teaching and language and literacy
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Teaching about Language, Power, and Text: A Review of Classroom Practices that SupportCritical LiteracyAuthor(s): Edward H. BehrmanSource: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 49, No. 6 (Mar., 2006), pp. 490-498Published by: Wileyon behalf of the International Reading Association
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e a c h i n g
a b u t
l anguage
p o w e r
n d
t e x t
r e v i e w o classroom
practices
t h a t
s u p p o r t
c r i t i c a l
l i t e r a c y
Edward
H. Behrman
ll ^ffi gfggMfMffl
The author examinesa
number of articles
published
between 1999 and
2003 that
present
essons or units to
support
critical
literacy
at the
upper
primary
or
secondary
evels,
Critical
iteracy
s
now well
established
as a
major
deological
construct nflu-
encing iteracy
education
(Cadeiro-
Kaplan,
002).
The
important
statusaccorded o
critical
literacy
has been
underscored
by
the for-
mation of the
International
Reading
Association's
Critical
Perspectives
n
Literacy
Committee o assist eachers n
adopting
and
im-
plementing
a
critical
perspective
on
literacy
n
their
classrooms
International
Reading
Association,
2004).
But
exactly
how does critical
literacy
affectclassroom-based
nstructionalde-
cisions,
and
what
teaching
strategies
are consis-
tent with a
critical
iteracy
orientation?
Answers o these
questions
are
complicated
in
thatcritical
literacy
s
usually
described s a
theory
with
implications
or
practice
ather han a
distinctive
nstructional
methodology.
For
n-
stance,
Luke
2000)
calledcritical
iteracy
duca-
tion
"a heoretical nd
practical
ttitude"
p.
454),
and
Morgan
and
Wyatt-Smith
2000)
termedcrit-
ical
iteracy
"overtly theory
for
practice"p.
124).
As a
theory,
ritical
iteracy spouses
hat educa-
tion
can fostersocial
ustice
by
allowing
tudents
to
recognize
how
language
s affected
by
and af-
fectssocial
relations.
Among
the aims
of critical
literacy
are o havestudents
examine
he
power
relationships
nherent
n
language
use,
recognize
hat
anguage
s not
neutral,
and confront
heirown values
n the
production
and
reception
of
language
(Janks,
993;
Lankshear,
994, 1997;
Lankshear&
McLaren, 993;
Morgan,
1997;Shor,
1999).
Critical
iteracy,
owever,
ppears
o lack a
consistently
applied
set of instructional
trategies
that would mark t as a coherent
curricular
p-
proach.
ndeed,
some critical
iteracyproponents
have even resisted
he
development
of
a
too
nar-
rowly
conceived nstructional
methodology.
While Luke
2000)
recognized
ariedclassroom
strategies
o fostercritical
iteracy,
e cautioned
against
a "formula or
'doing'
critical
iteracy
n
the classroom"
pp.
453-454)
and
questioned
he
value
of a state-mandated urriculum
policy
sup-
porting
critical
iteracy.
nstead,
he envisionedan
organicapproach
o critical
iteracy
wherein
teachersand
students"invent" ritical
iteracies
n
the classroom.
McLaughlin
nd
DeVoogd
2004)
warned hat critical
iteracy
practices
hould
not
be
exported
rom one classroom
o another
with-
out local
adaptation,
nd Comber
(2001)
asserted
that "critical
iteracy
needs to be
continually
ede-
fined
in
practice" p. 100).
Behrmaneaches t
National
niversity
n
Camarillo,
alifornia
761
East
Daily rive,
uite
20,
Camarillo,
A
3010,
USA).
490
JOURilL OF 1D0LESCE1T
ADULTLITERACY 48:8
MARCH2008
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1 4;h 11
li.iMllilllil^
lflBHlBTn
Hit rriMfflu
""ITm
1 fi 1 hBThm
One reasoncritical
iteracymaydefy
a uni-
fied curricular
pproach
s that as a
theory
t de-
pends upon multiple ntellectualtrands. anks
(2000)
argued
hat
there
arefour orientations o
critical
iteracy
ducation,
achbased
on a
differ-
ent view of the
relationship
etween
language
and
power.
