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  • 8/10/2019 Teaching and Language and Literacy

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    Teaching about Language, Power, and Text: A Review of Classroom Practices that SupportCritical LiteracyAuthor(s): Edward H. BehrmanSource: Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, Vol. 49, No. 6 (Mar., 2006), pp. 490-498Published by: Wileyon behalf of the International Reading Association

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    e a c h i n g

    a b u t

    l anguage

    p o w e r

    n d

    t e x t

    r e v i e w o classroom

    practices

    t h a t

    s u p p o r t

    c r i t i c a l

    l i t e r a c y

    Edward

    H. Behrman

    ll ^ffi gfggMfMffl

    The author examinesa

    number of articles

    published

    between 1999 and

    2003 that

    present

    essons or units to

    support

    critical

    literacy

    at the

    upper

    primary

    or

    secondary

    evels,

    Critical

    iteracy

    s

    now well

    established

    as a

    major

    deological

    construct nflu-

    encing iteracy

    education

    (Cadeiro-

    Kaplan,

    002).

    The

    important

    statusaccorded o

    critical

    literacy

    has been

    underscored

    by

    the for-

    mation of the

    International

    Reading

    Association's

    Critical

    Perspectives

    n

    Literacy

    Committee o assist eachers n

    adopting

    and

    im-

    plementing

    a

    critical

    perspective

    on

    literacy

    n

    their

    classrooms

    International

    Reading

    Association,

    2004).

    But

    exactly

    how does critical

    literacy

    affectclassroom-based

    nstructionalde-

    cisions,

    and

    what

    teaching

    strategies

    are consis-

    tent with a

    critical

    iteracy

    orientation?

    Answers o these

    questions

    are

    complicated

    in

    thatcritical

    literacy

    s

    usually

    described s a

    theory

    with

    implications

    or

    practice

    ather han a

    distinctive

    nstructional

    methodology.

    For

    n-

    stance,

    Luke

    2000)

    calledcritical

    iteracy

    duca-

    tion

    "a heoretical nd

    practical

    ttitude"

    p.

    454),

    and

    Morgan

    and

    Wyatt-Smith

    2000)

    termedcrit-

    ical

    iteracy

    "overtly theory

    for

    practice"p.

    124).

    As a

    theory,

    ritical

    iteracy spouses

    hat educa-

    tion

    can fostersocial

    ustice

    by

    allowing

    tudents

    to

    recognize

    how

    language

    s affected

    by

    and af-

    fectssocial

    relations.

    Among

    the aims

    of critical

    literacy

    are o havestudents

    examine

    he

    power

    relationships

    nherent

    n

    language

    use,

    recognize

    hat

    anguage

    s not

    neutral,

    and confront

    heirown values

    n the

    production

    and

    reception

    of

    language

    (Janks,

    993;

    Lankshear,

    994, 1997;

    Lankshear&

    McLaren, 993;

    Morgan,

    1997;Shor,

    1999).

    Critical

    iteracy,

    owever,

    ppears

    o lack a

    consistently

    applied

    set of instructional

    trategies

    that would mark t as a coherent

    curricular

    p-

    proach.

    ndeed,

    some critical

    iteracyproponents

    have even resisted

    he

    development

    of

    a

    too

    nar-

    rowly

    conceived nstructional

    methodology.

    While Luke

    2000)

    recognized

    ariedclassroom

    strategies

    o fostercritical

    iteracy,

    e cautioned

    against

    a "formula or

    'doing'

    critical

    iteracy

    n

    the classroom"

    pp.

    453-454)

    and

    questioned

    he

    value

    of a state-mandated urriculum

    policy

    sup-

    porting

    critical

    iteracy.

    nstead,

    he envisionedan

    organicapproach

    o critical

    iteracy

    wherein

    teachersand

    students"invent" ritical

    iteracies

    n

    the classroom.

    McLaughlin

    nd

    DeVoogd

    2004)

    warned hat critical

    iteracy

    practices

    hould

    not

    be

    exported

    rom one classroom

    o another

    with-

    out local

    adaptation,

    nd Comber

    (2001)

    asserted

    that "critical

    iteracy

    needs to be

    continually

    ede-

    fined

    in

    practice" p. 100).

