Teaching Methods: Teaching Methods: Students with ASD Students with ASD

Mary E. McDonald, Ph.D., Mary E. McDonald, Ph.D., BCBABCBA

Hofstra UniversityHofstra University

Direct vs. Naturalistic Direct vs. Naturalistic ApproachesApproaches

Direct InstructionDirect Instruction– DTIDTI– Choral respondingChoral responding– Scripted curriculumScripted curriculum– Explicit instruction Explicit instruction

with response with response promptingprompting

– Teacher initiated Teacher initiated and directedand directed

– Little student Little student participationparticipation

Naturalistic Naturalistic StrategiesStrategies– Incidental teachingIncidental teaching– Time delayTime delay– ExpectancyExpectancy– Expansions Expansions – Curriculum is not setCurriculum is not set– Student initiatedStudent initiated– Active student Active student

participationparticipation

Relevance for ASDRelevance for ASD

Direct instruction is often warranted in Direct instruction is often warranted in the initial stages of teaching for most the initial stages of teaching for most students with ASD.students with ASD.

They do well with DI- as they learn They do well with DI- as they learn information that is typically concrete in information that is typically concrete in nature and through repetition and nature and through repetition and practice.practice.

Later, once skills become acquired Later, once skills become acquired students move onto more naturalistic students move onto more naturalistic strategiesstrategies

Naturalistic StrategiesNaturalistic Strategies

also referred to as “milieu” teaching, involve planned also referred to as “milieu” teaching, involve planned episodes of brief adult-child interaction that take episodes of brief adult-child interaction that take advantage of naturally occurring reinforcers in the advantage of naturally occurring reinforcers in the course of ongoing activities and routines (Halle, course of ongoing activities and routines (Halle, Alpert, & Anderson, 1984).Alpert, & Anderson, 1984).

Naturalistic strategies were originally designed to Naturalistic strategies were originally designed to promote generalization of communication skills from promote generalization of communication skills from therapy settings to natural environments. However, therapy settings to natural environments. However, these strategies have also proven effective across these strategies have also proven effective across developmental domains for teaching new skills as well developmental domains for teaching new skills as well as improving existing ones. as improving existing ones.

Four variations of naturalistic instruction include:Four variations of naturalistic instruction include:– Incidental TeachingIncidental Teaching– Modeling Modeling – Expansions Expansions – Naturalistic time delay Naturalistic time delay

Naturalistic Strategy Naturalistic Strategy Incidental TeachingIncidental Teaching

Definition:Definition: Incidental teaching is an instructional strategy in Incidental teaching is an instructional strategy in which the adult uses child initiations during ongoing activities which the adult uses child initiations during ongoing activities as opportunities to have the child elaborate on their request as opportunities to have the child elaborate on their request or use a higher level of communication to request. or use a higher level of communication to request.

Incidental teaching was first developed as a way to promote Incidental teaching was first developed as a way to promote generalization of communication skills from therapy to generalization of communication skills from therapy to classroom settings (Hart & Risley, 1968), but it has since classroom settings (Hart & Risley, 1968), but it has since proven effective in teaching a broad range of skills to proven effective in teaching a broad range of skills to children with a variety of disabilities (Kaiser, Yoder, & Keetz, children with a variety of disabilities (Kaiser, Yoder, & Keetz, 1992).1992).

Example:Example: An adult joins a child engaged with a barn, the An adult joins a child engaged with a barn, the child reaches toward the adult to gain access to a cow. The child reaches toward the adult to gain access to a cow. The adult says “cow”, child repeats “cow” and adult gives the adult says “cow”, child repeats “cow” and adult gives the child the cow. Incidental teaching involves having the child child the cow. Incidental teaching involves having the child use a higher level of communication to request items (e.g., use a higher level of communication to request items (e.g., from a point to one word from one word to two words etc…). from a point to one word from one word to two words etc…).

Naturalistic Strategy Naturalistic Strategy ModelingModeling

Definition:Definition: The concept of modeling (Bandura, 1965) as an instructional The concept of modeling (Bandura, 1965) as an instructional strategy is derived from research suggesting that typical children tend to strategy is derived from research suggesting that typical children tend to imitate the behavior of children and adults who are significant to them, imitate the behavior of children and adults who are significant to them, especially when therefore, such behavior is reinforced.especially when therefore, such behavior is reinforced.

One of the primary rationales for the inclusion movement, is that children One of the primary rationales for the inclusion movement, is that children with special needs will learn from the behavior of non-disabled peers (Peck with special needs will learn from the behavior of non-disabled peers (Peck & Cooke, 1983). & Cooke, 1983).