Educators
working
rom a domination
er-
spective
onsiderhow
language
and
signs
main-
tain
positions
of socialand
political
domination.
Those
working
rom an access
erspective ttempt
to
provide
access o dominant orms of
language
without
compromising
he
integrity
of nondomi-
nant forms.
A
diversity erspective equires
tten-
tion
to the
way
that uses of
language
reate
ocial
identities.
Finally, design
perspective mphasizes
the need to use
and select rom a
range
of avail-
able
semiotic
signs.According
o
Janks,
hesefour
interdependent
rientations
o critical
iteracy
d-
ucation
suggest
a
range
of
pedagogical
pproach-
es.In order o achieve he
social
usticegoal
of
critical
iteracy,
ll four
orientationsmust be
seamed
ogether
"in
complex
moves"
p.
179)
to
balance
one another.
Similarly,
uke
2000)
suggested
hat the
"unruly
nd at times discordant"
p.
453)
theoreti-
cal
positions
hat informcritical
iteracy
those
of
Valentin
Voloshinov,
Mikhail
Bakhtin,
Michel
Foucault,
acques
Derrida,
Pierre
Bourdieu,
nd
Paulo
Freire)
may
translate nto variousclassroom
practices.
These
practicesmay
nclude
dentifying
multiple
voices
n
texts,
dominantcultural
dis-
courses,
multiplepossible
readings
f
texts,
and
sources
of
authority
where exts areused and cri-
tiquing
and
producing
a wide
range
of texts.A
critical
iteracy genda
houldtherefore
encourage
teachers
nd students o collaborate o
understand
how textswork,what texts ntendto do to the
world,
and how socialrelations an be
critiqued
and reconstructed.
The
multiplicity
f
conceptualpositions
that
influence
ritical
iteracy
nd the resistance o a
definitive
ritical
literacypedagogy
placeresponsi-
bility
or curriculum
development
n teachers
and teacher
ducators
mid"the
lux
and flow of
real-world
bstaclesand
pressures"
Corson,
2002,
p.
1
1).
Translating
ritical
literacy heory
nto
practice
herefore
presents
a
difficult
hallenge
de-
manding nnovative nd localsolutions.
The
purpose
of
this review
s to
examinere-
cently
published
articles hat
provide
classroom
applications
f
critical
iteracy
nstruction
or
adolescent
earners,
o that
teachersand
teacher
educatorswho
support
he
theory
of critical iter-
acy
and its
democratizing
alues
may
benefit
from the
experience
of others
who have
already
begun
the
crossing
rom
theory
to
practice.
n the
sense that the
articles eviewedare
nclusive
of all
indexedarticles
published
over
a
five-yearperiod
(1999-2003),
what
emerges
rom the
review s a
"stateof
the field"
n
critical
iteracy
nstruction
at the
upper
primary
and
secondary
evels.
The eview
process
In
order o
identify
classroom
practices
or
this
review,
he
keyword
critical
iteracy
was
entered
using
four electronic
databases:
cademicSearch
Premier,ERIC,
PsychArticles,
nd
Psychlnfo.
The
search
yielded
264citations or the
years
1999
through
2003. Review
of the 264
abstracts
ug-
gested
56 articles
hat
might
include
sufficiently
detailed
descriptions
of critical
iteracy
essons or
units.
Next,
the 56
articleswere read o
confirm
that each
describedan
upper
primary
or
second-
ary
schoolclassroom
practice.
During
this
phase,
21
articleswere
dropped
rom the
review.
Some
of these
eliminated
articlesdescribeda lower
pri-
mary
or
postsecondary
ractice
or
proposed
gen-
eral
guidelines
without
describingany
classroom
application.
A
second iterature
earch
using
the
ProQuest
Educational
ournal
database
key-
wordscritical iteracy teaching elementaryx
middleor
high
school)
ielded
1
additionalarticle.
