreservoir through a needle valve. This system is quite effective ifone remembers to replenish the reservoir. There is a system thatallows the antifreeze to enter the pipeline only when needed. Wecan install a small pressure regulator between the reservoir andthe pipeline with the control line of the small regulator con-nected downstream of the pressure reducing regulator in thepipeline. The small regulator is set at a lower pressure than theregulator in the pipeline. When the controlled pressure isnormal, the small regulator remains closed and conserves theantifreeze. When ice begins to block the regulator in the pipeline,downstream pressure will fall below the setpoint of the smallregulator which causes it to open, admitting antifreeze into thepipeline as it is needed. When the ice is removed, the down-stream pressure returns to normal and the small regulator closesuntil ice begins to re-form. This system is quite reliable as longas the supply of the antifreeze solution is maintained. It isusually used at low volume pressure reducing stations.

Equipment Selection

We can select equipment that is somewhat tolerant of freezing ifwe know how ice forms in a pressure reducing regulator. Since

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the pressure drop occurs at the orifice, this is the spot where wemight expect the ice formation. However, this is not necessarilythe case. Metal regulator bodies are good heat conductors. As aresult, the body, not just the port, is cooled by the pressuredrop. The moisture in the incoming gas strikes the cooledsurface as it enters the body and freezes to the body wall beforeit reaches the orifice. If the valve plug is located upstream of theorifice, there is a good chance that it will become trapped in theice and remain in the last position. This ice often contains wormholes which allow gas to continue to flow. In this case, theregulator will be unable to control downstream pressure whenthe flow requirement changes. If the valve plug is locateddownstream of the port, it is operating in an area that isfrequently ice-free. It must be recognized that any regulator canbe disabled by ice if there is sufficient moisture in the flowstream.

System Design

We can arrange station piping to reduce freezing if we knowwhen to expect freezing. Many have noted that there are fewreported instances of freezing when the weather is very cold (0°F(-18°C)). They have observed that most freezing occurs whenthe atmospheric temperature is between 35° and 45°F (2° and7°C). When the atmospheric temperature is quite low, themoisture within the gas stream freezes to the pipe wall before itreaches the pressure reducing valve which leaves only dry gas topass through the valve. We can take advantage of this conceptby increasing the amount of piping that is exposed aboveground upstream of the pressure reducing valve. This willassure ample opportunity for the moisture to contact the pipewall and freeze to the wall.

When the atmospheric temperature rises enough to melt the icefrom the pipe wall, it is found that the operating conditions arenot favorable to ice formation in the pressure reducing valve.There may be sufficient solar heat gain to warm the regulatorbody or lower flow rates which reduces the refrigeration effectof the pressure drop.

Parallel pressure reducing valves make a practical antifreezesystem for low flow stations such as farm taps. The two parallelregulators are set at slightly different pressures (maybe one at 50psi (3 bar) and one at 60 psi (4 bar)). The flow will automati-cally go through the regulator with the higher setpoint. Whenthis regulator freezes closed, the pressure will drop and thesecond regulator will open and carry the load. Since mostfreezing instances occur when the atmospheric temperature isbetween 35° and 45°F (2° and 7°C), we expect the ice in the firstregulator to begin thawing as soon as the flow stops. When theice melts from the first regulator, it will resume flowing gas.

These two regulators will continue to alternate between flowingand freezing until the atmospheric temperature decreases orincreases, which will get the equipment out of the ice formationtemperature range.

Water Removal

Removing the moisture from the flow stream solves theproblem of freezing. However, this can be a difficult task.Where moisture is a significant problem, it may be beneficial touse a method of dehydration. Dehydration is a process thatremoves the water from the gas stream. Effective dehydrationremoves enough water to prevent reaching the dew point at thelowest temperature and highest pressure.

Two common methods of dehydration involve glycol absorp-tion and desiccants. The glycol absorption process requires thegas stream to pass through glycol inside a contactor. Watervapor is absorbed by the glycol which in turn is passed througha regenerator that removes the water by distillation. The glycolis reused after being stripped of the water. The glycol system iscontinuous and fairly low in cost. It is important, however,that glycol is not pushed downstream with the dried gas.

The second method, solid absorption or desiccant, has theability to produce much drier gas than glycol absorption. Thesolid process has the gas stream passing through a tower filledwith desiccant. The water vapor clings to the desiccant, until itreaches saturation. Regeneration of the desiccant is done bypassing hot gas through the tower to dry the absorptionmedium. After cooling, the system is ready to perform again.This is more of a batch process and will require two or moretowers to keep a continuous flow of dry gas. The desiccantsystem is more expensive to install and operate than the glycolunits.

Most pipeline gas does not have water content high enough torequire these measures. Sometimes a desiccant dryer installed inthe pilot gas supply lines of a pilot-operated regulator is quiteeffective. This is primarily true where water is present on anoccasional basis.

Summary

It is ideal to design a pressure reducing station that will neverfreeze, but anyone who has spent time working on this problemwill acknowledge that no system is foolproof. We can designsystems that minimize the freezing potential by being aware ofthe conditions that favor freezing.

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Sulfide Stress Cracking--NACE MR0175-2002, MR0175/ISO 15156

The Details

NACE MR0175, “Sulfide Stress Corrosion CrackingResistant Metallic Materials for Oil Field Equipment” iswidely used throughout the world. In late 2003, it becameNACE MR0175/ISO 15156, “Petroleum and Natural GasIndustries - Materials for Use in H

2S-Containing Environ-

ments in Oil and Gas Production.” These standards specifythe proper materials, heat treat conditions and strength levelsrequired to provide good service life in sour gas and oilenvironments.

NACE International (formerly the National Association ofCorrosion Engineers) is a worldwide technical organizationwhich studies various aspects of corrosion and the damagethat may result in refineries, chemical plants, water systemsand other types of industrial equipment. MR0175 was firstissued in 1975, but the origin of the document dates to 1959when a group of engineers in Western Canada pooled theirexperience in successful handling of sour gas. The grouporganized as a NACE committee and in 1963 issued specifica-tion 1B163, “Recommendations of Materials for SourService.” In 1965, NACE organized a nationwide committee,which issued 1F166 in 1966 and MR0175 in 1975. Revisionswere issued on an annual basis as new materials andprocesses were added. Revisions had to receive unanimousapproval from the responsible NACE committee.

In the mid-1990’s, the European Federation of Corrosion(EFC) issued 2 reports closely related to MR0175; Publica-tion 16, “Guidelines on Materials Requirements for Carbonand Low Alloy Steels for H

2S-Containing Environments in

Oil and Gas Production” and Publication 17, “CorrosionResistant Alloys for Oil and Gas Production: Guidance onGeneral Requirements and Test Methods for H

2S Service.”

EFC is located in London, England.

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) isa worldwide federation of national standards bodies frommore than 140 countries. One organization from eachcountry acts as the representative for all organizations in thatcountry. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)is the USA representative in ISO. Technical Committee 67,“Materials, Equipment and Offshore Structures for Petro-leum, Petrochemical and Natural Gas Industries,” requestedthat NACE blend the different sour service documents into asingle global standard.

This task was completed in late 2003 and the document wasissued as ISO standard, NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. It isnow maintained by ISO/TC 67, Work Group 7, a 12-member“Maintenance Panel” and a 40-member Oversight Committeeunder combined NACE/ISO control. The three committees

are an international group of users, manufacturers and serviceproviders. Membership is approved by NACE and ISO basedon technical knowledge and experience. Terms are limited.Previously, some members on the NACE Task Group had servedfor over 25 years.

NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 is published in 3 volumes.

Part 1: General Principles for Selection of Cracking-ResistantMaterials

Part 2: Cracking-Resistant Carbon and Low Alloy Steels, andthe Use of Cast Irons

Part 3: Cracking-Resistant CRA’s (Corrosion-Resistant Alloys)and Other Alloys

NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 applies only to petroleum produc-tion, drilling, gathering and flow line equipment and fieldprocessing facilities to be used in H

2S bearing hydrocarbon

service. In the past, MR0175 only addressed sulfide stresscracking (SSC). In NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, however, butboth SSC and chloride stress corrosion cracking (SCC) areconsidered. While clearly intended to be used only for oil fieldequipment, industry has applied MR0175 in to many other areasincluding refineries, LNG plants, pipelines and natural gassystems. The judicious use of the document in these applicationsis constructive and can help prevent SSC failures wherever H

2S is

present. Saltwater wells and saltwater handling facilities are notcovered by NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. These are covered byNACE Standard RP0475, “Selection of Metallic Materials to BeUsed in All Phases of Water Handling for Injection into Oil-Bearing Formations.”

When new restrictions are placed on materials in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 or when materials are deleted from thisstandard, materials in use at that time are in compliance. Thisincludes materials listed in MR0175-2002, but not listed in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156. However, if this equipment is moved to adifferent location and exposed to different conditions, thematerials must be listed in the current revision. Alternatively,successful use of materials outside the limitations of NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 may be perpetuated by qualification testingper the standard. The user may replace materials in kind forexisting wells or for new wells within a given field if the environ-mental conditions of the field have not changed.

New Sulfide Stress Cracking Standard for Refineries

Don Bush is chair of a NACE Task Group that has written adocument for refinery applications, NACE MR0103. The title is“Materials Resistant to Sulfide Stress Cracking in CorrosivePetroleum Refining Environments.” The requirements of this

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standard are very similar to the pre-2003 MR0175. Whenapplying this standard, there are few changes from NACEMR0175-2002.

Responsibility

It has always been the responsibility of the end user to deter-mine the operating conditions and to specify when NACEMR0175 applies. This is now emphasized more strongly thanever in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. The manufacturer isresponsible for meeting the metallurgical requirements ofNACE MR0175/ISO 15156. It is the end user’s responsibility toensure that a material will be satisfactory in the intendedenvironment. Some of the operating conditions which must beconsidered include pressure, temperature, corrosiveness, fluidproperties, etc. When bolting components are selected, thepressure rating of flanges could be affected. It is always theresponsibility of the equipment user to convey the environmen-tal conditions to the equipment supplier, particularly if theequipment will be used in sour service.

The various sections of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 cover thecommonly available forms of materials and alloy systems. Therequirements for heat treatment, hardness levels, conditions ofmechanical work and post-weld heat treatment are addressedfor each form of material. Fabrication techniques, bolting,platings and coatings are also addressed.

Applicability of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156

Low concentrations of H2S (<0.05 psi (0.3 kPa) H

2S partial

pressure) and low pressures (<65 psia or 450 kPa) are consid-ered outside the scope of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. The lowstress levels at low pressures or the inhibitive effects of oil maygive satisfactory performance with standard commercialequipment. Many users, however, have elected to take aconservative approach and specify compliance to either NACEMR0175 or NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 any time a measurableamount of H

2S is present. The decision to follow these

specifications must be made by the user based on economicimpact, the safety aspects should a failure occur and past fieldexperience. Legislation can impact the decision as well. Suchjurisdictions include; the Texas Railroad Commission and theU.S. Minerals Management Service (offshore). The Alberta,Canada Energy Conservation Board recommends use of thespecifications.

Basics of Sulfide Stress Cracking (SSC) and StressCorrosion Cracking (SCC)

SSC and SCC are cracking processes that develop in thepresence of water, corrosion and surface tensile stress. It is a

Figure 1. Photomicrograph Showing Stress Corrosion Cracking

progressive type of failure that produces cracking at stress levelsthat are well below the material’s tensile strength. The break orfracture appears brittle, with no localized yielding, plasticdeformation or elongation. Rather than a single crack, anetwork of fine, feathery, branched cracks will form (see Figure1). Pitting is frequently seen, and will serve as a stress concentra-tor to initiate cracking.

With SSC, hydrogen ions are a product of the corrosion process(Figure 2). These ions pick up electrons from the base materialproducing hydrogen atoms. At that point, two hydrogen atomsmay combine to form a hydrogen molecule. Most molecules willeventually collect, form hydrogen bubbles and float awayharmlessly. However, some percentage of the hydrogen atomswill diffuse into the base metal and embrittle the crystallinestructure. When a certain critical concentration of hydrogen isreached and combined with a tensile stress exceeding a thresholdlevel, SSC will occur. H

2S does not actively participate in the

SSC reaction; however, sulfides act to promote the entry of thehydrogen atoms into the base material.

As little as 0.05 psi (0.3 kPa) H2S partial pressure in 65 psia (450

kPa) hydrocarbon gas can cause SSC of carbon and low alloysteels. Sulfide stress cracking is most severe at ambient tempera-ture, particularly in the range of 20 to 120°F (-5 to 50°C). Below20°F (-5°C) the diffusion rate of the hydrogen is so slow that thecritical concentration is never reached. Above 120°F (50°C), thediffusion rate is so fast that the hydrogen atoms pass throughthe material in such a rapid manner that the critical concentra-tion is not reached.

Chloride SCC is widely encountered and has been extensivelystudied. Much is still unknown, however, about its mechanism.

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One theory says that hydrogen, generated by the corrosionprocess, diffuses into the base metal in the atomic form andembrittles the lattice structure. A second, more widely acceptedtheory proposes an electrochemical mechanism. Stainless steelsare covered with a protective, chromium oxide film. Thechloride ions rupture the film at weak spots, resulting in anodic(bare) and cathodic (film covered) sites. The galvanic cellproduces accelerated attack at the anodic sites, which whencombined with tensile stresses produces cracking. A minimumion concentration is required to produce SCC. As the concen-tration increases, the environment becomes more severe,reducing the time to failure.

Temperature also is a factor in SCC. In general, the likelihoodof SCC increases with increasing temperature. A minimumthreshold temperature exists for most systems, below whichSCC is rare. Across industry, the generally accepted minimumtemperature for chloride SCC of the 300 SST’s is about 160°F(70°C). NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 has set a very conservativelimit of 140°F (60°C) due to the synergistic effects of thechlorides, H

2S and low pH values. As the temperature increases

above these values, the time to failure will typically decrease.

Resistance to chloride SCC increases with higher alloy materials.This is reflected in the environmental limits set by NACEMR0175/ISO 15156. Environmental limits progressivelyincrease from 400 series SST and ferritic SST to 300 series,highly alloy austenitic SST, duplex SST, nickel and cobalt basealloys.

Carbon Steel

Carbon and low-alloy steels have acceptable resistance to SSCand SCC however; their application is often limited by their low

resistance to general corrosion. The processing of carbon andlow alloy steels must be carefully controlled for good resistanceto SSC and SCC. The hardness must be less than 22 HRC. Ifwelding or significant cold working is done, stress relief isrequired. Although the base metal hardness of a carbon oralloy steel is less than 22 HRC, areas of the heat affected zone(HAZ) will be harder. PWHT will eliminate these excessivelyhard areas.

ASME SA216 Grades WCB and WCC and SAME SA105 arethe most commonly used body materials. It is Fisher’s policy tosress relieve all welded carbon steels that are supplied to NACEMR0175/ISO 15156.

All carbon steel castings sold to NACE MR0175/ISO 15156requirements are produced using one of the following processes:

1. In particular product lines where a large percentage of carbonsteel assemblies are sold as NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 compli-ant, castings are ordered from the foundry with a requirementthat the castings be either normalized or stress relieved followingall weld repairs, major or minor. Any weld repairs performed byFisher, either major or minor, are subsequently stress relieved.

2. In product lines where only a small percentage of carbon steelproducts are ordered NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 compliant,stock castings are stress relieved whether they are weld repairedby Fisher or not. This eliminates the chance of a minor foundryweld repair going undetected and not being stress relieved.

ASME SA352 grades LCB and LCC have the same compositionas WCB and WCC, respectively. They are heat treated differ-ently and impact tested at -50°F (-46°C) to ensure good tough-ness in low temperature service. LCB and LCC are used inlocations where temperatures commonly drop below the-20°F (-32°C) permitted for WCB and WCC. LCB and LCCcastings are processed in the same manner as WCB and WCCwhen required to meet NACE MR0175/ISO 15156.

For carbon and low-alloy steels NACE MR0175/ISO 15156imposes some changes in the requirements for the weld proce-dure qualification report (PQR). All new PQR’s will meet theserequirements; however, it will take several years for Fisher andour suppliers to complete this work. At this time, we will requireuser approval to use HRC.

Carbon and Low-Alloy Steel Welding Hardness Requirements

• HV-10, HV-5 or Rockwell 15N. • HRC testing is acceptable if the design stresses are less than67% of the minimum specified yield strength and the PQRincludes PWHT. • Other methods require user approval. • 250 HV or 70.6 HR15N max. • 22 HRC max if approved by user.

Figure 2. Schematic Showing the Generation of Hydrogen Producing SSC

H

H

H

H2

H

H

HH H+

H+

e-

e-

e-

H+

H+

H+

H+

M+

M+

M+ S-2

S-2

S-2

HHH

HH H

H

H

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Low-Alloy Steel Welding Hardness Requirements

• All of the above apply with the additional requirement ofstress relieve at 1150°F (620°C) minimum after welding

All new PQR’s at Fisher and our foundries will requirehardness testing with HV-10, HV-5 or Rockwell 15N and HRC.The acceptable maximum hardness values will be 250 HV or70.6 HR15N and 22 HRC. Hardness traverse locations arespecified in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 part 2 as a function ofthickness and weld configuration. The number and locationsof production hardness tests are still outside the scope of thestandard. The maximum allowable nickel content for carbonand low-alloy steels and their weld deposits is 1%.

Low alloy steels like WC6, WC9, and C5 are acceptable toNACE MR0175/ISO 15156 to a maximum hardness of 22HRC. These castings must all be stress relieved to FMS 20B52.

The compositions of C12, C12a, F9 and F91 materials do notfall within the definition of “low alloy steel” in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156, therefore, these materials are not accept-able.

A few of Fisher customers have specified a maximum carbonequivalent (CE) for carbon steel. The primary driver for thisrequirement is to improve the SSC resistance in the as-weldedcondition. Fisher’s practice of stress relieving all carbon steelnegates this need. Decreasing the CE reduces the hardenabilityof the steel and presumably improves resistance to sulfidestress cracking (SSC). Because reducing the CE decreases thestrength of the steel, there is a limit to how far the CE can bereduced.

Cast Iron

Gray, austenitic and white cast irons cannot be used for anypressure retaining parts, due to low ductility. Ferritic ductileiron to ASTM A395 is acceptable when permitted by ANSI,API or other industry standards.

Stainless Steel

400 Series Stainless Steel

UNS S41000 (410 SST), CA15 (cast 410), S42000 (420 SST)and several other martensitic grades must be double temperedto a maximum hardness of 22 HRC. PWHT is also required.

An environmental limit now applies to the martensitic grades;1.5 psi (10 kPa) H

2S partial pressure and pH greater than or

equal to 3.5 S41600 (416 SST) is similar to S41000 (410) withthe exception of a sulfur addition to produce free machiningcharacteristics. Use of 416 and other free machining steels isnot permitted by NACE MR0175/ISO 15156.

CA6NM is a modified version of the cast S41000 stainless steel.NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 allows its use, but specifies the exactheat treatment required. Generally, the carbon content must berestricted to 0.03% maximum to meet the 23 HRC maximumhardness. PWHT is required for CA6NM. The same environ-mental limit applies; 1.5 psi (10 kPa) H

2S partial pressure and

pH greater than or equal to 3.5.

300 Series Stainless Steel

Several changes have been made with the requirements of theaustenitic (300 series) stainless steels. Individual alloys are nolonger listed. All alloys with the following elemental ranges areacceptable: C 0.08% max., Cr 16% min., Ni 8% min., P 0.045%max., S 0.04% max., Mn 2.0% max., and Si 2.0% max. Otheralloying elements are permitted. The other requirementsremain; solution heat treated condition, 22 HRC maximum andfree of cold work designed to improve mechanical properties.The cast and wrought equivalents of S30200, S30400 (CF8),S30403 (CF3), S31000 (CK20), S31600 (CF8M), S31603(CF3M), S31700 (CG8M), S31703 (CG3M), S32100, S34700(CF8C) and N08020 (CN7M) are all acceptable per NACEMR0175/ISO 15156.

Environmental restrictions now apply to the 300 series SST.The limits are 15 psia (100 kPa) H

2S partial pressure, a maxi-

mum temperature of 140°F (60°C), and no elemental sulfur. Ifthe chloride content is less than 50 mg/L (50 ppm), the H

2S

partial pressure must be less than 50 psia (350 kPa) but there isno temperature limit.

There is less of a restriction on 300 series SST in oil and gasprocessing and injection facilities. If the chloride content inaqueous solutions is low (typically less than 50 mg/L or 50 ppmchloride) in operations after separation, there are no limits foraustenitic stainless steels, highly alloyed austenitic stainlesssteels, duplex stainless steels, or nickel-based alloys.

Post-weld heat treatment of the 300 series SST is not required.Although the corrosion resistance may be affected by poorlycontrolled welding, this can be minimized by using the lowcarbon filler material grades, low heat input levels and lowinterpass temperatures. Fisher imposes all these controls asstandard practice. NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 now requires the

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use of “L” grade consumables with 0.03% carbon maximum.

S20910

S20910 (Nitronic® 50) is acceptable in both the annealed andhigh strength conditions with environmental restrictions; H2Spartial pressure limit of 15 psia (100 kPa), a maximum tempera-ture of 150°F (66°C), and no elemental sulfur. This would applyto components such as bolting, plugs, cages, seat rings and otherinternal parts. Strain hardened (cold-worked) S20910 isacceptable for shafts, stems, and pins without any environmentalrestrictions. Because of the environmental restrictions and pooravailability on the high strength condition, use of S20910 willeventually be discontinued except for shafts, stems and pinswhere unrestricted application is acceptable for these compo-nents.

CK3MCuN

The cast equivalent of S31254 (Avesta 254SMO®), CK3MCuN(UNS J93254), is included in this category. The same elementallimits apply. It is acceptable in the cast, solution heat-treatedcondition at a hardness level of 100 HRB maximum in theabsence of elemental sulfur.

S17400

The use of S17400 (17-4PH) is now prohibited for pressureretaining components including bolting, shafts and stems. Priorto 2003, S17400 was listed as an acceptable material in the generalsection (Section 3) of NACE MR0175. Starting with the 2003revision, however, it is no longer listed in the general section. Itsuse is restricted to internal, non-pressure containing componentsin valves, pressure regulators and level controllers. This includescages and other trim parts. 17-4 bolting will no longer besupplied in any NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 construction. The17-4 and 15-5 must be heat-treated to the H1150 DBL conditionor the H1150M condition. The maximum hardness of 33 HRCis the same for both conditions.

CB7Cu-1 and CB7Cu-2 (cast 17-4PH and 15-5 respectively) inthe H1150 DBL condition are also acceptable for internal valveand regulator components. The maximum hardness is 30 HRCor 310 HB for both alloys.

Duplex Stainless Steel

Wrought and cast duplex SST alloys with 35-65% ferrite areacceptable based on the composition of the alloy, but there are

environmental restrictions. There is no differentiation betweencast and wrought, therefore, cast CD3MN is now acceptable.There are two categories of duplex SST. The “standard” alloyswith a 30≤PREN≤40 and ≥1.5% Mo, and the “super” duplexalloys with PREN>40. The PREN is calculated from the compo-sition of the material. The chromium, molybdenum, tungstenand nitrogen contents are used in the calculation. NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 uses this number for several classes ofmaterials.

PREN = Cr% + 3.3(Mo% + 0.5W%) + 16N%

The “standard” duplex SST grades have environmental limits of450°F (232°C) maximum and H

2S partial pressure of 1.5 psia (10

kPa) maximum. The acceptable alloys include S31803, CD3MN,S32550 and CD7MCuN (Ferralium® 255). The alloys must be inthe solution heat-treated and quenched condition. There are nohardness restrictions in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, however, 28HRC remains as the limit in the refinery document MR0103.

The “super” duplex SST with PREN>40 have environmentallimits of 450°F (232°C) maximum and H

2S partial pressure of 3

psia (20 kPa) maximum. The acceptable “super” duplex SST’sinclude S32760 and CD3MWCuN (Zeron® 100).

The cast duplex SST Z 6CNDU20.08M to the French NationalStandard NF A 320-55 is no longer acceptable for NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 applications. The composition fails to meetthe requirements set for either the duplex SST or the austeniticSST.

Highly Alloyed Austenitic Stainless Steels

There are two categories of highly alloyed austenitic SST’s thatare acceptable in the solution heat-treated condition. There aredifferent compositional and environmental requirements for thetwo categories. The first category includes alloys S31254 (Avesta254SMO®) and N08904 (904L); Ni% + 2Mo%>30 and Mo=2%minimum.

The second category of highly alloyed austenitic stainless steelsare those having a PREN >40. This includes S31654 (Avesta654SMO®), N08926 (Inco 25-6Mo), N08367 (AL-6XN), S31266

Alloy S31254 and N08904 Environmental Limits

MAXIMUMTEMPERATURE

MAXIMUM H2S PARTIALPRESSURE

MAXIMUMCHLORIDES

ELEMENTALSULFUR

140°F (60°C) 1.5 psia (100 kPa) No restriction No

140°F (60°C) 50 psia (350 kPa) 50 mg/L chloride No

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Monel® K500 and Inconel® X750

N05500 and N07750 are now prohibited for use in pressureretaining components including bolting, shafts and stems.They can still be used for internal parts such as cages, othertrim parts and torque tubes. There are no environmentalrestrictions, however, for either alloy. They must be in thesolution heat-treated condition with a maximum hardnessof 35 HRC. N07750 is still acceptable for springs to 50HRC maximum.

Cobalt-Base Alloys

Alloy 6 castings and hardfacing are still acceptable. Thereare no environmental limits with respect to partial pressuresof H

2S or elemental sulfur. All other cobalt-chromium-

tungsten, nickel-chromium-boron (Colmonoy) andtungsten-carbide castings are also acceptable withoutrestrictions.

Nonferrous Alloys

Nickel-Base Alloys

Nickel base alloys have very good resistance to cracking in sour,chloride containing environments. There are 2 different catego-ries of nickel base alloys in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156:

• solid-solution nickel-based alloys

• precipitation hardenable alloys

The solid solution alloys are the Hastelloy® C, Inconel® 625and Incoloy® 825 type alloys. Both the wrought and cast alloysare acceptable in the solution heat-treated condition with nohardness limits or environmental restrictions. The chemicalcomposition of these alloys is as follows:

• 19.0% Cr minimum, 29.5% Ni minimum, and 2.5% Mominimum. Includes N06625, CW6MC, N08825, CU5MCuC.

• 14.5% Cr minimum, 52% Ni minimum, and 12% Mo mini-mum. Includes N10276, N06022, CW2M.

N08020 and CN7M (alloy 20 Cb3) are not included in thiscategory. They must follow the restrictions placed on theaustenitic SST’s like 304, 316 and 317.

Although originally excluded from NACE MR0175/ISO 15156,N04400 (Monel® 400) in the wrought and cast forms are nowincluded in this category.

The precipitation hardenable alloys are Incoloy® 925, Inconel®718 and X750 type alloys. They are listed in the specification asindividual alloys. Each has specific hardness and environmentalrestrictions.

N07718 is acceptable in the solution heat-treated and precipita-tion hardened condition to 40 HRC maximum. N09925 is

(UR B66) and S34565. The environmental restrictions for thesealloys are as follows:

acceptable in the cold-worked condition to 35 HRC maximum,solution-annealed and aged to 38 HRC maximum and cold-worked and aged to 40 HRC maximum.

The restrictions are as follows:

Cast N07718 is acceptable in the solution heat-treated andprecipitation hardened condition to 35 HRC maximum. Therestrictions are as follows:

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14TechNACE.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM513

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TECHNICAL


All cobalt based, nickel based and tungsten-carbide weldoverlays are acceptable without environmental restrictions.This includes CoCr-A, NiCr-A (Colmonoy® 4), NiCr-C(Colmonoy® 6) and Haynes Ultimet® hardfacing.

Wrought UNS R31233 (Haynes Ultimet®) is acceptable in thesolution heat-treated condition to 22 HRC maximum, however,all production barstock exceeds this hardness limit. Therefore,Ultimet® barstock cannot be used for NACE MR0175/ISO15156 applications. Cast Ultimet is not listed in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156.

R30003 (Elgiloy®) springs are acceptable to 60 HRC in the coldworked and aged condition. There are no environmentalrestrictions.

Aluminum and Copper Alloys

Per NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, environmental limits have notbeen established for aluminum base and copper alloys. Thismeans that they could be used in sour applications per therequirements of NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, however, theyshould not be used because severe corrosion attack will likelyoccur. They are seldom used in direct contact with H2S.

Titanium

Environmental limits have not been established for the wroughttitanium grades. Fisher has no experience in using titanium insour applications. The only common industrial alloy iswrought R50400 (grade 2). Cast titanium is not included inNACE MR0175/ISO 15156.

Zirconium

Zirconium is not listed in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156.

Springs

Springs in compliance with NACE represent a difficult prob-lem. To function properly, springs must have very highstrength (hardness) levels. Normal steel and stainless steelsprings would be very susceptible to SSC and fail to meetNACE MR0175/ISO 15156. In general, relatively soft, lowstrength materials must be used. Of course, these materialsproduce poor springs. The two exceptions allowed are thecobalt based alloys, such as R30003 (Elgiloy®), which may becold worked and hardened to a maximum hardness of 60 HRC

and alloy N07750 (alloy X750) which is permitted to 50 HRC.There are no environmental restrictions for these alloys.

