team development and leadership module5
TRANSCRIPT
Leadership
When people can see which direction the leaders are going in it becomes easier to
motivate them – (Lakshmi Mittal)
Introduction :
Leadership is the art of influencing people so that they will strive willingly
and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals. Leadership is an important
aspect of managing people. People tend to follow those who, in their view, offer them a
means of satisfying their own personal goals. The more managers understand what
motivates their subordinates and how these motivations operate and the more they reflect
this understanding in their managerial actions, the more effective they are likely to be as
leaders.
Definition & Meaning of Leadership :
“Leadership is the process of influencing the behavior of others in the direction of a goal
or set of goals or more broadly, toward a vision of the future” – (Wendell French)
“The art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and
enthusiastically toward the achievement of group goals” – (Harold Koontz and Heinz
Weihrich)
In other words, leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek
defined objectives enthusiastically. It is the human factor, which binds a group together
and motivates it towards goals. Leaders act to help a group attain objectives through the
maximum application of its capabilities.
“If leadership is an art, then surely Jack Welch has proved himself a master painter”-
(Jack Welch)
Jack Welch was the CEO and Chairman of General Electric for over 20
years. During that time he pioneered many critical business initiatives (such as
downsizing and six sigma) that have become standard practice for big business in the 21st
century. His opinion about leadership is:
Change before it's too late!
For Welch, business leaders who treat change as an enemy will fail. They need
to be aware that the very survival of their corporation rests with their ability to change
this is the reality they are working in and to prepare their workers for change. The faster
this can be accomplished the better.
Get out of the way!
Managers need to manage less. Once the vision is established, the right resources
are in place and confidence is on a crest of a wave, managers need to get out of the way
and let the workers get on with it. For Welch leadership is about Vision not
supervision. The Leaders should set a general framework for their team, the vision
should be congruent with the overall goals of the organisation but they should avoid too
detailed (and therefore restrictive) plans this can stifle the ability to change. Trying to
keep tabs on detailed plans is not the best use of time Control slows you down! If an
employee can't live up to the values - get rid of them.
Downsize before it's too late!
Welch's leadership will be forever linked to "downsizing" due to his ruthless
culling of employees and managerial layers. This all started in the early 80s just as US
firms came under tougher competition from the Far East. In fact GE was doing well but
that didn't stop Welch downsizing before it was too late. He was incredibly controversial
back then. But for Welch business leadership wasn't a popularity contest - he did what he
believed was right for the long term health of his company.
Look outside!
Welch developed the reputation for incredible and audacious acquisitions.
Searching for the very best ideas, wherever they come from (including globally), was
a key element of Welch's leadership. Creativity and idea-sharing sessions between
departments and businesses was seen as essential. Speed, Simplicity and Self-
Confidence. The 3 S's built the whole organisation. A simple vision, speedily
implemented by self - confident managers and employees. In a way it was like
creating a small-company feel within a giant multi-national. Welch compared his
company frequently to a small corner grocer's shop. Everyone knew their customer (or
should do), communications within the organisation were simple and everyone was
involved. This turned ordinary workers into productive, passionate "owners" of their part
of the business. Welch put in place feedback models so that everyone could effectively
have their say - any manger who could not deal with his team candidly having their say
was waved bye-bye to! Any practice that no longer made sense was also waved bye-bye
to.
Stretch!
Welch believed in setting goals that stretched employees to the absolute
maximum right on the brink of impossible. This got the best from his people. This
leadership concept of stretching targets is illustrated by GE's embracing of the six Sigma
standards (that is only 3.4 defects per million outputs from a process). At the start of this
programme GE had about 35,000 defects per million, in other words they needed to get
about 10,000 times better! This process had taken quality obsessed Motorola 10 years to
achieve. Welch set the target at 5 years.
Examples of Leadership in Business:
In the 1980s Harley-Davidson was almost knocked out of business by
competition from other firms. To survive, it needed to change dramatically. Rich
Teerlink, the company’s leader, was able to save the firm financially, but with the
pressure off, the challenge of continuing to improve seemed even more daunting.
Could Teerlink get his managers and employees to make the significant, and too many of
them inconvenient, changes necessary?
He did it by building a different company, one driven from the bottom
up by employees rather than from the top down by managers. It’s a story of
successes and failures, advances and setbacks, dead ends and breakthroughs, ending in a
much stronger company than before.
Leadership Vs. Management
"Leaders manage and managers lead, but the two activities are not
synonymous. Management functions can potentially provide leadership; leadership
activities can contribute to managing. Nevertheless, some managers do not lead, and
some leaders do not manage".
Warren Bennis popular writer of leadership resources and business professor at the
University of Southern California shares the same view. "There is a profound difference
between management and leadership, and both are important. To manage means to bring
about, to accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, and to conduct. Leading is
influencing, guiding in a direction, course, action, opinion. The distinction is crucial".
One of Bennis’ most quoted phrases is, "Managers are people who do things right and
leaders are people who do the right thing".
Difference between Manager and Leader :
The manager administers; the leader innovates.
The manager maintains; the leader develops.
The manager accepts reality; the leader investigates it.
The manager focuses on systems and structures; the leader focuses on people.
The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust.
The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective.
The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why.
The manager has his or her eye always on the bottom line; the leader has his or her
eye on the horizon.
The manager imitates; the leader originates.
The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it.
The manager is the classic good soldier; the leader is his or her own person.
Leadership and management are both important, but they seek to do
different things. About 40 years ago Kurt Lewin put it this way. Every organization
structures itself to accomplish its goals in a way that is in tune with or responsive to its
environment. Often because of a "management orientation" which is focused more on
"looking in" instead of "looking out". Times like this require organizations to think more
in terms of leadership. Leaders begin to ask questions like, "What is really going on here?
How do we become relevant again? How do we fulfill our goals in these new times?
What will prompt people to think that what we do is meaningful?" Leaders seek to bring
their organization more in line with the realities of their environment, which often
necessitates changing the very structures, resources and relationships of their
organization which they have worked so long and so hard to manage.
Leadership is an important function of management which helps to maximize
efficiency and to achieve organizational goals. The following points justify the
Significance of leadership in a concern.
Few things are more important to human activity than leadership. Effective
leadership helps our nation through times of peril. It makes a business organization
successful. It enables a not-for-profit organization to fulfill its mission. The effective
leadership of parents enables children to grow strong and healthy and become productive
adults. The absence of leadership is equally dramatic in its effects. Without leadership,
organizations move too slowly, stagnate, and lose their way. Much of the literature about
organizations stresses decision-making and implies that if decision-making is timely,
complete, and correct, then things will go well. Yet a decision by itself changes nothing.
After a decision is made, an organization faces the problem of implementation how to get
things done in a timely and effective way.
Initiates action - Leader is a person who starts the work by communicating the
policies and plans to the subordinates from where the work actually starts.
Motivation - A leader proves to be playing an incentive role in the concern’s
working. He motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards
and thereby gets the work from the subordinates.
Providing guidance - A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding
role for the subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the
way they have to perform their work effectively and efficiently.
Creating confidence - Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved
through expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly
their role and giving them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively. It is also
important to hear the employees with regards to their complaints and problems.
Building morale - Morale denotes willing co-operation of the employees towards
their work and getting them into confidence and winning their trust. A leader can
be a morale booster by achieving full co-operation so that they perform with best
of their abilities as they work to achieve goals.