Included n this
revieware
36 articles
hat
present
essonsor
units
ntended o
support
ritical
literacy
t
the
upper
primary
r
secondary
evels
(grades
-12).
Although
ritical
literacy
s
not a
discipline-bound
heory
and
may
be
applied
o the
study
of
language
nd text n
anysubject
rea,
4
of
the 36
articles
resent
activitieswithina
language
JOURNAL OF 100LESCEIT & ADULT LITERACY 49:6 MARCH 2006 491
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arts,
nterdisciplinaryanguage
rts-social
tudies,
or
interdisciplinary
anguage
rts-science
ontext.
Social tudies s the secondmostfrequentubject
area
epresented
8 articles).
The
remaining
rticles
describe
ractices
n
science,
writing
with
special
needs
students,
he
computer
ab,
and an
unspeci-
fied
subject
rea.
Thirty-three
f the articles
de-
scribea traditional lassroom
etting,
2 articles
describe ome
schooling,
nd
1
articledescribes
tutoring
essions.
In
some articles he classroom
practice
s the
focus of a research
nvestigation.
nothers he
classroom
practice
s
presented
s an
example
within a broaderdiscussionof critical iteracy, nd
in
a few articles he classroom
practice
s
simply
being
shared
as a
lesson
or unit idea.
In
the
review,
articles re
distinguished
y
the classroom
prac-
tice rather han their
ntent.Most classroom
prac-
tices havenot been
formally
valuated
y
the
contributing
uthors,
nor is there
anyattempt
hereto evaluate he effectiveness
f each
practice.
The
review
organizes
he classroom
prac-
tices into six broad
categories
based on student
activities
or tasks:
1)
reading
upplementary
texts,(2) readingmultiple exts,(3) reading rom
a resistant
perspective,
4)
producing
counter-
texts,
(5)
conducting
tudent-choice
esearch
projects,
nd
(6)
taking
social action.
Reading
upplementary
exts
Often eachers
indthat o
develop
a critical
per-
spective,
raditional lassroom
extsneedto be
sup-
plemented y
otherworksof
fiction,
nonfiction,
film,
or
popular
ulture.
Underlying
his
approach
is the
assumption
hat
raditional
r canonical
exts
are
somehowdeficient
n
helping
tudents
ocus on
social
ssues,
and that
supplementary
exts
may
al-
low students o confront ocial ssues
glossed
over
or avoided
by
traditionalexts.
Houser
2001)
proposed
hatto
develop
o-
cial,cultural,
nd
ecological
understanding,
hil-
dren's r adolescent
iterature such
as MildredD.
Taylor's
oll
of
Thunder,
ear
My Cry
2000,
Speak),
ulie
Brinckloe's
ireflies
1986,
Aladdin),
and
Jean
Craighead
George's
The
Missing
Gator
f
Gumbo
Limbo
1993,
HarperTrophy)
maybe
more beneficialhantextbooks,whichtend to be
sanitized
nd devoid
of
multipleperspectives.
ean
and Moni
(2003)
similarly
dvocated
eading
young
adult
novels o
stimulate
discussions
f so-
cietalconflicts
and
teen
problems.
Students
may
be
assigned
upplementary
iction
specifically
ecause
it focuses
on an
important
ocial
ssue
such as
racial
discrimination,
lavery,
r
marginalization
(Gruber
&
Boreen,2003;
Johnson
&
Ciancio,
003;
Leland t
al.,
2003;
Rogers,
002;
Tyson,
1999).
Students
an also
read
supplementary
on-
fiction,
as
in
studyinggreat
eaders
uch
asMartin
Luther
King,
Jr.,
ndira
Gandhi,
Franklin
Delano
Roosevelt,
nd
Nelson
Mandela o
experience
he
power
of
language
o
shape hought
and mobilize
action
(Sisk,2002).
Music
and
film
likewise
may
supplement
raditional
exts.
Songs
by
popular
artists
e.g.,
Tracy
Chapman,
Phil
Collins,
Marvin
Gaye,
John
Mellencamp,
nd
Sting)may
provide
students
with
politically
ontextualized
nder-
standings
of issuesrelated
o the
environment,
history,
conomics,
politics,
and
racism
Lloyd,
2003).