For such learning to occur, children with disabilities must be aware of the For such learning to occur, children with disabilities must be aware of the behavior of their peers (Bailey & Wolery, 1992). The target behavior must, behavior of their peers (Bailey & Wolery, 1992). The target behavior must, of course, be one the child is capable of imitating. of course, be one the child is capable of imitating.

Given these prerequisites, modeling has been used successfully with Given these prerequisites, modeling has been used successfully with young children with disabilities to improve communication, motor, social young children with disabilities to improve communication, motor, social and play skills.and play skills.

Example:Example: At snack time, a child who does not consistently use a spoon is At snack time, a child who does not consistently use a spoon is seated across from a favorite peer or sibling who uses a spoon correctly. seated across from a favorite peer or sibling who uses a spoon correctly. An adult serves tiny portions of pudding to each child. The child modeling An adult serves tiny portions of pudding to each child. The child modeling spoon feeding is reinforced verbally and with offers of more pudding spoon feeding is reinforced verbally and with offers of more pudding following correct use of the spoon. following correct use of the spoon.

Video modelingVideo modeling

Student observes behavior on video Student observes behavior on video and imitates the behaviorand imitates the behavior

Can be used for a variety of skills Can be used for a variety of skills including social skillsincluding social skills

Naturalistic Strategy Naturalistic Strategy ExpansionsExpansions

Definition:Definition: An adult responds to a child’s An adult responds to a child’s verbal initiations with a verbal model that verbal initiations with a verbal model that is slightly more grammatically complete is slightly more grammatically complete than what the child was using, building on than what the child was using, building on the child’s present level of communicative the child’s present level of communicative competency.competency.

Example:Example: For a child working on using For a child working on using action words, while looking at a favorite action words, while looking at a favorite picture book, when child points and says, picture book, when child points and says, “Piggy!,” the adult replies, “Piggy eating!” “Piggy!,” the adult replies, “Piggy eating!”

Naturalistic Strategy Naturalistic Strategy Time Delay & Expectancy Time Delay & Expectancy

Definition:Definition: During a familiar routine, an adult skips a step or During a familiar routine, an adult skips a step or pauses between steps and looks expectantly to the child for a pauses between steps and looks expectantly to the child for a set period of time (also called “wait time”). If the child initiates set period of time (also called “wait time”). If the child initiates a response, the routine continues. a response, the routine continues.

If not, the adult models the expected behavior before the If not, the adult models the expected behavior before the routine continues. A variation of this procedure, called routine continues. A variation of this procedure, called “violation of expectancy” (Bailey & Wolery, 1992), involves the “violation of expectancy” (Bailey & Wolery, 1992), involves the adult performing a step in the familiar routine that is out of adult performing a step in the familiar routine that is out of sequence, incorrect, or incomplete. This strategy has been sequence, incorrect, or incomplete. This strategy has been used to increase social interaction, communicative initiations, used to increase social interaction, communicative initiations, and independence.and independence.

Example # 1:Example # 1: Time Delay - While singing “This Old Man,” the Time Delay - While singing “This Old Man,” the adult pauses 3 seconds after the phrase, “He played---?” to adult pauses 3 seconds after the phrase, “He played---?” to allow the child to respond with the appropriate number in allow the child to respond with the appropriate number in sequence. sequence.

Example # 2: Example # 2: Violation of Expectancy - While helping a parent Violation of Expectancy - While helping a parent set the table for a family of three, a child is given three plates set the table for a family of three, a child is given three plates but only two sets of utensils.but only two sets of utensils.

Activity-based InstructionActivity-based Instruction ABI is considered to be a child-directed ABI is considered to be a child-directed

approach to intervention because of the approach to intervention because of the emphasis on following the child’s interests and emphasis on following the child’s interests and actions. actions.

The first element of ABI is the use of routine, The first element of ABI is the use of routine, planned, or child-initiated activities. The planned, or child-initiated activities. The supporting premise is that “activity and actions supporting premise is that “activity and actions initiated by children are more likely to engage initiated by children are more likely to engage and maintain their attention and involvement and maintain their attention and involvement than activity and actions initiated by adults” than activity and actions initiated by adults” (Pretti-Frontczak et al., 2003, p. 11). (Pretti-Frontczak et al., 2003, p. 11).

Once a child has initiated an action, the adult Once a child has initiated an action, the adult follows the child’s lead whenever possible to follows the child’s lead whenever possible to encourage and expand on the initiation. encourage and expand on the initiation.