    Behrmaneaches t

    National

    niversity

    n

    Camarillo,

    alifornia

    761

    East

    Daily rive,

    uite

    20,

    Camarillo,

    A

    3010,

    USA).

    490

    JOURilL OF 1D0LESCE1T

    ADULTLITERACY 48:8

    MARCH2008

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  • 8/10/2019 Teaching and Language and Literacy

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    1 4;h 11

    li.iMllilllil^

    lflBHlBTn

    Hit rriMfflu

    ""ITm

    1 fi 1 hBThm

    One reasoncritical

    iteracymaydefy

    a uni-

    fied curricular

    pproach

    s that as a

    theory

    t de-

    pends upon multiple ntellectualtrands. anks

    (2000)

    argued

    hat

    there

    arefour orientations o

    critical

    iteracy

    ducation,

    achbased

    on a

    differ-

    ent view of the

    relationship

    etween

    language

    and

    power.

    Educators

    working

    rom a domination

    er-

    spective

    onsiderhow

    language

    and

    signs

    main-

    tain

    positions

    of socialand

    political

    domination.

    Those

    working

    rom an access

    erspective ttempt

    to

    provide

    access o dominant orms of

    language

    without

    compromising

    he

    integrity

    of nondomi-

    nant forms.

    A

    diversity erspective equires

    tten-

    tion

    to the

    way

    that uses of

    language

    reate

    ocial

    identities.

    Finally, design

    perspective mphasizes

    the need to use

    and select rom a

    range

    of avail-

    able

    semiotic

    signs.According

    o

    Janks,

    hesefour

    interdependent

    rientations

    o critical

    iteracy

    d-

    ucation

    suggest

    a

    range

    of

    pedagogical

    pproach-

    es.In order o achieve he

    social

    usticegoal

    of

    critical

    iteracy,

    ll four

    orientationsmust be

    seamed

    ogether

    "in

    complex

    moves"

    p.

    179)

    to

    balance

    one another.

    Similarly,

    uke

    2000)

    suggested

    hat the

    "unruly

    nd at times discordant"

    p.

    453)

    theoreti-

    cal

    positions

    hat informcritical

    iteracy

    those

    of

    Valentin

    Voloshinov,

    Mikhail

    Bakhtin,

    Michel

    Foucault,

    acques

    Derrida,

    Pierre

    Bourdieu,

    nd

    Paulo

    Freire)

    may

    translate nto variousclassroom

    practices.

    These

    practicesmay

    nclude

    dentifying

    multiple

    voices

    n

    texts,

    dominantcultural

    dis-

    courses,

    multiplepossible

    readings

    f

    texts,

    and

    sources

    of

    authority

    where exts areused and cri-

    tiquing

    and

    producing

    a wide

    range

    of texts.A

    critical

    iteracy genda

    houldtherefore

    encourage

    teachers

    nd students o collaborate o

    understand

    how textswork,what texts ntendto do to the

    world,

    and how socialrelations an be

    critiqued

    and reconstructed.

    The

    multiplicity

    f

    conceptualpositions

    that

    influence

    ritical

    iteracy

    nd the resistance o a

    definitive

    ritical

    literacypedagogy

    placeresponsi-

    bility

    or curriculum

    development

    n teachers

    and teacher

    ducators

    mid"the

    lux

    and flow of

    real-world

    bstaclesand

    pressures"

    Corson,

    2002,

    p.

    1

    1).

    Translating

    ritical

    literacy heory

    nto

    practice

    herefore

    presents

    a

    difficult

    hallenge

    de-

    manding nnovative nd localsolutions.

    The

    purpose

    of

    this review

    s to

    examinere-

    cently

    published

    articles hat

    provide

    classroom

    applications

    f

    critical

    iteracy

    nstruction

    or

    adolescent

    earners,

    o that

    teachersand

    teacher

    educatorswho

    support

    he

    theory

    of critical iter-

    acy

    and its

    democratizing

    alues

    may

    benefit

    from the

    experience

    of others

    who have

    already

    begun

    the

    crossing

    rom

    theory

    to

    practice.

    n the

    sense that the

    articles eviewedare

    nclusive

    of all

    indexedarticles

    published

    over

    a

    five-yearperiod

    (1999-2003),

    what

    emerges

    rom the

    review s a

    "stateof

    the field"

    n

    critical

    iteracy

    nstruction

    at the

    upper

    primary

    and

    secondary

    evels.