In
one
class,
a
teacher
using
film as
supple-
mentary extpairedFrancisFordCoppola'silm
versionof Mario
Puzo's
The
Godfather
ith.
Homer's
The
Odyssey
o demonstrate
arallels
e-
tween
contemporary owerstruggles
nd
thosein
canonical exts
(Morrell,
000).
Clearly
he
legitimacy
of
such an
approach
must
be based on
the
supposed
deficit
n
the
tra-
ditional
ext
(and
the
proposed
compensatory
virtuesof the
supplementary
ext).
Yetan
asser-
tion
that a text
minimizes he
social
mpact
of
an
event,
presents
a
problem
rom
an ethnocentric
or gender-based iewpoint,or considersan activ-
ity
within
a
historically
ituated,
noncontempora-
neous
context
need not
invalidate
tudy
of the
traditional
ext.
Those
very
features
may
be
the
focus
of critical
nquiry.
Reading
multiple
exts
To
introduce
students
o the
subjectivity
f
au-
thorship,
anotherclassroom
practice
o
develop
a
492
JOURNAL OF
liOLESCEWT &
ADULT
LITERACY
49:6
MARCH 2008
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critical
perspective
s
reading
multiple
exts on
the same
topic.
For
example,Spires
1999)
want-
ed her students o analyzehow the authorpor-
trays
different
ocial
groups
within
Harper
Lee's
novel ToKilla
Mockingbird
1988,
Warner
Books).
In
the
prereading ctivity
described,
tu-
dents read ive versionsof the
fairy
ale
"Little
Red
Riding
Hood"and
responded
n
their
our-
nals to this
question:
Whose valuesare
being
pro-
moted
in
these different ersions?
Mellorand Patterson
2000)
similarly
sed
multiple
extsas an
entry
o
criticality.
heirclass-
room
practice
was ntended o
disrupt
he notion
that extualmeanings fixedand to subvert n in-
terpretation
f William
Shakespeare's
orkas
"historical
et
eternal." tudents
ead wo critical
analyses
f
Ophelia pious
versus
wanton)
and then
examined
elected cenes romHamlet
o evaluate
theirown
readings
f
Ophelia.
The exercise llowed
students
o
recognize
ow
a critic
may
ncludeor
ignore
evidence
o "fit" n
interpretation.
Reading
multiple
exts
encourages
tudents
to understand
uthorship
as
situated
activity.
Students
canconsiderwho constructed
he
text,
when,
where,
why,
andthevalueson whichit was
based.
By
experiencing
different
reatmentsof the
same
topic
or
event,
students
begin
to
recognize
that
text
is not "true"
n
any
absolute ense
but a
rendering
s
portrayed y
an author.
Reading
rom
a resistant
perspective
A text
may
be
interpreted
rom various
positions,
including
he
invited,
author-centered
iew and
the
resistant,
world-centered
iew
(Alford,2001).
Students an be
encouraged
o
"peel"
ifferent
layers
of
meaning
rom a text
and
to
explore
how
the same
reader
might
approach
a
text from dif-
ferent dentities
based on
race,
ethnicity,
lass,
gender,
anguage,
exuality,
nd
religion
(Foss,
2002).
This classroom
practiceplacesemphasis
on how
the reader's aluesand the author's tance
can
position
the reader o form an
interpretation
of text.
Reading
rom a resistant
perspective
e-
quires
a conscious
awareness
f the
influences
upon
text
interpretation.
Acquiringa resistantperspectives some-
times stimulated
by asking
students o assume
new
or unfamiliardentities.
For
example,
n
a
unit on
Wisconsin
state
history,
he
teacheror-
ganized
students nto
small
groups
that took on
a
family dentity
(e.g.,
Native
American,
German
American,
English
American)
andthen ex-
pressed
heir
family's
views as
Wisconsin
evolved
from
part
of the
Northwest
Territory
o
a
sepa-
rate
territory
and
then to
statehood
(McCall,
2002).