Coatings

Coatings, platings and overlays may be used provided the basemetal is in a condition which is acceptable per NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. The coatings may not be used to protect a basematerial which is susceptible to SSC. Coatings commonly usedin sour service are chromium plating, electroless nickel (ENC)and nitriding. Overlays and castings commonly used includeCoCr-A (Stellite® or alloy 6), R30006 (alloy 6B), NiCr-A andNiCr-C (Colmonoy® 4 and 6) nickel-chromium-boron alloys.Tungsten carbide alloys are acceptable in the cast, cemented orthermally sprayed conditions. Ceramic coatings such as plasmasprayed chromium oxide are also acceptable. As is true with allmaterials in NACE MR0175/ISO 15156, the general corrosionresistance in the intended application must always be consid-ered.

NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 permits the uses of weld overlaycladding to protect an unacceptable base material from cracking.Fisher does not recommend this practice, however, as hydrogencould diffuse through the cladding and produce cracking of asusceptible basemetal such as carbon or low alloy steel.

Sress Relieving

Many people have the misunderstanding that stress relievingfollowing machining is required by NACE MR0175/ISO 15156.Provided good machining practices are followed using sharptools and proper lubrication, the amount of cold work pro-duced is negligible. SSC and SCC resistance will not be affected.NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 actually permits the cold rolling ofthreads, provided the component will meet the heat treatconditions and hardness requirements specified for the givenparent material. Cold deformation processes such as burnish-ing are also acceptable.

Bolting

Bolting materials must meet the requirements of NACEMR0175/ISO 15156 when directly exposed to the processenvironment (“exposed” applications). Standard ASTM A193and ASME SA193 grade B7 bolts or ASTM A194 and ASMESA194 grade 2H nuts can and should be used provided they areoutside of the process environment (“non-exposed” applica-

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TECHNICAL


tions). If the bolting will be deprived atmospheric contact byburial, insulation or flange protectors and the customer specifiesthat the bolting will be “exposed”, then grades of bolting suchas B7 and 2H are unacceptable. The most commonly usedfasteners listed for “exposed” applications are grade B7M bolts(99 HRB maximum) and grade 2HM nuts (22 HRC maximum).If 300 series SST fasteners are needed, the bolting grades B8AClass 1A and B8MA Class 1A are acceptable. The correspond-ing nut grades are 8A and 8MA.

It must be remembered, however, that the use of lower strengthbolting materials such as B7M may require pressure vesselderating. The special S17400 double H1150 bolting previouslyoffered by Fisher on E body valves to maintain the full B7 ratingis no longer acceptable to NACE MR0175/ISO 15156. Prior tothe 2003, S17400 was listed as an acceptable material in thegeneral section (Section 3) of NACE MR0175. Following the2003 revision, it is no longer listed in the general section. Its useis now restricted to internal, non-pressure containing compo-nents in valves, pressure regulators and level controllers. Theuse of S17400 for bolting is specifically prohibited. N07718(alloy 718) bolting with 2HM nuts is one alternative.

Two different types of packing box studs and nuts are com-monly used by Fisher. The stainless steel type is B8M S31600class 2 (strain hardened) and 316 nuts per FMS 20B86. Thesteel type is B7 studs with 2H nuts. If the customer specifies thatthe packing box studs and nuts are “exposed” then grade B7Mstuds and grade 2HM nuts or B8MA Class 1A studs and 8MAnuts are commonly used.

Bolting Coatings

NFC (Non-Corroding Finish) and ENC (Electroless NickelCoating) coatings are acceptable on pressure-retaining and non-pressure-retaining fasteners. For some reason, there is oftenconfusion regarding the acceptability of zinc plated fasteners perNACE MR0175/ISO 15156. NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 doesnot preclude the use of any coating, provided it is not used in anattempt to prevent SSC or SCC of an otherwise unacceptablebase material. However, zinc plating of pressure-retainingbolting is not recommended by Fisher Controls due to liquidmetal induced embrittlement concerns.

Composition Materials

NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 does not address elastomer andpolymer materials although ISO/TC 67, Work Group 7 is nowworking on a Part 4 to address these materials. The importance

of these materials in critical sealing functions, however, cannot beoverlooked. User experience has been successful with elastomerssuch as nitrile, neoprene and the fluoroelastomers andperfluoroelastomers. In general, fluoropolymers such as PTFE,TCM Plus, TCM Ultra and TCM III can be applied withoutreservation within their normal temperature range.

Elastomer use is as follows:

1. If possible, use HNBR for sour natural gas, oil, or water attemperatures below 250°F (120°C). It covers the widest range ofsour applications at a lower cost than TFE/P or FKM. Unfortu-nately, the material is relatively new, and only a handful of partsare currently set up. Check availability before specifying.

2. Use TFE/P for sour natural gas, oil, or water applications attemperatures between 250°F (120°C) and 400°F (205°C).

3. FKM can be used for sour natural gas, oil, or water applica-tions with less than 10% H

2S and temperatures below 250°F

(120°C).

4. Conventional NBR can be used for sour natural gas, oil, orwater applications with less than 1% H

2S and temperatures

below 150°F (65°C).

5. CR can be used for sour natural gas or water applicationsinvolving temperatures below 150°F (65°C). Its resistance to oil isnot as good.

6. IIR and EPDM (or EPR) can be used for H2S applications

that don’t involve hydrocarbons (H2S gas, sour water, etc.).

Tubulars

A separate section has been established for downhole tubularsand couplings. This section contains provisions for usingmaterials in the cold-drawn condition to higher hardness levels(cold-worked to 35 HRC maximum). In some cases, the environ-mental limits are also different. This has no affect on Fisher aswe do not make products for these applications. Nickel-basedcomponents used for downhole casing, tubing, and the relatedequipment (hangers and downhole component bodies; compo-nents that are internal to the downhole component bodies) aresubject to the requirements.

Expanded Limits and Materials

With documented laboratory testing and/or field experience, it ispossible to expand the environmental limits of materials in

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TECHNICAL


NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 or use materials not listed in NACEMR0175/ISO 15156. This includes increasing the H

2S partial

pressure limit or temperature limitations. Supporting documenta-tion must be submitted to NACE International Headquarters,which will make the data available to the public. NACE Interna-tional will neither review nor approve this documentation. It isthe user’s responsibility to evaluate and determine the applicabilityof the documented data for the intended application.

It is the user’s responsibility to ensure that the testing cited isrelevant for the intended applications. Choice of appropriatetemperatures and environments for evaluating susceptibility toboth SCC and SSC is required. NACE Standard TM0177 andEFC Publication #1739 provide guidelines for laboratory testing.

Field-based documentation for expanded alloy use requiresexposure of a component for sufficient time to demonstrate itsresistance to SCC/SSC. Sufficient information on factors thataffect SCC/SSC (e.g., stress levels, fluid and gas composition,operating conditions, galvanic coupling, etc.) must be docu-mented.

Codes and Standards

Applicable ASTM, ANSI, ASME and API standards are usedalong with NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 as they would normallybe used for other applications. The NACE MR0175/ISO 15156requires that all weld procedures be qualified to these samestandards. Welders must be familiar with the procedures andcapable of making welds which comply.

Certification

Fisher Certification Form 7508 is worded as follows for NACEMR0175-2002 and MR0175/ISO 15156:

“NACE MR0175/ISO 15156 OR NACE MR0175-2002: Thisunit meets the metallurgical requirements of NACE MR0175 orISO 15156 (revision and materials of construction as specified bythe customer). Environmental restrictions may apply to wettedparts and/or bolting.”

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Powder Paint Coating

517

TECHNICAL

Introduction

Powder coating is the most exciting finishing method to beintroduced in the past one hundred years. Powder coating offerssignificant performance advantages, an excellent solution tomeeting current environmental regulations, a good balance ofmechanical properties, and excellent corrosion resistance.

Economic Advantages

Powder coating systems save energy and virtually eliminate airand water pollution because they are solvent-free. The need forair make-up and the high cost of heating is reduced, resulting inconsiderable energy savings. Costly anti-pollution equipmentand time and money spent dealing with state and federalregulatory agencies is also reduced. There is a major reductionin expensive and difficult disposal problems because there is noliquid paint sludge to send to a hazardous waste site. Becausepowder coatings do not require any flash-off time, conveyorracks can be more closely spaced; more parts coated per hourmeans a lower unit cost. In addition to the increased productionrate for a powder coating system, reject rates are much lowerthan in a wet system.

Environmental Advantages

The Clean Air Act of 1970 [U.S. Law] propelled powder coatingprocesses to the forefront of the industry. By eliminating volatileorganic compounds (VOCs), air pollution was reduced. Tomany major coating companies, The Clean Air Act signaled theend of solvent-based processes. Prior to that, the fluidized bedcoating process was well established and though the electrostaticpowder spray process had started to gain acceptance, powder

Figure 1. ANSI 49 Gray Powder Paint with AluminumOxide Coated Fasteners

Figure 2. Inside and Outside Surfaces Coated for Corrosion ProtectionEliminating the need for Chromate Conversion

coating processes in general were not widespread or commer-cially accepted. The powder coating method received more mediaattention between 1971 and 1975 than at any other time, beforeor after. Powder coating processes, especially electrostaticpowder spray processes, are now universally accepted andspecified as the Best Available Control Technology (BACT) toreduce air pollution. While powder coatings have many processand performance advantages over conventionally appliedcoatings, it is the ecological advantages that advance theirgrowth and acceptance. Consider:

Powder Coatings Contain No Solvents or VOCs

• No VOC emissions to the atmosphere.

• Compliance with most environmental regulations.

• Permits may not be required or are typically easier to obtainfor new booth installations.

• Administrative costs of inspections, permits, sample testing, and record keeping are significantly reduced.

• Coating booth exhaust air is returned to the coating room.

• Less oven air is exhausted to the outside.

• Inherently safer and cleaner than solvent-based paintsystems.

• No special transportation, storage, or handling techniquesrequired.

Powder Coatings Reduce Waste and Present Few Hazards

• In most systems, powder coatings are collected andrecycled.

• First pass transfer efficiency is high compared to conventional

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Powder Paint Coating

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TECHNICAL

Figure 3. Standard Liquid Paint Coating after ASTM B117500 Hour Salt Spray Test

Figure 4. Dry Powder Paint and Aluminum Oxide Coated Fasteners after ASTMB117 500 Hour Salt Spray Test

liquid paint application.

• Almost all powder coatings are free of heavy metals.

• The Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) regulations consider almost no powder coating a hazard-

ous waste.

• In most states, disposal methods for waste powder are thesame as

for non-hazardous industrial wastes.

Mechanical Properties

The general purpose powder coating formulations, now widelyused, have a long established reputation for providing anexcellent balance of mechanical properties including impact andabrasion resistance, and hardness. Resources now available allowfor an even broader range of film properties than ever before.Extra hardness, greater chemical resistance, improved exteriorgloss retention, and superior flexibility, though not necessarily ina single formulation, are all attainable. There are very few filmproperties available from liquid paint finishes that cannot beachieved with powder; however, some film properties easilyattainable with powder are difficult or impossible to achieve withconventional wet paints.

Corrosion Resistance

While proper metal pretreatment is important for optimumcorrosion resistance, a combination of pretreatment andpowder coatings can provide outstanding corrosion resistance.

Powder has achieved a good reputation due, in part, to itsconsistent delivery of high film builds and good edge coverage.Also, powders provide high crosslink density, good resistenceto hydrolysis, low moisture and oxygen transmission rates, andfilms free from trace residual solvents.

ASTM Test Results

Dry powder paint sucessfully passed the following ASTMspecified tests:

• Salt Spray Test (500 hours)• Humidity Test (500 hours)• QUV Test (500 hours)• Test Fence (17 months)(test for gloss retention)• Impact Test (140 inch pounds)• Cold and High Temperature Test• Adhesion Test• Hardness Test• Flexibility Test• Chemical Resistance Tests:

- Gasoline (unleaded, 24 hour immersion test)- Mineral Spirits (24 hour immersion test)- Nitric Acid (10% solution spot test for blistering)- Hydrochloric Acid (10% solution spot test for blistering)- Sulfuric Acid (10% solution spot test for blistering)- Sodium Hydroxide (10% solution spot test for blistering)- Liquid Propane Soak Test- Anhydrous Ammonia Reactivity Test

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Regulator Tips

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TECHNICAL

1. All regulators should be installed and used inaccordance with federal, state, and local codes andregulations.

2. Adequate overpressure protection should be installedto protect the regulator from overpressure. Adequateoverpressure protection should also be installed toprotect all downstream equipment in the event ofregulator failure.

3. Downstream pressures significantly higher than theregulator's pressure setting may damage soft seats andother internal parts.

4. If two or more available springs have publishedpressure ranges that include the desired pressuresetting, use thespring with the lower range for better accuracy.

5. The recommended selection for orifice diameters is thesmallest orifice that will handle the flow.

6. Most regulators shown in this handbook are generallysuitable for temperatures to 180°F (82°C). With hightemperature fluoroelastomers (if available), theregulators can be used for temperatures to 300°F(149°C). Check the temperature capabilities todetermine materials and temperature ranges available.Use stainless steel diaphragms and seats for highertemperatures, such as steam service.

7. The full advertised range of a spring can be utilizedwithout sacrificing performance or spring life.

8. Regulator body size should not be larger than the pipesize. In many cases, the regulator body is one sizesmaller than the pipe size.

9. Do not oversize regulators. Pick the smallest orificesize or regulator that will work. Keep in mind whensizing a station that most restricted trims that do notreduce the main port size do not help with improvedlow flow control.

10. Speed of regulator response, in order:• Direct-operated

• Two-path pilot-operated• Unloading pilot-operated• Control valve

Note: Although direct-operated regulators give thefastest response, all types provide quick response.

11. When a regulator appears unable to pass thepublished flow rate, be sure to check the inletpressure measured at the regulator body inletconnection. Piping up to and away fromregulators can cause significant flowing pressurelosses.

12. When adjusting setpoint, the regulator should beflowing at least five percent of the normaloperating flow.

13. Direct-operated regulators generally have fasterresponse to quick flow changes than pilot-operated regulators.

14. Droop is the reduction of outlet pressureexperienced by pressure-reducing regulators as theflow rate increases. It is stated as a percent, ininches of water column (mbar) or in pounds persquare inch (bar) and indicates the differencebetween the outlet pressure setting made at lowflow rates and the actual outlet pressure at thepublished maximum flow rate. Droop is alsocalled offset or proportional band.

15. Downstream pressure always changes to someextent when inlet pressure changes.

16. Most soft-seated regulators will maintain thepressure within reasonable limits down to zeroflow. Therefore, a regulator sized for a high flowrate will usually have a turndown ratio sufficientto handle pilot-light loads during off cycles.

17. Do not undersize the monitor set. It is importantto realize that the monitor regulator, even thoughit is wide-open, will require pressure drop for flow.Using two identical regulators in a monitor set willyield approximately 70 percent of the capacity of asingle regulator.

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TECHNICAL

18. Diaphragms leak a small amount due to migration ofgas through the diaphragm material. To allow escapeof this gas, be sure casing vents (where provided)remain open.

19. Use control lines of equal or greater size than thecontrol tap on the regulator. If a long control line isrequired, make it bigger. A rule of thumb is to use thenext nominal pipe size for every 20 feet (6,1 meters) ofcontrol line. Small control lines cause a delayedresponse of the regulator, leading to increased chanceof instability. 3/8-Inch OD tubing is the minimumrecommended control line size.

20. For every 15 psid (1,0 bar, differential) pressuredifferential across the regulator, expect approximately aone degree drop in gas temperature due to the naturalrefrigeration effect. Freezing is often a problem whenthe ambient temperature is between 30° and 45°F (-1°and 7°C).

21. A disk with a cookie cut appearance probably meansyou had an overpressure situation. Thus, investigatefurther.

22. When using relief valves, be sure to remember that thereseat point is lower than the start-to-bubble point. Toavoid seepage, keep the relief valve setpoint far enoughabove the regulator setpoint.

23. Vents should be pointed down to help avoid theaccumulation of water condensation or other materialsin the spring case.

24. Make control line connections in a straight run of pipeabout 10 pipe diameters downstream of any area ofturbulence, such as elbows, pipe swages, or blockvalves.

25. When installing a working monitor station, get asmuch volume between the two regulators as possible.This will give the upstream regulator more room tocontrol intermediate pressure.

26. Cutting the supply pressure to a pilot-operatedregulator reduces the regulator gain or sensitivity and,

thus, may improve regulator stability. (This can only beused with two path control.)

27. Regulators with high flows and large pressure dropsgenerate noise. Noise can wear parts which can causefailure and/or inaccurate control. Keep regulator noisebelow 110 dBA.

28. Do not place control lines immediately downstream ofrotary or turbine meters.

29. Keep vents open. Do not use small diameter, long ventlines. Use the rule of thumb of the next nominal pipesize every 10 feet (6,1 meters) of vent line and 3 feet(0,91 meters) of vent line for every elbow in the line.

30. Fixed factor measurement (or PFM) requires theregulator to maintain outlet pressure within ±1% ofabsolute pressure. For example: Setpoint of 2 psig +14.7 psia = 16.7 psia x 0.01 = ±0.167 psi. (Setpoint of0,14 bar + 1,01 bar = 1,15 bar x 0,01 = ±0,0115 bar.)

31. Regulating Cg (coefficient of flow) can only be used forcalculating flow capacities on pilot-operated regulators.Use capacity tables or flow charts for determining adirect-operated regulator’s capacity.

32. Do not make the setpoints of the regulator/monitortoo close together. The monitor can try to take over ifthe setpoints are too close, causing instability andreduction of capacity. Set them at least oneproportional band apart.

33. Consider a butt-weld end regulator where available tolower costs and minimize flange leakages.

34. Do not use needle valves in control lines; use full-openvalves. Needle valves can cause instability.

35. Burying regulators is not recommended. However, ifyou must, the vent should be protected from groundmoisture and plugging.

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Chemical Compatibility of Elastomers and Metals

521

TECHNICAL

Introduction

This section explains the uses and compatibilities of elastomerscommonly used by Fisher. The following tables provide thecompatibility of the most common elastomers and metals to avariety of chemicals and/or compounds.

Elastomers: Chemical Names and Uses

NBR - Nitrile Rubber, also called Buna-N, is a copolymer ofbutadiene and acrylonitrile. Nitrile is recommended for: generalpurpose sealing, petroleum oils and fluids, water, silicone greasesand oils, di-ester based lubricants (such as MIL-L-7808), andethylene glycol based fluids (Hydrolubes). It is not recom-mended for: halogenated hydrocarbons, nitro hydrocarbons(such as nitrobenzene and aniline), phosphate ester hydraulicfluids (Skydrol, Cellulube, Pydraul), ketones (MEK, acetone),strong acids, ozone, and automotive brake fluid. Its tempera-ture range is - 60° to +225°F (-51° to +107°C), although thiswould involve more than one compound.

EPDM, EPM - Ethylenepropylene rubber is an elastomer preparedfrom ethylene and propylene monomers. EPM is a copolymerof ethylene and propylene, while EPDM contains a smallamount of a third monomer(a diene) to aid in the curing process. EP is recommended for:phosphate ester based hydraulic fluids, steam to 400°F (204°C),water, silicone oils and greases, dilute acids, dilute alkalis,ketones, alcohols, and automotive brake fluids. It is notrecommended for: petroleum oils, and di-ester based lubricants.Its temperature range is -60° to +500°F (-51° to +260°C) (Thehigh limit would make use of a special high temperatureformulation developed for geothermal applications).

FKM - This is a fluoroelastomer of the polymethylene type havingsubstituent fluoro and perfluoroalkyl or perfluoroalkoxygroups on the polymer chain. Viton and Fluorel are the mostcommon trade names. FKM is recommended for: petroleumoils, di-ester based lubricants, silicate ester based lubricants(such as MLO 8200, MLO 8515, OS-45), silicone fluids andgreases, halogenated hydrocarbons, selected phosphate esterfluids, and some acids. It is not recommended for: ketones,Skydrol 500, amines (UDMH), anhydrous ammonia, lowmolecular weight esters and ethers, and hot hydrofluoric andchlorosulfonic acids. Its temperature range is -20° to +450°F (-29° to +232°C) (Limited use at each end of the temperaturerange).

CR - This is chloroprene, commonly know as neoprene, which isa homopolymer of chloroprene (chlorobutadiene). CR isrecommended for: refrigerants (Freons, ammonia), high anilinepoint petroleum oils, mild acids, and silicate ester fluids. It is notrecommended for: phosphate ester fluids and ketones. Its

temperature range is -60° to +200°F (-51° to +93°C), althoughthis would involve more than one compound.

NR - This is natural rubber which is a natural polyisoprene,primarily from the tree, Hevea Brasiliensis. The synthetics haveall but completely replaced natural rubber for seal use. NR isrecommended for automotive brake fluid, and it is not recom-mended for petroleum products. Its temperature range is -80°to +180°F (-62° to +82°C).

FXM - This is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and propylene;hence, it is sometimes called TFE/P rubber. Common tradenames are Aflas (3M Co.) and Fluoraz (Greene, Tweed & Co.).It is generally used where resistance to both hydrocarbons andhot water are required. Its temperature range is +20° to +400°F(-7° to +204°C).

ECO - This is commonly called Hydrin rubber, although that is atrade name for a series of rubber materials by B.F. Goodrich.CO is the designation for the homopolymer of epichlorohydrin,ECO is the designation for a copolymer of ethylene oxide andchloromethyl oxirane (epichlorohydrin copolymer), and ETERis the designation for the terpolymer of epichlorohydrin,ethylene oxide, and an unsaturated monomer. All the epichloro-hydrin rubbers exhibit better heat resistance than nitrile rubbers,but corrosion with aluminum may limit applications. Typicaloperating temperature ranges are -20° to +325°F(-29° to +163°C) for the CO and -55° to +300°F (-48° to+149°C) for the ECO and ETER elastomers.

FFKM - This is a perfluoroelastomer generally better known asKalrez (DuPont) and Chemraz (Greene, Tweed). Perfluororubbers of the polymethylene type have all substituent groupson the polymer chain of fluoro, perfluoroalkyl, orperfluoroalkoxy groups. The resulting polymer has superiorchemical resistance and heat temperature resistance. Thiselastomer is extremely expensive and should be used only whenall else fails. Its temperature range is 0° to +500°F (-18° to+260°C). Some materials, such as Kalrez 4079 can be used to600°F (316°C).

FVMQ - This is fluorosilicone rubber which is an elastomer thatshould be used for static seals because it has poor mechanicalproperties. It has good low and high temperature resistance andis reasonably resistant to oils and fuels because of its fluorina-tion. Because of the cost, it only finds specialty use. Its tem-perature range is -80° to +350°F (-62° to +177°C).

VMQ - This is the most general term for silicone rubber. Siliconerubber can be designated MQ, PMQ, and PVMQ, where the Qdesignates any rubber with silicon and oxygen in the polymerchain, and M, P, and V represent methyl, phenyl, and vinylsubstituent groups on the polymer chain. This elastomer is usedonly for static seals due to its poor mechanical properties. Itstemperature range is -65° to +450°F (-54° to +232°C).

17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM521


TECHNICAL

522

sremotsalEfoseitreporPlareneG

YTREPORPLARUTAN

REBBURS-ANUB ELIRTIN ENERPOEN LYTUB LOKOIHT ENOCILIS NOLAPYH NOTIV )2,1( -ERUYLOP

ENAHT )2(-YLOPCILYRCA )1(

-NELYHTE-LYPORPE

ENE )3(

elisneT,htgnertS)raB(isP

muGeruP )702(0003 )82(004 )14(006 )142(0053 )702(0003 )12(003054-002)13-41(

)672(0004 --- --- )7(001 ---

decrofnieR )013(0054 )702(0003 )672(0004 )142(0053 )702(0003 )301(0051 )67(0011 )303(0044 )951(0032 )844(0056 )421(0081 )271(0052

ecnatsiseRraeT tnellecxE riaF-rooP riaF dooG dooG riaF riaF-rooP tnellecxE dooG tnellecxE riaF rooP

ecnatsiseRnoisarbA tnellecxE dooG dooG tnellecxE riaF rooP rooP tnellecxE dooGyreV tnellecxE dooG dooG

thgilnuS:gnigAnoitadixO

rooPdooG

rooPriaF

rooPriaF

tnellecxEdooG

tnellecxEdooG

dooGdooG

dooGdooGyreV

tnellecxEdooGyreV

tnellecxEtnellecxE

tnellecxEtnellecxE

tnellecxEtnellecxE dooG

taeH)erutarepmeTmumixaM(

F°002)C°39(

F°002)C°39(

F°052)C°121(

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F°041)C°06(

F°054)C°232(

F°003)C°941(

F°004)C°402(

F°002)C°39(

F°053)C°771(

F°053)C°771(

)flehS(citatS dooG dooG dooG dooGyreV dooG riaF dooG dooG --- --- dooG dooG

gnikcarCxelFecnatsiseR

tnellecxE dooG dooG tnellecxE tnellecxE riaF riaF tnellecxE --- tnellecxE dooG ---

teSnoisserpmoCecnatsiseR

dooG dooG dooGyreV tnellecxE riaF rooP dooG rooP rooP dooG dooG riaF

:ecnatsiseRtnevloSnobracordyHcitahpilAnobracordyHcitamorA

tnevloSdetanegyxOtnevloSdetanegolaH

rooPyreVrooPyreV

dooGrooPyreV

rooPyreVrooPyreV

dooGrooPyreV

dooGriaFrooP

rooPyreV

riaFrooPriaF

rooPyreV

rooProoPyreV

dooGrooP

tnellecxEdooGriaFrooP

rooProoPyreV

rooProoPyreV

riaFrooProoP

rooPyreV

tnellecxEdooGyreV

dooG---

dooGyreVriaFrooP

---

dooGrooProoProoP

rooPriaF---rooP

:ecnatsiseRliOliOlareniMenilinAwoLliOlareniMenilinAhgiH

stnacirbuLcitehtnySsetahpsohPcinagrO

rooPyreVrooPyreVrooPyreVrooPyreV

rooPyreVrooPyreVrooPyreVrooPyreV

tnellecxEtnellecxE

riaFrooPyreV

riaFdooG

rooPyreVrooPyreV

rooPyreVrooPyreV

rooPdooG

tnellecxEtnellecxE

rooProoP

rooPdooGriaFrooP

riaFdooGrooProoP

tnellecxEtnellecxE

---rooP

---------rooP

tnellecxEtnellecxE

riaFrooP

rooProoProoP

dooGyreV

:ecnatsiseRenilosaGcitamorA

citamorA-noNrooPyreVrooPyreV

rooPyreVrooPyreV

dooGtnellecxE

rooPdooG

rooPyreVrooPyreV

tnellecxEtnellecxE

rooPdooG

rooPriaF

dooGdooGyreV

riaFdooG

riaFrooP

riaFrooP

:ecnatsiseRdicA)%01rednU(detuliD

detartnecnoC )4(dooGriaF

dooGrooP

dooGrooP

riaFriaF

dooGriaF

rooProoPyreV

riaFrooP

dooGdooG

tnellecxEdooGyreV

riaFrooP

rooProoP

dooGyreVdooG

erutarepmeTwoL)mumixaM(ytilibixelF

F°56-)C°45-(

F°05-)C°64-(

F°04-)C°04-(

F°04-)C°04-(

F°04-)C°04-(

F°04-)C°04-(

F°001-)C°37-(

F°02-)C°92-(

F°03-)C°43-(

F°04-)C°04-(

F°01-)C°32-(

F°05-)C°54-(

sesaGotytilibaemreP riaF riaF riaF dooGyreV dooGyreV dooG riaF dooGyreV dooG dooG dooG dooG

ecnatsiseRretaW dooG dooGyreV dooGyreV riaF dooGyreV riaF riaF riaF tnellecxE riaF riaF dooGyreV

:ecnatsiseRilaklA)%01rednU(detuliD

detartnecnoCdooGriaF

dooGriaF

dooGriaF

dooGdooG

dooGyreVdooGyreV

rooProoP

riaFrooP

dooGdooG

tnellecxEdooGyreV

riaFrooP

rooProoP

tnellecxEdooG

ecneiliseR dooGyreV riaF riaF dooGyreV dooGyreV rooP dooG dooG dooG riaF rooPyreV dooGyreV

)mumixaM(noitagnolE %007 %005 %005 %005 %007 %004 %003 %003 %524 %526 %002 %005

maetshtiwesutonoD.1ainommahtiwesutonoD.2

.)C°941(F°003otsnoitacilppamaetserusserpwoldnasliociluardyhelbammalf-nondesabretsehtiwesU.sdiulfdesabmuelortephtiwesutonoD.3.dicaciruflusdnacirtinroftpecxE.4

17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM522


523

TECHNICAL

sremotsalEfoytilibitapmoCdiulF

DIULFLAIRETAM

)RC(enerpoeN )RBN(elirtiN )MKF(remotsaleoroulF )MDPE(enelyporpenelyhtE )MKFF(remotsaleoroulfreP