Builds work environment - Management is getting things done from people. An
efficient work environment helps in sound and stable growth. Therefore, human
relations should be kept into mind by a leader. He should have personal contacts
with employees and should listen to their problems and solve them. He should
treat employees on humanitarian terms.
Co-ordination - Co-ordination can be achieved through reconciling personal
interests with organizational goals. This synchronization can be achieved through
proper and effective co-ordination which should be primary motive of a leader.
Leadership Roles:
Leading is a complex activity, so it is not surprising that mintzberg and other researchers
identified nine roles that can be classified as part of the leadership function of the
management.
1. Figurehead: Leaders, particularly high- ranking managers, spend some part pf
their time engaging in ceremonial activities, or acting as a figurehead. Four
specific behaviors fit the figurehead role of a leader:
Entertaining clients or customers as an official representative of the
organization.
Making oneself available to outsiders as a representative of the
organization.
Serving as an official representative of the organization at gatherings
outside the organization.
Escorting official visitors.
2. Spokesperson: When a manager acts as a spokesperson, the emphasis is on
answering letters or inquiries and formally reporting to individuals and groups
outside the manager’s direct organizational unit. As a spokesperson, the
managerial leader keeps five groups of people informed about the unit’s activities,
plans, capabilities, and possibilities (vision).
Upper- level management
Clients or customers
Other important outsiders such as labor unions
Professional colleagues
The general public
Dealing with outside groups and the general public is usually the responsibility of
top- level managers.
3. Negotiator: Part of almost any manager’s job description is trying to make deals
with others for needed resources. Researches have identified three specific
negotiating activities:
Bargaining with other units in the organization for the use of staff,
facilities, equipment, or other forms of support.
Bargaining with superiors for funds, facilities, equipment, or other forms
of support.
Bargaining with suppliers and vendors for services, schedules, and
delivery times.
4. Coach and Motivator: An effective leader takes the time to coach and motivate
team members. This role includes four specific behaviors:
Informally recognizing team members’ achievements
Providing team members with feedback concerning ineffective
performance.
Ensuring that team members are informed of steps that can improve their
performance.
5. Team Builder: A key aspect of a leader’s role is to build an effective team.
Activities contributing to this role include:
Ensuring that team members are recognized for their accomplishments,
such as through letters of appreciation.
Initiating activities that contribute to group morale, such as giving parties
and sponsoring sports teams.
Holding periodic staff meetings to encourage team members to talk about
their accomplishments, problems, and concerns.
6. Team Player: Related to the team- builder role is that of the team player. Three
behaviors of team players are:
Displaying appropriate personal conduct
Cooperating with other units in the organization
Displaying loyalty to superiors by supporting their plans and decisions
fully.
7. Technical Problem Solver: It is particularly important for supervisors and
middle managers to help team members solve technical problems. Two activities
contributing to this role are:
Serving as a technical expert or adviser
Performing individual contributor tasks on a regular basis, such as making
sales calls or repairing machinery.
8. Entrepreneur: Although not self-employed, managers who work in large
organizations have some responsibility for suggesting innovative ideas or
furthering the business aspects of the firm. Three entrepreneurial leadership role
activities are:
Reading trade publications and professional journals to keep up with what
is happening in the industry and profession.
Talking with customers or others in the organization to keep aware of
changing needs and requirements.
Getting involved in situations outside the unit that could suggest ways of
improving the unit’s performance, such as visiting other firms, attending
professional meetings or trade shows, and participating in educational
programs.
9. Strategic Planner: Top- level managers engage in strategic planning, usually
assisted by input from others throughout the organization. Carrying out the
strategic- planner role enables the manager to practice strategic leadership.
Specific activities involved in this role include:
Setting a vision and direction for the organization
Helping the firm deal with the external environment
Helping develop organizational policies.
10. Change Master: While many people will find that they can perform one or two
of the agent roles with ease, a change master would be able to perform all the
change roles.
The ideal change master would have the following qualities:
Common sense. And the courage to use it.
Credibility and trust - the ability to work at all levels in the organization.
A wide range of business knowledge - preferably someone with experience in 3-4
different areas, or an MBA, or a general management experience.
Knowledge of change management.
The ability to work with teams of people both inside and outside the organization.
This includes the ability to work with people across all departments.
The ability to do much unstructured work.
Creativity: The ability custom design processes to meet the goals of the
organisation.
Self confidence balanced by humility.
Facilitation skills
Design skills.
Coaching skills.
A love of innovation and new ways of doing things.
A sense of humour and a sense of fun.
A spirit of caring.
The ability to inspire people. To bring out the magic within every individual and
every team.
Major Leadership Theories
Definition:
“The process in which a leader influences the thoughts and actions of others towards a mutual goal"
Interest in leadership increased during the early part of the twentieth century. Early leadership theories focused on what qualities distinguished between leaders and followers, while subsequent theories looked at other variables such as situational factors and skill level. While many different leadership theories have emerged, most can be classified as one of eight major types:
Great Man Theories
Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term 'man' was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories
Trait Theories
The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life
Behaviorist Theories
These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behavior are observed and categorized as 'styles of leadership'. This area has probably attracted most attention from practicing managers
Situational Leadership
This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, whilst some situations may require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organization
Contingency Theory
This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances
Transactional Theory
This approach emphasizes the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of 'contract' through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers
Transformational Theory
The central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organizational performance
1. “ Great Man” Theories:
Assumptions
Leaders are born and not made. Great leaders will arise when there is a great need.
Description
Early research on leadership was based on the study of people who were already great leaders. These people were often from the aristocracy, as few from lower classes had the opportunity to lead. This contributed to the notion that leadership had something to do with breeding.
The idea of the Great Man also strayed into the mythic domain, with notions that in times of need, a Great Man would arise, almost by magic. This was easy to verify, by pointing to people such as Eisenhower and Churchill, let alone those further back along the timeline, even to Jesus, Moses, Mohammed and the Buddha.
Discussion
Gender issues were not on the table when the 'Great Man' theory was proposed. Most leaders were male and the thought of a Great Woman was generally in areas other than leadership. Most researchers were also male, and concerns about androcentric bias were a long way from being realized.
2. Trait Theories: The trait theory is based on the Greatman theory, but it is more systematic in its analysis. This theory assumes that the leaders personal traits are the key to leadership.
Assumptions
People are born with inherited traits. Some traits are particularly suited to leadership.
People who make good leaders have the right (or sufficient) combination of traits.
Description
Early research on leadership was based on the psychological focus of the day, which was of people having inherited characteristics or traits. Attention was thus put on discovering these traits, often by studying successful leaders, but with the underlying assumption that if other people could also be found with these traits, then they, too, could also become great leaders.
Stogdill (1974) identified the following traits and skills as critical to leaders.
Traits Skills
Adaptable to situations Alert to social environment Ambitious and
achievement-orientated Assertive Cooperative Decisive Dependable Dominant (desire to
influence others) Energetic (high activity
level) Persistent Self-confident Tolerant of stress
Willing to assume responsibility
Clever (intelligent) Conceptually skilled Creative Diplomatic and tactful Fluent in speaking Knowledgeable about
group task Organized (administrative
ability) Persuasive Socially skilled
Keith Davis has pulled together the following four traits that are shared by most successful leaders
1. Intelligent: Leaders tend to have somewhat higher intelligent than the followers.2. Social maturity and breadth: leaders tend to be emotionally matured and have
broad interest range.3. Inner motivation and achievement drive: Leader wants to achieve things, when
they achieve one thing, they seek out another.4. Human relations attitudes: Leaders develop a healthy respect for people and,
realize that to accomplish tasks, they be considerate of others.