Similarly,
nother eacher ntroduced
Laura ngallsWilder s LittleHouseon thePrairie
(1953,
HarperTrophy) y
asking
students
o con-
sider theirreactions o the
white
and
Native
Americancharacters.
Finding
heir
responses
Eurocentric,
he
encouraged
tudents o recon-
sider
their
responses
rom
a
Native
American
point
of view
(Kuhlman, 001).
A resistant
perspective
an
also be motivat-
ed
by
inviting
students o read rom analternative
frame
of
reference.Lien
(2003)
describeda simu-
lation
game
to introduce he
concept
of
capital
(using
chocolate
candy)
as a
warm-up or a criti-
cal
literacy
unit aboutVietnamese
history
and
culture.Via the simulation he allowed
students
to
experience
how
wealth
or
poverty
can differen-
tially
affect
nterpretations
f
communismand
resourceallocation.
Several rticles
describehow resistant
ead-
ing
is introduced
hrough
an
analysis
of author
stanceand text featuresandtheir effecton
posi-
tioning
the reader
Baker,
Gormley,
Lawler,
&
McDermott,2001;
Caviglia,
002;
Doherty,
2002;
Howie, 2002a;
Parr, 001;Wilson,2001;
Young,
2001),
including
one
example
of
reading
and in-
terpreting documentary
ilm
(Howie,
2002b).
Wilson showedhow
articles
n
popular
music
magazines
an be
used to
help
students
question
the notion of author
neutrality.
n
the
unit de-
scribed,
tudents
dentifiednot
only
what
they
learned
but also what
they
did not learn
about
the
performers
nterviewed n the
magazine,
and
they
attempted
o
determine
why
the
author
JOURiAL OF ADOLESCENT & ADULT LITERACY 48:8 MARCH 2006 493
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asked
particular uestions
during
an interview.
Young
detailedhow male students
analyzed
he
advertising nd articles n teenmagazineso de-
termine he intended
readership
f each.Next
they
reviewed he articles o discover
how the
magazinesportrayed
he
"perfect
oy"
and the
"perfect
irl."
The
boys
decided hat one of
the
magazines
was slanted oward
ports-minded
girls
but that
the otherswere slanted oward
clothes-minded
girls.Caviglia
described lass-
room activities
n which
students
weretold a lie
or asked o constructa lie. She
proposed
ie de-
tecting
as a
step
toward
developing
a resistant
perspective,
ecause
determining
whethera state-
ment is accurate
equiresanalysis
of not
only
facts
but also motivesand
ideologies
of the writer
and the reader.
Another
application
f the resistant-
perspective pproach
nvolves
having
studentsan-
alyze
ext
using
functional
grammar
Unsworth,
1999;Williams,
001)
or
lexical
classification
(Young,
000).
Functional
rammar
onsiders
he
ideational,
nterpersonal,
nd
textual
meanings
n
aclause,unlike raditional rammarhat focuses
on correctness f structure.For
example,
n a unit
combining
critical
iteracy
nd functional
gram-
mar,
tudents
were
given
an
assignment
o con-
trastconstructions f
gender
n
popular
ongs
(Williams).
Each
studentselecteda
song
and
ac-
companying
ideo
clip
to
identify
he actor
(sub-
ject),
process
verb),
process ype (e.g.,
action
verb),
and
goal (object).
As an
alternative,
sing
lexical
classification,
tudents
can determinehow
gender
s
represented
y
the author.
For
nstance,
an articleon soccerdescribed superior emale
athleteas
"young," girl,"
nd
"top
woman,"
ut
for
a
superior
male athlete he
description
ncluded
"player,"
skillswere
subtle,"
nd
"great"Young).
Withboth methods he
student s
required
o
considerhow the
author's onscious
choice of
words,
word
order,
or sentence
tructure an
posi-
tion the reader o
accept
an
argument
or value a
statement
rom the writer's
perspective.
Producing
ountertexts
A
countertext
r counternarrative
s a student-
created
ext that
presents
a
topic
from a
nonmain-
stream
perspective.
roducing
ountertexts
an
serve
o validate
he
thoughts,
observations,
nd
feelings
of studentsand
other
underrepresented
groups.