)%03(dicAcitecAenotecA

tneibmA,riA))C°39(F°002(toH,riA

)lyhtE(lohoclA)lyhteM(lohoclA

)dloC()suordyhnA(ainommA

BCACAAA

CCABCAA

CCAACCC

AAAAAAA

AAAAAAA

)toH,saG(ainommAreeB

enezneB)edirolhCmuiclaC(enirB

saGeneidatuB)saG(enatuB

BACACA

CACACA

CABBBA

BACACC

AAAAAA

)diuqiL(enatuBedirolhcarteTnobraC

)yrD(enirolhC)teW(enirolhCsaGnevOekoC

CCCCC

ACCCC

AAABA

CCCCC

AAAAA

etatecAlyhtElocylGenelyhtE

11noerF21noerF22noerF

CACAA

CABAC

CAABC

BACBA

AAAAA

411noerF)evitomotuA(enilosaG

saGnegordyH)yrD(edifluSnegordyH)teW(edifluSnegordyH

ACAAB

ABA

A )1(

C

BAACC

ACAAA

AAAAA

)4-PJ(leuFteJ)KEM(enoteKlyhtElyhteM

EBTMsaGlarutaN

BCCA

ACCA

ACCA

CACC

AAAA

)%001ot05(dicAcirtiNnegortiN)leuF(liO

enaporP

CACB

CAAA

BAAA

CACC

AAAA

edixoiDrufluS)%05otpu(dicAcirufluS

)%001ot05(dicAcirufluS)tneibmA(retaW

)C°39/F°002ta(retaW

ABCAC

CCCAB

AAAAB

ABBAA

AAAAA

.serutarepmettohhtiwsnesrowecnamrofreP.1dednemmoceR-A

.noituachtiwdeecorP.tceffeetaredomotroniM-ByrotcafsitasnU-C

elbaliavatonnoitamrofnI-A/N

17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM523


TECHNICAL

524

- continued -

slateMfoytilibitapmoCNOITAMROFNINOISORROC

diulF

lairetaM

nobraCleetS

tsaCnorI

00203Sro

00403SsselniatS

leetS

00613SsselniatS

leetSeznorB lenoM

yolletsaHB

yolletsaHC

temiruD02

muinatiT-tlaboC

esaB6yollA

00614SsselniatS

leetS

C044sselniatS

leetS

HP4-71sselniatS

leetS

edyhedlatecAeerFriA,dicAcitecAdetareA,dicAcitecA

sropaVdicAcitecAenotecA

ACCCA

ACCCA

ABAAA

ABAAA

ABABA

ABABA

LIAALIA

AAAAA

AAABA

LIAAAA

LIAAAA

ACCCA

ACCCA

ABBBA

enelytecAslohoclA

etafluSmunimulAainommA

edirolhCmuinommA

AACAC

AACAC

AAAAB

AAAAB

LIABCB

AABAB

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

LIAAAA

AALIAB

AACAC

AACAC

AALILILI

etartiNmuinommA)cisaBonoM(etahpsohPmuinommA

etafluSmuinommAetifluSmuinommA

enilinA

ACCCC

CCCCC

AABAA

AAAAA

CBBCC

CBACB

AAALIA

AAAAA

ABAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

CBCBC

BBCBC

LILILILILI

tlahpsAreeB

)lozneB(enezneBdicAciozneB

dicAciroB

ABACC

ABACC

AAAAA

AAAAA

ABAAA

AAAAA

AAALIA

AAAAA

AAAAA

LIAAAA

AAALIA

ABAAB

ABAAB

AAAALI

enatuB)enilaklA(edirolhCmuiclaC

etirolhcopyHmuiclaCdicAcilobraC

yrD,edixoiDnobraC

ABCBA

ABCBA

ACBAA

ABBAA

ACBAA

AABAA

AACAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

LIAAAA

ALILIAA

ACCLIA

ACCLIA

ALILILIA

teW,edixoiDnobraCediflusiDnobraC

edirolhcarteTnobraCdicAcinobraC

yrD,saGenirolhC

CABCA

CABCA

AABBB

AABBB

BCABB

ABAAA

AABAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAALIC

AALILIB

ABCAC

ABAAC

ALILIAC

teW,saGenirolhCdiuqiL,enirolhC

dicAcimorhCdicAcirtiC

saGnevOekoC

CCCLIA

CCCCA

CCCBA

CCBAA

CBCAB

CCABB

CCCAA

BAAAA

CBCAA

ACAAA

BBBLIA

CCCBA

CCCBA

CCCBA

etafluSreppoCliOdeesnottoC

etosoerCenahtE

rehtE

CAAAB

CAAAB

BAAAA

BAAAA

BACAA

CAAAA

LIAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AALIAA

LIAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

edirolhClyhtEenelyhtE

locylGenelyhtEedirolhCcirreFedyhedlamroF

CAACB

CAACB

AAACA

AAACA

AAACA

AAACA

AALICA

AALIBA

AAACA

AALIAA

AAABA

BAACA

BAACA

LIAALIA

dicAcimroFteW,noerF

yrD,noerFlarufruF

denifeR,enilosaG

LIBBAA

CBBAA

BBAAA

BAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

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CAAAA

BAAAA

CLILIBA

CLILIBA

BLILILIA

dednemmoceR-A.noituachtiwdeecorP.tceffeetaredomotroniM-B

yrotcafsitasnU-CgnikcalnoitamrofnI-LI

17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM524


525

TECHNICAL

)deunitnoc(slateMfoytilibitapmoCNOITAMROFNINOISORROC

diulF

lairetaM

nobraCleetS

tsaCnorI

00203Sro

00403SsselniatS

leetS

00613SsselniatS

leetSeznorB lenoM

yolletsaHB

yolletsaHC

temiruD02

muinatiT-tlaboC

esaB6yollA

00614SsselniatS

leetS

C044sselniatS

leetS

HP4-71sselniatS

leetS

esoculGdetareA,dicAcirolhcordyHeerfriA,dicAcirolhcordyHdetareA,dicAciroulfordyHeerfriA,dicAciroulfordyH

ACCBA

ACCCC

ACCCC

ACCBB

ACCCC

ACCCA

AAAAA

ABBAA

ACCBB

ACCCC

ABBBLI

ACCCC

ACCCC

ACCCLI

negordyHedixorePnegordyH

diuqiL,edifuSnegordyHedixordyHmuisengaM

yrucreM

ALICAA

AACAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

ACCBC

AACAB

ABAAA

ABAAA

AABAA

AAAAA

ALIAAA

ABCAA

ABCAA

ALILILIB

lonahteMenoteKlyhtElyhteM

kliMsaGlarutaN

dicAcirtiN

AACAC

AACAC

AAAAA

AAAAB

AAAAC

AAAAC

AAAAC

AAAAB

AAAAA

ALIAAA

AAAAC

AACAC

BACAC

AACAB

dicAcielOdicAcilaxO

negyxOdenifeR,sliOmuelorteP

detareA,dicAcirohpsohP

CCAAC

CCAAC

ABAAA

ABAAA

BBAAC

ABAAC

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

ABAAB

ABAAA

ABAAC

ABAAC

LILIAALI

eerFriA,dicAcirohpsohPsropaVdicAcirohpsohP

dicAcirciPedirolhCmuissatoP

edixordyHmuissatoP

CCCBB

CCCBB

ABAAA

ABAAA

CCCBB

BCCBA

AAAAA

ALIAAA

AAAAA

BBLIAA

ACLILILI

CCBCB

CCBCB

LILILILILI

enaporPnisoR

etartiNrevliSetatecAmuidoS

etanobraCmuidoS

ABCAA

ABCAA

AAABA

AAAAA

AACAA

AACAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

ALIAAA

AABAA

AABAB

AABAB

AALIAA

edirolhCmuidoSetamorhCmuidoSedixordyHmuidoS

edirolhcopyHmuidoSetaflusoihTmuidoS

CAACC

CAACC

BAACA

BAACA

AACC-B

C

AAAC-B

C

AAACA

AAAAA

AAABA

AAAAA

AAALILI

BABCB

BABCB

BAALILI

edirolhCsuonnatSdicAciraetS

)kcalB(rouqiLetafluSrufluS

yrD,edixoiDrufluS

BAAAA

BCAAA

CAAAA

AAAAA

CBCCA

BBAAA

AAAAB

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

LIBAAA

CBLIAB

CBLIAB

LILILIALI

yrD,edixoirTrufluS)detareA(dicAcirufuS)eerFriA(dicAcirufuS

dicAsuorufluSraT

ACCCA

ACCCA

ACCBA

ACCBA

ACBBA

ACBCA

BAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

ABBAA

ABBBA

BCCCA

BCCCA

LICCLIA

enelyhteorolhcirTenitnepruT

rageniVdeeFrelioB,retaW

dellitsiD,retaW

BBCBA

BBCCA

BAAAA

AAAAA

AABCA

ABAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AAAAA

AALIAA

AAAAA

BACBB

BACAB

LIAAALI

aeS,retaWseniWdnayeksihW

edirolhCcniZetafluScniZ

BCCC

BCCC

BACA

BACA

AACB

ABCA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AAAA

AABA

CCCB

CCCB

ALILILI

dednemmoceR-A.noituachtiwdeecorP.tceffeetaredomotroniM-B

yrotcafsitasnU-CgnikcalnoitamrofnI-LI

17TechChem.pmd 2/14/2005, 7:49 AM525

526

TECHNICAL

*NOTE: To use this table, see the shaded example. 25 psig (20 from the left column plus five from the top row) = 1,724 bar

raBothcnIerauqSrepsdnuoP-noisrevnoCerusserP )1(

REPSDNUOPERAUQS

HCNI

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

RAB

0010203

000,0986,0973,1860,2

960,0857,0844,1731,2

831,0728,0715,1602,2

702,0698,0685,1572,2

672,0569,0556,1443,2

543,0430,1*427,1

314,2

414,0301,1397,1284,2

284,0271,1268,1155,2

255,0142,1139,1026,2

126,0013,1999,1986,2

04050607

857,2744,3731,4628,4

728,2615,3572,4469,4

698,2585,3572,4469,4

569,2456,3443,4330,5

430,3327,3314,4201,5

301,3297,3284,4171,5

271,3168,3155,4042,5

142,3039,3916,4903,5

903,3999,3886,4873,5

873,3860,4857,4744,5

0809001

615,5502,6598,6

585,5472,6469,6

456,5343,6330,7

327,5214,6201,7

297,5184,6171,7

168,5055,6932,7

929,5916,6803,7

899,5886,6773,7

760,6757,6644,7

631,6628,6515,7

monedivorpotstnioplamicedffodnuoR:etoN.tfelehtotnoitisopenotnioplamicedevom,slacsapageMottrevnocot;thgirehtotsnoitisopowttnioplamicedevom,slacsapolikottrevnocoT.1 ero.ycaruccafoeergedderisedehtnaht

stnelaviuqEerusserP

YLPITLUMREBMUN

FO

OTNIATBO

YBREPGKERAUQS

RETEMITNEC

REPSDNUOPHCNIERAUQS

EREHPSOMTA RABFOSEHCNIYRUCREM

SLACSAPOLIKFOSEHCNI

NMULOCRETAW

FOTEEFRETAWNMULOC

cerauqsrepgK m 1 22.41 8769.0 76089,0 69.82 760,89 50.493 48.23

hcnIerauqsrepsdnuoP 13070,0 1 40860.0 59860,0 630.2 598,6 7.72 903.2

erehpsomtA 2330,1 696.41 1 52310,1 29.92 523,101 41.704 39.33

raB 27910,1 8305.41 29689.0 1 35.92 001 651.204 315.33

yrucreMfosehcnI 35430,0 2194.0 24330.0 468330,0 1 4683,3 16.31 431.1

slacsapoliK 2791010,0 830541.0 6968900.0 10,0 3592.0 1 65120.4 31533.0

retaWfosehcnI 835200,0 1630.0 654200.0 94200,0 94370.0 942,0 1 3380.0

retaWfoteeF 5403,0 2334.0 74920.0 938920,0 9188.0 9389,2 21 1

5260.0=hcnierauqsrepecnuo1 hcnierauqsrepsdnuop

stnelaviuqEemuloV

YLPITLUMREBMUN

FO

OTNIATBO

YB

CIBUCSRETEMICED

)SRETIL(SEHCNICIBUC TEEFCIBUC TRAUQ.S.U NOLLAG.S.U NOLLAGLAIREPMI

LERRAB.S.U)MUELORTEP(

)sretiL(sretemiceDcibuC 1 4320.16 13530.0 86650.1 871462.0 380022,0 92600.0

sehcnIcibuC 93610,0 1 01x787.5 4- 23710.1 923400.0 606300,0 301000.0

teeFcibuC 713,82 8271 1 1229.92 55084.7 88822,6 1871.0

trauQ.S.U 63649,0 57.75 24330.0 1 52.0 2802,0 59500.0

nollaG.S.U 34587,3 132 86331.0 4 1 338,0 18320.0

nollaGlairepmI 47345,4 472.772 45061.0 82108.4 23002.1 1 77820.0

)muelorteP(lerraB.S.U 89,851 2079 6416.5 861 24 379,43 1

sretemitneccibuc000,000,1=retemcibuc1sretemitneccibuc0001=sretilillim0001=retil1

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM526

527

TECHNICAL

stnelaviuqEetaRemuloV

YLPITLUMFOREBMUN

OTNIATBO

YBSRETIL

ETUNIMREPSRETEMCIBUC

RUOHREPTEEFCIBUC

RUOHREPSRETIL

RUOHREPSNOLLAG.S.U

ETUNIMREPSLERRAB.S.U

YADREP

etuniMrepsretiL 1 60,0 9811.2 06 871462.0 750.9

ruoHrepsreteMcibuC 766,61 1 413.53 0001 304.4 151

ruoHrepteeFcibuC 9174,0 713820,0 1 713.82 7421.0 6472.4

ruoHrepsretiL 766610,0 100,0 413530.0 1 304400.0 151.0

etuniMrepsnollaG.S.U 587,3 3722,0 8020.8 3.722 1 82.43

yaDrepslerraB.S.U 4011,0 426600,0 49332.0 426.6 71920.0 1

salumroFnoisrevnoCytisocsiV-citameniK

ELACSYTISOCSIV FOEGNAR t, CES,YTISOCSIVCITAMENIK

SEKORTS

lasrevinUtlobyaS <23 <t 001 t 001>62200.0 t /59.1- t02200.0 t /53.1- t

loruFtlobyaS <52 <t 04 t 04>4220.0 t /48.1- t6120.0 t /06.0- t

1.oNdoowdeR <43 <t 001 t 001>62200.0 t /97.1- t74200.0 t /05.0- t

ytlarimdAdoowdeR --- 720.0 t /02- t

relgnE --- 74100.0 t /47.3- t

stnelaviuqEaerA

YLPITLUMREBMUN

FO

OTNIATBO

YB

ERAUQSSRETEM

ERAUQSSEHCNI

ERAUQSTEEF

ERAUQSSELIM

ERAUQSSRETEMOLIK

sreteMerauqS 1 99.9451 9367.01 01x168.3 7- 01x1 6-

sehcnIerauqS 2546000,0 1 01x449.6 3- 01x194.2 01- 01x254,6 01-

teeFerauqS 9290,0 441 1 01x785.3 8- 01x92,9 8-

seliMerauqS 9999852 --- 004,878,72 1 95,2

sretemoliKerauqS 0000001 --- 768,367,01 1683.0 1

sretemitnecerauqs00001=retemerauqs1sehcnierauqs55100.0=retemitnecerauqs10,0=retemillimerauqs1

salumroFnoisrevnoCerutarepmeT

MORFTREVNOCOT OT ALUMROFNIETUTITSBUS

suisleCseergeD tiehnerhaFseergeD 23+)5/9xC°(

suisleCseergeD nivleK )61.372+C°(

tiehnerhaFseergeD suisleCseergeD 9/5x)23-F°(

tiehnerhaFseergeD niknaRseergeD )96.954+F°(

* NOTE: To use this table, see the shaded example. 25 pounds (20 from the left column plus five from the top row) = 11,34 kilograms

smargoliKotsdnuoP-noisrevnoCssaM

SBL0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

smargoliK

0

01

02

03

00,0

45,4

70,9

16,31

54,0

99,4

35,9

60,41

19,0

44,5

89,9

25,41

63,1

09,5

34,01

79,41

18,1

53,6

98,01

24,51

72,2

08,6

*43,11

88,51

27,2

62,7

97,11

33,61

81,3

17,7

52,21

87,61

36,3

61,8

07,21

42,71

80,4

26,8

51,31

96,71

04

05

06

07

41,81

86,22

22,72

57,13

06,81

31,32

76,72

12,23

50,91

95,32

21,82

66,23

05,91

40,42

85,82

11,33

69,91

94,42

30,92

75,33

14,02

59,42

84,92

20,43

78,02

04,52

49,92

74,43

23,12

68,52

93,03

39,43

77,12

13,62

48,03

83,53

32,22

67,62

03,13

38,53

08

09

92,63

28,04

47,63

82,14

02,73

37,14

56,73

81,24

01,83

46,24

65,83

90,34

10,93

55,34

64,93

00,44

29,93

54,44

73,04

19,44

smargolik6354,0=dnuop1

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM527

528

TECHNICAL

stinUnoisrevnoCYLPITLUM YB NIATBOOT

emuloVretemitneccibuC 30160.0 sehcnicibuC

teefcibuC 5084.7 )SU(snollaGteefcibuC 613.82 sretiLteefcibuC 8271 sehcnicibuC

)SU(snollaG 7331.0 teefcibuC)SU(snollaG 587.3 sretiL)SU(snollaG 132 sehcnicibuC

sretiL 750.1 )SU(strauQsretiL 311.2 )SU(stniP

suoenallecsiMUTB 252.0 seirolaC

mrehticeD 000,01 UTBmargoliK 502.2 sdnuoP

ruoHttawoliK 2143 UTBsecnuO 53.82 smarGsdnuoP 6354.0 smargoliKsdnuoP 4295.354 smarGsdnuoP 195,12 UTBGPL

mrehT 000,001 UTBslbBIPA 24 )SU(snollaG

enaporPfosnollaG 9.62 HWKPH 647 HWK

)maetS(PH 814,24 UTBerusserP

retemitnecerauqsrepsmarG 2410.0 hcnierauqsrepsdnuoPyrucremfosehcnI 2194.0 hcnierauqsrepsdnuoPyrucremfosehcnI 331.1 retawfoteeF

retawfosehcnI 1630.0 hcnierauqsrepsdnuoPretawfosehcnI 5370.0 yrucremfosehcnIretawfosehcnI 1875.0 hcnierauqsrepsecnuOretawfosehcnI 402.5 toofrepsdnuoP

APK 001 RABretemitnecerauqsrepsmargoliK 22.41 hcnierauqsrepsdnuoP

retemerauqsrepsmargoliK 8402.0 tooferauqsrepsdnuoPhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 40860.0 serehpsomtA

hcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 13070.0erauqsrepsmargoliK

retemitnechcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 541. APKhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 630.2 yrucremfosehcnIhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 703.2 retawfoteeFhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 5.41 RABhcnierauqsrepsdnuoP 76.72 retawfosehcnI

htgneLsretemitneC 7393.0 sehcnI

teeF 8403.0 sreteMteeF 84.03 sretemitneCteeF 8.403 sretemilliMsehcnI 045.2 sretemitneCsehcnI 04.52 sretemilliM

retemoliK 4126.0 seliMsreteM 490.1 sdraYsreteM 182.3 teeFsreteM 73.93 sehcnI

)lacituan(seliM 0.3581 sreteM)etutats(seliM 0.9061 sreteM

sdraY 4419.0 sreteMsdraY 44.19 sretemitneC

saGfosemuloVgnitrevnoCMFCOTMFCROHFCOTHFC

:fowolFylpitluM yB :fowolFniatbOoT

riA

707.0 enatuB

092.1 saGlarutaN

808.0 enaporP

enatuB

414.1 riA

628.1 saGlarutaN

041.1 enaporP

saGlarutaN

577.0 riA

745.0 enatuB

526.0 enaporP

enaporP

732.1 riA

478.0 enatuB

895.1 saGlarutaN

snoisrevnoClufesUrehtOMORFTREVNOCOT OT YBYLPITLUM

enahteMfoteeFcibuC .U.T.B ).xorppa(0001

retaWfoteeFcibuC retaWfosdnuoP 4.26

seergeD snaidaR 54710,0

snollaG retaWfosdnuoP 633.8

smarG secnuO 2530.0

).hcem(rewopesroH etuniMrepsdnuoPtooF 000,33

).cele(rewopesroH sttaW 647

gK sdnuoP 502.2

reteMcibuCrepgK teeFcibuCrepsdnuoP 34260.0

sttawoliK rewopesroH 143.1

sdnuoP gK 6354,0

riAfosdnuoP)F°06&aisp7.41(

riAfoteeFcibuC 1.31

teeFcibuCrepsdnuoP reteMcibuCrepgK 4810,61

)saG(ruoHrepsdnuoP HFCS ytivarGcificepS÷1.31

)retaW(ruoHrepsdnuoP etuniMrepsnollaG 200.0

)saG(dnoceSrepsdnuoP HFCS ytivarGcificepS÷061,64

snaidaR seergeD 3.75

riAhfcS enaporPhfcS 18.0

riAhfcS enatuBhfcS 17.0

riAhfcS saGlarutaN6.0hfcS 92.1

hfcS .rHrepsreteM.uC 713820.0

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM528

529

TECHNICAL

sretemilliMotsehcnIlanoitcarF

HCNI0 61/1 8/1 61/3 4/1 61/5 8/3 61/7 2/1 61/9 8/5 61/11 4/3 61/31 8/7 61/51

mm

0123

0,04,528,052,67

6,10,724,258,77

2,36,820,454,97

8,42,036,550,18

4,68,132,756,28

9,73,337,851,48

5,99,433,067,58

1,115,639,163,78

7,211,835,369,88

3,417,931,565,09

9,513,147,661,29

5,719,243,867,39

1,915,449,963,59

6,020,644,178,69

2,226,740,374,89

8,322,946,470,001

4567

6,1010,7214,2518,771

2,3016,8210,4514,971

8,4012,0316,5510,181

4,6018,1312,7516,281

0,8014,3318,8512,481

5,9019,4313,0617,581

1,1115,6319,1613,781

7,2111,8315,3619,881

3,4117,9311,5615,091

9,5113,1417,6611,291

5,7119,2413,8617,391

1,9115,4419,9613,591

7,0211,6415,1719,691

2,2216,7410,3714,891

8,3212,9416,4710,002

4,5218,0512,6716,102

8901

2,3026,8220,452

8,4022,0326,552

4,6028,1322,752

0,8024,3328,852

6,9020,5324,062

1,1125,6329,162

7,2121,8325,362

3,4127,9321,562

9,5123,1427,662

5,7129,2423,862

1,9125,4429,962

7,0221,6425,172

3,2227,7421,372

8,3222,9426,472

4,5228,0522,672

0,7224,2528,772

sretemillim4,52=hcni1

* NOTE: To use this table, see the shaded example. 2-1/2 inches (2 from the left column plus 1/2 from the top row) = 63,5 millimeters

tebahplAkeerG

SPACREWOL

ESACKEERGEMAN

SPACREWOL

ESACKEERGEMAN

SPACREWOL

ESACKEERGEMAN

Α α ahplA Ι ι atoI Ρ ρ ohR

Β β ateB Κ κ appaK Σ σ amgiS

Γ γ ammaG Λ λ adbmaL Τ τ uaT

∆ δ atleD Μ µ uM Υ υ nolispU

Ε ε nolispE Ν ν uN Φ φ ihP

Ζ ζ ateZ Ξ ξ iX Χ χ ihC

Η η atE Ο ο norcimO Ψ ψ isP

Θ θ atehT Π π iP Ω ω agemO

slobmySdnasexiferPcirteMROTCAFNOITACILPITLUM XIFERP LOBMYS

01=0000000000000000001 81

01=0000000000000001 51

01=0000000000001 21

01=0000000001 9

01=0000001 6

01=0001 3

01=001 2

01=01 1

axeateparetagigagem

olikotcehaked

EPTGMkhad

01=1.0 1-

01=10.0 2-

01=100.0 3-

01=100000.0 6-

01=100000000.0 9-

01=100000000000.0 21-

01=100000000000000.0 51-

01=100000000000000000.0 81-

iceditnecillimorcimonanocipotmef

otta

dcmmnpfa

stnelaviuqEhtgneL

YLPITLUMREBMUN

FO

OTNIATBO

YB

sreteM sehcnI teeF sretemilliM seliM sretemoliK

sreteM 1 73.93 8082.3 0001 4126000.0 100,0

sehcnI 4520,0 1 3380.0 4,52 87510000.0 4520000,0

teeF 8403,0 21 1 8,403 4981000.0 8403000,0

sretemilliM 100,0 73930.0 8082300.0 1 4126000000.0 100000,0

seliM 53,9061 063,36 082,5 0539061 1 53906,1

sretemoliK 0001 073,93 38.0823 0000001 73126.0 1

sretemorcim000,000,1=mk100,0=mm0001=mc001=retem1

stnelaviuqEretemilliM-hcnIelohW

HCNI0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

mm

0 00,0 4,52 8,05 2,67 6,101 0,721 4,251 8,771 2,302 6,822

01 0,452 4,972 8,403 2,033 6,553 0,183 4,604 8,134 2,754 6,284

02 0,805 4,335 8,855 2,485 6,906 0,536 4,066 8,586 2,117 6,637

03 0,267 4,787 8,218 2,838 6,368 0,988 4,419 8,939 2,569 6,099

04 0,6101 4,1401 8,6601 2,2901 6,7111 0,3411 4,8611 8,3911 2,9121 6,4421

05 0,0721 4,5921 8,0231 2,6431 6,1731 0,7931 4,2241 8,7441 2,3741 6,8941

06 0,4251 4,9451 8,4751 2,0061 6,5261 0,1561 4,6761 8,1071 2,7271 6,2571

07 0,8771 4,3081 8,8281 2,4581 6,9781 0,5091 4,0391 8,5591 2,1891 6,6002

08 0,2302 4,7502 8,2802 2,8012 6,3312 0,9512 4,4812 8,9022 2,5322 6,0622

09 0,6822 4,1132 8,6332 2,2632 6,7832 0,3142 4,8342 8,3642 2,9842 6,4152

001 0,0452 4,5652 8,0952 2,6162 6,1462 0,7662 4,2962 8,7172 2,3472 6,8672

.mm4,52=hcni1noitalerehtnodesab,tcaxeeraelbatsihtniseulavllA:etoN

* NOTE: To use this table, see the shaded example. 25 inches (20 from the left column plus five from the top row) = 635 millimeters