Activity-based InstructionActivity-based Instruction The second element of ABI involves embedding The second element of ABI involves embedding

a child’s individual goals or objectives in a child’s individual goals or objectives in routine, planned, or child-initiated activities. routine, planned, or child-initiated activities. Routine activities are those events that occur Routine activities are those events that occur on a predictable basis at home or at school. on a predictable basis at home or at school.

Examples at home could include eating, Examples at home could include eating, dressing, toileting, bathing, or bedtime dressing, toileting, bathing, or bedtime routines. In an educational setting, routines routines. In an educational setting, routines could include arrival, circle time, transitions, could include arrival, circle time, transitions, snack, centers, or recess. Bricker et al. (1998) snack, centers, or recess. Bricker et al. (1998) define embedding as “a procedure in which define embedding as “a procedure in which children’s goals or objectives are included in children’s goals or objectives are included in an activity or event in a manner that expands, an activity or event in a manner that expands, modifies, or is integral to the activity/event in a modifies, or is integral to the activity/event in a meaningful way” (p. 13). meaningful way” (p. 13).

Planned activitiesPlanned activities are those that are those that generally happen with adult generally happen with adult guidance and participation. Examples guidance and participation. Examples might include making cookies, might include making cookies, reading a story, or playing a group reading a story, or playing a group game. game.

Child-initiated activitiesChild-initiated activities are selected are selected by the child for their interest and by the child for their interest and appeal and require little adult appeal and require little adult support or reinforcement. support or reinforcement.

Activity-based InstructionActivity-based Instruction The third element of the ABI approach The third element of the ABI approach

involves using logically occurring antecedents involves using logically occurring antecedents and consequences. Antecedents can be and consequences. Antecedents can be thought of as the actions or events that thought of as the actions or events that precede a target behavior, whereas precede a target behavior, whereas consequences are those that follow the consequences are those that follow the behavior. Logically occurring antecedents are behavior. Logically occurring antecedents are selected by the adult for the purpose of selected by the adult for the purpose of promoting a target child response in a promoting a target child response in a meaningful context. For instance, an adult meaningful context. For instance, an adult may choose snack time to attempt to promote may choose snack time to attempt to promote verbal requesting from a child. In ABI, logical verbal requesting from a child. In ABI, logical consequences generally involve completing a consequences generally involve completing a routine or planned activity. At times it may be routine or planned activity. At times it may be necessary for the adult to become involved in necessary for the adult to become involved in ensuring that the logical consequence evolves ensuring that the logical consequence evolves from the child’s desired response. from the child’s desired response.

ExampleExample Aaron is working on using multi-word phrases or sentences to Aaron is working on using multi-word phrases or sentences to

make his wants and needs known. When it is his job at snack make his wants and needs known. When it is his job at snack time to pass out napkins and utensils, the teacher uses a time to pass out napkins and utensils, the teacher uses a naturalistic teaching strategy combined with “wait time” to naturalistic teaching strategy combined with “wait time” to encourage Aaron to practice his target behavior. encourage Aaron to practice his target behavior.

Ms. Dickerson passes out containers of pudding to the children, Ms. Dickerson passes out containers of pudding to the children, and then gives Aaron napkins and plastic knives to distribute. and then gives Aaron napkins and plastic knives to distribute. Aaron begins to give each child a napkin and a plastic knife. Aaron begins to give each child a napkin and a plastic knife. Shortly thereafter, the children begin to notice that they need Shortly thereafter, the children begin to notice that they need spoons. One child tells Aaron he doesn’t need a knife. Aaron spoons. One child tells Aaron he doesn’t need a knife. Aaron continues to pass out knives. Another child gets up and goes continues to pass out knives. Another child gets up and goes over to the teacher to report that the children need spoons. Ms. over to the teacher to report that the children need spoons. Ms. Dickerson prompts the child to “Tell Aaron; he’s the helper.” The Dickerson prompts the child to “Tell Aaron; he’s the helper.” The child complies, and Aaron goes to the teacher, stands next to child complies, and Aaron goes to the teacher, stands next to her, and waits for her to notice him. She turns and looks at her, and waits for her to notice him. She turns and looks at Aaron expectantly but does not speak. Aaron looks back at the Aaron expectantly but does not speak. Aaron looks back at the snack table, then says, “spoons.” Ms. Dickerson prompts, “Oh, snack table, then says, “spoons.” Ms. Dickerson prompts, “Oh, the kids need spoons!” Aaron nods and repeats, “Kids need the kids need spoons!” Aaron nods and repeats, “Kids need spoons.” Ms. Dickerson gives Aaron the spoons, and he takes spoons.” Ms. Dickerson gives Aaron the spoons, and he takes them to the snack table, where some children cheer and others them to the snack table, where some children cheer and others tell him “Thank you, Aaron!” as they dig in to their pudding.tell him “Thank you, Aaron!” as they dig in to their pudding.