The countertext
may
be
a
personal
e-
sponse
to the
topic being
earned,
as
in a
reading
log
or
journal
Hanrahan,
999;
Young,
2000),
a
personal
narrative
Fairbanks,
000;
Montgomery
&
Kahn,
2003),
or a conscious
effort
o write
from
another's
oint
of
view
(Spires,
1999).
Forexam-
ple,
Hanrahan
roposed
hat
ournal
writing
n a
scienceclasscannot onlyprovide tudentswith
avenues o construct
heir
understandings
f sci-
ence
concepts
butalso
endorse
he students'
x-
pressions
of their
experience.
In one extensive
pplication
f
countertext,
black
tudents
n a
segregated
outh
African
high
school
set out
to create
a text
about
young
overs
n
their
rural
village.They
produced
a comic
that
n-
cluded hree
stories:
The
firstwas
about overs
who
had
a
baby
and
got
married,
he second
was an
ac-
count of
how the students
went about
revising
he
original tory,
and the
third
was the
revised
tory
in
which
the
girl
nsisted
on
safesex
and
stopped
dating
when she
learnedher
boyfriend
was cheat-
ing.
To create
he revised
omance,
tudents
on-
sidered
multiple
views
of
dating,
ex,
fidelity,
nd
violence
against
women.
Thus
n therevised
tory
they
wereable o
move
away
rom a
narrativef
male domination
Shariff
&
Janks, 001).
Essentially
he
countertext
pproach
denti-
fies studentsas
members
of a
marginalized
ub-
group
whose
"voice" as been
given
egitimacy.
Therefore,
he successful
useof countertext
may
require
lassroom
onversation
boutthe
process
by
which
any
text
gains
acceptance,
within
both
the
immediateand
more
global
communities.
Conducting
tudent-choice
research
projects
Whereas
producing
ountertexts
laces
emphasis
on the student's
perspective,
hisnext
category
494
JOURNAL
IF ADOLESCENT
liULT LITERACY
4i:8
MARCH
2008
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placesemphasis
on the student's hoice of
topic.
A
student-choice esearch
roject
s envisionedas a
wayto lessen hespacebetweenschool-sanctioned
topics
and those
usually
considered kid's usi-
ness"
Fairbanks,000).
Eachstudent dentifiesan
importantpersonal opic
and then
conducts
ex-
tensiveresearch n it. The rationale
underlying
this
approach
s that the
everyday
ventsoccur-
ring
n
the
livesof studentsare
legitimateobjects
of academic
tudy.
The curriculumbecomesne-
gotiable
when studentsare
permitted
o conduct
research n
personal opics,
and the students
gain
more controlovertheir
own
learning.
Forexample,Rubin 2002)reported n acase
study
of six female tudents
using
an I-Search ech-
nique
o
investigate
social ssueof
personal
nter-
est.Students
elected s
personal opics
acquaintanceape,depression
nd
suicide,
body
image,
bipolar
disorder,
nd
gender quity
n
sports.
Theresearch
roject
equiredibrary
nd
electronic
ources,
nterviews,
nd observations.
Forstudent-choice esearch
rojects
o culti-
vate critical
iteracy,
owever,
he
activity
must
go
beyond
simplyselecting
a
topic
and
finding
i-
brary
books orwebsiteson the
topic.
Students
must become
engaged
participants
n
a
problem
affecting
hem
and be ableto reflect
upon
the
so-
cial
and cultural orces hat exacerbate
r
mitigate
the
problem.
Taking
ocial action
In
order
o
employ
their
iteracy
kills o chal-
lenge power
structures,
tudents
can
engage
n
so-
cial action
projects
aimed at
making
a
real
differencen their or others' ives.The rationale
for social
action is that critical
iteracy
nstruction
should not be
limited to the
promotion
of
per-
sonalized
or internalized
econceptualizations
f
language,
power,
and text.Whereas
tudent-
choice research
rojects
move
important
real-life
issues
nto the school
setting,
an outcome of so-
cial action s
to move students' eal-lifeconcerns
beyond
classroomwalls.