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM529

530

TECHNICAL

sretemilliMotsehcnIlamiceDdnalanoitcarF-stnelaviuqEhtgneLSEHCNI

mmSEHCNI

mmSEHCNI

mmSEHCNI

mmsnoitcarF slamiceD snoitcarF slamiceD snoitcarF slamiceD snoitcarF slamiceD

49300. 1. 32. 248.5 2/1 05. 7.21 77. 855.91

78700. 2. 46/51 573432. 1359.5 15. 459.21 87. 218.91

10. 452. 22632. 0.6 18115. 0.31 23/52 52187. 8348.91

18110. 3. 42. 690.6 46/33 526515. 9690.31 04787. 0.02

46/1 526510. 9693. 4/1 52. 53.6 25. 802.31 97. 660.02

57510. 4. 62. 406.6 35. 264.31 46/15 578697. 6042.02

96910. 5. 46/71 526562. 9647.6 23/71 52135. 8394.31 08. 023.02

20. 805. 72. 858.6 45. 617.31 18. 475.02

26320. 6. 95572. 0.7 46/53 578645. 6098.31 61/31 5218. 5736.02

65720. 7. 82. 211.7 55. 079.31 28. 828.02

30. 267. 23/9 52182. 8341.7 81155. 0.41 77628. 0.12

23/1 52130. 8397. 92. 663.7 65. 422.41 46/35 521828. 4430.12

5130. 8. 46/91 578692. 6045.7 61/9 5265. 5782.41 38. 280.12

34531. 9. 03. 26.7 75. 874.41 48. 633.12

73930. 0.1 13. 478.7 46/73 521875. 4486.41 23/72 57348. 2134.12

40. 610.1 61/5 5213. 5739.7 85. 237.41 58. 095.12

46/3 578640. 6091.1 69413. 0.8 95. 689.41 46/55 573958. 1828.12

50. 72.1 23. 821.8 5095. 0.51 68. 448.12

60. 425.1 46/12 521823. 4433.8 23/91 57395. 2180.51 41668. 0.22

61/1 5260. 5785.1 33. 283.8 06. 42.51 78. 890.22

70. 877.1 43. 636.8 46/93 573906. 1874.51 8/7 578. 522.22

46/5 521870. 4489.1 23/11 57343. 2137.8 16. 494.51 88. 253.22

47870. 0.2 53. 98.8 26. 847.51 98. 606.22

80. 230.2 33453. 0.9 8/5 526. 578.51 46/75 526098. 9126.22

90. 682.2 46/32 573953. 1821.9 29926. 0.61 09. 068.22

23/3 57390. 2183.2 63. 441.9 36. 200.61 15509. 0.32

1. 45.2 73. 893.9 46. 652.61 23/92 52609. 8810.32

46/7 573901. 1877.2 8/3 573. 525.9 46/14 526046. 9172.61 19. 411.32

11. 497.2 83. 256.9 56. 015.61 29. 863.32

11811. 0.3 93. 609.9 23/12 52656. 8866.61 46/95 578129. 6541.32

21. 840.3 46/52 526093. 9129.9 66. 467.61 39. 226.32

8/1 521. 571.3 07393. 0.01 92966. 0.71 61/51 5739. 5218.32

31. 203.3 04. 61.01 76. 810.71 49. 678.32

41. 655.3 23/31 52604. 8813.01 46/34 578176. 6560.71 88449. 0.42

46/9 526041. 9175.3 14. 414.01 86. 272.71 59. 031.42

51. 018.3 24. 866.01 61/11 5786. 5264.71 46/16 521359. 4902.42

23/5 52651. 8869.3 46/72 578124. 6517.01 96. 625.71 69. 483.42

84751. 0.4 34. 229.01 07. 87.71 23/13 57869. 2606.42

61. 460.4 70334. 0.11 46/54 521307. 4958.71 79. 836.42

71. 813.4 61/7 5734. 5211.11 66807. 0.81 89. 298.42

46/11 578171. 6563.4 44. 671.11 17. 430.81 52489. 0.52

81. 275.4 54. 034.11 23/32 57817. 2652.81 46/36 573489. 1300.52

61/3 5781. 5267.4 46/92 521354. 4905.11 27. 882.81 99. 641.52

91. 628.4 64. 486.11 37. 245.81 1 00000.1 0004.52

58691. 0.5 23/51 57864. 2609.11 46/74 573437. 1356.81

2. 80.5 74. 839.11 47. 697.81

46/31 521302. 4951.5 44274. 0.21 30847. 0.91

12. 433.5 84. 291.21 4/3 57. 050.91

23/7 57812. 2655.5 46/13 573484. 1303.21 67. 403.91

22. 885.5 94. 644.21 46/94 526567. 9644.91

.ycaruccafoeergedderisedehtnahteromonedivorpotstnioplamicedffodnuoR:etoN

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM530

531

TECHNICAL

- continued -

snoisrevnoCerutarepmeT

C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC

F° C°C°NI.PMETEBOTF°RODETREVNOC



F°

61,372- 96,954- 00,09- 031- 0.202- 8,71- 0 0.23 1,12 07 0.851

87,762- 054- 44,48- 021- 0.481- 7,61- 2 6.53 2,22 27 6.161

22,262- 044- 98,87- 011- 0.661- 6,51- 4 2.93 3,32 47 2.561

76,652- 034- 33,37- 001- 0.841- 4,41- 6 8.24 4,42 67 8.861

11,152- 024- 65,07- 59- 0.931- 3,31- 8 4.64 6,52 87 4.271

65,542- 014- 87,76- 09- 0.031- 2,21- 01 0.05 7,62 08 0.671

00,042- 004- 00,56- 58- 0.121- 1,11- 21 6.35 8,72 28 6.971

44,432- 093- 22,25- 08- 0.211- 0,01- 41 2.75 9,82 48 2.381

98,822- 083- 54,95- 57- 0.301- 98,8- 61 8.06 0,03 68 8.681

33,322- 073- 76,65- 07- 0.49- 87,7- 81 4.46 1,13 88 4.091

87,712- 063- 98,35- 56- 58- 76,6- 02 0.86 2,23 09 0.491

22,212- 053- 11,15- 06- 0.67- 65,5- 22 6.17 3,33 29 6.791

76,602- 043- 43,84- 55- 0.76- 44,4- 42 2.57 4,43 49 2.102

11,102- 033- 65,54- 05- 0.85- 33,3- 62 8.87 6,53 69 8.402

65,591- 023- 87,24- 54- 0.94- 22,2- 82 4.28 7,63 89 4.802

00,091- 013- 00,04- 04- 0.04- 11,1- 03 0.68 8,73 001 0.212

44,481- 003- 98,83- 83- 4.63- 0 23 6.98 3,34 011 0.032

98,871- 092- 87,73- 63- 8.23- 11,1 43 2.39 9,84 021 0.842

33,371- 082- 76,63- 43- 2.92- 22,2 63 8.69 4,45 031 0.662

35,961- 61,372- 96.954- 65,53- 23- 6.52- 33,3 83 4.001 0,06 041 0.482

98,861- 272- 6.754- 44,43- 03- 0.22- 44,4 04 0.401 6,56 051 0.203

87,761- 072- 0.454- 33,33- 82- 4.81- 65,5 24 6.701 1,17 061 0.023

22,261- 062- 0.634- 22,23- 62- 8.41- 76,6 44 2.111 7,67 071 0.833

76,651- 052- 0.814- 11,13- 42- 2.11- 87,7 64 8.411 2,28 081 0.653

11,151- 042- 0.004- 00,03- 22- 6.7- 98,8 84 4.811 8,78 091 0.473

65,541- 032- 0.283- 98,82- 02- 0.4- 0,01 05 0.221 3,39 002 0.293

00,041- 022- 0.463- 87,72- 81- 4.0- 1,11 25 6.521 9,89 012 0.014

44,431- 012- 0.653- 76,62- 61- 2.3 2,21 45 2.921 4,401 022 0.824

98,821- 002- 0.823- 65,52- 41- 8.6 3,31 65 8.231 0,011 032 0.644

33,321- 091- 0.013- 44,42- 21- 4.01 4,41 85 4.631 6,511 042 0.464

87,711- 081- 0.292- 33,32- 01- 0.41 6,51 06 0.041 1,121 052 0.284

22,211- 071- 0.472- 22,22- 8- 6.71 7,61 26 6.341 7,621 062 0.005

76,601- 061- 0.652- 11,12- 6- 2.12 8,71 46 2.741 2,231 072 0.815

11,101- 051- 0.832- 00,02- 4- 8.42 9,81 66 8.051 8,731 082 0.635

65,59- 041- 0.022- 98,81- 2- 4.82 0,02 86 4.451 3,341 092 0.566

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM531

532

TECHNICAL

- continued -

)deunitnoc(snoisrevnoCerutarepmeT




F°

1,12 07 0.851 4,402 004 0.257 4,454 058 0.2651

2,22 27 6.161 0,012 014 0.077 0,064 068 0.0851

3,32 47 2.561 6,512 024 0.887 6,564 078 0.8951

4,42 67 8.861 1,122 034 0.608 1,174 088 0.6161

6,52 87 4.271 7,622 044 0.428 7,674 098 0.4361

7,62 08 0.671 2,232 054 0.248 2,284 009 0.2561

8,72 28 6.971 8,732 064 0.068 8,784 019 0.0761

9,82 48 2.381 3,342 074 0.878 3,394 029 0.8861

0,03 68 8.681 9,842 084 0.698 9,894 039 0.6071

1,13 88 4.091 4,452 094 419 4,405 049 0.4271

2,23 09 0.491 0,062 005 0.239 0,015 059 0.2471

3,33 29 6.791 6,562 015 0.059 6,515 069 0.0671

4,43 49 2.102 1,172 025 0.869 1,125 079 0.8771

6,53 69 8.402 7,672 035 0.689 7,625 089 0.6971

7,63 89 4.802 2,282 045 0.4001 2,235 099 0.4181

8,73 001 0.212 8,782 055 0.2201 8,735 0001 0.2381

3,34 011 0.032 3,392 065 0.0401 3,345 0101 0581

9,84 021 0.842 9,892 075 0.8501 9,845 0201 0.8681

4,45 031 0.662 4,403 085 0.6701 4,455 0301 0.6881

0,06 041 0.482 0,013 095 0.4901 0,065 0401 0.4091

6,56 051 0.203 6,513 006 0.2111 6,565 0501 0.2291

1,17 061 0.023 1,123 016 0.0311 1,175 0601 0.0491

7,67 071 0.833 7,623 026 0.8411 7,675 0701 0.8591

2,28 081 0.653 2,233 036 0.6611 2,285 0801 0.6791

8,78 091 0.473 8,733 046 0.4811 8,785 0901 0.4991

3,39 002 0.293 3,343 056 0.2021 3,395 0011 0.2102

9,89 012 0.014 9,843 066 0.0221 9,895 0111 0.0302

4,401 022 0.824 4,453 076 0.8321 4,406 0211 0.8402

0,011 032 0.644 0,063 086 0.6521 0,016 0311 0.6602

6,511 042 0.464 6,563 096 0.4721 6,516 0411 4802

1,121 052 0.284 1,173 007 0.2921 1,126 0511 0.2012

7,621 062 0.005 7,673 017 0.0131 7,626 0611 0.0212

2,231 072 0.815 2,283 027 0.8231 2,236 0711 0.8312

8,731 082 0.635 8,782 037 0.6431 8,736 0811 0.6512

3,341 092 0.566 3,393 047 0.4631 3,346 0911 0.4712

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM532

533

TECHNICAL

)deunitnoc(snoisrevnoCerutarepmeT





F°

9,841 003 0.275 6,513 006 0.2111 2,284 009 0.2561 9,846 0021 0.2912

4,451 013 0.095 1,123 016 0.0311 8,784 019 0.0761 4,456 0121 0.0122

0,061 023 0.806 7,623 026 0.8411 3,394 029 0.8861 0,066 0221 0.8222

6,561 033 0.626 2,233 036 0.6611 9,894 039 0.6071 6,566 0321 0.6422

1,171 043 0.446 8,733 046 0.4811 4,405 049 0.4271 1,176 0421 0.4622

7,671 053 0.266 3,343 056 0.2021 0,015 059 0.2471 7,676 0521 0.2822

2,281 063 0.086 9,843 066 0.0221 6,515 069 0.0671 2,286 0621 0.0032

8,781 073 0.896 4,453 076 0.8321 1,125 079 0.8771 8,786 0721 0.8132

9,981 083 0.617 0,063 086 0.6521 7,625 089 0.6971 3,396 0821 0.6332

3,391 093 0.437 6,563 096 0.4721 2,235 099 0.4181 9,896 0921 0.4532

4,402 004 0.257 1,173 007 0.2921 8,735 0001 0.2381 4,407 0031 0.2732

0,012 014 0.077 7,673 017 0.0131 3,345 0101 0581 0,017 0131 0.0932

6,512 024 0.887 2,283 027 0.8231 9,845 0201 0.8681 6,517 0231 0.8042

1,122 034 0.608 8,782 037 0.6431 4,455 0301 0.6881 1,127 0331 0.6242

7,622 044 0.428 3,393 047 0.4631 0,065 0401 0.4091 7,627 0431 0.4442

2,232 054 0.248 9,893 057 0.2831 6,565 0501 0.2291 2,237 0531 0.2642

8,732 064 0.068 4,404 067 0.0041 1,175 0601 0.0491 8,737 0631 0.0842

3,342 074 0.878 0,014 077 0.8141 7,675 0701 0.8591 3,347 0731 0.8942

9,842 084 0.698 6,514 087 0.6341 2,285 0801 0.6791 9,847 0831 0.6152

4,452 094 419 1,124 097 0.4541 8,785 0901 0.4991 4,457 0931 0.4352

0,062 005 0.239 7,624 008 0.2741 3,395 0011 0.2102 0,067 0041 0.2552

6,562 015 0.059 2,234 018 0.0941 9,895 0111 0.0302 6,567 0141 0.0752

1,172 025 0.869 8,734 028 0.8051 4,406 0211 0.8402 1,177 0241 0.8852

7,672 035 0.689 3,344 038 0.6251 0,016 0311 0.6602 7,677 0341 0.4262

2,282 045 0.4001 9,844 048 0.4451 6,516 0411 4802 2,287 0441 0.4262

8,782 055 0.2201 4,454 058 0.2651 1,126 0511 0.2012 0,787 0541 0.2462

3,392 065 0.0401 0,064 068 0.0851 7,626 0611 0.0212 3,397 0541 0.2462

9,892 075 0.8501 6,564 078 0.8951 2,236 0711 0.8312 9,897 0741 0.8762

4,403 085 0.6701 1,174 088 0.6161 8,736 0811 0.6512 4,408 0841 0.6962

0,013 095 0.4901 7,674 098 0.4361 3,346 0911 0.4712 0,018 0941 0.4172

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM533

534

TECHNICAL

srotcaFthgieWdnaselbaTytivarGémuaBdna.I.P.A

.I.P.AytivarG

émuaBytivarG

cificepSytivarG

.S.U/sbLsnollaG

.S.U-snollaG

bL/

.I.P.AytivarG

émuaBytivarG

cificepSytivarG

.S.U/sbLsnollaG

.S.U-snollaG

bL/

.I.P.AytivarG

émuaBytivarG

cificepSytivarG

.S.U/sbLsnollaG

.S.U-snollaG

bL/

.I.P.AytivarG

émuaBytivarG

cificepSytivarG

.S.U/sbLsnollaG

.S.U-snollaG

bL/

0 742.01 0670.1 269.8 6111.0

1 322.9 9760.1 598.8 4211.0 13 87.03 8089.0 152.7 9731.0 16 64.06 1537.0 911.6 4361.0 18 52.08 9566.0 245.5 4081.0

2 891.8 9950.1 828.8 3311.0 23 77.13 4568.0 602.7 8831.0 26 54.16 3137.0 780.6 3461.0 28 42.18 8266.0 615.5 3181.0

3 371.7 0250.1 267.8 1411.0 33 67.233 2068.0 361.7 6931.0 36 44.26 5727.0 650.6 1561.0 38 32.28 7956.0 194.5 1281.0

4 841.6 3440.1 896.8 0511.0 43 57.33 0558.0 911.7 5041.0 46 34.36 8327.0 520.6 0661.0 48 22.38 6656.0 564.5 0381.0

5 421.5 6630.1 436.8 8511.0 53 37.43 8948.0 570.7 3141.0 56 24.46 1027.0 499.6 8661.0 58 02.48 6356.0 044.5 8381.0

6 990.4 1920.1 175.8 7611.0 63 27.53 8448.0 430.7 2241.0 66 14.56 5617.0 469.5 7761.0 68 91.58 6056.0 514.5 7481.0

7 470.3 7120.1 905.8 5711.0 73 17.63 8938.0 399.6 0341.0 76 04.66 8217.0 439.5 5861.0 78 81.68 6746.0 093.5 5581.0

8 940.2 3410.1 844.8 4811.0 83 07.73 8438.0 159.6 9341.0 86 93.76 3907.0 409.5 4961.0 88 71.78 6446.0 563.5 4681.0

9 520.1 1700.1 883.8 2911.0 93 96.83 9928.0 019.6 7441.0 96 73.86 7507.0 478.5 2071.0 98 61.88 7146.0 143.5 2781.0

01 00.01 0000.1 823.8 1021.0 04 86.93 1528.0 078.6 6541.0 07 63.96 2207.0 548.5 1171.0 09 51.98 8836.0 613.5 1881.0

11 99.01 0399.0 072.8 9021.0 14 76.04 3028.0 038.6 4641.0 17 53.07 8896.0 718.5 9171.0 19 41.09 0636.0 392.5 9881.0

21 89.11 1689.0 212.8 8121.0 24 66.14 5518.0 097.6 3741.0 27 43.17 3596.0 887.5 8271.0 29 31.19 1336.0 962.5 8981.0

31 79.21 2979.0 551.8 6221.0 34 56.24 9018.0 257.6 1841.0 37 33.27 9196.0 957.5 6371.0 39 21.29 3036.0 642.5 6091.0

41 69.31 5279.0 990.8 5321.0 44 46.34 3608.0 317.6 0941.0 47 23.37 6886.0 137.5 5471.0 49 11.39 5726.0 222.5 5191.0

51 59.41 9569.0 440.8 3421.0 54 36.44 7108.0 576.6 8941.0 57 13.47 2586.0 307.5 3571.0 59 01.49 7426.0 991.5 4291.0

61 49.51 3959.0 989.7 2521.0 64 26.54 2797.0 736.6 7051.0 67 03.57 9186.0 676.5 2671.0 69 90.59 0226.0 671.5 2391.0

71 39.61 9259.0 539.7 0621.0 74 16.05 7297.0 006.6 5151.0 77 92.67 7876.0 946.5 0771.0 79 80.69 3916.0 451.5 0491.0

81 29.71 5649.0 288.7 9621.0 84 06.05 3887.0 365.6 4251.0 87 82.77 4576.0 226.5 9771.0 89 70.79 6616.0 131.5 9491.0

91 09.81 2049.0 039.7 7721.0 94 95.05 9387.0 625.6 2351.0 97 72.87 2276.0 595.5 7871.0 99 60.89 9316.0 901.5 7591.0

02 98.91 0439.0 877.7 6821.0 05 85.05 6977.0 094.6 1451.0 08 62.97 0966.0 865.5 6971.0 001 50.99 2116.0 680.5 6691.0

12 88.02 9729.0 727.7 4921.0 15 75.05 3577.0 554.6 9451.0

22 78.12 8129.0 676.7 3031.0 25 55.15 1177.0 024.6 8551.0

32 68.22 9519.0 726.7 1131.0 35 45.25 9667.0 583.6 6651.0

42 58.32 0019.0 875.7 0231.0 45 35.35 8267.0 053.6 5751.0

52 48.42 2409.0 925.7 8231.0 55 25.45 7857.0 631.6 3851.0

62 38.52 4898.0 184.7 7331.0 65 15.55 7457.0 382.6 2951.0

72 28.62 7298.0 434.7 5431.0 75 05.65 7057.0 942.6 0061.0

82 18.72 1788.0 783.7 4531.0 85 94.75 7647.0 612.6 9061.0

92 08.82 6188.0 143.7 2631.0 95 84.85 8247.0 481.6 7161.0

03 97.92 2678.0 692.7 1731.0 06 74.95 9837.0 151.6 6261.0

The relation of Degrees Baume or A.P.I. to Specific Gravity is expressed by these formulas:

For liquids lighter than water: For liquids heavier than water:

Degrees Baume = 140

130140

130GG=

+Degrees Baume− Degrees Baume = 145

145 145145

−−G

G=Degrees Baume

Degrees A.P.I. =1415

13151415

1315− .

.. . . .

G=+Degrees A P I

G = Specific Gravity = ratio of weight of a given volume of oil at 60°F to the weight of the same volume ofwater at 60°F.

The above tables are based on the weight of 1 gallon (U.S.) of oil with a volume of 231 cubicinches at 60°F in air at 760 mm pressure and 50% relative humidity. Assumed weight of 1 gallon ofwater at 60°F in air is 8.32828 pounds.

To determine the resulting gravity by mixing oils of different gravities:

D=md nd

m n1 2++

D = Density or Specific Gravity of mixturem = Proportion of oil of d1 densityn = Proportion of oil of d2 densityd1 = Specific gravity of m oild2 = Specific Gravity of n oil

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM534

535

TECHNICAL

stnemelEehtfoscitsiretcarahC

tnemelE lobmyScimotArebmuN

ssaMrebmuN )1(

tnioPgnitleM)C°(

tnioPgnilioB)C°(

tnemelE lobmyScimotArebmuN

ssaMrebmuN )1(

tnioPgnitleM)C°(

tnioPgnilioB)C°(

muinitcamunimulamuciremaynomitna

)muibits(nogra

cAlA

mAbS

rA

98315915

81

)722(72

)342(121

04

†00617.956

5.036

2.981-

7502

0831

7.581-

noenmuinutpen

lekcinmuiboin

negortin

eNpNiNbN

N

01398214

7

02)732(

8539

41

76.842-

554105±0052

68.902-

9.542-

00920073

8.591-

cinesraenitatsa

muirabmuilekreb

muillyreb

sAtAaBkBeB

33586579

4

57)012(

831)742(

9

semilbus 516ta

058

8721 ± 5

semilbus 516ta

0411

0792

muilebonmuimsonegyxo

muidallapsurohpsohp

oNsO

OdP

P

20167

86451

)352(291

6160113

00724.812-4.9451

0035>68.281-

0002

htumsibnorob

enimorbmuimdac

muiclac

iBBrBdCaC

385538402

9021197411

04

3.1720032

2.7-9.0238±248

5±0651055287.852±7670421

munitalpmuinotulpmuinolop

muissatopmuimydoesarp

tPuPoP

KrP

8749489195

591)242()902(

93141

5.3771

3.35049

0034

067

muinrofilacnobrac

muirecmuisecenirolhc

fCCeCsClC

896855571

)942(21041331

53

0553>4085.82

5±301-

00240041

0766.43-

muihtemorpmuinitcatorp

muidarnodar

muinehr

mPaPaRnReR

1619886857

)541()132()622()222(

781

00717-

06±761304118.16-

muimorhctlabocreppoc

muirucmuisorpsyd

rCoCuCmCyD

4272926966

259536

)842(461

098159413801

084200926332

muidohrmuidiburmuinehturmuiramasmuidnacs

hRbRuRmScS

5473442612

30158201251

54

3±66915.8305420031>0021

0052>0070072

0042

muinietsniemuibre

muiporuemuimrefeniruoulf

sErEuEmFF

998636001

9

)452(661351)252(

91

05±0511

322- 881-

muinelesnocilis

revlismuidos

muitnorts

eSiSgAaNrS

4341741183

0882701

3288

71202418.069

5.79008

88655320591

0880511

muicnarfmuinilodag

muillagmuinamreg

dlog

rFdGaGeGuA

7846132397

)322(851

9647791

87.925.8593601

389100720062

ruflusmulatnat

muitenhcetmuirullet

muibret

SaTcTeTbT

6137342556

23081)99(031951

05±6992

2545±723

0014.c

0931

muinfahmuileh

muimlohnegordyh

muidni

fHeHoH

HnI

27276194

0814

5611511

0071 )2(

272-

41.952-4.651

0023>9.862-

8.252-01±0002

muillahtmuirohtmuiluht

nitmuinatit

lThTmTnSiT

1809960522

502232961021

84

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98.1320081

01±75410054

07220003>

enidoi

muidirrinori

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muinarumuidanav

nonexmuibretty

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47

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muihtilmuitetul

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wLbPiLuLgM

30128

31721

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7571

42

34.723681

156

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YnZrZ

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048

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85.6530084

foetartsewols(efil-flahtsegnolehthtiwepotosiehtetangisedsesehtnerapninwohssrebmunssaM.erutanninommoctsomepotosielbatsehtfotahtsinwohsrebmunssaM.1.epotosielbatsnunagnivahstnemeleesohtrof)yacedevitcaoidar

detaluclaC.2.nahtretaerG>

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM535

536

TECHNICAL

slairetaMevlaVrofsnoitacificepSdradnatSdednemmoceR sgnitsaCgniniatnoC-erusserP1 leetSnobraC

BCWedarG612AMTSA

F°0001otF°02-=egnar.pmeT)tnecreP(noitisopmoC

2 leetSnobraCBCLedarG253AMTSA

F°056otF°05-=egnar.pmeT612AMTSAsaemas:noitisopmoC

BCWedarG

11 norItsaCBssalC621AMTSA


21 norItsaCCssalC621AMTSA


CnM

PS

iS

xam03.0xam00.1xam50.0xam60.0xam06.0

PS

xam57.0xam21.0

PS

xam57.0xam21.0

3 leetSyloMemorhC5CedarG712AMTSA


4 leetSyloMnobraC1CWedarG712AMTSA


31 norIelitcuD51-54-06epyT593AMTSA


41 norI*tsiseR-iNelitcuDB2-DepyT934AMTSA


CnM

PS

iSrCoM

xam02.007.0ot04.0

xam50.0xam60.0xam57.0

05.6ot00.456.0ot54.0

CnM

PS

iSoM

52.008.0ot05.0


56.0ot54.0

CiS

P

nim00.3xam57.2xam80.0

CiSnM

PiNrC

xam00.300.3ot05.152.1ot07.0

xam80.000.22ot00.81

00.4ot57.2

5 leetSyloMemorhC6CWedarG712AMTSA


6 leetSyloMemorhC9CWedarG712AMTSA


51 eznorBevlaVdradnatS26BMTSA


61 eznorBniTA1yollA341BMTSA


CnM

PS

iSrCoM

xam02.008.0ot05.0


05.1ot00.156.0ot54.0

CnM

PiSrCoM

xam81.007.0ot04.0

xam50.0xam06.0

57.2ot00.202.1ot09.0

uCnSbPnZiNeF

P

00.68ot00.4800.6ot00.400.6ot00.400.6ot00.4


uCnSbPnZiNeF

P

00.98ot00.6800.11ot00.9

xam03.000.3ot00.1


7 31/2 leetSlekciN%3CLedarG253AMTSA


8 leetSyloMemorhC21CedarG712AMTSA


71 eznorBesenagnaMA8yollA741BMTSA


81 eznorBmunimulAC9yollA841BMTSA


CnM

PS

iSiN

xam51.008.0ot05.0


00.4ot00.3

CiSnMrCoM

PS

xam02.0xam00.1

56.0ot53.000.01ot00.8

02.1ot09.0xam50.0xam60.0

uCnSbPiNeFlAnMnZ

00.06ot00.55xam00.1xam04.0xam05.0

00.2ot04.005.1ot05.0

xam05.1redniameR

uClAeFnMiN

nim00.3805.11ot00.01

00.5ot00.305.0

xam05.2demanlatot.niM5.99=stnemele

9 leetSsselniatS403epyT8-FCedarG153AMTSA


01 leetSsselniatS613epyTM8-FCedarG153AMTSA


91 114yollA*lednoM)edarGelbadleW(


02 "B"yollAyloM-lekciN"B"yolletsaH(494AMTSA †)


CnMiS

SP

rCiN


00.12ot00.8100.11ot00.8

CnMiS

PS

rCiNoM


00.12ot00.8100.21ot00.9

00.3ot00.2

iNuC

CnMeF

SiSbN

nim00.0600.33ot00.62


xam510.000.2ot00.100.3ot00.1

rCeF

CiSoCnM

VoM

PS

iN

xam00.100.6ot00.4

xam21.0xam00.1xam05.2xam00.1

06.0ot02.000.03ot00.62

xam40.0xam30.0

redniameR

- continued -

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM536

537

TECHNICAL

slairetaMevlaVrofsnoitacificepSdradnatSdednemmoceR )deunitnoc(sgnitsaCgniniatnoC-erusserP12 "C"yollAemorhC-yloM-lekciN

"C"yolletsaH(494AMTSA † )


22 6.oNyollAdesab-tlaboCetilletS † 6.oN

)tnecreP(noitisopmoC

13 leetSsselniatS613epyT613epyT672AMTSA


23 leetSsselniatSL613epyTL613epyT672AMTSA


rCeF

WC

iSoCnM

VoM

PS

iN

05.71ot05.5105.7ot05.452.5ot57.3


04.0ot02.000.81ot00.61

40.030.0

redniameR

CnM

WiNrCoMeFeSoC

04.1ot09.000.1

00.6ot00.300.3

00.23ot00.6200.100.3

00.2ot04.0redniameR

CnM

PS

iSrCiNoM

xam80.0xam00.2

xam540.0xam030.0

xam00.100.81ot00.6100.41ot00.01

00.3ot00.2

CnM

PS

iSrCiNoM

xam30.0xam00.2

xam540.0xam030.0

xam00.100.81ot00.6100.41ot00.01

00.3ot00.2

32 raBmunimulA3T-11902yollA112BMTSA


42 raBssarBwolleY61BMTSA 1/2 draH




43 leetSsselniatSHP4-71epyT036edarG164AMTSA


iSeFuCnZiBbP

lA

xam04.0xam07.0

00.6ot00.5xam03.0

06.0ot02.006.0ot02.0

xam51.0stnemelErehtOredniameR

uCbPeFnZ

00.36ot00.0607.3ot05.2

xam53.0redniameR

CnM

PS

iSrClA

xam51.0xam00.1

xam040.0xam030.0

xam00.105.31ot05.11

03.0ot01.0

CnMiS

PS

rCbNuCiNeF


05.71ot05.5154.0ot50.000.5ot00.300.5ot00.3redniameR

52 raBssarBlavaN464wollA12BMTSA


62 raBleetSdedaeL41L21ISIA


53 raByollAreppoC-lekciN)*lenoMK(005KyollA


63 raB"B"yollAyloM-lekciN"B"yolletsaH(533BMTSA †)


uCnSbPnZ

00.26ot00.9500.1ot05.0

xam02.0redniameR

CnM

PS

bP

xam51.002.1ot08.090.0ot40.053.0ot52.053.0ot51.0

iNeFnMiS

CS

lAiTuC

00.07ot00.36xam00.2xam05.1xam00.1xam52.0xam10.0

00.4ot00.200.1ot52.0redniameR

rCeF

CiSoCnM

VoM

PS

iN

xam00.100.6ot00.4


04.0ot02.000.03ot00.62

xam520.0xam030.0redniameR

72 raBleetSnobraC8101edarG801AMTSA


82 leetSyloM-emorhC0414ISIAtlob7BedarG391AMTSArofelbatiuS(

)lairetam


73 raB"C"yollAemorhC-yloM-lekciN"C"yolletsaH(633BMTSA †)


CnM

PS

02.0ot51.009.0ot06.0

xam40.0xam50.0

CnM

PS

iSrCoMeF

34.0ot83.000.1ot57.0

xam530.0xam40.0

53.0ot02.001.1ot08.052.0ot51.0redniameR

rCeF

WC

iSoCnMaVoM

PS

iN

05.61ot05.4100.7ot00.405.4ot00.3


00.71ot00.5140.030.0

redniameR





CnM

PS

iSrCiN

xam51.0xam00.2

xam540.0xam030.0

xam00.100.91ot00.71

00.01ot00.8

CnM

PS

iSrCiN

xam80.0xam00.2

xam540.0xam030.0

xam00.100.02ot00.81

00.21ot00.8

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM537

538

TECHNICAL

sgnitsaCgniniatnoC-erusserPslairetaMevlaVrofsnoitacificepSdradnatSdednemmoceR

EDOCLAIRETAMNOITPIRCSEDDNA

SEITREPORPLACISYHPMUMINIM FOSULUDOMYTICITSALE

F°07TAISP( x 01 6)