Discussion
There have been many different studies of leadership traits and they agree only in the general saintly qualities needed to be a leader. For a long period, inherited traits were sidelined as learned and situational factors were considered to be far more realistic as reasons for people acquiring leadership positions.
Paradoxically, the research into twins who were separated at birth along with new sciences such as Behavioral Genetics have shown that far more is inherited than was previously supposed. Perhaps one day they will find a 'leadership gene'.
Criticism1. Over hundred personality attributes of successful leaders have been indentified,
no consistent pattern is found.2. There is no universal lists of traits for successful leaders3. Leaders cannot be markedly different from their followers.4. It is difficult to measure traits5. It is difficult to define traits6. How much of a traits a person should have, remains a puzzling question.7. Effective leadership is not a function of traits alone.8. Leadership skill vary according o he type of work a person performs in the
organization.
3. Contingency Theories: Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the
environment that might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations. Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers, and aspects of the situation.
Assumptions
The leader's ability to lead is contingent upon various situational factors, including the leader's preferred style, the capabilities and behaviors of followers and also various other situational factors.
Description
Contingency theories are a class of behavioral theory that contends that there is no one best way of leading and that a leadership style that is effective in some situations may not be successful in others. An effect of this is that leaders who are very effective at one place and time may become unsuccessful either when transplanted to another situation or when the factors around them change. This helps to explain how some leaders who seem for a while to have the 'Midas touch' suddenly appear to go off the boil and make very unsuccessful decisions.
Discussion
Contingency theory is similar to situational theory in that there is an assumption of no simple one right way. The main difference is that situational theory tends to focus more on the behaviors that the leader should adopt, given situational factors (often about follower behavior), whereas contingency theory takes a broader view that includes contingent factors about leader capability and other variables within the situation
4. Behavioral Theories:
Behavioral theories of leadership are based upon the belief that great leaders are made, not born. Rooted in behaviorism, this leadership theory focuses on the actions of leaders, not on mental qualities or internal states. According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation.
University of Michigan Research Studies carried at the university revealed two similar aspects of leadership style
that correlate with effectiveness:Employee Orientation – (the human-relations aspect, in which employees are viewed as human beings with individual, personal needs)Production Orientation – (Stress on production and the technical aspects of the job, with employees viewed as the means of getting the work done.
Employee centered leader Production centered leaderTreats subordinates ass human being.Shows concern for their well being.Encourages and involves them in goal setting.
Emphasis’s technical aspects of job.Focus on work standards. Close supervision.Employee seen as a tool in the production process
They prescribed employee orientation style of leadership to increase productivity. They contended that supervisory controls and production centred leadership style will be frustrating to the employees affecting their morale and leading to unsatisfactory performance on the job.
Ohio State University ResearchThe Ohio State University studies indentified two leadership behaviors
Consideration – The degree to which a leader builds the mutual trust with subordinates and respect their ideas, and shows concern to their feelings.(friendship, mutual trust, respect and warmth) Initiating Structure – The degree to which a leader defines his own role and the role of the subordinates, in terms of achieving unit goals (organizes and defines relationships or roles, establishes well-defined patterns of organization, channels of communication, and ways of getting jobs done.)
The belief is that high IS and C mix leads to better performance is also questioned. According to Korman Cand IS are not such significant leader behaviors as previously assumed. There is no significant relationship between leader behavior and such measures like productivity.
The leader behavior model suggested by the Ohio Scholars is an oversimplification of reality. The impact of environment variables on specific leader behaviours is completely ignored.
The Managerial Grid
The concept is developed by R. R Blake and Jaane S. Mouton. The Managerial Grid is more than adjust a theory in human behavior. The exciting aspect of the managerial gird is its effectiveness in improving people’s attitude and behavior thought-out an entire origination to be benefited by the organization.
Behavioral scientists have, for a painfully long time, separated, isolated and frequently misconstructed the two concerns
1. Concern for task. Here leaders emphasize the achievement of concrete objectives. They look for high levels of productivity, and ways to organize people and activities in order to meet those objectives.
2. Concern for people. In this style, leaders look upon their followers as people - their needs, interests, problems, development and so on. They are not simply units of production or means to an end.
1. "Concern for people" is plotted using the vertical axis 2. "Concern for task" is along the horizontal axis.
They both have a range of 0 to 9. The notion that just two dimensions can describe a managerial behavior has the attraction of simplicity. These two dimensions can be drawn as a graph or grid:
Most people fall somewhere near the middle of the two axes. But, by going to the extremes, that is, people who score on the far end of the scales, we come up with four types of leaders:
Authoritarian (9 on task, 1 on people) Team Leader (9 on task, 9 on people) Country Club (1 on task, 9 on people) Impoverished (1 on task, 1 on people). Middle Road (5 on task, 5 on people)
Authoritarian Leader (high task, low relationship) There is little or no allowance for cooperation or collaboration. Heavily task oriented people display these characteristics: they are very strong on schedules; they expect people to do what they are told without question or debate; when something goes wrong they tend to focus on who is to blame rather than concentrate on exactly what is wrong and how to prevent it.
Team Leader (high task, high relationship) This type of person leads by positive example and endeavors to foster a team environment in which all team members can reach their highest potential, both as team members and as people. They encourage the team to reach team goals as effectively as possible, while also working tirelessly to strengthen the bonds among the various members. They normally form and lead some of the most productive teams.
Country Club Leader (low task, high relationship) This person uses predominantly reward power to maintain discipline and to encourage the team to accomplish its goals. Conversely, they are almost incapable of employing the more punitive coercive and legitimate powers. This inability results from fear that using such powers could jeopardize relationships with the other team members.
Impoverished Leader (low task, low relationship) A leader who uses a "delegate and disappear" management style. Since they are not committed to either task accomplishment or maintenance; they essentially allow their team to do whatever it wishes and prefer to detach themselves from the team process by allowing the team to suffer from a series of power struggles.
Middle Road
Style 5,5 is middle of the road management (adequate organization performance is possible though balancing the necessity to get out work with maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level) � an intermediate amount of concern for both production and employee satisfaction.
The most desirable place for a leader to be along the two axes at most times would be a 9 on task and a 9 on people -- the Team Leader. However, do not entirely dismiss the other three. Certain situations might call for one of the other three to be used at times. For example, by playing the Impoverished Leader, you allow your team to gain self-reliance. Be an Authoritarian Leader to instill a sense of discipline in an unmotivated worker. By carefully studying the situation and the forces affecting it, you will know at what points along the axes you need to be in order to achieve the desired result.
4. Situational Theories:
Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon situational variable. Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.
The Fiedler contingency model
Assumptions
Leaders prioritize between task-focus and people-focus.
Relationships, power and task structure are the three key factors that drive effective styles
The theory defined two types of leader: those who tend to accomplish the task by developing good-relationships with the group (relationship-oriented), and those who have as their prime concern carrying out the task itself (task-oriented). According to Fiedler, there is no ideal leader. Both task-oriented and relationship-oriented leaders can be effective if their leadership orientation fits the situation. When there is a good leader-member relation, a highly structured task, and high leader position power, the situation is considered a "favorable situation". Fiedler found that task-oriented leaders are more effective in extremely favorable or unfavorable situations, whereas relationship-oriented leaders perform best in situations with intermediate favorability.
The central idea was that effective leadership was dependent on a mix of factors.
The relationship between the leaders and followers. If leaders are liked and respected they are more likely to have the support of others.