Taking
ocial action re-
quires
students o
become
involvedas
members
of a
larger
community.
Sucha socialactionprojectwasdescribed n
Powell,
Cantrell,
nd Adams
(2001).
After
earn-
ing
that the
highest
peak
n
Kentucky
was
slated
for
strip
mining,
students
became
determined o
save
Black
Mountain.
nitially
hestudents
want-
ed
simply
o learnmore
about the
mountain,
o
take an
informed
position.
Through
nterviews
with
miners,
mining company
officials,
andac-
tivists,
hey
came to
recognize
he
competing
en-
vironmentaland
economic interests.
They
visited
the mountain
and tookwater
samples
rom ocal
wells.Eventuallyheytook a moreassertive ole
in
trying
to save
he
mountain.After
raising
thousandsof
dollars,
hey
contacted ocal
news-
papers
and television
stationsand held
press
con-
ferences o raise
public
awareness.
They
submitteda
10-pageproposal
o a
state
agency
with
alternative
ecommendations nd
appeared
before
a
subcommitteeof the
state
egislature.
n
part
through
he students'
fforts,
a
compromise
solution was
adopted
by
the
stateof
Kentucky.
Of
course,
not allsocial action
projects
will
have such a
satisfactory
esult.
Unsatisfactory
e-
sults are
hardly
wasted
efforts,
hough,
as exami-
nationof
why
the effortwas
unsuccessful an
drawattentionto imbalances
hat
may
exist
throughout
he course of
decision
making.
In ei-
ther
case,
taking
social action
allows students o
recognize iteracy
as
a
sociocultural
process
and
to
engage iteracy
as
a vehicle for social
change.
Integrating
ctivities
Although
for
illustrative
purposes
he six cate-
gories
described
previously
n
this article
have
been
presented
as
discrete,
n
many
of the class-
room
practices,
activitiesare
merged
so that
stu-
dents are
engaged
n
two or
more of the
tasks.
For
example,
Henry
(2002)
detailed
a
lesson on
multiple
viewpoints
n
which
students
readtwo
versions
of several
airy
ales and
completed
compare/contrast
iagrams
or each
pair
(read-
ing multiple
texts).
Students
hen
rewrotea
fairy
JOURiAL OF 1D0LESCE1T & ADULT LITERACY 48:8 MARCH 2008 495
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tale from
the
perspective
of
a
differentcharacter
or
object
within the tale
(producing
counter-
texts).Bean and Moni (2003) describedhow
reading
he
young
adult novel
Fighting
Ruben
Wolfeby
MarkusZusak
(2002,Push)
(reading
supplementary
exts)
can lead to discussionof
subject-and-reader
ositioning, gaps
and si-
lences,
and alternative
epresentationsreading
from a
resistant
perspective).
Wolk
(2003)
presented
a
generalized,
multi-
faceted
strategy
o
teach for
critical
iteracy
hat
may
involve
adding
fiction,
nonfiction,
and
newspapers
o the standard
urriculum;
onnect-
ing students' xperiencesandopinionsto the
subject
matter;
and
using writing
to
foster criti-
cal
viewpoints.
An
example
of such an
approach
was
described
by
Schramm-Pate
nd Lussier
(2003).
In
their
article,
he school textbook
was
augmented
with
readings
rom
magazines,
news-
papers,
and websites hat discussed he removal
of the Confederate
lag
from
atop
the South
Carolina tate house
(reading upplementary
texts).
Studentswere
encouraged
o use
literacy
criticismand social science
analysis
o decon-
struct
texts
(reading
rom a resistant
perspec-
tive).
Studentsalso
debated,
role-played,
maintained
ournals,
and
composed
essays
o
ex-
amine
how their own values affected heir "read-
ing"
of texts
(producing
countertexts).