    The eview

    process

    In

    order o

    identify

    classroom

    practices

    or

    this

    review,

    he

    keyword

    critical

    iteracy

    was

    entered

    using

    four electronic

    databases:

    cademicSearch

    Premier,ERIC,

    PsychArticles,

    nd

    Psychlnfo.

    The

    search

    yielded

    264citations or the

    years

    1999

    through

    2003. Review

    of the 264

    abstracts

    ug-

    gested

    56 articles

    hat

    might

    include

    sufficiently

    detailed

    descriptions

    of critical

    iteracy

    essons or

    units.

    Next,

    the 56

    articleswere read o

    confirm

    that each

    describedan

    upper

    primary

    or

    second-

    ary

    schoolclassroom

    practice.

    During

    this

    phase,

    21

    articleswere

    dropped

    rom the

    review.

    Some

    of these

    eliminated

    articlesdescribeda lower

    pri-

    mary

    or

    postsecondary

    ractice

    or

    proposed

    gen-

    eral

    guidelines

    without

    describingany

    classroom

    application.

    A

    second iterature

    earch

    using

    the

    ProQuest

    Educational

    ournal

    database

    key-

    wordscritical iteracy teaching elementaryx

    middleor

    high

    school)

    ielded

    1

    additionalarticle.

    Included n this

    revieware

    36 articles

    hat

    present

    essonsor

    units

    ntended o

    support

    ritical

    literacy

    t

    the

    upper

    primary

    r

    secondary

    evels

    (grades

    -12).

    Although

    ritical

    literacy

    s

    not a

    discipline-bound

    heory

    and

    may

    be

    applied

    o the

    study

    of

    language

    nd text n

    anysubject

    rea,

    4

    of

    the 36

    articles

    resent

    activitieswithina

    language

    JOURNAL OF 100LESCEIT & ADULT LITERACY 49:6 MARCH 2006 491

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  • 8/10/2019 Teaching and Language and Literacy

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    arts,

    nterdisciplinaryanguage

    rts-social

    tudies,

    or

    interdisciplinary

    anguage

    rts-science

    ontext.

    Social tudies s the secondmostfrequentubject

    area

    epresented

    8 articles).

    The

    remaining

    rticles

    describe

    ractices

    n

    science,

    writing

    with

    special

    needs

    students,

    he

    computer

    ab,

    and an

    unspeci-

    fied

    subject

    rea.

    Thirty-three

    f the articles

    de-

    scribea traditional lassroom

    etting,

    2 articles

    describe ome

    schooling,

    nd

    1

    articledescribes

    tutoring

    essions.

    In

    some articles he classroom

    practice

    s the

    focus of a research

    nvestigation.

    nothers he

    classroom

    practice

    s

    presented

    s an

    example

    within a broaderdiscussionof critical iteracy, nd

    in

    a few articles he classroom

    practice

    s

    simply

    being

    shared

    as a

    lesson

    or unit idea.

    In

    the

    review,

    articles re

    distinguished

    y

    the classroom

    prac-

    tice rather han their

    ntent.Most classroom

    prac-

    tices havenot been

    formally

    valuated

    y

    the

    contributing

    uthors,

    nor is there

    anyattempt

    hereto evaluate he effectiveness

    f each

    practice.

    The

    review

    organizes

    he classroom

    prac-

    tices into six broad

    categories

    based on student

    activities

    or tasks:

    1)

    reading

    upplementary

    texts,(2) readingmultiple exts,(3) reading rom

    a resistant

    perspective,

    4)

    producing

    counter-

    texts,

    (5)

    conducting

    tudent-choice

    esearch

    projects,

    nd

    (6)

    taking

    social action.

    Reading

    upplementary

    exts

    Often eachers

    indthat o

    develop

    a critical

    per-

    spective,

    raditional lassroom

    extsneedto be

    sup-

    plemented y

    otherworksof

    fiction,

    nonfiction,

    film,

    or

    popular

    ulture.