ETAMIXORPPALLENIRB

SSENDRAHelisneT

)isP(

dleiYtnioP)isP(

.gnolE)%("2ni

noitcudeR)%(aerAfo

1 leetSnobraC BCWedarG612AMTSA 000,07 000,63 22 53 9.72 781-731

2 leetSnobraC BCLedarG253AMTSA 000,56 000,53 42 53 9.72 781-731

3 leetSyloMemorhC 5CedarG712AMTSA 000,09 000,06 81 53 4.72 .xaM142

4 leetSyloMnobraC 1CWedarG712AMTSA 000,56 000,53 42 53 9.92 .xaM512

5 leetSyloMemorhC 6CWedarG712AMTSA 000,07 000,04 02 53 9.92 .xaM512

6 leetSyloMemorhC 9CWedarG712AMTSA 000,07 000,04 02 53 9.92 .xaM142

7 leetSlekciN%2/13 3CLedarG253AMTSA 000,56 000,04 42 53 9.72 731

8 leetSyloMemorhC 21CedarG712AMTSA 000,09 000,06 81 53 4.72 042-081

9 leetSsselniatS403epyT 8-FCedarG153AMTSA 000,56 000,82 53 --- 0.82 041

01 leetSsselniatS613epyT M8-FCedarG153AMTSA 000,07 000,03 03 --- 3.82 071-651

11 norItsaC BssalC621AMTSA 000,13 --- --- --- --- 022-061

21 norItsaC CssalC621AMTSA 000,14 --- --- --- --- 022-061

31 norIelitcuD 51-54-06epyT593AMTSA 000,06 000,54 51 --- 62-32 702-341

41 norItsiseR-iNelitcuD )1( B2-DepyT934AMTSA 000,85 000,03 7 --- --- 112-841

51 eznorBevlaVdradnatS 26BMTSA 000,03 000,41 02 71 5.31 *56-55

61 eznorBniT A1yollA341BMTSA 000,04 000,81 02 02 51 *58-57

71 eznorBesenagnaM A8yollA741BMTSA 000,56 000,52 02 02 4.51 *89

81 eznorBmunimulA C9yollA841BMTSA 000,57 000,03 .nim21 21 71 051

91 114yollAlednoM )edarGelbadleW( 000,56 005,23 52 --- 32 071-021

02 "B"yollAyloM-lekciN )"B"yolletsaH(494AMTSA 000,27 000,64 6 --- --- ---

12 "C"yollAemorhC-yloM-lekciN )"C"yolletsaH(494AMTSA 000,27 000,64 4 --- --- ---

22 6.oNyollAesab-tlaboC 6.oNetilletS 000,121 000,46 2-1 --- 4.03 ---

32 raBmunimulA 3T-11902yollA112BMTSA 000,44 000,63 51 --- 2.01 59

42 raBssarBwolleY draH2/1-61BMTSA 000,54 000,51 7 05 41 ---

52 raBssarBlavaN 464yollA12BMTSA 000,06 000,72 22 55 --- ---

62 raBleetSdedaeL 41L21ISIA 000,97 000,17 61 25 --- 361

72 raBleetSnobraC 8101edarG801AMTSA 000,96 000,84 83 26 --- 341

82 leetSyloM-emorhC0414ISIA )lairetamtlob7BedarG391AMTSArofelbatiuS( 000,531 000,511 22 36 9.92 552

92 leetSsselniatS203epyT 203epyT672AMTSA 000,58 000,53 06 07 82 051

03 leetSsselniatS403epyT 403epyT672AMTSA 000,58 000,53 06 07 --- 941


23 leetSsselniatSL613epyT L613epyT672AMTSA 000,18 000,43 55 --- --- 641


43 leetSsselniatSHP4-71epyT 036edarG164AMTSA 000,531 000,501 61 05 92 543-572

53 raByollAreppoC-lekciN )lenoMK(005KyollA 000,001 000,07 53 --- 62 062-571

63 raB"B"yollAyloM-lekciN )"B"yolletsaH(533BMTSA 000,001 000,64 03 --- --- ---

73 raB"C"yollAyloM-lekciN )"C"yolletsaH(633BMTSA 00,001 000,64 02 --- --- ---

.daolgk005.1

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM538

539

TECHNICAL

snobracordyHfostnatsnoClacisyhP

.ON DNUOPMOC ALUMROFRALUCELOM

THGIEW

GNILIOBTATNIOPAISP696.41

)F°(

ROPAVTAERUSSERP

)AISP(F°001

GNIZEERFTATNIOPAISP696.41

)F°(

STNATSNOCLACITIRCYTIVARGCIFICEPS

AISP696.41TA

lacitirCerutarepmeT

)F°(

lacitirC)aisp(erusserP

,diuqiL )4,3(

F°06/F°06F°06tasaG

)1=riA( )1(

12345

enahteMenahtE

enaporPenatuB-nenatubosI

HC 4C2H6C3H8C4H 01C4H 01

340.61070.03790.44421.85421.85

96.852-84.721-

76.34-01.1309.01

)0005( )2(

)008( )2(

0916.152.27

64.692- )5(

98.792- )5(

48.503- )5(

50.712-92.552-

36.611-90.0910.60256.50389.472

8.7668.7073.6167.0551.925

3.0 )8(

4653.0 )7(

7705.0 )7(

4485.0 )7(

1365.0 )7(

9355.02830.15225.18600.28600.2

678

enatneP-nenatneposI

enatnepoeN

C5H 21C5H 21C5H 21

151.27151.27151.27

29.6921.2801.94

075.5144.02

9.53

15.102-38.552-

71.2

7.58301.96331.123

6.8844.0940.464

0136.07426.0

7695.0 )7(

1194.21194.21194.2

901112131

enaxeH-nenatneplyhteM-2enatneplyhteM-3

enaxehoeNenatublyhtemiD-3,2

C6H 41C6H 41C6H 41C6H 41C6H 41

871.68871.68871.68871.68871.68

27.55174.04198.54125.12163.631

659.4767.6890.6658.9404.7

85.931-36.442-

---27.741-83.991-

7.35438.534

3.84431.02492.044

9.6346.6341.3548.6445.354

0466.09756.09866.00456.04666.0

3579.23579.23579.23579.23579.2

4151617181910212

enatpeH-nenaxehlyhteM-2enaxehlyhteM-3

enatneplyhtE-3enatneplyhtnemiD-2,2

enatneplyhtemiD-4,2enatneplyhtemiD-3,3

enatpirT

C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61C7H 61

502.001502.001502.001502.001502.001502.001502.001502.001

71.90290.49123.79152.00245.47198.67119.68185.771

026.1172.2031.2210.2294.3292.3377.2473.3

50.131-98.081-

---84.181-68.091-36.281-10.012-

28.21-

8.21500.59487.30584.31532.77459.57458.50544.694

8.6935.6931.8043.9142.2049.6932.7244.824

2886.00386.07196.08207.02876.03776.06796.06496.0

6954.36954.36954.36954.36954.36954.36954.36954.3

223242526272829203

enatcO-nlytubosiDenatcoosIenanoN-nenaceD-n

enatnepolcyCenatnepolcyclyhteM

enaxeholcyCenaxeholcyclyhteM

C8H 81C8H 81C8H 81C9H 02C 01 H 22C5H 01C6H 21C6H 21C7H 41

232.411232.411232.411952.821682.241

531.07261.48261.48981.89

22.85293.82236.01274.30384.54356.02152.16192.77186.312

735.0101.1807.1971.07950.0

419.9305.4462.3906.1

81.07-70.231-72.161-

82.46-63.12-19.631-44.422-

77.3489.591-

22.46544.03564.91586.0161.2565.16453.9947.63572.075

6.0636.0634.273

2334038.3569.845

1955.305

8607.09796.02696.07127.02437.04057.06357.04387.00477.0

9349.39349.39349.32824.45219.45124.27509.27509.20093.3

13233343536373839304

enelyhtEeneporPenetuB-1

enetuB-2-siCenetuB-2-snarT

enetubosIenetneP-1

eneidatuB-2,1eneidatuB-3,1

enerposI

C2H4C3H6C4H8C4H8C4H8C4H8C5H 01C4H6C4H6C5H8

450.82180.24801.65801.65801.65801.65531.07290.45290.45911.86

26.451-09.35-57.0296.8385.3395.9139.5865.1560.4203.39

---4.62250.3645.5408.9404.36511.91

)02( )2(

)06( )2(

276.61

54.272- )5(

54.103- )5(

36.103- )5(

60.812-69.751-16.022-93.562-61.312-20.461-47.032-

85.849.6916.59273.42368.11355.29239.673

)933( )2(

603)214( )2(

8.927966385016595085095)356( )2(

826)4.855( )2(

---0225.0 )7(

3106.0 )7(

1726.0 )7(

0016.0 )7(

4006.0 )7(

546.0 )7(

856.0 )7(

2726.0 )7(

1686.0

6869.09254.12739.12739.12739.12739.15124.26768.16768.19153.2

142434445464748494

enelytecAenezneB

eneuloTenezneblyhtE

enelyX-oenelyX-menelyX-p

enerytSenazneblyporposI

C2H2C6H6C7H8C8H 01C8H 01C8H 01C8H 01C8H8C9H 21

830.62411.87141.29861.601861.601861.601861.601251.401591.021

911- )6(

71.67131.13261.77279.19214.28250.18292.39243.603

---422.3230.1173.0462.0623.0243.0)42.0( )2(

881.0

411- )5(

69.1449.831-19.831-

03.31-21.45-68.5501.32-28.041-

13.5922.25555.50642.156

0.57620.156

6.9460.6074.676

4.0984.0179.5955.3254.1456.3152.905

0854.564

516.0 )9(

4488.08178.08178.08488.07868.07568.00119.03668.0

0998.09696.22181.35566.35566.35566.35566.39595.38941.4

.seulavdetaluclaC.1.seulavdetamitsE-)(.2

.snobracordyhdetarutasriA.3.muucavnisthgiewmorfseulavetulosbA.4

.)tniopelpirt(erusserpnoitarutastA.5.tniopnoitamilbuS.6

taerusserpnoitarutaS.7 .F°06taenahtemrofeulavtnerappA.8 .F°06

.)tniopnoitamilbus(F°06/F°911,ytivargcificepS.9

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM539

540

TECHNICAL

- continued -

sdiulFsuoiraVfostnatsnoClacisyhP

DIULF ALUMROFRALUCELOM

THGIEW

TNIOPGNILIOB696.41TAF°(

)AISP

ROPAVERUSSERP

)GISP(F°07TA

LACITIRCERUTAREPMET

)F°(

LACITIRCERUSSERP

)AISP(

YTIVARGCIFICEPS

F°06/F°06diuqiL saG

dicAcitecA CH 2H3 3O 60.06 542 50.1

enotecA C3H6O 80.85 331 554 196 97.0 10.2

riA N2O2 79.82 713- 122- 745 ‡68.0 0.1

lyhtE,lohoclA C2H6O 70.64 371 3.2 )2( 074 529 497.0 95.1

lyhteM,lohoclA HC 4O 40.23 841 36.4 )2( 364 4711 697.0 11.1

ainommA HN 3 30.71 82- 411 072 6361 26.0 95.0

muinommAedirolhC )1( HN 4 lC 70.1

muinommAedixordyH )1( HN 4 HO 19.0

muinommAetafluS )1( HN( 4)2 OS 4 51.1

enilinA C6H7N 21.39 563 897 077 20.1

nogrA A 49.93 203- 881- 507 56.1 83.1

enimorB rB 2 48.951 831 575 39.2 25.5

muiclaCedirolhC )1( lCaC 2 32.1

edixoiDnobraC OC 2 10.44 901- 938 88 2701 108.0 )3( 25.1

ediflusiDnobraC SC 2 1.67 511 92.1 36.2

edixonoMnobraC OC 10.82 413- 022- 705 08.0 79.0

nobraCedirolhcarteT

lCC 4 48.351 071 245 166 95.1 13.5

enirolhC lC 2 19.07 03- 58 192 9111 24.1 54.2

dicAcimorhC H2 OrC 4 30.811 12.1

dicAcirtiC C6H8O7 21.291 45.1

etafluSreppoC )1( OSuC 4 71.1

rehtE C( 2H5)2O 21.47 43 47.0 55.2

edirolhCcirreF )1( lCeF 3 32.1

eniroulF F2 00.83 503- 003 002- 908 11.1 13.1

edyhedlamroF H2 OC 30.03 6- 28.0 80.1

dicAcimroF OCH 2H 30.64 412 32.1

larufruF C5H4O2 80.69 423 61.1

enirecylG C3H8O3 90.29 455 62.1

locylG C2H6O2 70.26 783 11.1

muileH eH 300.4 454- 054- 33 81.0 41.0

dicAcirolhcordyH lCH 74.63 511- 46.1

dicAciroulfordyH FH 10.02 66 9.0 644 29.0

negordyH H2 610.2 224- 004- 881 70.0 )3( 70.0

negordyHedirolhC

lCH 74.63 511- 316 521 8911 68.0 62.1

edifluSnegordyH H2S 70.43 67- 252 312 7031 97.0 71.1

lohoclAlyporposI C3H8O 90.06 081 87.0 80.2

liOdeesniL 835 39.0

dnuopmocfothgiewyb%52-noituloSsuoeuqA.1.2 001taaispnierusserpropaV oF.3 .tniopgnilioblamrontalm/mg,diuqilfoytisneD

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:12 AM540

541

TECHNICAL

)deunitnoc(sdiulFsuoiraVfostnatsnoClacisyhP

DIULF ALUMROFRALUCELOM

THGIEW

TNIOPGNILIOB696.41TAF°(

)AISP

ROPAVERUSSERP

)GISP(F°07TA

LACITIRCERUTAREPMET

)F°(

LACITIRCERUSSERP

)AISP(

YTIVARGCIFICEPS

F°06/F°06diuqiL saG

muisengaMedirolhC )1( lCgM 2 22.1

yrucreM gH 16.002 076 6.31 39.6

edimorBlyhteM HC 3 rB 59.49 83 31 673 37.1 72.3

edirolhClyhteM HC 3 lC 94.05 11- 95 092 969 99.0 47.1

enelahthpaN C 01 H8 61.821 424 41.1 34.4

dicAcirtiN ONH 3 20.36 781 5.1

negortiN N2 20.82 023- 332- 394 18.0 )3( 79.0

elbategeV,liO 49.0-19.0

negyxO O2 23 792- 181- 737 41.1 )3( 501.1

enegsohP lCOC 2 29.89 74 7.01 063 328 93.1 24.3

dicAcirohpsohP H3 OP 4 00.89 514 38.1

muissatoPetanobraC )1(

K2 OC 3 42.1

muissatoPedirolhC )1(

lCK 61.1

muissatoPedixordyH )1(

HOK 42.1

11tnaregirfeR lCC 3F 83.731 57 4.31 883 536 40.5

21tnaregirfeR lCC 2F2 39.021 22- 2.07 432 795 2.4

31tnaregirfeR FlCC 3 74.401 511- 7.854 48 165

12tnaregirfeR lCHC 2F 39.201 84 4.8 353 057 28.3

22tnaregirfeR FlCHC 2 84.68 14- 5.221 502 617

32tnaregirfeR FHC 3 20.07 911- 536 19 196

muidoSedirolhC )1(

lCaN 91.1

muidoSedixordyH )1(

HOaN 72.1

etafluSmuidoS )1( aN 2 OS 4 42.1

muidoSetaflusoihT )1(

aN 2 OS 3 32.1

hcratS C( 6H 01 O5 x) 05.1

snoituloSraguS )1( C 21 H 22 O 11 01.1

dicAcirufluS H2 OS 4 80.89 626 38.1

edixoiDrefluS OS 2 6.46 41 4.43 613 5411 93.1 12.2

enitnepruT 023 78.0

retaW H2O 610.81 212 2949.0 )2( 607 8023 00.1 26.0

edirolhCcniZ )1( lCnZ 2 42.1

etafluScniZ )1( OSnZ 4 13.1

dnuopmocfothgiewyb%52-noituloSsuoeuqA.1.2 001taaispnierusserpropaV oF.3 .tniopgnilioblamrontalm/mg,diuqilfoytisneD

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:44 AM541

542

TECHNICAL

retaWfoseitreporP

erutarepmeT)F°(retaWfo

noitarutaSsdnuoP(erusserP

hcnIerauqSrep)etulosbA

thgieWrepsdnuoP(

)nollaG

ytivarGcificepSF°06/F°06

noisrevnoC,rotcaF )1(

MPGot.rH/.sbL

23 5880.0 543.8 3100.1 99100.0

04 7121.0 543.8 3100.1 99100.0

05 1871.0 043.8 7000.1 99100.0

06 3562.0 433.8 0000.1 99100.0

07 1363.0 523.8 9899.0 00200.0

08 9605.0 413.8 6799.0 00200.0

09 2896.0 303.8 3699.0 00200.0

001 2949.0 982.8 6499.0 10200.0

011 8472.1 762.8 9199.0 10200.0

021 4296.1 352.8 1099.0 10200.0

031 5222.2 722.8 2789.0 20200.0

041 6888.2 702.8 8489.0 30200.0

051 817.3 281.8 8189.0 30200.0

061 147.4 651.8 6879.0 40200.0

071 299.5 721.8 2579.0 50200.0

081 015.7 890.8 7179.0 50200.0

091 933.9 860.8 1869.0 60200.0

002 625.11 930.8 6469.0 70200.0

012 321.41 500.8 5069.0 80200.0

212 696.41 699.7 4959.0 80200.0

022 681.71 279.7 6659.0 90200.0

042 969.42 109.7 0849.0 01200.0

062 924.53 228.7 6839.0 11200.0

082 302.94 647.7 4929.0 51200.0

003 310.76 266.7 4919.0 71200.0

053 36.431 234.7 8198.0 42200.0

004 13.742 271.7 6068.0 23200.0

054 6.224 298.6 0728.0 14200.0

005 8.086 355.6 3687.0 45200.0

055 2.5401 231.6 8537.0 17200.0

006 9.2451 466.5 6976.0 49200.0

007 7.3903 326.3 7434.0 06400.0

repsnollagniwolftnelaviuqetegotrotcafehtybruohrepsdnuopniwolfylpitluM.1.toofcibucrepsnollag84.7nodesabsinollagrepthgieW.etunim

- continued -

Properties of Saturated Steam

Absolute Pressure Vacuum(Inchesof Hg)

Temp.t

(oF)

Heatof theLiquid

(BTU/Lb.)

Latent Heatof

Evaporation(BTU/Lb.)

Total Heatof

Steam Hg(BTU/Lb.)

SpecificVolume

∇ (CubicFt./Lb.)PSIA

Inchesof Hg

0.200.250.300.350.400.45

0.410.510.610.710.810.92

29.5129.4129.3129.2129.1129.00

53.1459.3064.4768.9372.8676.38

21.2127.3632.5236.9740.8944.41

1063.81060.31057.41054.91052.71050.7

1085.01087.71090.01091.91093.61095.1

1526.01235.31039.5898.5791.9708.5

0.500.600.700.800.90

1.021.221.431.631.83

28.9028.7028.4928.2928.09

79.5885.2190.0894.3898.24

47.6053.2158.0762.3666.21

1048.81045.71042.91040.41038.3

1096.41098.91101.01102.81104.5

641.4540.0466.9411.7368.4

1.01.21.41.61.8

2.042.442.853.263.66

27.8827.4827.0726.6626.26

101.74107.92113.26117.99122.23

69.7075.8781.2085.9190.14

1036.31032.71029.61026.91024.5

1106.01108.61110.81112.81114.6

333.6280.9243.0214.3191.8

2.02.22.42.62.8

4.074.484.895.295.70

25.8525.4425.0324.6324.22

126.08129.62132.89135.94138.79

93.9997.52100.79103.83106.68

1022.21020.21018.31016.51014.8

1116.21117.71119.11120.31121.5

173.73158.85146.38135.78126.65

3.03.54.04.55.0

6.117.138.149.1610.18

23.8122.7921.7820.7619.74

141.48147.57152.97157.83162.24

109.37115.46120.86125.71130.13

1013.21009.61006.41003.61001.0

1122.61125.11127.31129.31131.1

118.71102.7290.6381.1673.52

5.56.06.57.07.5

11.2012.2213.2314.2515.27

18.7217.7016.6915.6714.65

166.30170.06173.56176.85179.94

134.19137.96141.47144.76147.86

998.5996.2994.1992.1990.2

1132.71134.21135.61136.91138.1

67.2461.9857.5053.6450.29

8.08.59.09.510.0

16.2917.3118.3219.3420.36

13.6312.6111.6010.589.56

182.86185.64188.28190.80193.21

150.79153.57156.22158.75161.17

988.5986.8985.2983.6982.1

1139.31140.41141.41142.31143.3

47.3444.7342.4040.3138.42

11.012.013.014.0

22.4024.4326.4728.50

7.525.493.451.42

197.75201.96205.88209.56

165.73169.96173.91177.61

979.3976.6974.2971.9

1145.01146.61148.11149.5

35.1432.4030.0628.04

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:45 AM542

543

TECHNICAL

- continued -

)deunitnoc(maetSdetarutaSfoseitreporPerusserP

)ISP( .pmeTt

)F°(

ehtfotaeHdiuqiL

).bL/UTB(

taeHtnetaLfo

noitaropavE).bL/UTB(

taeHlatoTHmaetSfo g).bL/UTB(

cificepSemuloV

∇∇∇∇∇).bL/.tF.uC(

erusserP)ISP( .pmeT

t)F°(

ehtfotaeHdiuqiL

).bL/UTB(

taeHtnetaLfo

noitaropavE).bL/UTB(

taeHlatoTHmaetSfo g).bL/UTB(

cificepSemuloV

∇∇∇∇∇).bL/.tF.uC(

etulosbAP

eguaGP

etulosbA'P

eguaGP

696.410.510.610.710.810.91

0.03.03.13.23.33.4

00.21230.31223.61244.91214.22242.522

70.08111.18124.48165.78165.09124.391

3.0797.9696.7695.5696.3699.169

4.05118.05110.25111.35112.45113.5511

08.6292.6227.4293.3271.2280.12

0.570.670.770.870.97

3.063.163.263.363.46

06.70305.80304.90392.01361.113

34.77273.87203.97212.08221.182

5.4097.3091.3094.2097.109

9.18111.28114.28116.28118.2811

618.5347.5376.5406.5735.5

0.020.120.220.320.42

3.53.63.73.83.9

69.72275.03270.33294.53228.732

61.69197.89133.10287.30241.602

1.0694.8598.6592.5597.359

3.65112.75111.85110.95118.9511

980.02291.91573.81726.71839.61

0.080.180.280.380.48

3.563.663.763.863.96

30.21398.21347.31395.41324.513

20.28219.28297.38266.48235.582

1.1094.0097.9981.9985.898

1.38113.38115.38118.38110.4811

274.5804.5643.5582.5622.5

0.520.620.720.820.92

3.013.113.213.313.41

70.04252.24263.44214.64204.842

24.80226.01257.21238.41268.612

1.2597.0593.9499.7495.649

6.06113.16110.26117.26114.3611

303.61517.51071.51366.41981.41

0.580.680.780.880.98

3.073.173.273.373.47

52.61370.71388.71386.81384.913

93.68242.78280.88219.88247.982

8.7982.7985.6989.5983.598

2.48114.48116.48118.48111.5811

861.5111.5550.5100.5849.4

0.030.130.230.330.43

3.513.613.713.813.91

33.05222.25250.45248.55285.752

28.81237.02295.22214.42281.622

3.5490.4498.2496.1493.049

1.46117.46114.56110.66115.6611

647.31033.31049.21275.21622.21

0.090.190.290.390.49

3.573.673.773.873.97

72.02360.12338.12306.22363.323

65.09283.19281.29289.29287.392

7.4981.4985.3989.2983.298

3.58115.58117.58119.58111.6811

698.4548.4697.4747.4996.4

0.530.630.730.830.93

3.023.123.223.323.42

82.95259.06275.26261.46227.562

19.72206.92262.13298.23284.432

2.9390.8399.6398.5397.439

1.76116.76112.86117.86112.9611

898.11885.11492.11051.11057.01

0.590.690.790.890.99

3.083.183.283.383.48

21.42378.42316.52353.62380.723

65.49243.59221.69298.69256.792

7.1981.1985.0989.9884.988

2.68114.68116.68118.68110.7811

256.4606.4165.4715.4474.4

0.040.140.240.340.44

3.523.623.723.823.92

52.76247.86212.07246.17250.372

30.63255.73240.93215.04259.142

7.3396.2396.1396.0396.929

7.96112.07117.07111.17116.1711

894.01852.01920.01

018.9106.9

0.0010.1010.2010.3010.401

3.583.683.783.883.98

18.72335.82352.92369.92366.033

04.89251.99209.99246.00373.103

8.8882.8886.7881.7885.688

2.78114.78115.78117.78119.7811

234.4193.4053.4013.4172.4

0.540.640.740.840.94

3.033.133.233.333.43

44.47208.57231.77254.87247.972

63.34257.44221.64274.74297.842

6.8297.7297.6298.5299.429

0.27114.27119.27113.37117.3711

104.9902.9520.9848.8876.8

0.5010.6010.7010.8010.901

3.093.193.293.393.49

63.13350.23347.23324.33301.433

01.20328.20345.30362.40379.403

0.6884.5889.4883.4887.388

1.88112.88114.88116.88117.8811

232.4491.4751.4021.4480.4

0.050.150.250.350.45

3.533.633.733.833.93

10.18262.28294.38207.48209.582

90.05273.15236.25278.35290.552

0.4290.3292.2293.1295.029

1.47114.47118.47112.57116.5711

515.8953.8802.8260.8229.7

0.0110.1110.2110.3110.411

3.593.693.793.893.99

77.43344.53311.63377.63324.733

66.50373.60360.70357.70334.803

2.3886.2881.2886.1881.188

9.88110.98112.98114.98115.9811

940.4510.4189.3749.3419.3

0.550.650.750.850.95

3.043.143.243.343.44

70.78282.88273.98205.09216.192

03.65205.75276.85228.95269.062

6.9198.8199.7191.7193.619

9.57113.67116.67119.67113.7711

787.7656.7925.7704.7982.7

0.5110.6110.7110.8110.911

3.0013.1013.2013.3013.401

70.83327.83363.93399.93326.043

11.90397.90364.01321.11387.113

6.0880.0885.9780.9784.878

7.98118.98110.09111.09112.0911

288.3058.3918.3887.3857.3

0.060.160.260.360.46

3.543.643.743.843.94

17.29297.39258.49209.59249.692

90.26202.36203.46283.56254.662

5.5197.4199.3191.3193.219

6.77119.77112.87115.87118.8711

571.7460.7759.6358.6257.6

0.0210.1210.2210.3210.421

3.5013.6013.7013.8013.901

52.14388.14305.24311.34327.343

44.21301.31357.31304.41340.513

9.7784.7789.6784.6789.578

4.09115.09117.09118.09119.0911

827.3996.3076.3246.3416.3

0.560.660.760.860.96

3.053.153.253.353.45

79.79299.89299.99289.00369.103

05.76255.86285.96206.07216.192

6.1198.0191.0194.9097.809

1.97114.97117.97110.08113.0811

556.6065.6864.6873.6192.6

0.5210.6210.7210.8210.921

3.0113.1113.2113.3113.411

33.44349.44345.54331.64337.643

86.51313.61349.61375.71391.813

4.5789.4784.4789.3784.378

1.19112.19113.19115.19116.1911

785.3065.3335.3705.3184.3

0.070.170.270.370.47

3.553.653.753.853.95

29.20388.30338.40367.50386.603

16.27206.37275.47245.57294.672

9.7092.7095.6098.5091.509

6.08118.08111.18113.18116.1811

602.6421.6440.6669.5098.5

0.0310.1310.2310.3310.431

3.5113.6113.7113.8113.911

23.74309.74384.84360.94346.943

18.81334.91340.02356.02352.123

9.2785.2780.2785.1780.178

7.19119.19110.29111.29112.2911

554.3034.3504.3183.3753.3

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:45 AM543

544

TECHNICAL

Properties of Saturated Steam (continued)Pressure

(PSI) Temp.t

(°F)

Heat of theLiquid

(BTU/Lb.)

Latent Heatof


Total Heatof Steam Hg

(BTU/Lb.)

SpecificVolume

∇(Cu. Ft./Lb.)

Pressure(PSI) Temp.

t(°F)

Heat of theLiquid

(BTU/Lb.)

Latent Heatof


Total Heatof Steam Hg

(BTU/Lb.)

SpecificVolume

∇(Cu. Ft./Lb.)