The structure of the task. If the task is clearly spelled out as to goals, methods and standards of performance then it are more likely that leaders will be able to exert influence.
Position power. If an organization or group confers powers on the leader for the purpose of getting the job done, then this may well increase the influence of the leader.
Favorableness of the situation. Thus depending upon the High and Low categories of these situational variables, Fiedler developed eight possible combinations ranging from highly favorable to unfavorable situations.
A favourable situation is where the leader member relations are good, the task is highly structured and the leader has enormous power to exert influence on the subordinates. The first cell in the table is identified with a high degree of favourableness. At the other extreme, an unfavourable situation is, where the leader’s power is weak , the relationship withh meberss are poor and the task is unstructured and unpedictable. The last cell represents the situation. Between two extrems lies the situationof intermediate difficulty.
Fiedler states that permissive, relaionship orientd style is the best when thee situaion is moderately favourable or moderately unfavourable. When situation is highly favouable or highly unfavourable a task oriented style producs the desired peformance.
Criticism
1. LPC is a confusing concept2. Fiedler’s model is criticized on the ground that it is unidimenstional. He
suggested that leader can be either task oriented or relation oriented.
3. Contingency model lacks a theoretical orientation.
4. There is fundamental deficiency in the model
5. Fiedler considers only some situational factors
6. The models are highly complex and the procedures and statistical analysis that support the validity of the model are both brainstorming and frightening.
Success of this theory is because
1. It conveniently accommodates number of personal and situational factors in the study of leadership.
2. It operationalises he model into a set of actions that can be used improve one’s leadership effectiveness.
The Path Goal Theory
The path-goal theory of leadership was developed by Robert House (1971) and was based on the expectancy theory of Victor Vroom. It suggests that the primary activity of a leader should be to make desirable and achievable rewards available to organization members as a result of attaining organization goals and to clarify the kinds of behavior that must be performed to earn those rewards. The theory identifies four leader behaviors, achievement-oriented, directive, participative, and supportive, that is contingent to the environment factors and follower characteristics.
Evans and House suggest that the performance, satisfaction and motivation of a group can be affected by the leader in a number of ways:
Offering rewards for the achievement of performance goals. Clarifying paths towards these goals. Removing performance obstacles.
A person may do these by adopting a certain leadership style, according to the situation: Directive leadership - Specific advice is given to the group and ground rules are
established. Supportive leadership - Good relations exist with the group and sensitivity to
subordinates' needs is shown. Participative leadership - Decision making is based on group consultation and
information is shared with the group. Achievement-oriented leadership - Challenging goals are set and high
performance is encouraged while showing confidence in the groups' ability.
Supportive behavior increases group satisfaction, particularly in stressful situations, while directive behavior is suited to ambiguous situations. It is also suggested that leaders who have influence upon their superiors can increase group satisfaction and performance.
Description
The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership was developed to describe the way that leaders encourage and support their followers in achieving the goals they have been set by making the path that they should take clear and easy.
In particular, leaders:
Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go. Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there. Increasing the rewards along the route.
Leaders can take a strong or limited approach in these. In clarifying the path, they may be directive or give vague hints. In removing roadblocks, they may scour the path or help the follower move the bigger blocks. In increasing rewards, they may give occasional encouragement or pave the way with gold.
This variation in approach will depend on the situation, including the follower's capability and motivation, as well as the difficulty of the job and other contextual factors.
Life cycle theory of Leadership/ Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership
The life cycle theory of Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard a systemtic conceptualization of situational factors as related to leadership behavior. A model suggesting that appropriate leader behavior depends on the maturity of the follower.
Task Behaviour: It is seen in terms of the amount of guidance and direction a leader gives.
Relationship behavior: It determined by socio-emotional support provided by the leader.
Maturity of followers: It is reflected by the readiness level exhibited by subordinates in performing a given task
Assumptions
Leaders should adapt their style to follower development style (or 'maturity'); based on how ready and willing the follower is to perform required tasks (that is, their competence and motivation).
There are four leadership styles (S1 to S4) that match the development levels (D1 to D4) of the followers.
The four styles suggest that leaders should put greater or less focus on the task in question and/or the relationship between the leader and the follower, depending on the development level of the follower.
Style
S1: Telling / Directing
Follower: R1: Low competence, low commitment / Unable and unwilling or insecure
Leader: High task focus, low relationship focus
When the follower cannot do the job and is unwilling or afraid to try, then the leader takes a highly directive role, telling them what to do but without a great deal of concern for the relationship. The leader may also provide a working structure, both for the job and in terms of how the person is controlled.
The leader may first find out why the person is not motivated and if there are any limitations in ability. These two factors may be linked, for example where a person believes they are less capable than they should be may be in some form of denial or other coping. They follower may also lack self-confidence as a result.
If the leader focused more on the relationship, the follower may become confused about what must be done and what is optional. The leader thus maintains a clear 'does this' position to ensure all required actions are clear.
S2: Selling / Coaching
Follower: R2: Some competence, variable commitment / Unable but willing or motivated
Leader: High task focus, high relationship focus
When the follower can do the job, at least to some extent, and perhaps is over-confident about their ability in this, then 'telling' them what to do may demotivate them or lead to resistance. The leader thus needs to 'sell' another way of working, explaining and clarifying decisions.
The leader thus spends time listening and advising and, where appropriate, helping the follower to gain necessary skills through coaching methods.
S3: Participating / Supporting
Follower: R3: High competence, variable commitment / Able but unwilling or insecure
Leader: Low task focus, high relationship focus
When the follower can do the job, but is refusing to do it or otherwise showing insufficient commitment, the leader need not worry about showing them what to do, and instead is concerned with finding out why the person is refusing and thence persuading them to cooperate.
There is less excuse here for followers to be reticent about their ability, and the key is very much around motivation. If the causes are found then they can be addressed by the leader. The leader thus spends time listening, praising and otherwise making the follower feel good when they show the necessary commitment.
S4: Delegating / Observing
Follower: R4: High competence, high commitment / Able and willing or motivated
Leader: Low task focus, low relationship focus
When the follower can do the job and is motivated to do it, then the leader can basically leave them to it, largely trusting them to get on with the job although they also may need to keep a relatively distant eye on things to ensure everything is going to plan.
Followers at this level have less need for support or frequent praise, although as with anyone, occasional recognition is always welcome.
Discussion
Hersey and Blanchard have written a short and very readable book on the approach. It is simple and easy to understand, which makes it particularly attractive for practicing managers who do not want to get into heavier material. It also is accepted in wider spheres and often appears in college courses.It is limited, however, and is based on assumptions that can be challenged, for example the assumption that at the 'telling' level, the relationship is of lower importance.
Vroom and Yetton's Normative Model
Leadership is all about making decisions, conceiving vision, setting goals, laying paths to reach the goal, and making all efforts with followers in achieving it. Effective Leadership requires taking situation based decisions. An individual will be accepted as Leader when his ideas, suggestions and advice are more appropriate to the situation. Decision taken under particular situation may not hold good for all situations & it may give different results in different situations.
Vroom-Yetton-Jago Normative Decision Model help us to answer above questions. This model identifies five different styles (ranging from autocratic to consultative to group-based decisions) on the situation & level of involvement. They are:
1. Autocratic Type 1 (AI) – Leader makes own decision using information that is readily available to you at the time. This type is completely autocratic.
2. Autocratic Type 2 (AII) – Leader collects required information from followers, then makes decision alone. Problem or decision may or may not be informed to followers. Here, follower’s involvement is just providing information.