    Underlying

    his

    approach

    is the

    assumption

    hat

    raditional

    r canonical

    exts

    are

    somehowdeficient

    n

    helping

    tudents

    ocus on

    social

    ssues,

    and that

    supplementary

    exts

    may

    al-

    low students o confront ocial ssues

    glossed

    over

    or avoided

    by

    traditionalexts.

    Houser

    2001)

    proposed

    hatto

    develop

    o-

    cial,cultural,

    nd

    ecological

    understanding,

    hil-

    dren's r adolescent

    iterature such

    as MildredD.

    Taylor's

    oll

    of

    Thunder,

    ear

    My Cry

    2000,

    Speak),

    ulie

    Brinckloe's

    ireflies

    1986,

    Aladdin),

    and

    Jean

    Craighead

    George's

    The

    Missing

    Gator

    f

    Gumbo

    Limbo

    1993,

    HarperTrophy)

    maybe

    more beneficialhantextbooks,whichtend to be

    sanitized

    nd devoid

    of

    multipleperspectives.

    ean

    and Moni

    (2003)

    similarly

    dvocated

    eading

    young

    adult

    novels o

    stimulate

    discussions

    f so-

    cietalconflicts

    and

    teen

    problems.

    Students

    may

    be

    assigned

    upplementary

    iction

    specifically

    ecause

    it focuses

    on an

    important

    ocial

    ssue

    such as

    racial

    discrimination,

    lavery,

    r

    marginalization

    (Gruber

    &

    Boreen,2003;

    Johnson

    &

    Ciancio,

    003;

    Leland t

    al.,

    2003;

    Rogers,

    002;

    Tyson,

    1999).

    Students

    an also

    read

    supplementary

    on-

    fiction,

    as

    in

    studyinggreat

    eaders

    uch

    asMartin

    Luther

    King,

    Jr.,

    ndira

    Gandhi,

    Franklin

    Delano

    Roosevelt,

    nd

    Nelson

    Mandela o

    experience

    he

    power

    of

    language

    o

    shape hought

    and mobilize

    action

    (Sisk,2002).

    Music

    and

    film

    likewise

    may

    supplement

    raditional

    exts.

    Songs

    by

    popular

    artists

    e.g.,

    Tracy

    Chapman,

    Phil

    Collins,

    Marvin

    Gaye,

    John

    Mellencamp,

    nd

    Sting)may

    provide

    students

    with

    politically

    ontextualized

    nder-

    standings

    of issuesrelated

    o the

    environment,

    history,

    conomics,

    politics,

    and

    racism

    Lloyd,

    2003).

    In

    one

    class,

    a

    teacher

    using

    film as

    supple-

    mentary extpairedFrancisFordCoppola'silm

    versionof Mario

    Puzo's

    The

    Godfather

    ith.

    Homer's

    The

    Odyssey

    o demonstrate

    arallels

    e-

    tween

    contemporary owerstruggles

    nd

    thosein

    canonical exts

    (Morrell,

    000).

    Clearly

    he

    legitimacy

    of

    such an

    approach

    must

    be based on

    the

    supposed

    deficit

    n

    the

    tra-

    ditional

    ext

    (and

    the

    proposed

    compensatory

    virtuesof the

    supplementary

    ext).

    Yetan

    asser-

    tion

    that a text

    minimizes he

    social

    mpact

    of

    an

    event,

    presents

    a

    problem

    rom

    an ethnocentric

    or gender-based iewpoint,or considersan activ-

    ity

    within

    a

    historically

    ituated,

    noncontempora-

    neous

    context

    need not

    invalidate

    tudy

    of the

    traditional

    ext.

    Those

    very

    features

    may

    be

    the

    focus

    of critical

    nquiry.

    Reading

    multiple

    exts

    To

    introduce

    students

    o the

    subjectivity

    f

    au-

    thorship,

    anotherclassroom

    practice

    o

    develop

    a

    492

    JOURNAL OF

    liOLESCEWT &

    ADULT

    LITERACY

    49:6

    MARCH 2008

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    ifJTiBlhim I Iplij Ih

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    critical

    perspective

    s

    reading

    multiple

    exts on

    the same

    topic.

    For

    example,Spires

    1999)

    want-

    ed her students o analyzehow the authorpor-

    trays

    different

    ocial

    groups

    within

    Harper

    Lee's

    novel ToKilla

    Mockingbird

    1988,

    Warner

    Books).