Classroomtructures
If
social
justice
and
democracy
are ndeed
goals
of critical
iteracy,
hen we
might
expect
not
only
classroom
practices
but also
classroom
structures
to reflect hose goals.Yet n almosteveryclass-
room
practice
reviewed,
he hierarchical ela-
tionship
betweenteacherand student remained
clearly
defined,
and decision
making
was
almost
always
n
the hands of the teacher.
n
the few
in-
stanceswhen the
studenthad some control
of a
decision
(as
in
selecting
a
topic
for
research),
t
was within
boundaries
as
prescribed
nd
ap-
proved
by
the teacher.Hanrahan
1999),
for
one,
explicitly
wantedto
change
he
power
relations
in
the class.But
having
students
keep journals
hardly
constitutes
a
revolutionarydeparture
from the orthodoxyof teacheras boss the stu-
dents didn'thave the choice
of whether
o
keep
a
journal, hey
didn't
get
to
pick
the
journal
opic,
and
the teacherread
and
responded
o the
jour-
nal
entry(though journal
entries
are
anony-
mous).
Students
were even instructed
what and
how to writein their
journals.
Not evident
n
any
of the classroom
practices
was a
fully
collabora-
tive
relationship
betweenteacherand
students
as
members
of a
learning
community. ronically,
n
authoritative
ather han
negotiated
pedagogy
(Morgan,1997)appears o be a hallmarkof criti-
cal
literacy
nstruction.
Teachers
nd teacher
ed-
ucatorsmust confront
the
question
of
whether
any
pedagogy
hat
presumes
a hierarchical
ela-
tionship
between
teacherand
students
ruly
sup-
ports
the
development
of
critical
nquiry.
Critical
iteracy
nthe
content reas
Anotherquestion tillto be resolvedshow to
move critical
iteracy
eyond
he
language
rtsand
social
studiesclassrooms.
What
would
t mean and
whatwould it
look
liketo be
critically
cientific,
critically
mathematical,
r
critically
ocational?
Critical
pproaches
o
literacy
n
any
content
area
might
nclude
questions
uch as
these:
How does
specific
ext content
gain
accept-
anceand
prominence?
What
counts
as
"true"withinthe
discipline,
andwho makes hat determination?Why?
How do
particular
ext
genresgain
accept-
anceand
prominence?
Whatareconsidered
legitimate"
odesof
inquiry
within
the
discipline?
How do the
content,
genres,
nd
modes
of
inquiry
within
a
discipline
ffect
he social
relations
f
participants
n the
disciplinary
community?
496 JOURNAL
OF ADOLESCENT
ft ADULT LITERACY 4S:I
MARCH 2000
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I
lSPlMllM
m nnM M^ BflBIiKEfflfll1^^
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At the heartof critical
iteracy
nstruction
n
any
content area
s
attention o the
interrelationships
of language,power,andtext.To thatend,the six
categories
f
classroom
practice
described n
this
article
may
serveas
springboards
or
local
and
creative
daptations.
Snapshots
f current
practice
While the
examples
of instruction
presented
n
thisreviewdo not
exhaust
all
possible
approach-
es to critical
iteracy
n the
upper
primary
or
sec-
ondary
classroom,
hey
do
providesnapshots
of
currentpractice.Classroomiteracypractices
that
involvestudents n
reading upplementary
texts,
reading
multiple
texts,
reading
roma re-
sistant
perspective,
nd
producing
countertexts
all
help
develop
an
understanding
hat
text
is
given
meaning,
as
opposed
to
containing
mean-
ing.
Such
practicesmay
lead studentsto
recog-
nize that
reading
and
writing
are
necessarily
interpretive
vents.
On the other
hand,
class-
room
literacypractices
hat
involve
students
n
conducting
student-choiceresearch
projects
to
a
lesserextent)and
taking
social action (to a
greater
xtent)
have the
potential
for
affirming
therole of
reading
and
writing
as
"ways
of
being
in
the
world"
Gee,
1992,
2001).
In this
sense,
reading
and
writing
are not
merely
communica-
tiveactsbut
part
of the
habits,customs,
and
be-
haviors hat
shape
social
relations.
REFERENCES
Alford,
J.
(2001).
Learning anguage
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