3. Consultative Type 1 (CI) – Leader shares problem to relevant followers individually and seeks their ideas & suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers’ do not meet each other & leader’s decision may or may not have followers influence. So, here follower’s involvement is at the level of providing alternatives individually.
4. Consultative Type 2 (CII) – Leader shares problem to relevant followers as a group and seeks their ideas & suggestions and makes decision alone. Here followers’ meet each other and through discussions they understand other alternatives. But leader’s decision may or may not have followers influence. So, here follower’s involvement is at the level of helping as a group in decision-making.
5. Group-based Type 2(GII) – Leader discuss problem & situation with followers as a group and seeks their ideas & suggestions through brainstorming. Leader accepts any decision & do not try to force his idea. Decision accepted by the group is the final one.
Vroom & Yetton formulated following seven questions on decision quality, commitment, problem information and decision acceptance, with which leaders can determine level of follower’s involvement in decision. Answer to the following questions must be either ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ with the current scenario.
1. Is there a quality requirement? Is the nature of the solution critical? Are there technical or rational grounds for selecting among possible solutions?
2. Do I have sufficient information to make a high quality decision?
3. Is the problem structured? Are the alternative courses of action and methods for their evaluation known?
4. Is acceptance of the decision by subordinates critical to its implementation?
5. If I were to make the decision by myself, is it reasonably certain that it would be accepted by my subordinates? Do subordinates share the organizational goals to be obtained in solving this problem?
6. Is conflict among subordinates likely in obtaining the preferred solution?
Based on the answers one can find out the styles from the graph.
Choice of leadership styles
1. Decision quality and rationality
2. Decision acceptance
3. Amount of time required to make the decisions
5. Participative Theories:
Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-making process. In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.
Assumptions
Involvement in decision-making improves the understanding of the issues involved by those who must carry out the decisions.
People are more committed to actions where they have involved in the relevant decision-making.
People are less competitive and more collaborative when they are working on joint goals.
When people make decisions together, the social commitment to one another is greater and thus increases their commitment to the decision.
Several people deciding together make better decisions than one person alone.
Style
A Participative Leader, rather than taking autocratic decisions, seeks to involve other people in the process, possibly including subordinates, peers, superiors and other stakeholders. Often, however, as it is within the managers' whim to give or deny control to his or her subordinates, most participative activity is within the immediate team. The question of how much influence others are given thus may vary on the manager's preferences and beliefs, and a whole spectrum of participation is possible, as in the table below.
< Not participative Highly participative >
Autocratic Leader proposes Team Joint decision Full
decision by leader
decision, listens to feedback, then decides
proposes decision, leader has final decision
with team as equals
delegation of decision to team
There are many varieties on this spectrum, including stages where the leader sells the idea to the team. Another variant is for the leader to describe the 'what' of objectives or goals and let the team or individuals decide the 'how' of the process by which the 'how' will be achieved ('Management by Objectives').
The level of participation may also depend on the type of decision being made. Decisions on how to implement goals may be highly participative, whilst decisions during subordinate performance evaluations are more likely to be taken by the manager.
Discussion
There are many potential benefits of participative leadership, as indicated in the assumptions, above. This approach is also known as consultation, empowerment, joint decision-making, democratic leadership, Management By Objective and power-sharing. Participative Leadership can be a sham when managers ask for opinions and then ignore them. This is likely to lead to cynicism and feelings of betrayal.
6. Management Theories:
Management theories (also known as “Transactional theories”) focus on the role of supervision, organization, and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of reward and punishment. Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded; when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.
7. Relationship Theories:
Relationship theories (also known as “Transformational theories”) focus upon the connections formed between leaders and followers. These leaders motivate and inspire people by helping group members see the importance and higher good of the task. Transformational leaders are focused on the performance of group members, but also want each person to fulfill his or her potential. These leaders often have high ethical and moral standards.
8.Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Description
Leader-Member Exchange Theory, also called LMX or Vertical Dyad Linkage Theory, describes how leaders in groups maintain their position through a series of tacit exchange agreements with their members.
In-group and out-group
In particular, leaders often have a special relationship with an inner circle of trusted lieutenants, assistants and advisors, to whom they give high levels of responsibility, decision influence, and access to resources. This in-group pay for their position. They work harder, are more committed to task objectives, and share more administrative duties. They are also expected to be fully committed and loyal to their leader. The out-group, on the other hand, are given low levels of choice or influence.
This also puts constraints upon the leader. They have to nurture the relationship with their inner circle whilst balancing giving them power with ensuring they do not have enough to strike out on their own.
The LMX process
These relationships, if they are going to happen, start very soon after a person joins the group and follow three stages.
1. Role taking
The member joins the team and the leader assesses their abilities and talents. Based on this, the leader may offer them opportunities to demonstrate their capabilities. Another key factor in this stage is the discovery by both parties of how the other likes to be respected.
2. Role making
In the second phase, the leader and member take part in an unstructured and informal negotiation whereby a role is created for the member and the often-tacit promise of benefit and power in return for dedication and loyalty takes place.
Trust-building is very important in this stage, and any felt betrayal, especially by the leader, can result in the member being relegated to the out-group.
This negotiation includes relationship factors as well as pure work-related ones, and a member who is similar to the leader in various ways is more likely to succeed. This perhaps explains why mixed gender relationships regularly are less successful than same-gender ones (it also affects the seeking of respect in the first stage). The same effect also applies to cultural and racial differences.
3. Routinization
In this phase, a pattern of ongoing social exchange between the leader and the member becomes established.
Success factors
Successful members are thus similar in many ways to the leader (which perhaps explains why many senior teams are all white, male, middle-class and middle-aged). They work hard at building and sustaining trust and respect.
To help this, they are empathetic, patient, reasonable, sensitive, and are good at seeing the viewpoint of other people (especially the leader). Aggression, sarcasm and an egocentric view are keys to the out-group wash-room.
The overall quality of the LMX relationship varies with several factors. Curiously, it is better when the challenge of the job is extremely high or extremely low. The size of the group, financial resource availability and the overall workload are also important.
Onwards and upwards
The principle works upwards as well. The leader also gains power by being a member of their manager's inner circle, which then can then share on downwards. People at the bottom of an organization with unusual power may get it from an unbroken chain of circles up to the hierarchy.
Conclusion
The effective integration of leadership theory and practice needs to be grounded in an ongoing dialogue between researchers and practitioners that respects the values, perspectives, and agendas of each constituency. Such dialogue is often difficult to achieve because researchers and practitioners do not engage each other all that often. And when they do engage, members of each group can rarely put aside their own frames of reference to view leadership from the frame of the other group. Thus, dialogue needed for an effective symbiosis founders at its inception. If such interaction and dialogue can begin to be effective, then we suspect that the leadership community (as a whole) will begin to experience more problems that are informed by concepts, and more theories that molded by contextual realities. The gap between leadership theory and practice should, in turn, begin to narrow to a close.
LEADERSHIP STYLE
Meaning: Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction,
implementing plans, and motivating people. Kurt Lewin (1939) led a group of researchers
to identify different styles of leadership.
Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person
can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task” . A
definition more inclusive of followers comes from Alan Keith of Genentech who said
"Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people to contribute to making
something extraordinary happen."
Leadership is one of the most relevant aspects of the organizational context. However,
defining leadership has been challenging. The following sections discuss several
important aspects of leadership including a description of what leadership is and a
description of several popular theories and styles of leadership.