    In

    the

    prereading ctivity

    described,

    tu-

    dents read ive versionsof the

    fairy

    ale

    "Little

    Red

    Riding

    Hood"and

    responded

    n

    their

    our-

    nals to this

    question:

    Whose valuesare

    being

    pro-

    moted

    in

    these different ersions?

    Mellorand Patterson

    2000)

    similarly

    sed

    multiple

    extsas an

    entry

    o

    criticality.

    heirclass-

    room

    practice

    was ntended o

    disrupt

    he notion

    that extualmeanings fixedand to subvert n in-

    terpretation

    f William

    Shakespeare's

    orkas

    "historical

    et

    eternal." tudents

    ead wo critical

    analyses

    f

    Ophelia pious

    versus

    wanton)

    and then

    examined

    elected cenes romHamlet

    o evaluate

    theirown

    readings

    f

    Ophelia.

    The exercise llowed

    students

    o

    recognize

    ow

    a critic

    may

    ncludeor

    ignore

    evidence

    o "fit" n

    interpretation.

    Reading

    multiple

    exts

    encourages

    tudents

    to understand

    uthorship

    as

    situated

    activity.

    Students

    canconsiderwho constructed

    he

    text,

    when,

    where,

    why,

    andthevalueson whichit was

    based.

    By

    experiencing

    different

    reatmentsof the

    same

    topic

    or

    event,

    students

    begin

    to

    recognize

    that

    text

    is not "true"

    n

    any

    absolute ense

    but a

    rendering

    s

    portrayed y

    an author.

    Reading

    rom

    a resistant

    perspective

    A text

    may

    be

    interpreted

    rom various

    positions,

    including

    he

    invited,

    author-centered

    iew and

    the

    resistant,

    world-centered

    iew

    (Alford,2001).

    Students an be

    encouraged

    o

    "peel"

    ifferent

    layers

    of

    meaning

    rom a text

    and

    to

    explore

    how

    the same

    reader

    might

    approach

    a

    text from dif-

    ferent dentities

    based on

    race,

    ethnicity,

    lass,

    gender,

    anguage,

    exuality,

    nd

    religion

    (Foss,

    2002).

    This classroom

    practiceplacesemphasis

    on how

    the reader's aluesand the author's tance

    can

    position

    the reader o form an

    interpretation

    of text.

    Reading

    rom a resistant

    perspective

    e-

    quires

    a conscious

    awareness

    f the

    influences

    upon

    text

    interpretation.

    Acquiringa resistantperspectives some-

    times stimulated

    by asking

    students o assume

    new

    or unfamiliardentities.

    For

    example,

    n

    a

    unit on

    Wisconsin

    state

    history,

    he

    teacheror-

    ganized

    students nto

    small

    groups

    that took on

    a

    family dentity

    (e.g.,

    Native

    American,

    German

    American,

    English

    American)

    andthen ex-

    pressed

    heir

    family's

    views as

    Wisconsin

    evolved

    from

    part

    of the

    Northwest

    Territory

    o

    a

    sepa-

    rate

    territory

    and

    then to

    statehood

    (McCall,

    2002).

    Similarly,

    nother eacher ntroduced

    Laura ngallsWilder s LittleHouseon thePrairie

    (1953,

    HarperTrophy) y

    asking

    students

    o con-

    sider theirreactions o the

    white

    and

    Native

    Americancharacters.

    Finding

    heir

    responses

    Eurocentric,

    he

    encouraged

    tudents o recon-

    sider

    their

    responses

    rom

    a

    Native

    American

    point

    of view

    (Kuhlman, 001).

    A resistant

    perspective

    an

    also be motivat-

    ed

    by

    inviting

    students o read rom analternative

    frame

    of

    reference.Lien

    (2003)

    describeda simu-

    lation

    game

    to introduce he

    concept

    of

    capital

    (using

    chocolate

    candy)

    as a

    warm-up or a criti-

    cal

    literacy

    unit aboutVietnamese

    history

    and

    culture.Via the simulation he allowed

    students

    to

    experience

    how

    wealth

    or

    poverty

    can differen-

    tially

    affect

    nterpretations

    f

    communismand

    resourceallocation.