AbsoluteP

GaugeP

AbsoluteP'

GaugeP

135.0136.0137.0138.0139.0

120.3121.3122.3123.3124.3

350.21350.78351.35351.91352.47

321.85322.45323.05323.64324.23

870.6870.1869.6869.1868.7

1192.41192.51192.61192.71192.9

3.3333.3103.2873.2643.242

400.0420.0440.0460.0480.0

385.3405.3425.3445.3465.3

444.59449.39454.02458.50462.82

424.0429.4434.6439.7444.6

780.5775.2770.0764.9759.9

1204.51204.61204.61204.61204.5

1.16131.10611.05561.00940.9670

140.0141.0142.0143.0144.0

125.3126.3127.3128.3129.3

353.02353.57354.12354.67355.21

324.82325.40325.98326.56327.13

868.2867.7867.2866.7866.3

1193.01193.11193.21193.31193.4

3.2203.1983.1773.1553.134

500.0520.0540.0560.0580.0

485.3505.3525.3545.3565.3

467.01471.07475.01478.85482.58

449.4454.1458.6463.0467.4

755.0750.1745.4740.8736.1

1204.41204.21204.01203.81203.5

0.92780.78150.85780.82650.7973

145.0146.0147.0148.0149.0

130.3131.3132.3133.3134.3

355.76356.29356.83357.36357.89

327.70328.27328.83329.39329.95

865.8865.3864.9864.5864.0

1193.51193.61193.81193.91194.0

3.1143.0943.0743.0543.034

600.0620.0640.0660.0680.0

585.3605.3625.3645.3665.3

486.21489.75493.21496.58499.88

471.6475.7479.8483.8487.7

731.6727.2722.7718.3714.0

1203.21202.91202.51202.11201.7

0.76980.74400.71980.69710.6757

150.0152.0154.0156.0158.0

135.3137.3139.3141.3143.3

358.42359.46360.49361.52362.53

330.51331.61332.70333.79334.86

863.6862.7851.8860.9860.0

1194.11194.31194.51194.71194.9

3.0152.9772.9402.9042.869

700.0720.0740.0760.0780.0

685.3705.3725.3745.3765.3

503.10506.25509.34512.36505.33

491.5495.3499.0502.6506.2

709.7705.4701.2697.1692.9

1201.21200.71200.21199.71199.1

0.65540.63620.61800.60070.5843

160.0162.0164.0166.0168.0

145.3147.3149.3151.3153.3

363.53364.53365.51366.48367.45

335.93336.98338.02339.05340.07

859.2858.3857.5856.6855.7

1195.11195.31195.51195.71195.8

2.8342.8012.7682.7362.705

800.0820.0840.0860.0880.0

785.3805.3825.3845.3865.3

518.23521.08523.88526.63529.33

509.7513.2516.6520.0523.3

688.9684.8680.8676.8672.8

1198.61198.01197.41196.81196.1

0.56870.55380.53960.52600.5130

170.0172.0174.0176.0178.0

155.3157.3159.3161.3163.3

368.41369.35370.29371.22372.14

341.09342.10343.10344.09345.06

854.9854.1853.3852.4851.6

1196.01196.21196.41196.51196.7

2.6752.6452.6162.5872.559

900.0920.0940.0960.0980.0

885.3905.3925.3945.3965.3

531.98534.59537.16539.68542.17

526.6529.8533.0536.2539.3

668.8664.9661.0657.1653.3

1195.41194.71194.01193.31192.6

0.50060.48860.47720.46630.4557

180.0182.0184.0186.0188.0

165.3167.3169.3171.3173.3

373.06373.96374.86375.75376.64

346.03347.00347.96348.92349.86

850.8850.0849.2848.4847.6

1196.91197.01197.21197.31197.5

2.5322.5052.4792.4542.429

1000.01050.01100.01150.01200.0

985.31035.31085.31135.31185.3

544.61550.57556.31561.86567.22

542.4550.0557.45654.6571.7

649.4639.9630.4621.0611.7

1191.81189.91187.81185.61183.4

0.44560.42180.40010.38020.619

190.0192.0194.0196.0198.0

175.3177.3179.3181.3183.3

377.51378.38379.24380.10380.95

350.79351.72352.64353.55354.46

846.8846.1845.3844.5843.7

1197.61197.81197.91198.11198.2

2.4042.3802.3562.3332.310

1250.01300.01350.01400.01450.0

1235.31285.31335.31385.31435.3

572.42577.46582.35587.10591.73

578.6585.4592.1598.7605.2

602.4593.2584.0574.7565.5

1181.01178.61176.11173.41170.7

0.34500.32930.31480.30120.2884

200.0205.0210.0215.0220.0

185.3190.3195.3200.3205.3

381.79383.86385.90387.89389.86

355.36357.58359.77361.91364.02

843.0841.0839.2837.4835.6

1198.41198.71199.01199.31199.6

2.2882.2342.1832.1342.087

1500.01600.01700.01800.01900.0

1485.31585.31685.31785.31885.3

596.23604.90613.15621.03628.58

611.6624.1636.3648.3660.1

556.3538.0519.6501.1482.4

1167.91162.11155.91149.41142.4

0.27650.25480.23540.21790.2021

225.0230.0235.0240.0245.0

210.3215.3220.3225.3230.3

391.79393.68395.54397.37399.18

366.09368.13370.14372.12374.08

833.8832.0830.3828.5826.8

1199.91200.11200.41200.61200.9

2.04221.99921.95791.91831.8803

2000.02100.02200.02300.02400.0

1985.32085.32185.32285.32385.3

635.82642.77649.46655.91662.12

671.7683.3694.8706.5718.4

463.4444.1424.4403.9382.7

1135.11127.41119.21110.41101.1

0.18780.17460.16250.15130.1407

250.0255.0260.0265.0270.0

235.3240.3245.3250.3255.3

400.95402.70404.42406.11407.78

376.00377.89379.76381.60383.42

825.1823.4821.8820.1818.5

1201.11201.31201.51201.71201.9

1.84381.80861.77481.74221.7107

2500.02600.02700.02800.02900.0

2485.32585.32685.32785.32885.3

668.13673.94679.55684.99690.26

730.6743.0756.2770.1785.4

360.5337.2312.1284.7253.6

1091.11080.21068.31054.81039.0

0.13070.12130.11230.10350.0947

275.0280.0285.0290.0295.0

260.3265.3270.3275.3280.3

409.43411.05412.65414.23415.79

385.21386.98388.73390.46392.16

816.9815.3813.7812.1810.5

1202.11202.31202.41202.61202.7

1.68041.65111.62281.59541.5689

3000.03100.03200.03206.2

2985.33085.33185.33191.5

695.36700.31705.11705.40

802.5825.0872.4902.7

217.8168.162.00.0

1020.3993.1934.4902.7

0.08580.07530.05800.0503

300.0320.0340.0360.0380.0

285.3305.3325.3345.3365.3

417.33423.29428.97434.40439.60

393.84400.39406.66412.67418.45

809.0803.0797.1797.4785.8

1202.81203.41203.71204.11204.3

1.54331.44851.36451.28951.2222

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:46 AM544

545

TECHNICAL

)cirteM(maetSdetarutaSfoseitreporP

K,ERUTAREPMET RAB,ERUSSERPm,EMULOV 3 gk/ gk/Jk,YPLAHTNE )Kxgk(/Jk,YPORTNE

desnednoC ropaV desnednoC ropaV desnednoC ropaV

051 11-03.6 3-370.1 9+55.9 6.935- 3722 781.2- 45.61

061071081091002

01-27.79-92.78-83.57-32.36-26.1

3-470.13-670.13-770.13-870.13-970.1

8+26.98+80.17+55.16+27.25+96.5

7.525-7.115-8.794-8.384-5.764-

19220132823274326632

601.2-620.2-749.1-868.1-987.1-

94.5175.4167.3130.6183.21

012022032042052

6-10.75-56.25-19.84-27.34-95.7

3-180.13-280.13-480.13-580.13-780.1

5+93.14+38.34+81.13+70.43+25.1

2.154-0.534-3.614-1.004-5.813-

48323042124204429542

117.1-336.1-555.1-874.1-004.1-

97.1102.1197.0153.01459.9

552062562072

51.372

3-32.13-69.13-60.33-96.43-11.6

3-780.13-880.13-980.13-090.13-190.1

4.6592.2164.0044.5623.602

8.963-5.063-2.153-6.933-5.333-

86427742684269422052

163.1-323.1-182.1-692.1-122.1-

867.9095.9164.9552.9851.9

51.372572082582092

11600.079600.009900.078310.071910.0

3-000.13-000.13-000.13-000.13-100.1

3.6027.1814.031

4.997.96

0.08.78.828.947.07

20525052415232522352

000.0820.0401.0871.0152.0

851.9901.9098.8758.8047.8

592003503013513

71620.013530.021740.012260.023180.0

3-200.13-300.13-500.13-700.13-900.1

49.1531.9309.7239.2228.71

6.195.2114.3313.4512.571

14520552955286527752

323.0393.0264.0035.0795.0

726.8025.8714.8813.8422.8

023523033533043

35010.015310.091710.076120.031720.0

3-110.13-310.13-610.13-810.13-120.1

89.3160.11

28.890.747.5

1.6910.7129.7328.8528.972

68525952406231622262

946.0727.0197.0458.0619.0

151.8640.8269.7188.7408.7

543053553063563

2733.03614.00015.09026.04157.0

3-420.13-720.13-030.13-430.13-830.1

386.4648.3081.3546.2212.2

7.0037.1237.2437.3637.483

03629362746255623662

779.0830.1790.1651.1412.1

927.7756.7885.7125.7654.7

07351.373

573083583

0409.03310.15180.19682.13325.1

3-140.13-440.13-540.13-940.13-350.1

168.1976.1475.1733.1241.1

8.5041.9148.6240.8442.964

17626762976278624962

172.1703.1823.1483.1934.1

493.7653.7333.7572.7812.7

093004014024034

497.1554.2203.3073.4996.5

3-850.13-760.13-770.13-880.13-990.1

089.0137.0355.0524.0133.0

4.0949.2356.5756.8168.166

20726172927224723572

494.1506.1807.1018.1119.1

361.7850.7959.6568.6577.6

044054064074084

333.7913.917.1155.4109.71

3-011.13-321.13-731.13-251.13-761.1

162.0802.0761.0631.0111.0

3.5072.9475.3972.8384.388

46723772287298725972

110.2901.2502.2103.2593.2

986.6706.6825.6154.6773.6

094005015025035

38.1204.6266.1307.7385.44

3-481.13-302.13-222.13-442.13-862.1

2290.06770.01360.05250.05440.0

1.9296.579320117019111

99721082208210828972

974.2185.2376.2567.2658.2

213.6332.6361.6390.6320.6

045055065075085

83.2591.1680.1761.2815.49

3-492.13-323.13-553.13-293.13-334.1

5730.07130.09620.08220.03910.0

07110221372182314831

29724872277275727372

849.2930.3231.3522.3123.3

359.5288.5808.5337.5456.5

095006016026526

3.8015.3213.7311.9511.961

3-284.13-145.13-216.13-507.13-877.1

3610.07310.05110.04900.05800.0

34416051375174617961

71722862146288525552

914.3025.3726.3147.3508.3

965.5084.5813.5952.5191.5

036536046546

13.746

1.9719.0917.2022.5122.122

3-658.13-539.13-570.23-153.23-071.3

5700.06600.07500.05400.02300.0

43713871148113917012

51526642104229227012

578.3059.3730.4322.4344.4

511.5520.5219.4237.4344.4

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM545

546

TECHNICAL

- continued -

maetSdetaehrepuSfoseitreporPERUSSERP

)ISP( .TAS.PMET

t

(F°—ERUTAREPMETLATOT t)

etulosbA'P

eguaGP

°063 °004 °044 °084 °005 °006 °007 °008 °009 °0001 °0021

696.41 0.0 00.212 ∇hg

30.331.1221

86.439.9321

23.638.8521

69.736.7721

87.831.7821

68.248.4331

49.642.3831

00.153.2341

70.553.2841

31.951.3351

52.765.7361

0.02 3.5 69.722 ∇hg

12.423.0221

34.522.9321

56.622.8521

68.721.7721

64.826.6821

74.134.4331

74.439.2831

64.731.2341

54.041.2841

44.340.3351

14.944.7361

0.03 3.51 33.052 ∇hg

270.616.8121

798.619.7321

417.710.7521

825.812.6721

339.817.5821

59.028.3331

69.224.2831

69.4271.1341

59.628.1841

59.827.2351

39.232.7361

0.04 3.52 52.762 ∇hg

100.219.6121

826.215.6321

742.319.5521

269.312.5721

861.418.4821

886.511.3331

891.719.1831

207.813.1341

02.024.1841

07.124.2351

96.420.7361

0.05 3.53 10.182 ∇hg

755.92.5121

560.011.5321

765.017.4521

260.112.4721

903.119.3821

235.215.2331

447.314.1831

059.419.0341

251.611.1841

253.711.2351

747.918.6361

0.06 3.54 17.292 ∇hg

729.74.3121

753.86.3321

977.85.3521

691.92.3721

304.90.3821

724.018.1331

144.119.0831

944.215.0341

254.318.0841

454.419.1351

154.616.6361

0.07 3.55 29.203 ∇hg

267.65.1121

631.71.2321

205.73.2521

368.72.2721

140.80.2821

429.81.1331

697.94.0831

266.011.0341

425.115.0841

383.216.1351

790.413.6361

0.08 3.56 30.213 ∇hg

888.57.9021

022.67.0321

445.61.1521

268.61.1721

020.71.1821

797.75.0331

265.89.9731

223.97.9241

770.011.0841

038.013.1351

233.212.6361

0.09 3.57 72.023 ∇hg

802.57.7021

805.51.9221

997.58.9421

480.61.0721

522.61.0821

029.68.9231

306.74.9731

972.83.9241

259.88.9741

326.90.1351

959.019.5361

0.001 3.58 18.723 ∇hg

366.47.5021

739.46.7221

202.56.8421

264.50.9621

985.51.9721

812.61.9231

538.69.8731

644.79.8241

250.85.9741

656.88.0351

068.97.5361

0.021 3.501 52.143 ∇hg

448.36.1021

180.44.4221

703.40.6421

725.49.6621

636.42.7721

561.57.7231

386.58.7731

591.61.8241

207.68.8741

702.72.0351

212.83.5361

0.041 3.521 20.353 ∇hg

852.33.7911

864.31.1221

766.33.3421

068.37.4621

459.32.5721

314.44.6231

168.48.6731

103.52.7241

837.52.8741

271.67.9251

530.79.4361

0.061 3.541 35.363 ∇hg

------

800.36.7121

781.36.0421

953.34.2621

344.31.3721

948.30.5231

442.47.5731

136.44.6241

510.55.7741

693.51.9251

251.65.4361

0.081 3.561 60.373 ∇hg

------

946.20.4121

318.28.7321

969.22.0621

440.30.1721

114.35.3231

469.37.4731

011.46.5241

254.48.6741

297.46.8251

664.51.4361

0.002 3.581 97.183 ∇hg

------

163.23.0121

315.29.4321

656.28.7521

627.29.8621

060.31.2231

083.36.3731

396.38.4241

200.42.6741

903.40.8251

719.47.3361

0.022 3.502 68.983 ∇hg

------

521.25.6021

762.29.1321

004.24.5521

564.27.6621

277.27.0231

660.36.2731

253.30.4241

436.35.5741

319.35.7251

764.43.3361

0.042 3.522 73.793 ∇hg

------

6729.15.2021

260.28.8221

781.20.3521

742.25.4621

335.22.9131

408.25.1731

860.32.2341

723.38.4741

485.39.6251

390.49.2361

0.062 3.542 24.404 ∇hg

------

------

2888.17.5221

600.25.0521

360.23.2621

033.27.7131

285.24.0731

728.23.2241

760.32.4741

503.33.6251

677.35.2361

0.082 3.562 50.114 ∇hg

------

------

8837.14.2221

2158.19.7421

7409.10.0621

651.22.6131

293.24.9631

126.25.1241

548.25.3741

660.38.5251

405.31.2361

0.003 3.582 33.714 ∇hg

------

------

0906.11.9121

5617.13.5421

5767.16.7521

500.27.4131

722.23.8631

244.26.0241

256.28.2741

958.22.5251

962.37.1361

0.023 3.503 92.324 ∇hg

------

------

0594.16.5121

5895.16.2421

2746.12.5521

4378.12.3131

380.22.7631

582.28.9141

384.21.2741

876.27.4251

360.33.1361

0.043 3.523 79.824 ∇hg

------

------

1493.11.2121

1494.19.9321

0145.18.2521

9657.16.1131

2659.11.6631

741.20.9141

433.25.1741

815.21.4251

188.29.0361

0.063 3.543 04.343 ∇hg

------

------

1403.14.8021

2104.11.7321

4644.13.0521

3356.11.0131

1348.10.5631

520.21.8141

202.28.0741

673.25.3251

917.25.0361

∇ dnuoprepteefcibuc,emulovcificeps=hg dnuoprepUTB,maetsfotaehlatot=

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM546

547

TECHNICAL

- continued -

)deunitnoc(maetSdetaehrepuSfoseitreporPERUSSERP

)ISP( .TAS.PMET

t

(F°—ERUTAREPMETLATOT t)

etulosbA'P

eguaGP

°005 °045 °006 °046 °066 °007 °047 °008 °009 °0001 °0021

0.083 3.563 06.934∇γη

6163.17.7421

4444.11.3721

5065.15.8031

5436.10.1331

7076.10.2431

9147.18.3631

8118.13.5831

9419.13.7141

380.21.0741

942.20.3251

575.20.0361

0.004 3.583 95.444 ∇hg

1582.11.5421

2563.10.1721

0774.19.6031

0845.16.9231

7285.18.0431

8056.17.2631

7717.13.4831

1618.14.6141

7679.14.9641

431.24.2251

544.26.9261

0.024 3.504 93.944 ∇hg

8512.15.2421

5392.19.8621

4104.13.5031

7964.13.8231

0305.15.9331

4865.16.1631

4236.13.3831

7627.15.5141

2088.17.8641

130.29.1251

723.22.9261

0.044 3.524 20.454 ∇hg

6251.18.9321

2822.17.6621

7233.16.3031

4893.19.6231

6034.12.8331

4394.14.0631

9455.13.2831

4546.17.4141

5297.11.8641

8639.13.1251

022.28.8261

0.064 3.544 5.854 ∇hg

8490.10.7321

5861.15.4621

8962.10.2031

4333.14.5231

4463.19.6331

0524.13.9531

2484.13.1831

1175.18.3141

4217.14.7641

8058.17.0251

221.24.8261

0.084 3.564 28.264 ∇hg

7140.12.4321

8311.13.2621

2212.13.0031

7372.10.4231

8303.16.5331

2263.12.8531

3914.13.0831

1305.19.2141

0936.17.6641

0277.12.0251

330.20.8261

0.005 3.584 10.764 ∇hg

7299.03.1321

3360.10.0621

1951.16.8921

8812.16.2231

8742.12.4331

4403.10.7531

6953.13.9731

5044.11.2141

5175.10.6641

6996.16.9151

4059.16.7261

0.025 3.505 70.174 ∇hg

3749.03.8221

6610.17.7521

1011.19.6921

1861.11.1231

2691.19.2331

1152.18.5531

5403.12.8731

6283.12.1141

1905.13.5641

636.10.9151

3478.12.7261

0.045 3.525 10.574 ∇hg

2509.03.5221

3379.04.5521

6460.12.5921

1121.17.9131

5841.15.1331

7102.16.4531

5352.12.7731

1923.13.0141

4154.16.4641

7075.15.8151

9308.18.6261

0.065 3.545 58.874 ∇hg

9568.02.2221

0339.00.3521

4220.14.3921

5770.12.8131

1401.12.0331

8551.15.3531

0602.11.6731

4972.14.9041

8793.19.3641

2315.19.7151

5837.14.6261

0.085 3.565 85.284 ∇hg

1928.00.9121

4598.05.0521

0389.07.1921

8630.17.6131

7260.18.8231

1331.13.2531

9161.11.5731

1332.16.8041

9743.12.3641

6954.13.7151

6776.10.6261

0.006 3.585 12.684 ∇hg

7497.07.5121

2068.01.8421

3649.09.9821

8899.02.5131

1420.14.7231

2370.11.1531

7021.10.4731

9981.17.7041

3103.15.2641

6904.17.6151

8026.15.5261

0.026 0.506 57.984 ∇hg

4267.04.2121

2728.05.5421

8119.01.8821

3369.07.3131

0889.00.6231

8530.19.9431

1280.10.3731

4941.18.6041

7752.18.1641

8263.12.6151

6765.11.5261

0.046 3.526 12.394 ∇hg

9137.00.9021

3697.00.3421

5978.02.6921

9929.02.2131

1459.06.4231

8000.16.8431

9540.19.1731

5111.19.5041

8612.11.1641

0913.16.5151

8715.17.4261

0.066 3.546 85.694 ∇hg

2307.04.5021

0767.04.0421

1948.04.4821

5898.06.0131

2229.02.3231

9769.04.7431

9110.18.0731

9570.10.5041

4871.14.0641

8772.10.5151

9074.13.4261

0.086 3.566 88.994 ∇hg

9576.08.1021

5937.07.7321

5028.05.2821

0968.01.9031

2298.07.1231

9639.02.6431

0089.08.9631

4240.11.4041

3241.17.9541

0932.15.4151

9624.19.3261

0.007 3.586 01.305 ∇hg

------

4317.00.5321

4397.06.0821

1148.05.7031

9368.03.0231

7709.00.5431

8949.07.8631

8010.12.3041

2801.10.9541

4202.19.3151

3583.15.3261

0.057 3.537 68.015 ∇hg

------

0456.09.7221

9137.07.5721

8777.05.3031

6997.06.6131

4148.08.1431

3188.00.6631

1939.09.0041

0130.12.7541

6911.14.2151

2192.14.2261

0.008 3.587 32.815 ∇hg

------

5106.05.0221

9776.07.0721

3227.04.9921

3347.09.2131

3387.06.8331

5128.02.3631

3678.06.8931

3369.04.5541

0740.10.1151

8802.14.1261

0.058 3.538 62.525 ∇hg

------

6455.07.2121

1036.05.5621

2376.02.5921

4396.00.9031

0237.04.5331

5867.04.0631

9028.03.6931

7309.06.3541

0389.05.9051

0631.14.0261

0.009 3.588 89.135 ∇hg

------

4215.04.4021

3785.01.0621

4926.09.0921

1946.01.5031

3686.01.2331

5127.05.7531

6177.09.3931

6058.08.1541

2629.01.8051

4170.13.9161

0.059 3.539 24.835 ∇hg

------

0474.05.5911

9845.06.4521

1095.04.6821

2906.01.1031

3546.07.8231

3976.07.4531

5727.06.1931

1308.00.0541

3578.06.6051

6310.13.8161

0.0001 3.589 16.445 ∇hg

------

------

0415.08.8421

6455.09.1821

3375.00.7921

4806.03.5231

3146.07.1531

8786.02.9831

4067.02.8441

4928.01.5051

5169.03.7161


18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM547

548

TECHNICAL

)deunitnoc(maetSdetaehrepuSfoseitreporPERUSSERP

)ISP( .TAS.PMET

t

(F°--ERUTAREPMETLATOT t)

etulosbA'P

eguaGP

°066 °007 °047 °067 °087 °008 °068 °009 °0001 °0011 °0021

0.0011 3.5801 13.655 ∇hg

0115.05.8821

5445.03.8131

5575.08.5431

4095.09.8531

9406.07.1731

1916.03.4831

1066.08.0241

6686.05.4441

3057.02.2051

7118.08.8551

6178.02.5161

0.0021 3.5811 22.765 ∇hg

6854.06.9721

9094.00.1131

6025.06.9331

7435.02.3531

4845.04.6631

7165.03.9731

3006.07.6141

0526.07.0441

3486.02.9941

2147.04.6551

7697.01.3161

0.0031 3.5821 64.775 ∇hg

9314.02.0721

4544.04.3031

9374.03.3331

4784.03.7431

4005.00.1631

1315.03.4731

6945.05.2141

8275.00.7341

4826.02.6941

6186.09.3551

3337.00.1161

0.0041 3.5831 01.785 ∇hg

3573.03.0621

2604.05.5921

8334.07.6231

8644.03.1431

3954.04.5531

4174.01.9631

1605.02.8041

1825.01.3341

5085.02.3941

5036.04.1551

9876.09.8061

0.0051 3.5841 32.695 ∇hg

3143.08.9421

9173.02.7821

9893.00.0231

4114.02.5331

5324.07.9431

2534.08.3631

4864.09.3041

3984.03.9241

0935.01.0941

2685.09.8451

8136.08.6061

0.0061 3.5851 09.406 ∇hg

2113.07.8321

7143.07.8721

2863.00.3131

4083.08.8231

1293.09.3431

4304.04.8531

3534.05.9931

3554.03.5241

7205.00.7841

4745.04.6451

6095.06.4061

0.0071 3.5861 51.316 ∇hg

2482.08.6221

8413.07.9621

0143.08.5031

9253.03.2231

3463.09.7331

3573.09.2531

1604.00.5931

3524.04.1241

6074.00.4841

2315.08.3451

2455.05.2061

0.0081 3.5871 30.126 ∇hg

7952.00.4121

7092.03.0621

6613.04.8921

4823.05.5131

5933.08.1331

2053.02.7431

1083.04.0931

6893.04.7141

1244.08.0841

8284.03.1451

8125.04.0061

0.0091 3.5881 85.826 ∇hg

1732.02.0021

8862.04.0521

7492.06.0921

3603.06.8031

1713.04.5231

7723.05.1431

8653.08.5831

7473.03.3141

5614.07.7741

6554.08.8351

9294.02.8951

0.0002 3.5891 28.536 ∇hg

1612.09.4811

9842.00.0421

8472.06.2821

3682.04.1031

2792.00.9131

4703.05.5331

8533.02.1831

2353.02.9041

5393.05.4741

1134.02.6351

8664.01.6951

0.0012 3.5802 77.246 ∇hg

2691.07.7611

6032.00.9221

7652.03.4721

2862.00.4921

9872.03.2131

0982.05.9231

7613.04.6731

7333.00.5041

7273.04.1741

9804.06.3351

3344.09.3951

0.0022 3.5812 64.946 ∇hg

8671.08.7411

5312.04.7121

0042.07.5621

4152.03.6821

1262.04.5031

1272.03.3231

4992.05.1731

9513.08.0041

8353.02.8641

7883.01.1351

8124.08.1951

0.0032 3.5822 19.556 ∇hg

5751.08.3211

8791.09.4021

7422.07.6521

2632.04.8721

8642.04.8921

7652.09.6131

5382.06.6631

7992.05.6931

5633.09.4641

3073.05.8251

3204.06.9851

0.0042 3.5832 21.266 ∇hg

------

8281.05.1911

5012.03.7421

1222.02.0721

7232.01.1921

5242.03.0131

9862.06.1631

8482.02.2931

7023.07.1641

4353.09.5251

3483.04.7851

0.0052 3.5842 31.866 ∇hg

------

6861.08.6711

3791.06.7021

0902.08.1621

6912.06.3821

4922.06.3031

5552.05.6531

0172.08.7831

1603.04.8541

9733.02.3251

8763.03.5851

0.0062 3.5852 49.376 ∇hg

------

9451.06.0611

9481.03.7221

7691.09.2521

4702.08.5721

2712.08.6921

1342.04.1531

4852.04.3831

6292.01.5541

6323.06.0251

6253.01.3851

0.0072 3.5862 55.976 ∇hg

------

5141.05.2411

2371.05.6121

3581.08.3421

0691.09.7621

9502.07.9821

5132.01.6431

6642.09.8731

1082.08.1541

3013.00.8151

5833.09.0851

0.0082 3.5872 99.486 ∇hg

------

1821.04.1211

2261.01.5021

5471.02.4321

4581.06.9521

3591.04.2821

8022.08.0431

6532.03.4731

5862.05.8441

9792.04.5151

4523.07.8751

0.0092 3.5882 62.096 ∇hg

------

3411.09.5901

7151.00.3911

4461.03.4221

4571.01.1521

3581.09.4721

8012.03.5331

4522.07.9631

7752.01.5441

4682.07.2151

2313.05.6751

0.0003 3.5892 63.596 ∇hg

------

4890.07.0601

6141.01.0811

8451.08.3121

0661.02.2421

0671.02.7621

4102.07.9231

9512.00.5631

6742.08.1441

7572.00.0151

8103.03.4751

0.0013 3.5803 13.007 ∇hg

------

------

0231.02.6611

6541.09.2021

1751.00.3321

2761.03.9521

6291.01.4231

0702.03.0631

2832.04.8341

7562.04.7051

1192.01.2751

0.0023 3.5813 11.507 ∇hg

------

------

6221.01.1511

9631.04.1911

6841.05.3221

9851.01.1521

3481.03.8131

6891.05.5531

3922.09.4341

3652.07.4051

1182.09.9651

2.6023 5.1913 04.507 ∇hg

------

------

0221.02.0511

3631.06.0911

0841.09.2221

3851.05.0521

8381.09.7131

1891.02.5531

8822.07.4341

7552.05.4051

6082.08.9651


18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM548

549

TECHNICAL

Determine Velocity of Steam in Pipes:

Where: A = Nominal pipe section area =d = DiameterV = Specific volume from steam tablesin ft3/lb (m3/kg)

Velocity (ft/s) =(25)(A)

(V)π(d)2

4

Note: Specific volume changes with steam pressure and tempera-ture. Make sure to calculate velocities of inlet and outlet piping of theregulator.