Forces
A good leader uses all three styles, depending on what forces are involved between the
followers, the leader, and the situation. Some examples include:
Using an authoritarian style on a new employee who is just learning the job. The
leader is competent and a good coach. The employee is motivated to learn a new
skill. The situation is a new environment for the employee.
Using a participative style with a team of workers who know their job. The leader
knows the problem, but does not have all the information. The employees know
their jobs and want to become part of the team.
Using a delegative style with a worker who knows more about the job than you.
You cannot do everything! The employee needs to take ownership of her job.
Also, the situation might call for you to be at other places, doing other things.
Using all three: Telling your employees that a procedure is not working correctly
and a new one must be established (authoritarian). Asking for their ideas and
input on creating a new procedure (participative). Delegating tasks in order to
implement the new procedure (delegative).
Forces that influence the style to be used included:
How much time is available.
Are relationships based on respect and trust or on disrespect?
Who has the information - you, your employees, or both?
How well your employees are trained and how well you know the task.
Internal conflicts.
Stress levels.
Type of task. Is it structured, unstructured, complicated, or simple?
Laws or established procedures such as OSHA or training plans.
This early study has been very influential and established three major leadership
styles. The three major styles of leadership are (U.S. Army Handbook, 1973):
Authoritarian or autocratic
Participative or democratic
Delegative or Free Reign
Although good leaders use all three styles, with one of them normally dominant, bad
leaders tend to stick with one style.
Authoritarian (autocratic)
This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they
want it accompished, without getting the advice of their followers. Some of the
appropriate conditions to use it is when you have all the information to solve the problem,
you are short on time, and your employees are well motivated.
Some people tend to think of this style as a vehicle for yelling, using demeaning
language, and leading by threats and abusing their power. This is not the authoritarian
style, rather it is an abusive, unprofessional style called bossing people around. It has no
place in a leader's repertoire.
The authoritarian style should normally only be used on rare occasions. If you have the
time and want to gain more commitment and motivation from your employees, then you
should use the participative style.
Advantages
In the military and other urgent circumstances, people may prefer the ability to be told
what do next. According to Money Zine, "In fact, in times of stress or emergency some
subordinates may actually prefer an autocratic style - they prefer to be told exactly what
to do. So to summarize - the autocratic leadership style is very effective when times are
stressful . . ." On a less serious note, Martha Stewart is considered an autocratic leader
who has been very successful in her methods. For instance, she has created a competitive
advantage by controlling her employees effectively. The fact remains, lengthy debate has
no place in many work environments, so this form of leadership limits arguments. It
allows employees to have one task, and that is to work. There is very little thinking
involved, and it can become mundane. Therefore, it could mean that the employees
master their tasks and become proficient enough to help grow the company.
Disadvantages
According to Money Zine, "The communication style of an autocratic leader is usually
described as one way. They tell you exactly what they want done." This can be frustrating
because your boss will only tell you when you made a mistake, and very little praise may
be provided. In addition, it can generate a company full of zombies with no fresh ideas.
This autocratic style can create an environment of fear and resentment. Furthermore,
there could high turnover and absenteeism, which can ultimately hinder progress.
Case 1: Anthem Steel is a large producer, based in Wheeling West Virginia. Anthem
Steel is highly autocratic, having had major tensions over the years, as employees
unionized, becoming members of the United Steel Workers Union. Due to these
conditions, as well as the issues of safety, the management has instituted a highly
structured environment, where every job and duty has written policies that must be
strictly adhere to. This autocratic style is the norm for the steel industry and is accepted
as such by the steel workers employed by Anthem. However, the union contract
negotiations have not gone well and the workers have decided to go on strike. The
management is faced with the possibility of having to shut down all operations, which
could be catastrophic for the company. The management has decided to scale back
production, but keep the plant running while negotiations continue. 90% of the
management, including foremen and office personnel alike, will be required to work on
the flour of the plant, as they are non-union employees and are not involved in the strike.
Participative (democratic)
This style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making
process (determining what to do and how to do it). However, the leader maintains the
final decision making authority. Using this style is not a sign of weakness, rather it is a
sign of strength that your employees will respect.
This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees have
other parts. Note that a leader is not expected to know everything -- this is why you
employ knowledgeable and skillful employees. Using this style is of mutual benefit -- it
allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make better decisions.
Advantages
The advantages of democratic leadership include that everybody gets a say, it transfers
power away from the leader to those they are working with, and it gives a feeling of
power and control which in turn motivates and develops team members.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages include the intervention necessary - which can be the wrong thing to
do, and the slightly overused techniques that can turn some team members off.
Case 2: Accion Oil Production manages 75 oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico, serving
several oil companies. As with most oil platform workers, employees are tough and
independent and work extremely long hours in tough conditions. The typical platform
that Accion manages has 20 employees working two 12 hour shifts for 21 straight days,
taking 21 days shore leave, while another crew mans the platform. The management of
the platform is performed on shore through computer connections, making leadership on
the platform very participatory as everyone is the part of the work crew to some degree.
This leadership style works well as platform workers pride themselves on the hard work
and performance and require very little management on daily activities.
Delegative (free reign)
In this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the leader
is still responsible for the decisions that are made. This is used when employees are able
to analyze the situation and determine what needs to be done and how to do it. You
cannot do everything! You must set priorities and delegate certain tasks.
This is not a style to use so that you can blame others when things go wrong, rather this is
a style to be used when you fully trust and confidence in the people below you. Do not be
afraid to use it, however, use it wisely!
NOTE: This is also known as lais…sez faire (or lais…ser faire), which is the
noninterference in the affairs of others. [French: laissez, second person pl. imperative of
laisser, to let, allow + faire, to do.]
Advantages
The advantages of the laissez-faire model are that it can allow a chance to bond in a less
formal way, and that leaving team members to make their own decisions can be very
successful if they work well together in terms of the ownership and responsibility it gives
to team members.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages are that often this model leaves team members doing the wrong thing
without realizing it, that some individuals can simply dominate, and that if a group
disappoints and is reprimanded the effect can be very negative.
Case 3: Consolidated Consulting Services (CCS) is a small national consulting firm,
focusing primarily on custom IT solutions. CCS employees 250 consultants, who work
from their home based offices, reporting to the corporate head quarters in Cincinnati,
Ohio. Consultants live in 40 different states and rarely work in team of more than two or
three on site at any one time. CCS finds a delegative style of leadership necessary for
nearly all levels of the company. Geographical separation makes structured, autocratic
leadership impossible and participative leadership equally unlikely, as employees and
supervisors rarely, if ever, work together in close proximity. CCS has been presented an
opportunity to consult on a short term project with the US Government that will require
50 consultants on site for 6 weeks. Any extension of deadlines carries substantial
financial penalties. This major, yet temporary change in the ‘norm’ for the consultants
will not allow the employees autonomy, as time constraints are considerable and working
conditions requires several consultants working together. Upper management is faced
with temporarily changing the way, the company normally operates. Further more even
though a new style of leadership is needed temporarily, managers do not want to change
permanently and want consultants to feel respected and continue to be autonomous in the
future.
Positive and Negative Approaches
There is a difference in ways leaders approach their employee. Positive leaders use
rewards, such as education, independence, etc. to motivate employees. While negative
employers emphasize penalties. While the negative approach has a place in a leader's
repertoire of tools, it must be used carefully due to its high cost on the human spirit.