    Several rticles

    describehow resistant

    ead-

    ing

    is introduced

    hrough

    an

    analysis

    of author

    stanceand text featuresandtheir effecton

    posi-

    tioning

    the reader

    Baker,

    Gormley,

    Lawler,

    &

    McDermott,2001;

    Caviglia,

    002;

    Doherty,

    2002;

    Howie, 2002a;

    Parr, 001;Wilson,2001;

    Young,

    2001),

    including

    one

    example

    of

    reading

    and in-

    terpreting documentary

    ilm

    (Howie,

    2002b).

    Wilson showedhow

    articles

    n

    popular

    music

    magazines

    an be

    used to

    help

    students

    question

    the notion of author

    neutrality.

    n

    the

    unit de-

    scribed,

    tudents

    dentifiednot

    only

    what

    they

    learned

    but also what

    they

    did not learn

    about

    the

    performers

    nterviewed n the

    magazine,

    and

    they

    attempted

    o

    determine

    why

    the

    author

    JOURiAL OF ADOLESCENT & ADULT LITERACY 48:8 MARCH 2006 493

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    asked

    particular uestions

    during

    an interview.

    Young

    detailedhow male students

    analyzed

    he

    advertising nd articles n teenmagazineso de-

    termine he intended

    readership

    f each.Next

    they

    reviewed he articles o discover

    how the

    magazinesportrayed

    he

    "perfect

    oy"

    and the

    "perfect

    irl."

    The

    boys

    decided hat one of

    the

    magazines

    was slanted oward

    ports-minded

    girls

    but that

    the otherswere slanted oward

    clothes-minded

    girls.Caviglia

    described lass-

    room activities

    n which

    students

    weretold a lie

    or asked o constructa lie. She

    proposed

    ie de-

    tecting

    as a

    step

    toward

    developing

    a resistant

    perspective,

    ecause

    determining

    whethera state-

    ment is accurate

    equiresanalysis

    of not

    only

    facts

    but also motivesand

    ideologies

    of the writer

    and the reader.

    Another

    application

    f the resistant-

    perspective pproach

    nvolves

    having

    studentsan-

    alyze

    ext

    using

    functional

    grammar

    Unsworth,

    1999;Williams,

    001)

    or

    lexical

    classification

    (Young,

    000).

    Functional

    rammar

    onsiders

    he

    ideational,

    nterpersonal,

    nd

    textual

    meanings

    n

    aclause,unlike raditional rammarhat focuses

    on correctness f structure.For

    example,

    n a unit

    combining

    critical

    iteracy

    nd functional

    gram-

    mar,

    tudents

    were

    given

    an

    assignment

    o con-

    trastconstructions f

    gender

    n

    popular

    ongs

    (Williams).

    Each

    studentselecteda

    song

    and

    ac-

    companying

    ideo

    clip

    to

    identify

    he actor

    (sub-

    ject),

    process

    verb),

    process ype (e.g.,

    action

    verb),

    and

    goal (object).

    As an

    alternative,

    sing

    lexical

    classification,

    tudents

    can determinehow

    gender

    s

    represented

    y

    the author.

    For

    nstance,

    an articleon soccerdescribed superior emale

    athleteas

    "young," girl,"

    nd

    "top

    woman,"

    ut

    for

    a

    superior

    male athlete he

    description

    ncluded

    "player,"

    skillswere

    subtle,"

    nd

    "great"Young).

    Withboth methods he

    student s

    required

    o

    considerhow the

    author's onscious

    choice of

    words,

    word

    order,

    or sentence

    tructure an

    posi-

    tion the reader o

    accept

    an

    argument

    or value a

    statement

    rom the writer's

    perspective.

    Producing

    ountertexts

    A

    countertext

    r counternarrative

    s a student-

    created

    ext that

    presents

    a

    topic

    from a

    nonmain-

    stream

    perspective.

    roducing

    ountertexts

    an

    serve

    o validate

    he

    thoughts,

    observations,

    nd

    feelings

    of studentsand

    other

    underrepresented

    groups.

    The countertext

    may

    be

    a

    personal

    e-

    sponse

    to the

    topic being

    earned,

    as

    in a

    reading

    log

    or

    journal

    Hanrahan,

    999;

    Young,

    2000),

    a

    personal

    narrative

    Fairbanks,

    000;

    Montgomery

    &

    Kahn,

    2003),

    or a conscious

    effort

    o write

    from

    another's

    oint

    of

    view

    (Spires,

    1999).