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4/3 1 2/1-1 2 3 4

)960,0(1 )900,0(20.0 )410,0(30.0 )410,0(30.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0

)43,0(5 )410,0(30.0 )410,0(30.0 )810,0(40.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0

)96,0(01 )410,0(30.0 )410,0(30.0 )810,0(40.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )230,0(70.0

)7,1(52 )410,0(30.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0 )630,0(80.0

)4,3(05 )810,0(40.0 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0 )140,0(90.0 )50,0(11.0

)2,5(57 )810,0(40.0 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0 )230,0(70.0 )50,0(11.0 )460,0(41.0

)9,6(001 )320,0(50.0 )320,0(50.0 )230,0(70.0 )630,0(80.0 )450,0(21.0 )860,0(51.0

)6,8(521 )320,0(50.0 )720,0(60.0 )230,0(70.0 )630,0(80.0 )950,0(31.0 )370,0(61.0

)3,01(051 )720,0(60.0 )720,0(60.0 )630,0(80.0 )140,0(90.0 )460,0(41.0 )770,0(71.0

)8,31(002 )720,0(60.0 )230,0(70.0 )630,0(80.0 )140,0(90.0 )860,0(51.0 )680,0(91.0

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4/3 1 2/1-1 2 3 4

)960,0(1 )50,0(11.0 )860,0(51.0 )590,0(12.0 )311,0(52.0 )2710(83.0 )902,0(64.0

)43,0(5 )460,0(41.0 )370,0(61.0 )1,0(22.0 )811,0(62.0 )6810(14.0 )722,0(05.0

)96,0(01 )860,0(51.0 )280,0(81.0 )901,0(42.0 )231,0(92.0 )20(44.0 )42,0(35.0

)7,1(52 )770,0(71.0 )1,0(22.0 )141,0(13.0 )361,0(63.0 )420(35.0 )592,0(56.0

)4,3(05 )1,0(22.0 )221,0(72.0 )771,0(93.0 )902,0(64.0 )9920(66.0 )673,0(38.0

)2,5(57 )811,0(62.0 )141,0(13.0 )402,0(54.0 )542,0(45.0 )9430(77.0 )274,0(40.1

)9,6(001 )231,0(92.0 )951,0(53.0 )722,0(05.0 )772,0(16.0 )930(68.0 )305,0(11.1

)6,8(521 )541,0(23.0 )771,0(93.0 )942,0(55.0 )803,0(86.0 )6240(49.0 )855,0(32.1

)3,01(051 )951,0(53.0 )191,0(24.0 )272,0(06.0 )633,0(47.0 )7640(30.1 )306,0(33.1

)8,31(002 )181,0(04.0 )222,0(94.0 )313,0(96.0 )763,0(18.0 )450(91.1 )86,0(05.1

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM549

550

TECHNICAL

- continued -

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053 8977.0 --- --- --- --- 63.11 15.5 28.8 48.2 26.5 919.0 98.3 763.0 42.2 590.0573 5538.0 --- --- --- --- 71.21 81.6 54.9 52.3 20.6 5.01 61.4 614.0 04.2 801.0004 2198.0 --- --- --- --- 89.21 30.7 80.01 86.3 24.6 91.1 44.4 174.0 65.2 121.0524 9649.0 --- --- --- --- 08.31 98.7 17.01 21.4 28.6 33.1 27.4 925.0 37.2 631.0054 300.1 "01 --- --- --- --- 16.41 08.8 43.11 06.4 22.7 84.1 00.5 095.0 98.2 151.0574 950.1 39.1 450.0 --- --- --- --- 79.11 21.5 26.7 46.1 72.5 356.0 40.3 661.0005 411.1 30.2 950.0 --- --- --- --- 06.21 56.5 20.8 18.1 55.5 027.0 12.3 281.0055 522.1 42.2 170.0 --- --- --- --- 58.31 97.6 28.8 71.2 11.6 168.0 35.3 912.0006 733.1 44.2 380.0 --- --- --- --- 21.51 40.8 36.9 55.2 66.6 20.1 58.3 852.0056 844.1 46.2 790.0 --- --- --- --- --- --- 34.01 89.2 22.7 81.1 71.4 103.0

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM550

551

TECHNICAL

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM551

552

TECHNICAL

- continued -

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM552

553

TECHNICAL

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.oCenarCfonoissimrephtiw,sdiulFfowolF,014.oNrepaPlacinhceTmorfdetcartxE

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM553

554

TECHNICAL

enaporPfoseitreporPegarevAalumroF C3H8

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)C°61(F°06tasaGfonollaGrepUTB 745,19

saGfodnuoPrepUTB 195,12

)C°61(F°06tasaGfotooFcibuCrepUTB 6152

)C°61(F°06tadiuqiLfonollaGrep)C°61(F°06taropaVfoteeFcibuC 93.63

)C°61(F°06tadiuqiLfodnuoPrep)C°61(F°06taropaVfoteeFcibuC 745.8

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM554

555

TECHNICAL

snosirapmoCUTBSLEUFNOMMOC NOLLAGREP DNUOPREP

enaporP 745,19 195,12

enatuB 230,201 122,12

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM555

556

TECHNICAL

secifirOdnasdupSfoseiticapaC

LLIRDNOITANGISED

,RETEMAIDSEHCNI

,AERAERAUQSSEHCNI

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67.281.386.388.309.4

71.356.332.454.426.5

25.360.407.449.452.6

48.334.431.504.528.6

31.477.425.518.543.7

04.470.578.581.618.7

56.463.502.635.652.8

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56.525.655.759.71.01

50.689.680.805.88.01

44.634.716.850.95.11

48.698.731.916.92.21

28.720.95.010.119.31

08.82.018.114.217.51

8.015.214.412.512.91

8.217.411.719.717.22

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35.398.374.480.525.5

79.484.580.761.787.7

50.676.676.717.864.9

59.656.708.80.019.01

27.715.887.92.111.21

34.892.97.012.212.31

70.90.015.111.312.41

56.97.014.219.311.51

2.013.210.317.410.61

8.018.116.314.518.61

7.119.218.418.613.81

5.217.318.519.714.91

3.317.419.611.918.02

2.416.510.814.021.22

0.516.611.916.125.32

2.710.918.127.429.62

4.913.125.426.723.03

7.321.620.031.430.73

0.829.035.533.048.34

17079686

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3.019.110.316.418.41

8.117.319.417.610.71

1.312.515.616.818.81

3.416.610.813.026.02

4.518.714.919.121.22

4.610.910.022.325.32

3.710.028.125.429.42

1.810.129.228.521.62

7.919.229.420.824.82

0.124.425.629.923.03

5.221.624.820.234.23

9.328.722.030.435.43

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0.044.645.059.657.75

3.749.457.953.762.86

7666564636

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408000.0558000.0269000.0810100.0570100.0

30.906.98.015.111.21

8.216.313.512.611.71

5.515.616.817.918.02

8.719.813.126.228.32

8.911.127.321.525.62

6.120.329.524.729.82

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9.928.137.538.739.93

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5.839.040.647.844.15

0.448.646.257.558.85

5.947.252.957.262.66

6.064.465.277.670.18

7.172.677.587.098.59

2616069585

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431100.0591100.0752100.0023100.0583100.0

8.215.312.419.416.51

0.810.919.919.020.22

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1.525.628.722.927.03

9.724.929.035.231.43

5.031.238.335.532.73

8.236.434.632.830.04

9.438.637.836.046.24

8.638.838.049.240.54

7.838.049.240.542.14

1.244.447.640.944.15

8.443.747.942.258.45

0.846.052.358.556.85

1.158.356.655.954.26

2.451.751.061.362.66

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8.966.374.773.183.58

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101701211811421

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"46/35545

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0.828.234.339.049.54

1.236.733.839.647.25

7.538.146.241.255.85

0.936.545.640.759.36

0.241.940.053.168.86

7.442.252.352.562.37

2.741.552.658.863.77

5.949.750.953.271.18

9.350.362.467.873.88

4.751.764.868.381.49

4.168.172.376.98101

4.565.679.775.59801

4.962.187.28201411

4.978.296.49611231

4.98501701131741

011821131061081

031251551981212

35"61/1

251505

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87200.070300.071300.035300.058300.0

1.135.436.537.933.34

0.446.842.059.550.16

6.352.951.160.862.47

5.169.761.071.872.58

4.865.570.878.687.49

7.475.281.588.49401

3.088.886.19201211

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3.097.99301511521

7.49501801121231

401411811131341

011221621041351

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9484

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1.740.158.354.459.75

4.669.179.576.676.18

8.085.783.293.392.99

7.29101601701411

301211811911721

311221921031931

121231431041941

921041841941951

631841651851861

341551461561671

651961871081191

661081091291402

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981502612812232

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54443424

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201311021331331

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031341351961071

141751761581681

351961081991002

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271981202322422

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42700.045700.087700.090800.094800.0

3.187.484.789.094.59

511021421821531

041641051651461

161761271971881

871681291991902

591302902812822

012812522432642

322232932942162

532542352362672

742752562672092

962082982003513

782892803023633

603913923243953

623043153563383

643163273783604

693314624344464

644464974894325

645865585016046

546276396127757

- continued -

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM556

557

TECHNICAL

)deunitnoc(secifirOdnasdupSfoseiticapaC

LLIRDNOITANGISED

,RETEMAIDSEHCNI

,AERAERAUQSSEHCNI



1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 01 21 41 61 81 02 52 03 04 05

63"46/7

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19800.004900.005900.086900.030010.0

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141941151451951

271281381781491

791802012412222

912132432832742

042352552062072

852272572082092

472982292892903

092503903513623

403123423033243

133943353953273

253273673383693

773893204014424

204424824634254

624944454364084

784415025035945

945975585695816

176807617927657

497838748368498

2313"8/1

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75010.013110.072210.069210.033410.0

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744874915845516

674015355485556

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875916176907597

156696657897398

6972584296790011

2490101001106110031

82"46/9

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4232

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204214424824044

644854274674884

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029181

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63020.046120.065220.002320.015320.0

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154974994315025

105235555175875

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235145255765285

116126436056766

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01130.037130.014230.096230.071330.0

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02910691000202020502

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07720382098202920692

43

"23/721

0902.00312.07812.00122.00822.0

13430.036530.085730.063830.038040.0

683004224134954

345465595806746

166786427937787

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4486784293490101

129959010103010011

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02110611022105210331

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM557

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067900101006010041100221

006,11000,21005,21004,31004,41

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6271.03481.04691.08802.07122.0

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06840115063502650885

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09760317084704870128

04570297023802780319

04280668080902590799

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004,11000,21006,21002,31008,31

002,21008,21004,31000,41007,41

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002,22002,42002,62004,82006,03

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006,11004,21003,31002,41001,51

003,31003,41003,51003,61004,71

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005,52004,62002,92002,13002,33

001,72001,92001,13002,33004,53

008,82009,03000,33003,53006,73

009,23003,53008,73003,04000,34

000,73007,93005,24004,54004,84

0035400684000250065500295

006,35005,75005,16007,56000,07

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM558

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM562

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)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)7,11(071)56,9(041

)343(056)173(007

)26,8(521---

)26,8(521---

)26,8(521)85,7(011

)26,8(521)85,7(011

)26,8(521)85,7(011

)26,8(521)85,7(011

)26,8(521)85,7(011

)26,8(521)85,7(011

)26,8(521)85,7(011

)26,8(521)85,7(011

)26,8(521)85,7(011

.dradnatsEMSAehthtiwecnadroccanidesuebtsumselbatesehT.6991-43.61BdradnatSEMSA,dnEgnidleWdna,dedaerhT,degnalF-evlaVehtmorfdetcartxesinoitamrofnielbaT.1


ECIVRESERUTAREPMET

)C°(F°



)83ot92-(001ot02-)39(002

)9,74(596)2,54(556

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)0,15(047)5,64(576

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)6,94(027)4,14(006

)6,94(027)7,24(026

)6,94(027)7,24(026

)6,94(027)7,24(026

)6,94(027)5,54(066

)941(003)402(004

)1,44(046)7,24(026

)3,05(037)6,84(507

)2,54(556)8,34(536

)3,05(037)6,84(507

)6,94(027)9,74(596

)3,05(037)6,84(507

)5,63(035)4,23(074

)6,83(065)5,53(515

)6,83(065)5,53(515

)6,83(065)5,53(515

)4,24(516)6,93(575

)062(005)613(006

)3,04(585)9,63(535

)9,54(566)7,14(506

)4,14(006)9,73(055

)9,54(566)7,14(506

)9,54(566)7,14(506

)9,54(566)7,14(506

)0,03(534)6,82(514

)1,33(084)1,13(054

)1,33(084)1,13(054

)1,33(084)1,13(054

)2,73(045)5,53(515

)343(056)173(007

)2,63(525---

)7,04(095---

)9,63(535)9,63(535

)7,04(095)3,93(075

)7,04(095)3,93(075

)7,04(095)3,93(075

)3,82(014)9,72(504

)7,03(544)6,92(034

)7,03(544)6,92(034

)7,03(544)6,92(034

)8,43(505)1,43(594



ECIVRESERUTAREPMET

)C°(F°



)83ot92-(001ot02-)39(002

09315131

00510051

08410531

00510051

00510051

00510051

04410021

04410421

04410421

04410421

04410231

)941(003)402(004

57215321

55410141

51310721

55410141

54415831

55410141

0801599

02115201

02115201

02115201

03215411

)062(005)613(006

56115601

03310121

00215901

03310121

03310121

03310121

039578

559509

559509

559509

08015201

)343(056)173(007

5401---

5711---

57015601

57115311

57115311

57115311

068058

098078

098078

098078

0101099


seidoBevlaVEWBroTPN051ssalCISNArofsgnitaRerutarepmeT-erusserPlaicepS )1(

ECIVRESERUTAREPMET

)C°(F°



)83ot92-(001ot02-)39(002

)3,81(562)3,81(562

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)6,71(552

)0,02(092)3,81(562

)0,02(092)3,81(562

)0,02(092)3,81(562

)0,02(092)0,91(572

)941(003)402(004

)3,81(562)3,81(562

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)7,91(582)3,91(082

)9,51(032)5,41(012

)5,61(042)2,51(022

)5,61(042)2,51(022

)5,61(042)2,51(022

)2,71(052)2,61(532

)062(005)613(006

)3,81(562)3,81(562

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,91(572

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,02(092)0,02(092

)0,91(572)0,91(572

)8,31(002)8,21(581

)1,41(502)4,31(591

)1,41(502)4,31(591

)1,41(502)4,31(591

)9,51(032)2,51(022

)343(056)173(007

)9,71(062---

)0,02(092---

)6,81(072)3,81(562

)0,02(092)0,91(572

)0,02(092)3,91(082

)0,91(572)0,91(572

)8,21(581)4,21(081

)1,31(091)8,21(581

)1,31(091)8,21(581

)1,31(091)8,21(581

)8,41(512)5,41(012


18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM563

564

TECHNICAL

-29 0 30 65 100 150 178 208

34.5

232

27.6

22.0

17.2

13.8

12.1

8.6

5.0

0

0

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

550

-20

100

TEMPERATURE, F°

TEMPERATURE, °C

PR

ES

SU

RE

RA

TIN

G–P

SI–

LIQ

UID

,G

AS

,S

TE

AM

PR

ES

SU

RE

RA

TIN

G–B

AR

200 300 353 406 450

CLASS B(1”-12”)

CLASS B(1”-12”)

CLASS A(1”-12”)

CLASS B(14”-24”)

CLASS B(14”-24”)

CLASS A(1”-12”)

ANSI CLASS

125 RATINGS

SATURATED

STEAM

ANSI CLASS 250 RATINGS

Pressure/Temperature Ratings for ASTM A126 Cast Iron Valves


ECIVRESERUTAREPMET

)C°(F°



)83ot92-(001ot02-)39(002

)9,74(596)9,74(596

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)2,64(076

)7,15(057)6,74(096

)7,15(057)6,74(096

)7,15(057)6,74(096

)7,15(057)3,94(517

)941(003)402(004

)9,74(596)9,74(596

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)0,15(047)0,05(527

)4,14(006)3,83(555

)1,34(526)3,93(075

)1,34(526)3,93(075

)1,34(526)3,93(075

)2,54(556)4,24(516

)062(005)613(006

)9,74(596)9,74(596

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)3,94(517

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)7,15(057)7,15(057

)6,94(027)6,94(027

)9,53(025)8,33(094

)5,63(035)8,43(505

)5,63(035)8,43(505

)5,63(035)8,43(505

)0,14(595)6,93(575

)343(056)173(007

)9,64(086---

)7,15(057---

)3,84(007)9,74(596

)7,15(057)0,94(017

)7,15(057)7,05(537

)3,94(517)0,94(017

)1,33(084)4,23(074

)1,43(594)4,33(584

)1,43(594)4,33(584

)1,43(594)4,33(584

)0,93(565)9,73(055



ECIVRESERUTAREPMET

)C°(F°



)83ot92-(001ot02-)39(002

09310931

00510051

00510051

00510051

00510051

00510051

00515531

00510831

00510831

00510831

00510341

)941(003)402(004

09310931

00510051

00510051

00510051

00510051

58410541

00215011

05210411

05210411

05210411

01315321

)062(005)613(006

09310931

00510051

00515241

00510051

00510051

04410441

5301579

56015001

56015001

56015001

09115411

)343(056)173(007

0631---

0051---

00410931

00515241

00515641

03415241

069549

589079

589079

589079

52115011


selcriCtloBforetemaiD

LANIMON,EZISEPIP

SEHCNI

SSALCISNA)NORITSAC(521

051SSALCRO)LEETS( )1(

052SSALCISNARO)NORITSAC(

003SSALC)LEETS( )2(

ISNASSALC

006

ISNASSALC

009

ISNASSALC

0051

ISNASSALC

0052

14/1-12/1-1

22/1-2

21.305.388.357.405.5

05.388.305.400.588.5

05.388.305.400.588.5

00.483.488.405.605.7

00.483.488.405.605.7

52.421.557.557.657.7

34568

00.605.705.805.9357.11

26.688.752.926.0100.31

26.605.805.0105.1157.31

05.752.900.1105.2105.51

00.805.905.1105.2105.51

00.957.0157.2105.4152.71

0121416181

52.4100.7157.8152.1257.22

52.5157.7152.0205.2257.42

00.7152.9157.0257.3257.52

05.8100.1200.2252.4200.72

00.9105.2200.5257.7205.03

57.1283.42---------

024203632484

00.5205.9200.6357.2405.9400.65

00.7200.2352.9300.6457.2557.06

05.8200.33------------

05.9205.53------------

57.2300.93------------

------------------

.segnalfeznorb051ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni21hguorhthcni1seziS.1.segnalfeznorb003ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni8hguorhthcni1seziS.2

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM564

565

TECHNICAL

sevlaVdnasgnittiFepiPfoshtgneLtnelaviuqE

EVLAVROGNITTIFFOEPYT

EPIPDRADNATSFOTEEFNISHTGNEL

sehcnInieziSepiPlanimoN

2/1 4/3 1 4/1-1 2/1-1 2 2/1-2 3 4 6 8 01 21 .D.O41 .D.O61 .D.O81 .D.O02 .D.O42 .D.O03

royrtnehtiweetdradnatSedishguorhtegrahcsid

4.3 5.4 5.5 5.7 0.9 21 41 71 22 33 34 55 56 87 58 501 511 531 071

nurrowobledradnatS )1(

2/1decudereetfo )2( 7.1 2.2 7.2 7.3 3.4 5.5 5.6 8 21 61 02 62 13 63 24 74 25 46 08

nurrowoblepeewsmuideM )1(

4/1decudereetfo )2( 3.1 8.1 3.2 0.3 7.3 6.4 4.5 8.6 0.9 41 81 22 62 03 53 04 34 55 76

nurrowoblepeewsgnoL )1( foevlavylfrettubroeetdradnats

1 3.1 7.1 3.2 7.2 5.3 2.4 3.5 7 11 41 71 02 32 62 13 43 14 25

woble°54 8.0 0.1 2.1 6.1 0.2 5.2 0.3 7.3 0.5 5.7 01 21 51 71 02 22 42 03 73

dnebnruteresolC 7.3 1.5 2.6 5.8 01 31 51 91 42 73 94 26 57 68 001 011 521 051 581

nepo-ediw,evlavebolG 6.0 22 72 04 34 54 56 28 021 071 042 092 043 004 044 005 055 086 058

nepo-ediw,evlavelgnA 2.8 11 41 81 12 82 33 24 65 58 211 541 561 091 022 052 082 043 024

nepo-ediw,evlavkcehcgniwS 0.4 2.5 6.6 0.9 11 41 61 91 62 93 25 66 87 29 601 021 031 541 061

,nepo-ediw,evlavetaGnoitcudergnihsubthgilsro

4.0 5.0 6.0 80. 9.0 2.1 3.1 7.1 3.2 5.3 5.4 7.5 7.6 0.8 0.9 11 21 41 71

.noitceridfoegnahconhtiweetehthguorhtthgiartssiwolfehtnehweetafonurehthguorhtwolfotdiassidiulfA.1.epipgnitcennocregralehtfoaeralanretniehtnahtssel%52siepipgnitcennocrellamsehtfoaeralanretniehtfi4/1decuderebotdiassieetA.2

SHARP ENTRANCELOSS = 0.9 VP

MANIFOLD TAKE-OFFLOSS = 0.7 VP

FLANGED ENTRANCELOSS = 0.5 VP

a° LOSS15 16 VP30 17 VP45 25 VP60 35 VP

a

snoitanibmoClairetaMfotrahCecnatsiseRgnillaGdnaraeW

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM565

566

TECHNICAL

leetSsselniatS—leetSyollAdnanobraC:ataDepiP

lanimoNeziSepiP)sehcnI(

edistuOretemaiD)sehcnI(

noitacifitnedIllaW

)t(ssenkcihT)sehcnI(

edisnI)d(retemaiD

)sehcnI(

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thgieWretaW

repsdnuoP()epiPfotooF

leetS sselniatSleetS

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)a(erauqS()sehcnI

)A(erauqS(

)teeFepiPnorI

eziSeludehcS

.oN

8/1 504.0

...DTS

...04

S01S04

940.0860.0

703.0962.0

8450.00270.0

0470.08650.0

15000.004000.0

91.042.0

230.0520.0

SX 08 S08 590.0 512.0 5290.0 5630.0 52000.0 13.0 610.0

4/1 045.0

...DTS

...04

S01S04

560.0880.0

014.0463.0

0790.00521.0

0231.01401.0

19000.027000.0

33.024.0

750.0540.0

SX 08 S08 911.0 203.0 4751.0 6170.0 05000.0 45.0 130.0

8/3 576.0

...DTS

...04

S01S04

560.0190.0

545.0394.0

6421.00761.0

3332.00191.0

26100.033100.0

24.075.0

101.0380.0

SX 08 S08 621.0 324.0 3712.0 5041.0 89000.0 47.0 160.0

2/1 048.0

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

560.0380.0901.0

017.0476.0226.0

3851.04791.03052.0

9593.08653.00403.0

57200.084200.011200.0

45.076.058.0

271.0551.0231.0

SX...SXX

08061...

S08......

741.0781.0492.0

645.0664.0252.0

0023.06383.03405.0

0432.06071.0

050.0

36100.081100.053000.0

90.113.117.1

201.0470.0220.0

4/3 050.1

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

560.0380.0311.0

029.0488.0428.0

1102.01252.06233.0

8466.08316.00335.0

26400.062400.017300.0

96.068.031.1

882.0662.0132.0

SX...SXX

08061...

S08......

451.0912.0803.0

247.0216.0434.0

5334.08965.00817.0

0334.01692.0

841.0

00300.060200.030100.0

74.149.144.2

881.0821.0460.0

1 513.1

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

560.0901.0331.0

581.1790.1940.1

3552.00314.09394.0

9201.12549.00468.0

66700.065600.000600.0

78.004.186.1

8740904.0573.0

SX...SXX

08061...

S08......

971.0052.0853.0

759.0518.0995.0

8836.05638.00670.1

0917.07125.0

282.0

99400.026300.069100.0

71.248.266.3

213.0032.0221.0

4/1-1 066.1

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

560.0901.0041.0

035.1244.1083.1

7523.07174.05866.0

938.1336.1594.1

77210.043110.004010.0

11.118.172.2

797.0807.0946.0

SX...SXX

08061...

S08......

191.0052.0283.0

872.1061.1698.0

5188.00701.1

435.1

382.1750.1036.0

19800.043700.083400.0

00.367.312.5

555.0854.0372.0

2/1-1 009.1

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

560.0901.0541.0

077.1286.1016.1

7473.03316.05997.0

164.2222.2630.2

90710.034510.041410.0

82.190.227.2

660.1369.0288.0

SX...SXX

08061...

S08......

002.0182.0004.0

005.1833.1001.1

860.1924.1588.1

767.1604.1059.0

52210.067900.006600.0

36.368.414.6

567.0806.0

24.0

2 573.2

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

560.0901.0451.0

542.2751.2760.2

7174.00677.0570.1

859.3456.3553.3

94720.083520.003320.0

16.146.256.3

27.185.154.1

SX...SXX

08061...

S08......

812.0443.0634.0

939.1786.1305.1

774.1091.2656.2

359.2142.2477.1

05020.065510.023210.0

20.564.730.9

82.179.077.0

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.htgnelepipfotoofrepteefcibucniemulovtneserperosla"teeferauqs"nidetsilseulavaeralanretniesrevsnarT

- continued -

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM566

567

TECHNICAL

)deunitnoc(leetSsselniatS—leetSyollAdnanobraC:ataDepiP

lanimoNeziSepiP)sehcnI(

edistuOretemaiD)sehcnI(

noitacifitnedIllaW

)t(ssenkcihT)sehcnI(

edisnI)d(retemaiD

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)tooF

thgieWretaW

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)a(erauqS()sehcnI

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eziSeludehcS

.oN

2/1-2 578.2

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

380.0021.0302.0

907.2536.2964.2

0827.0930.1407.1

467.5354.5887.4

20040.078730.022330.0

84.235.397.5

05.263.270.2

SX...SXX

08061...

S08......

972.0573.0255.0

323.2521.2177.1

452.2549.2820.4

832.4645.3464.2

24920.036420.001710.0

66.710.0196.31

78.145.170.1

3 005.3

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

380.0021.0612.0

433.3062.3860.3

0198.0472.1822.2

037.8743.8393.7

36060.069750.003150.0

30.333.485.7

87.326.302.3

SX...SXX

08061...

S08......

003.0834.0006.0

009.2426.2003.2

610.3502.4664.5

506.6804.5551.4

78540.055730.058820.0

52.0123.4185.81

68.253.208.1

2/1-3 000.4

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

380.0021.0622.0

438.3067.3845.3

120.1364.1086.2

545.11401.11

688.9

71080.011770.007860.0

84.379.411.9

00.518.492.4

SX 08 S08 813.0 463.3 876.3 888.8 07160.0 05.21 48.3

4 005.4

...

...DTS

...

...04

S5S01S04

380.0021.0732.0

433.4062.4620.4

251.1156.1471.3

57.4152.4137.21

54201.089890.004880.0

29.316.597.01

93.681.605.5

SX......SXX

08021061...

S08.........

733.0834.0135.0476.0

628.3426.3834.3251.3

704.4595.5126.6101.8

05.1113.01

82.908.7

68970.06170.05460.02450.0

89.4100.9115.2245.72

89.474.420.483.3

5 365.5

...

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...

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901.0431.0852.0

543.5592.5740.5

868.1582.2003.4

44.2220.2210.02

8551.09251.00931.0

63.677.726.41

27.945.976.8

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573.0005.0526.0057.0

318.4365.4313.4360.4

211.6359.7696.9043.11

91.8153.6116.4179.21

3621.06311.05101.01090.0

87.0240.7269.2355.83

88.790.733.616.5

6 526.6

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704.6753.6560.6

132.2337.2185.5

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9322.04022.06002.0

06.792.979.81

79.3157.3115.21

SX......SXX

08021061...

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234.0265.0917.0468.0

167.5105.578105798.4

504.807.0123.3146.51

70.6277.3251.1248.81

0181.00561.09641.08031.0

75.8293.6353.5461.35

92.1103.01

61.961.8

9 526.8

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60.4216.3274.2271.2207.12

...SX.........SXX...

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604.0005.0495.0917.0218.0578.0609.0

318.7526.7734.7781.7100.7578.6318.6

84.0167.2169.4148.7139.9103.1279.12

49.7466.5464.3495.0405.8321.7364.63

9233.01713.08103.09182.03762.08752.02352.0

46.5393.3459.0517.0667.7624.2796.47

77.0287.9138.8195.7186.6101.6108.51

01 057.01

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...

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284.01024.01052.01631.01020.01

63.494.542.870.0109.11

92.6882.5825.2896.0868.87

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91.5156.8140.8242.4384.04

93.7359.6367.5369.4302.43

SX.........SXX...

0608001021041061

S08...............