Negative leaders act domineering and superior with people. They believe the only way to
get things done is through penalties, such as loss of job, days off without pay, reprimand
employees in front of others, etc. They believe their authority is increased by frightening
everyone into higher lever of productivity. Yet what always happens when this approach
is used wrongly is that morale falls; which of course leads to lower productivity.
Use of Consideration and Structure
Two other approaches that leaders use are:
Consideration (employee orientation) - Leaders are concerned about the human needs of
their employees. They build teamwork, help employees with their problems, and provide
psychological support.
Structure (task orientation) - Leaders believe that they get results by consistently
keeping people busy and urging them to produce.
There is evidence that leaders who are considerate in their leadership style are higher
performers and are more satisfied with their job (Schriesheim, 1982).
Also notice that consideration and structure are independent of each other, thus they
should not be viewed on opposite ends of a continuum. For example, a leader who
becomes more considerate does not necessarily mean that she has become less structured.
See Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid as it is also based on this concept.
Paternalism
Paternalism has at times been equated with leadership styles. Yet most definitions of
leadership normally state or imply that one of the actions within leadership is that of
influencing. For example, the Army uses the following definition:
Keeping the above in mind, it seems that some picture paternalistic behavior as almost a
barbaric way of getting things accomplished. Yet, leadership is all about getting things
done for the organization. And in some situations, a paternalistic style of decision-making
might be required; indeed, in some cultures and individuals, it may also be expected by
not only those in charge, but also the followers. That is what makes leadership styles
quite interesting -- they basically run along the same continuum as Hofstede's PDI,
ranging from paternalistic to consultive styles of decision making. This allows a wide
range of individual behaviors to be dealt with, ranging from beginners to peak
performers. In addition, it accounts for the fact that not everyone is the same.
However, when paternalistic or autocratic styles are relied upon too much and the
employees are ready and/or willing to react to a more consultive type of leadership style,
then it normally becomes quite damaging to the performance of the organization.
CHARISMATIC LEADERSHIP
INTRODUCTION
John E Kennedy, Martin Luther King, J r., Bill Clinton, Mary Kay Ash (founder of Mary Kay Cosmetics), Steve
Jobs (co-founder of Apple Computer ) and former New York mayor Rudy Giuliani are individuals frequently cited
as being charismatic leaders.
What Is Charismatic Leadership? According to charismatic leadership theory, followers make attributions of heroic
or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors. Although there have been a number of
studies that have attempted to identify personal characteristics of the charismatic leader, the best documented has
isolated five such characteristics that differentiate charismatic leaders from non charismatic ones—they have a vision,
are willing to take risks to achieve that vision, are sensitive to both environmental constraints and follower needs, and
exhibit behaviors that are out of the ordinary.
How do charismatic leaders actually influence followers? The evidence suggests a four-step process. It begins by the
leader articulating an appealing vision. This vision provides a sense of continuity for followers by- linking the present
with a better future for the organization. The leader then communicates high performance expectations and expresses
confidence that followers can attain them. This enhances follower self-esteem and self-confidence. Next, the leader
conveys, through words and actions, a new set of values and, by his or her behavior, sets an example for followers to
Meaning
Charisma is a form of interpersonal attraction that inspires support and acceptance
from others.
Charismatic leadership is a type of influence based on the leader’s personal
charisma.
imitate. Finally; the charismatic leader makes self-sacrifices and engages in unconventional behavior to demonstrate
courage and convictions about the vision.
Key Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders
1. Vision and articulation: Has a vision—expressed as an idealized goal—that proposes a future better than
the status quo; and is able to clarify the importance of the vision in terms that are understandable to others.
2. Personal risk: Willing to take on high personal risk, incur high costs and engage in self-sacrifice to achieve
the vision.
3. Environmental sensitivity: Able to make realistic assessments of the environmental constraints and resources
needed.
4. Sensitivity to follower needs: Perceptive of others' abilities and responsive to the needs and feelings.
5. Unconventional behavior: Engages in behaviors that are perceived as novel and counter to norms.
Since the vision is such a critical component of charismatic leadership, we should clarify exactly what
we mean by the term, identify specific effective vision, and offer some examples.
A review of various definitions finds that a vision differs from other forms of direction setting in several ways: "A
vision has clear and compelling imagery that offers an innovative way to improve, which recognizes and draws on
traditions, and connects to actions that people can take to realize change. Vision taps people's emotions and energy.
Properly articulated, a vision creates the enthusiasm that people have for sporting events and other leisure-time activi-
ties, bringing this energy and commitment to the workplace."
What are some examples of visions? Rupert Murdoch had a vision of the future of the communication industry by
combining entertainment and media. Through his News Corporation, Murdoch has successfully integrated a broadcast
network, TV stations, movie studio, publishing, and global satellite distribution. The late Mary Kay Ash's vision of
women as entrepreneurs selling products that improved their self-image gave impetus to her cosmetics company. And
Michael Dell has created a vision of a business that allows Dell Computer to sell and deliver a finished PC directly to a
customer in fewer than eight days.
The Charismatic Leader
The Charismatic Leader
Envisioning Energizing Enabling
Articulating a Compeling vision, Setting high expections Modeling ,consistent behaviours
Demonstrating personal excitement ,expressing personal confidence, seeking,finding, and using success
Expressing personal support, empathizing, expressing confidence in people
TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
INTRODUCTION
Another stream of research has been focused on differentiating transformational
leaders from transactional leaders, because transformational leader are also
charismatic. Some kinds of leaders guide or motivate their followers in the direction of
established goal by clarifying role and task requirements. There is also another type of
leader who inspires followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the
organization, and who is capable of having a profound and extraordinary effect on his
or her followers. These are transformational leaden like Andrea Jung at Avon and
Richard Branson of the Virgin Group. They pay attention to the concerns and
developmental needs of individual followers; they change followers; awareness of
issues by helping them to look at old problems in new ways; and they are able to
excite, arouse, and inspire followers to put out extra effort to achieve group goals.
Transactional leadership and transformational leadership shouldn't be viewed as
opposing approaches to getting things done. Transformational leadership is built on top
of transactional leadership - it produces levels of follower effort and performance that
go beyond what would occur with a transactional approach alone. Moreover,
transformational leadership is more than charisma. "The purely charismatic [leader]
may want followers to adopt the charismatic’s world view and go no further; the
transformational leader will attempt to instill in followers the ability to question not
only established views but eventually those established by the leader."
Features of Transformational Leaders
Meaning
It is the set of abilities that allow the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision to guide that
change, and to execute that change effectively.
It occurs when leaders broaden and elevate follower’s interest and stir followers to look beyond their own
interests for the good of others
ASSUMPTIONS
People will follow a person who inspires them. A person with vision and passion can
achieve great things. The way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.
STYLE
Working for a Transformational Leader can be a wonderful and uplifting experience
They put passion and energy into everything They care about you and want you to
succeed.
DEVELOPING THE VISION
Transformational Leadership starts with the development of a vision, a view of the future
that will excite and convert potential followers. This vision may be developed by the
leader, by the senior team or may emerge from a broad series of discussions. The
important factor is the leader buys into it, hook, fine and sinker.
SELLING THE VISION
IndependentInspirationalInitiativesActive and achievingChange orientedForward thinkingCharismatic
The next step, which in fact never constantly sell the vision. This takes energy and
commitment, as few people will immediately buy into a radical vision, and some will join
the show much more slowly than others. The Transformational Leader thus takes every
opportunity and will use whatever works to convince others to climb on board the
bandwagon.