Activity-based InstructionActivity-based Instruction The fourth and final element of ABI is the selection The fourth and final element of ABI is the selection

of target skills that are functional and generative. of target skills that are functional and generative. Functional skills are those skills that allow children Functional skills are those skills that allow children to “negotiate their physical and social environment to “negotiate their physical and social environment in an independent and satisfying manner to in an independent and satisfying manner to themselves and others” (Bricker, Pretti-Frontczak, themselves and others” (Bricker, Pretti-Frontczak, & McComas, 1998, p. 18). Generative skills are & McComas, 1998, p. 18). Generative skills are those acquired skills that a child uses or performs those acquired skills that a child uses or performs across different settings regardless of people, across different settings regardless of people, events, or materials. Bricker and her colleagues events, or materials. Bricker and her colleagues (1998) use the term generative to refer to “the (1998) use the term generative to refer to “the child’s ability to make minor modifications in child’s ability to make minor modifications in response to similar, but changing, conditions” (p. response to similar, but changing, conditions” (p. 18).18).

Selecting skillsSelecting skills

The first step is the administration of The first step is the administration of comprehensive curriculum-based comprehensive curriculum-based assessment/evaluation tools. assessment/evaluation tools.

Selecting skillsSelecting skills

The second step in selecting The second step in selecting appropriate target skills is appropriate target skills is summarizing the results of the summarizing the results of the assessment in terms of interests, assessment in terms of interests, strengths (including emerging skills) strengths (including emerging skills) and needs. and needs.

Selecting skillsSelecting skills

The third step is to target skills that are The third step is to target skills that are important. Skills to target should be: important. Skills to target should be:

functional functional usable across settings, with different usable across settings, with different

people and materials people and materials observable and measurable observable and measurable part of the child’s natural daily routine/ part of the child’s natural daily routine/

environment. environment.

Selecting skillsSelecting skills

The fourth step in identifying appropriate goals The fourth step in identifying appropriate goals and objectives involves prioritizing skills. and objectives involves prioritizing skills.

It is recommended that teams target skills that It is recommended that teams target skills that – match the child’s developmental levelmatch the child’s developmental level– enhance the child’s repertoire of functional behaviors, enhance the child’s repertoire of functional behaviors, – appear to be skills the child would not develop appear to be skills the child would not develop

without intervention. without intervention. Skills that involve multiple domains and can be Skills that involve multiple domains and can be

generalized across settings are appropriate generalized across settings are appropriate priorities for goals or objectives. priorities for goals or objectives.

Selecting skillsSelecting skills

The final step in selecting appropriate target skills The final step in selecting appropriate target skills is to develop written goals and objectives that are is to develop written goals and objectives that are

ObservableObservable MeasurableMeasurable and clearly understandableand clearly understandable to team members. to team members.

Assessment tools such as the AEPSi, HELP or Assessment tools such as the AEPSi, HELP or Carolina Curriculum are organized into Carolina Curriculum are organized into developmental strands that include goals and developmental strands that include goals and objectives. objectives.

http://www.aepsinteractive.com/http://www.aepsinteractive.com/ (AEPSi) (AEPSi) http://www.vort.com/products/help_overview.htmlhttp://www.vort.com/products/help_overview.html (HELP) (HELP) http://brookespublishing.com/store/books/johnson-martin/index.htmhttp://brookespublishing.com/store/books/johnson-martin/index.htm

(Carolina)(Carolina)

ProgressProgress

Next, in order for child progress to be Next, in order for child progress to be measured two intervention criteria measured two intervention criteria must be met: must be met:

goals and objectives must be goals and objectives must be measurable and must be measured measurable and must be measured

repeated opportunities for practicing repeated opportunities for practicing targeted skills must be provided targeted skills must be provided

Advantages of embedding Advantages of embedding goals and objectives into daily goals and objectives into daily

activities activities providing multiple practice opportunities for learning providing multiple practice opportunities for learning

target skills within daily routines and activities, target skills within daily routines and activities, not having to pull children out of ongoing activities not having to pull children out of ongoing activities

to work on their IFSP/IEP, to work on their IFSP/IEP, compatibility with a variety of curricular approaches compatibility with a variety of curricular approaches

and different environments, and different environments, capitalizing on the interests and inherent motivation capitalizing on the interests and inherent motivation

of children when they are actively engaged, of children when they are actively engaged, increasing the likelihood of successful increasing the likelihood of successful

implementation by involving family members, implementation by involving family members, teachers, therapists, and other children in the teachers, therapists, and other children in the intervention. intervention.