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66.4748.1731.8635.4631.0657.65

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53.2331.1335.9269.7260.6295.42

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.htgnelepipfotoofrepteefcibucniemulovtneserperosla"teeferauqs"nidetsilseulavaeralanretniesrevsnarT

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM567

568

TECHNICAL

snoisnemiDegnalFepiPnaciremA42.61BDNA,5.61B,1.61BISNAREP,SEHCNI--RETEMAIDEGNALFSSALCISNA

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88.552.600.705.826.9

88.552.600.705.826.9

52.652.700.852.905.01

34568

05.700.900.0100.1105.31

52.800.0100.1105.2100.51

52.857.0100.3100.4105.61

05.905.1157.3100.5105.81

05.0152.2157.4105.5100.91

00.2100.4105.6100.9157.12

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05.7105.0200.3205.5200.82

00.0200.2257.3200.7252.92

05.1200.4252.5257.7200.13

00.3205.6205.9205.2300.63

05.6200.03---------

024203632484

05.7200.2357.8300.6400.3505.95

05.0300.6300.3400.0500.7500.56

00.2300.73------------

57.3300.14------------

57.8300.64------------

------------------

.segnalfeznorb051ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni-21hguorhthcni-1seziS.1.segnalfeznorb003ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni-8hguorhthcni-1seziS.2

snoisnemiDegnalFepiPnaciremA,SEHCNINIRETEMAIDELOHDNASTLOBDUTSFOREBMUN,SSALCISNA

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4242------------

26.188.1------------

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00.205.2------------

6161------------

00.305.3------------

------------------

------------------

.segnalfeznorb051ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni-21hguorhthcni-1seziS.1.segnalfeznorb003ssalCISNAotylppaoslahcni-8hguorhthcni-1seziS.2

DIN Cast Steel Flange Standard—Nenndruck 25(Nominal Pressure 25 Bar)

NOMINALBORE,

mm

PIPETHICKNESS,

mm

FLANGE, mm BOLTING, mm

OutsideDiameter

ThicknessBolt

CircleDiameter

Numberof Bolts

ThreadBolt HoleDiameter

1015202532

66

6,577

9095105115140

1616181818

60657585100

44444

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1112121214

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220250280310370

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M24M24M24M24M27

2727272730

300350400500600

1516182123

485555620730845

3438404446

430490550660770

1616162020

M27M30M33M33M36

3033363639

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2426272932

9601085118513201530

5054586270

875990109012101420

2424282832

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4248485656

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM568

569

TECHNICAL

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DIN Cast Steel Flange Standard–Nenndruck 40(Nominal Pressure 40 Bar)

NOMINALBORE,

mm

PIPETHICKNESS,

mm

FLANGE, mm BOLTING, mm

OutsideDiameter

ThicknessBolt CircleDiameter

Numberof Bolts

ThreadBolt HoleDiameter

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66

6,577

9095105115140

1616181818

60657585100

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7,58

8,5910

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1818181823

125150175200250

1112131416

270300350375450

2628323438

220250295320385

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18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:52 AM569

570

TECHNICAL

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8390.05390.00980.00680.00280.0

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4/3 61/51 4 61/3-4

1 23/5-1 5 61/5-5

4/1-1 2/1-1 6 61/5-6

18techconv.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:28 AM570

571

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

AAbsolute Pressure (abs press) - Gauge pressure plus barometric pressure. Absolute pressure can be zero only in a perfectvacuum.

Absolute Viscosity (abs visc) - The product of a fluid’s kinematic viscosity times its density. Absolute viscosity is a measure ofa fluid’s tendency to resist flow, without regard to its density. Sometimes the term dynamic viscosity is used in place of absoluteviscosity.

Accuracy - A measure of how close a regulator can keep downstream pressure (P2) to the setpoint. Regulator accuracy isexpressed as percent droop or proportional band or offset in percent of setpoint or in units of pressure.

ACFH - Actual Cubic Feet per Hour. The actual volume of fluid measured by the meter. This is not SCHF (standard cubic feetper hour).

Active/Working Regulator - A regulator that is in service performing a control function.

Adjusting Screw - A screw used to affect the compression setting of a loading spring.

AGA - The American Gas Association or Australian Gas Association.

Airsets - See Filter/Supply Regulators.

ALPGA - Australian Liquefied Petroleum Gas Association, Ltd.

ANSI - American National Standards Institute.

API - American Petroleum Institute.

Appliance (Equipment) - Any device that uses gas as a fuel or raw material to produce light, heat, power, refrigeration, or airconditioning.

ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Aspirator - Any device using fluid velocity effect to produce a low-pressure zone. Used in regulator control and combustionsystems.

Atmospheric Pressure - The pressure exerted by the atmosphere at a given location and time. Sea level pressure is approximately14.7 pounds per square inch absolute (1.0 bar absolute.

Automatic Control System - A control system that operates without human intervention.

Automatic Cutoff - A device used on some regulators to close the main valve in the event of pressure deviation outside of apreset range. Must be reopened manually.

BBackpressure Regulator - This is a device that controls and responds to changes in its upstream/inlet pressure. Functions thesame as a relief valve in that it opens on increasing upstream pressure.

Barometer - An instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure, usually in inches, centimeters, or millimeters of mercurycolumn.

Barometric Pressure - The atmospheric pressure at a specific place according to the current reading of a barometer.

Bellows - A flexible, thin-walled cylinder made up of corrugations one next to the other that can expand or contract underchanging pressures.

Bimetallic Thermal System - A device working on the difference in coefficient of expansion between two metals to produce thepower to position a valve plug in response to temperature change.

19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM571

Glossary of Terms

572

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Bleed - Removal of fluid from a higher pressure area to a lower pressure area in a regulator pilot system.

Bode Diagram - A plot of log amplitude ratio and phase values on a log frequency base for a transfer function. (It is a commonform of graphically presenting frequency response data.)

Body - Pressure retaining shell enclosing the restricting element.

Boiler - A closed vessel in which a liquid is heated or vaporized.

Bonnet - The regulator component that connects the valve body to the actuator.

Boost - The increase in control pressure above setpoint as flow is increased from low flow to maximum flow. Some regulatorsexhibit droop instead of boost.

British Thermal Unit (Btu) - The quantity of heat required to raise one pound of water from 59°F to 60°F.

Buildup - In a relief valve, the pressure increase above setpoint required to produce a given flow rate.

BSPT - British Standard Pipe Thread.

CC1 - A term used in a sizing equation. It is defined as the ratio of the gas sizing coefficient and the liquid sizing coefficient andprovides a numerical indicator of the valve’s recovery capabilities.

Cage - A hollow, cylindrical trim element that is a guide to align the movement of a valve plug with a seat ring and/or retainsthe seat ring in the valve body. The walls of the cage contain openings that usually determine the flow characteristic of thecontrol valve.

Capacity, Flow - The amount of a specified fluid that will flow through a valve, specific length and configuration of tubing, amanifold, fitting, or other component at a specified pressure drop in a fixed period of time. (scfh, gpm, m /h(n), lpm, pph)

Capacity, Rated - The rate of flow through the regulator specified by the manufacturer for a given inlet pressure, outletpressure, offset, and size.

Capacity, Wide-Open - If a wide-open failure occurs, this is the amount a regulator will flow.

Cavitation - A phenomenon whereby liquid flowing through a valve under reduced pressure will form gaseous bubbles that willcollapse upon pressure recovery, producing potential trim damage. This is a concern when high-pressure drops exist across thevalve.

Centipoise - A unit for measurement of absolute viscosity. One centipoise is equal to one hundredth of a poise, the metric (cgs)unit of absolute viscosity. The absolute viscosity of water at 20°C is approximately one centipoise.

Centistoke - A unit for measurement of kinematic viscosity. One centistoke is equal to one hundredth of a stoke, the metric (cgs)unit of kinematic viscosity. The kinematic viscosity in centistokes times the density equals the absolute viscosity in centipoises.

CFH - Cubic Feet per Hour (ft3/h). Volumetric measurement of gas flow per hour, generally at line conditions.

Cg (Flow Coefficient) - A term used in gas and steam valve sizing equations. The value of Cg is proportional to flow rate and isused to predict flow based on physical size or flow area.

CGA - Canadian Gas Association.

Coal/Coke Oven Gas - A gas with a high sulfur content that is produced from baking coal. It may also contain tar that cancause sticking in moving parts of a regulator. Regulators with brass or copper parts should not be used with this gas. Often thisgas requires the use of fluoroelastomers.

Compressibility Effect - The change in density of gas or air under conditions of compression.

Compression (Spring) - The action on a spring which decreases its length relative to the force to which it is subjected.

19TechGloss.pmd 2/14/2005, 8:24 AM572

573

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Condensate - The liquid resulting when a vapor is cooled and/or when its pressure is increased.

Control Line - The external piping which connects the regulator actuator or pilot to the point on the main line where controlis required.

Control Valve - A mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically operated valve, using an external power source to effect itsoperation, that modifies the fluid flow characteristics in a process. It consists of a valve connected to an actuator mechanismthat is capable of changing the position of the flow controlling element or closure member in the valve in response to a signalfrom the controlling device.

Controller - A device that operates automatically to regulate a controlled variable.

Critical Flow - The rate at which a fluid flows through an orifice when the stream velocity at the orifice is equal to the velocityof sound in the fluid. Under such conditions, the rate of flow may be increased by an increase in upstream pressure, but it willnot be affected by a decrease in downstream pressure. Critical flow occurs when P2 is approximately 1/2 of P1 absolute.

Critical Velocity - The velocity at critical flow. Also called sonic velocity.

CSA - Canadian Standards Association.

Cs (Flow Coefficient) - Steam valve sizing coefficient. At pressures below 1000 psig, a constant relationship exists between thegas sizing coefficient (Cg) and the steam coefficient (Cs). This relationship is expressed: Cs = Cg ÷ 20.

Cv (Flow Coefficient) - Liquid sizing coefficient. It is numerically equal to the number of U.S. Gallons of water at 60°F thatwill flow through the valve in one minute when the pressure differential across the valve is one pound per square inch.

DDead Band - The range through which an input can be varied without initiating observable response.

Delta P (DP) (∆∆∆∆∆P) (Pressure Drop) - The difference between the inlet and outlet pressures.

Demand - The rate at which fluid is delivered to or required by a system, part of a system, or a piece of equipment, usuallyexpressed in terms of volume per unit of time.

Density - The weight of a unit volume of a substance. Also called specific weight.

Diaphragm - A flexible membrane used in a regulator or relief valve to sense changes in downstream pressure and respond tothem, thus moving the restricting element or closure member to which it is attached.

Diaphragm Actuated Regulator - A regulator utilizing a diaphragm and actuator to position the valve plug.

Diaphragm Case - A housing used for supporting a diaphragm and establishing one or two pressure chambers.

Diaphragm Effect - The change in effective area of the diaphragm as the regulator strokes from low to high flow.

Diaphragm Plate - A plate used to transmit force in conjunction with a diaphragm and fluid pressure on a spring to the actuatorstem or pusher post.

Differential Pressure - The difference in pressure between two points in a system.

Differential Pressure Regulator - A device that maintains a constant differential pressure between a reference pressure and thepressure of the controlled fluid.

Digester Gas - A gas produced by sewage treatment plants. This gas is used to power burners and engines. Due to its highmethane content, stainless steel construction may be required.

Disk - A movable part that is positioned in the flow path to modify the rate of flow through the valve. It is often made of anelastomer material to improve shutoff capability.

Downstream - Any site beyond a reference point (often a valve or regulator) in the direction of fluid flow.

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Drift - A change in setpoint over an extended period of time.

Droop - The amount a regulator deviates below its setpoint as flow increases. Some regulators exhibit boost instead of droop.

DVGW - Deutscher Verein des Gas - und Wasserfaches e.v.(German approval agency).

Dynamic Unbalance - The force exerted on a valve plug when fluid is flowing through the valve.

EEffective Area - In a diaphragm actuator, the part of the diaphragm area that generates operating force. The effective area isless than the total area. (The effective area of a diaphragm may change as it is stroked, usually being a maximum at the startand a minimum at the end of the travel range. Molded diaphragms have less change in effective area than flat-sheet diaphragms.)

End Connection - The style of joint used to make a pressure tight connection between the valve body and the pipeline.

Entropy - A thermodynamic quantity that measures the fraction of the total energy of a system that is not available for doingwork.

Enthalpy - Total heat content, expressed in BTU per pound, above an arbitrary set of conditions chosen as the base or zeropoint.

External Pressure Registration - A regulator with a control line. The actuator pressure is isolated from the body outlet pressurewithin the regulator.

External Static Line - The same as control line.

FFace-to-Face Dimension - The dimension from the face of the inlet opening to the face of the outlet opening of the regulator.

Fail-Closed - In the event of a regulator failure, a condition wherein the valve port remains closed. All regulators can fail openor closed.

Fail-Open - In the event of a regulator failure, a condition wherein the valve port remains open. All regulators can fail openor closed.

Filter/Supply Regulators - Pressure reducing regulators used in air service to simultaneously filter and reduce pressure. Usedto supply process control instruments pneumatic power. Also called airsets.

First Stage Regulator - A regulator used to reduce inlet pressure to a set value being fed to another regulator in series.

Fixed Factor Measurement - The measurement of gas at a controlled elevated pressure without the use of an automaticcorrecting device to correct the volume for variation from base or contract pressure. This is accomplished by placing anaccurate regulator upstream of the meter. Also known as PFM (Pressure Factor Measurement).

Fixed Restriction - A small diameter hole in the pilot or piloting system that determines gain.

Flange - End connections of regulator valve bodies used for bolting onto another fitting or pipe element.

Flange Facing - The finish on the end connection of valves.

Flashing - A condition when liquid changes to the vapor state caused by pressure reduction inside a valve.

Flow Capacity - The rated flow through a regulator under stated inlet, outlet, and droop pressures.

Flow Characteristic - Relationship between flow through the valve and percent rated travel.

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Flow Coefficient - See Cv, Cs, Cg, C1.

Flow Rate - The amount (mass, weight, or volume) of fluid flowing through a valve body per unit of time.

Fluid - Materials in a liquid, gas, or vapor state, as opposed to a solid.

Fuel Gas - A commonly distributed gas used for fuel, such as natural gas, propane, landfill gas, etc.

Full Capacity Relief - A relief valve that has the capability of maintaining downstream pressure to within certain limits inthe event of some type of failure, by venting the excess gas to the atmosphere.

GGage Pressure - (Psig or bar g) The difference between atmospheric pressure and the pressure being measured. Alsowritten gauge pressure.

Gas - That state of matter which expands to fill the entire container which holds it. Gas is one of the forms of matter (solid,liquid, and gas).

Gas Utilization Equipment - Any device which utilizes gas as a fuel or raw material, or both.

Gauge Pressure - Pressure reading as shown on a gauge (psig or bar g). The difference between atmospheric pressure andthe pressure the gauge is measuring. Also written gage pressure.

Gauge, Pressure - An instrument that measures the pressure of a fluid.

Governor - An attachment to a machine for automatic control or limitation of speed. Also, an archaic term used for a low-pressure, direct-operated, pressure reducing gas regulator.

HHard Facing - A material harder than the surface to which it is applied. Used to resist galling or fluid erosion.

Header - A piping configuration where a number of pipes are combined at one location.

Hunting - A condition in which a regulator’s outlet pressure slowly fluctuates on either side of a setpoint.

Hysteresis - A deviation from setpoint caused by friction and parts clearance.

IImpulse Line - See control line.

Inch of Water - A unit of pressure measurement. The pressure required to support a column of water one inch high.Typically reported as inches w.c. (water column); 27.68 inches of water is equal to one pound per square inch (psi).

Inlet Pressure - The pressure at the inlet opening of a valve (P1).

Inlet Pressure Sensitivity - The increase or decrease in the outlet pressure caused by changes in the inlet pressure whichresults in differing degrees of force being applied to the seat disk and diaphragm.

Internal Relief Valve - A small, spring-loaded pressure relief valve contained within the regulator at the center of thediaphragm to prevent outlet pressure from exceeding a predetermined pressure.

I/O - Input/Output -- Electrical inputs and electrical outputs.

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J - K - LKm - Value recovery coefficient - used in liquid sizing equations to determine ∆P allowable for cavitation.

Kinematic Viscosity (kin visc) - The relative tendency of fluids to resist flow. The value of the kinematic viscosity includes theeffect of the density of the fluid. The kinematic viscosity is equal to the absolute viscosity divided by the density.

LCD - Liquid crystal display; readout panel which displays alphanumeric sequences in digital format.

Landfill Gas - A gas produced by decaying organic matter in a garbage landfill. This gas is used to power burners and engines.This gas has a high methane content and may contain other gases; therefore, stainless steel construction is usually required.

Liquid Expansion Thermal System - A closed system containing liquid whose expansion and contraction in response totemperature changes provides the power to position a valve member.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - Butane, propane, or a mixture of the two, obtained from oil or gas wells, or as a by-productfrom the refining of gasoline. It is sold in metal bottles under pressure as a liquid; hence, sometimes called bottled gas.

Loading Element - In a regulator, the means for placing a measured amount of force against the regulator’s diaphragm. Theloading element is commonly a spring.

Loading Pressure - The pressure employed to position a pneumatic actuator. (This is the pressure that actually works on theactuator diaphragm or piston to change the position of the valve plug.)

Lockup Pressure - Increase over setpoint when the regulator is at no-flow condition.

MNm3/h - meters cubed per hour (normal); measurement of volume rate of a gas at atmospheric pressure and 0°C.

Sm3/h - meters cubed per hour (standard); measurement of volume rate of a gas at atmospheric pressure and 60°F.

Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure (MAOP) - The maximum pressure that the system may be operated at as determinedby its components, taking into account function and a factor of safety based on yield of parts or fracture.

Maximum Operating Pressure - The maximum pressure existing in a piping system during normal operation.

Measuring Element - A diaphragm that senses (measures) changes in downstream pressure and causes the regulator restrictingelement to move toward the open or closed position.

Minimum Controllable Flow - The lowest flow at which a steady regulated condition of the controlled variable can be maintained.

Modbus - Protocol used for communications between electronic devices developed by Gould Modicon.

N - ONACE - National Association of Corrosion Engineers

Natural Gas - A hydrocarbon gas consisting mainly of methane.

NPT - National Pipe Thread, a standard for tapered thread used on pipes and pipe fittings.

Offset - The deviation from setpoint for a given flow. Negative offset is equivalent to droop.

Operating Pressure - The actual pressure at which a device operates under normal conditions. This pressure may be positive ornegative with respect to atmospheric pressure.

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Orifice - A fixed opening, normally the inside diameter of a seat ring, through which fluid passes. The term can also refer tothe inlet or outlet of a regulator or pilot valve. Also called a port.

Outlet Pressure (Reduced Pressure) - The pressure leaving the outlet opening of a valve (P2).

Over-Pressure Cut-Off Device - A mechanical device incorporated in a gas pipework system to shut off the supply of gas whenthe pressure at the sensing point rises to a predetermined value.

PP1 - Inlet or upstream pressure.

P2 - Outlet or downstream pressure.

PFM (Pressure Factor Measurement) - The measurement of gas at a controlled elevated pressure without the use of anautomatic correcting device to correct the volume for variation from base or contract pressure. This is accomplished byplacing an accurate regulator upstream of the meter. Also known as Fixed Factor Measurement

PID - Proportional/Intergral/Derivative device. Usually used as a controller.

Pilot (Amplifier) - A relatively small controlling regulator that operates the main regulator. They are used to increaseaccuracy.

Piston Actuated Regulator - A regulator utilizing a piston rather than a diaphragm actuator.

Pitot Tube - A hollow tube that connects the area beneath the regulator diaphragm with the vena contracta area of gas flow.The pitot tube causes the diaphragm to sense a pressure lower than that which exists downstream of the regulator, and thusallows the regulator to open more for any given change in downstream pressure. The result is increased regulator accuracy.

PL - Loading pressure. Pressure of fluid on the main diaphragm that is controlled by a pilot regulator.

Plug - Piece that throttles against an orifice to increase and decrease flow.

Poise - A metric unit for measuring absolute viscosity. One poise equals one dynesecond per square centimeter, or one gram percentimeter second.

Port - A fixed opening, normally the inside diameter of a seat ring, through which fluid passes. The term can also refer to theinlet or outlet of a regulator or pilot valve. Also called an orifice.

Powder Paint Coating - A paint process that uses dry powder with no solvents for surface finish. Dry powder can be reused,thereby reducing waste and pollutants. The powder coating over a clean surface provides better corrosion resistance thanliquid coat.

Pressure - Force per unit area.

Pressure Buildup - In a relief valve, the pressure increase above setpoint required to produce a given flow rate.

Pressure Differential - The difference in pressure between two points in a system.

Pressure Drop - The difference between the inlet and outlet pressures.

Pressure Reducing Regulator - A valve that satisfies downstream demand while maintaining a constant reduced pressure. Asthe pressure decreases, the valve opens to increase flow.

Pressure Relief Valve - A valve that opens and closes to ensure that pressure does not rise above a predetermined value.

Propane - An easily liquefiable hydrocarbon gas. Propane is one of the components of raw natural gas, and it is also derivedfrom petroleum refining processes. Its chemical formula is C3H8.

Proportional Band (Amount of Deviation) - The amount a regulator deviates from setpoint as the flow increases from minimumto maximum. Also referred to as droop or offset.

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psia - pounds per square inch, absolute - The pressure above a perfect vacuum, calculated from the sum of the pressure gaugereading and the (local or ambient) atmospheric pressure (approximately 14.7).

psid - Pounds per square inch, differential.

psig - Pounds per square inch, gauge. The pressure above atmospheric pressure. Near sea level the atmospheric pressure isapproximately 14.7 pounds per square inch.

Q - RRange - The region between the limits within which a quantity is measured, received, or transmitted, expressed by stating thelower and upper range values (Example: 3 to 15 psi; –40 to +212°F+ –40 to +100°C).

Rangeability - The ratio of maximum rated capacity to the minimum controllable flow within the specified accuracy band.

Rate of Flow - The volume of material passing a given point in a system per unit of time.

Rated Working Pressure - The maximum allowable pressure specified by the manufacturer.

Reduced Pressure - The pressure leaving the outlet opening of a valve (P2). More commonly called outlet pressure.

Regulator, Direct-Operated - See Pressure Reducing Regulator.

Regulator, Pilot-Operated - Two regulators connected so that one increases the effect of downstream pressure changes on theother. This arrangement is used to provide increased accuracy and flow capacity compared to direct-operated regulators.

Relief Valve - See Pressure Relief Valve.

Relief Valve, Pilot-Operated - Two relief valves connected so that one increases the effect of inlet pressure changes on theother. This arrangement is used to provide increased capacity and reduced buildup compared to other relief valve types.

Relief Valve, Pop Type - A spring-loaded poppet type relief valve.

Repeatability - The closeness of agreement of a regulated value when returned to the same steady-state conditions afterupset(s).

Reseat Point - In a relief/backpressure valve which is opened by an increase in inlet pressure, the point where the valve closes.

Restricting Element - The element that restricts and controls fluid flow in a system. In a regulator this element is typically adisk and orifice combination, or plug and cage assembly.

RTD - Resistance Temperature Detector. A resistance device used to measure temperature.

RTU - Remote Terminal Unit or Remote Telemetry Unit.

SSaybolt Furol - A scale used for measuring the viscosity of heavy oils. The instrument has a larger orifice and is used at ahigher temperature than the Saybolt Universal instrument used for lighter oils.

Saybolt Universal - A scale used for measuring the viscosity of oil, expressed in seconds required for a specified amount of oilto flow through an orifice; hence, the larger the number of seconds, Saybolt Universal (SSU), the more viscous the oil.

SCFH - Standard cubic feet per hour. Volumetric gas measurement of flow per hour at standard or at base conditions.

Seat - The portion of the seat ring or valve body which a closure member contacts for shutoff.

Seat Leakage - Flow of fluid past a seat or seal when in the closed position.

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Seat Ring - A separate piece inserted in a valve body to form a valve body port. It generally provides a seating surface for a plugor disk.

Self-Contained Regulator - Pressure control device that is powered by the process media pressure and does not require outsideenergy.

Setpoint - The pressure at which the regulator or relief valve is set to control.

Set Pressure Range - The range of pressures, specified by the manufacturer, within which the device can be adjusted.

Soft Seat - An elastomeric, plastic, or other readily deformable material used either in the valve plug or seat ring to provide tightshutoff with minimal force.

Sonic Velocity - The speed of sound for a particular gas at a given inlet pressure and temperature.

Sour Gas - Gaseous fuel that contains a relatively large proportion of sulfur or sulfur compounds. See the discussion on SulfideStress Cracking in the Technical Section.

Specific Gravity - The ratio of weight of a given volume of fluid to the weight of an equal volume of liquid/gas at statedtemperature.

Speed of Response (Stroking Speed) - The amount of time it takes the valve plug or disk to travel from completely closed tocompletely open (0 to 100%).

Spring - Part used as the loading element in a regulator. Length is adjusted to establish setpoint.

Spring Adjustment Screw - A screw used to compress the spring to establish the regulator setpoint.

Spring Rate (K) - Spring rate is defined by the amount of force required to compress a spring a given distance. Spring rate isgiven in force/length (for example, lbf/in).

Stability - The ability to hold a steady controlled variable within the limits of stated accuracy of regulation.

Standard Atmosphere - The accepted normal atmospheric pressure at sea level, equal to 14.696 pounds per square inch.

Standard Barometer - The reading of a barometer for standard atmospheric pressure; equal to 29.92 inches of mercury column.

Standard Gravity - Standard accepted value for the force of gravity. It is equal to the force which will produce an accelerationof 32.17 feet per second per second.

Standard Pressure - The same as standard atmosphere; equal to a pressure of 14.696 pounds per square inch.

Static Line - See Control Line.

Static Pressure - The pressure in a fluid at rest.

Static Unbalance - The force exerted on a valve plug due to fluid pressure in the non-flowing condition.

Stoke - The cgs unit of kinematic viscosity. One stoke equals one centimeter squared per second.

Supercompressibility - Many gases are more compressible under high pressure at ordinary temperatures than indicated byBoyle’s Law. These gases, measured at the high pressures, will occupy a greater volume when the pressure is reduced to nearatmospheric pressure.

T - UTherm - 100,000 Btu.

Thermostat - A device that automatically maintains a predetermined temperature in an appliance or component.

Travel - The amount of linear movement of the valve closure member from the closed position to the rated full-open position.

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Travel Indicator - An external, visible device used to indicate the travel of the valve plug.

Trim - The replaceable internal parts of a regulator, usually made up of a seat ring or orifice, valve plug or disk and disk holder,and stem; other replaceable internal parts may be considered trim.

Under-Pressure Cut-Off Device - A mechanical device incorporated in a gas pipework system to shut off the supply of gas whenthe pressure at the sensing point falls to a predetermined figure.

V - WVacuum Breaker - A valve used to limit an increase in vacuum. An increase in vacuum (decrease in absolute pressure) beyonda certain value registers on the diaphragm. The valve disk will open permitting atmospheric, positive pressure, or an upstreamvacuum that has a higher absolute pressure than the downstream vacuum, to enter the system and restore to setpoint.

Vacuum Regulator - A device that maintains a vacuum at a setpoint. A decrease in this vacuum (increase in absolute pressure)beyond this value registers underneath the diaphragm and opens the valve. This permits the downstream vacuum of lowerabsolute pressure than the upstream vacuum to restore the upstream vacuum to its original pressure setting.

Valve - A device used for the control of fluid. It consists of a fluid retaining assembly, one or more parts between end openings,and a movable closure member which opens, restricts, or closes the port(s).

Valve Body - A pressure retaining housing for internal parts having inlet and outlet flow connections.

Valve Closure Member - The movable part which is positioned in the flow path to modify the rate of flow through the valve, oftenmade of an elastomer material to improve shutoff.

Valve Linkage - A lever or levers connecting the diaphragm to the valve plug or valve plug stem.

Valve Plug - A movable part which provides a variable restriction in a port.

Valve, Needle - A small, adjustable valve in which the position of a pointed plug or needle relative to an orifice or tapered orificepermits or restricts fluid flow.

Valve, Isolation - Simple valves located in the piping system used to isolate individual equipment. They are designed to beoperable by hand and installed to be readily accessible to the consumer.

VDC - Volts direct current.

Vena Contracta - The location where cross-sectional area of the flow stream is at its minimum size, where fluid velocity is at itshighest level, and fluid pressure is at its lowest level. (The vena contracta normally occurs just downstream of the actualphysical restriction in a regulator.)

Vent - An opening in the regulator spring case to allow atmospheric pressure access to the diaphragm, thus allowing freemovement of the diaphragm during operation.

Viscosity - The tendency of a fluid to resist flow.

Viscosity, Absolute - The product of a fluid’s kinematic viscosity times its density. Absolute viscosity is a measure of a fluid’stendency to resist flow, without regard to its density. Sometimes the term dynamic viscosity is used in place of absoluteviscosity.

Viscosity, Kinematic - The relative tendency of fluids to resist flow. The value of the kinematic viscosity includes the effect ofthe density of the fluid. The kinematic viscosity is equal to the absolute viscosity divided by the density.

Viscosity, SAE Number - The Society of Automotive Engineers’ arbitrary numbers for classifying fluids according to theirviscosities. The numbers in no way indicate the viscosity index of fluids.

Viscosity, SUS (or SSU) - Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS), which is the time in seconds for 60 milliliters of oil to flow througha standard orifice at a given temperature (ASTM Designation D88.56).

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Volume Corrected - The volume metered times metering pressure plus atmospheric pressure/base pressure equals volumecorrected.

Water Column - A unit of measurement. The pressure required to support a column of water one inch high. Typically reportedas inches w.c. (water column); 27.68 inches of water is equal to one pound per square inch (psi).

Weight, Specific - The weight per unit volume of a substance. The same as density.

X - Y - ZYoke - A structure by which the diaphragm case or cylinder assembly is supported rigidly on the bonnet assembly.

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