In order to create followers, the Transformational Leader has to be very careful in
creating trust, and their personal integrity is a critical part of the package that they are
selling. In effect, they are selling themselves as well as the vision. Finding the way
forwards.
In parallel with the selling activity is seeking the way forward. Some Transformational
Leaders know the way, and simply want others to follow them. Others do not have a
ready strategy, but will happily lead the exploration of possible routes to the promised
land. The route forwards may not be obvious and may not be plotted in details, but with a
clear vision, the direction will always be known. Thus finding the way forward can be an
ongoing process of course correction and the Transformational Leader will accept that
there will be failures and blind canyons along the way. As long as they feel progress is
being made, they will be happy.
LEADING THE CHANGE
The final stage is to remain up-front and central during the action. Transformational
Leaders are always visible and will stand up to be counted rather than hide behind their
troops. They show by their attitudes and actions how everyone else should behave. They
also make continued efforts to motivate and rally their followers, constantly doing the
rounds, listening, soothing and enthusing. It is their unswerving commitment as much as
anything else that keeps people going, particularly through the darker times when some
may question whether the vision can ever be achieved. If the people do not believe that
they can succeed, then their efforts will flag. The Transformational Leader seeks to infect
and re-infect their followers with a high level of commitment to the vision.
One of the methods the Transformational Leader uses to sustain motivation is in the use
of ceremonies, rituals and other cultural symbolism. Small changes get big hurrahs,
pumping up their significance as indicators of real progress. Overall, they balance their
attention between action that creates progress and the mental state of their followers.
Perhaps more than other approaches, they are people-oriented and believe that success
comes first and last through deep and sustained commitment.
DISCUSSION
Whilst the Transformational Leader seeks overtly to transform the organization, there is
also a tacit promise to followers that they also will be transformed in some way, perhaps
to be more like this amazing leader. In some respects, then, the followers are the product
of the transformation. Transformational Leaders are often charismatic, but are not as
narcissistic as pure Charismatic Leaders, who succeed and believe in themselves rather
than a believe in others. One of the traps of Transformational Leadership is that passion
and confidence can easily be mistaken for truth and reality. Whilst it is true that great
things have been achieved through enthusiastic leadership, it is also true that many
passionate people have led the charge right over the cliff and into a bottomless chasm.
Just because someone believes they are right, it does not mean they are right.
Paradoxically, the energy that gets people going can also cause them to give up.
Transformational Leaders often have large amounts of enthusiasm which, if relentlessly
applied, can wear out their followers. Transformational Leaders also tend to see the big
picture, but not the details, where the devil often lurks. If they do not have people to take
care of this level of information, then they are usually doomed to fail Finally,
Transformational Leaders, by definition, seek to transform. When the organization does
not need transforming and people are happy as they are, then such a leader will be
frustrated. Like wartime leaders, however, given the right situation they come into their
own and can be personally responsible or saving entire companies.
TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP
INTRODUCTION
People are motivated by reward and punishment. Social systems work best with a clear chain of command. When
people have agreed to do a job a part of the deal is that they cede all authority to their manager. The prime purpose of a
subordinate is to do what their manager tells them to do.
STYLE
The Transactional leader works through creating clear structures whereby it is clear what is required of their
subordinates, and the rewards that they get for following orders. Punishments are not always mentioned, but they are
also well-understood and formal systems of discipline are usually in place. Here, when the leader allocates the work to
a subordinate, they are considered to be fully responsible for it, whether or not they have the resources or capability to
carry it out. When things go wrong, then the subordinate is considered to be personally at fault, and is punished for
their failure (just as they reward for succeeding).
The transactional leader often uses management by exception, working on the principle that if something is operating
is to be defined (and hence expected) performance then it does not need attention. Exceptions to expectation require
praise and reward for exceeding expectation, whilst some kind of corrective action is applied for performance below
expectation. Whereas Transformational Leadership has more of a ‘selling’ style, Transactional Leadership, once the
contract is in place, takes a 'telling' Style.
Features of Transactional Leaders
DISCUSSION
Transactional leadership is based in contingency, in that reward or punishment is contingent upon performance. Despite
much research that highlights its limitations, Transactional Leadership is still a popular approach with many managers.
Indeed, in the Leadership vs. Management spectrum, it is very much towards the management end of the scale. The
MeaningIt occurs when leaders clarify subordinate’s role and task requirements, initiate structure, provide rewards and display consideration for subordinates.
Task control Short – term Planners Practical Passive Maintain Stability Concrete Tangible
main limitation is .the assumption “rational man” , a person who is largely motivated by money and simple reward, and
hence whose behavior is predictable. The underlying psychology is Behaviorism, including the Classical Conditioning
of Pavlov and Skinner's Operant Conditioning. These theories are largely based on controlled laboratory experiments
(often with animals) and ignore complex emotional factors and social values. In practice, there is sufficient truth in
Behaviorism to sustain Transactional approaches. This is reinforced by the supply -and-demand situation of much
employment, coupled with the effects of deeper needs, as in Maslow's Hierarchy. When the demand for a skill
outstrips the supply, then Transactional Leadership often is insufficient, and other approaches are more effective.
TRANSITIONAL LEADERSHIP
INTRODUCTION
Effective Transitional Leadership Steps
1. Current Leaders’ Role
2. Attract Emerging Leaders
3. Setting your timeline
4. Position Recruitment
1. Current Leaders’ Role
Pave the way for successful transition with your passion, organizational skills and interpersonal skills.
Enthusiasm- show passion for the position and write reflections on your experience as a leader
Job descriptions- with clearly defined expectations, duties, and responsibilities.
Trainings- for future leaders. New coordinators should feel confident about the training they
receive. An experiential training session can be very helpful. Instead of simply telling coordinators
what to do, show them and then let them try it for themselves!
Archival binder- Include essential information and responsibilities for successful implementation of
your project’s goals and activities. It will serve as a check-off list for the coordinator and
organization so that they do not have to “reinvent the wheel” each time an activity is organized.
Examples of timelines, meeting minutes, letters, fliers, etc., are also helpful. For example: History
of your group/organization/project, with a 3-year Strategic Plan Re-visit your current timeline and
include recommendations. Faculty Sponsor Information, Cal Corps Information, Community
Contacts
Funding Sources, Statistics
Calendar of Events, Assessment of your events
What could have gone better and how? Collect information from evaluations
Make a digital copy of the archival binder (Save on Cal Corps shared files and create a CD)
Contact Information – Provide a list of important contacts that the new coordinator can use as a resource.
Contacts play an ongoing role in providing assistance and feedback when coordinators are planning activities.
If possible, introduce incoming leader to key contacts. Welcome/Exit Meeting- with incoming officer and
allow time for mentorship and appreciation.
2. Attracting Emerging Leaders
Offering opportunities to emerging leaders already in your organization may lead you to the best candidate.
Include them in committees
Delegate duties to show/share your trust
Highlight their strengths
Provide them with feedback-constructive
Challenge your members
Share your own experiences and provide candid honest responses
Encourage them to shadow some of the current leaders
3. Setting your timeline for transition
Why is planning ahead extremely important?
More feasible and less stressful on you
To allow opportunities to shadow current leaders.
To compete with other priorities: academics, jobs, volunteer and research opportunities
4. Position Recruitment
Ensure the most qualified, enthusiastic hopefuls considered for the positions
Remember: This it is not a popularity contest, but rather who can carry one the work etc.
Ask who will have the dedication and energy to ensure that your group is thriving
The most important thing you can do is making their experience one where potential leaders will want to stay
involved.