    Forexam-

    ple,

    Hanrahan

    roposed

    hat

    ournal

    writing

    n a

    scienceclasscannot onlyprovide tudentswith

    avenues o construct

    heir

    understandings

    f sci-

    ence

    concepts

    butalso

    endorse

    he students'

    x-

    pressions

    of their

    experience.

    In one extensive

    pplication

    f

    countertext,

    black

    tudents

    n a

    segregated

    outh

    African

    high

    school

    set out

    to create

    a text

    about

    young

    overs

    n

    their

    rural

    village.They

    produced

    a comic

    that

    n-

    cluded hree

    stories:

    The

    firstwas

    about overs

    who

    had

    a

    baby

    and

    got

    married,

    he second

    was an

    ac-

    count of

    how the students

    went about

    revising

    he

    original tory,

    and the

    third

    was the

    revised

    tory

    in

    which

    the

    girl

    nsisted

    on

    safesex

    and

    stopped

    dating

    when she

    learnedher

    boyfriend

    was cheat-

    ing.

    To create

    he revised

    omance,

    tudents

    on-

    sidered

    multiple

    views

    of

    dating,

    ex,

    fidelity,

    nd

    violence

    against

    women.

    Thus

    n therevised

    tory

    they

    wereable o

    move

    away

    rom a

    narrativef

    male domination

    Shariff

    &

    Janks, 001).

    Essentially

    he

    countertext

    pproach

    denti-

    fies studentsas

    members

    of a

    marginalized

    ub-

    group

    whose

    "voice" as been

    given

    egitimacy.

    Therefore,

    he successful

    useof countertext

    may

    require

    lassroom

    onversation

    boutthe

    process

    by

    which

    any

    text

    gains

    acceptance,

    within

    both

    the

    immediateand

    more

    global

    communities.

    Conducting

    tudent-choice

    research

    projects

    Whereas

    producing

    ountertexts

    laces

    emphasis

    on the student's

    perspective,

    hisnext

    category

    494

    JOURNAL

    IF ADOLESCENT

    liULT LITERACY

    4i:8

    MARCH

    2008

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    7/10

    i^

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    placesemphasis

    on the student's hoice of

    topic.

    A

    student-choice esearch

    roject

    s envisionedas a

    wayto lessen hespacebetweenschool-sanctioned

    topics

    and those

    usually

    considered kid's usi-

    ness"

    Fairbanks,000).

    Eachstudent dentifiesan

    importantpersonal opic

    and then

    conducts

    ex-

    tensiveresearch n it. The rationale

    underlying

    this

    approach

    s that the

    everyday

    ventsoccur-

    ring

    n

    the

    livesof studentsare

    legitimateobjects

    of academic

    tudy.

    The curriculumbecomesne-

    gotiable

    when studentsare

    permitted

    o conduct

    research n

    personal opics,

    and the students

    gain

    more controlovertheir

    own

    learning.

    Forexample,Rubin 2002)reported n acase

    study

    of six female tudents

    using

    an I-Search ech-

    nique

    o

    investigate

    social ssueof

    personal

    nter-

    est.Students

    elected s

    personal opics

    acquaintanceape,depression

    nd

    suicide,

    body

    image,

    bipolar

    disorder,

    nd

    gender quity

    n

    sports.

    Theresearch

    roject

    equiredibrary

    nd

    electronic

    ources,

    nterviews,

    nd observations.

    Forstudent-choice esearch

    rojects

    o culti-

    vate critical

    iteracy,

    owever,

    he

    activity

    must

    go

    beyond

    simplyselecting

    a

    topic

    and

    finding

    i-

    brary

    books orwebsiteson the

    topic.

    Students

    must become

    engaged

    participants

    n

    a

    problem

    affecting

    hem

    and be ableto reflect

    upon

    the

    so-

    cial

    and cultural orces hat exacerbate

    r

    mitigate

    the

    problem.

    Taking

    ocial action

    In

    order

    o

    employ

    their

    iteracy

    kills o chal-

    lenge power

    structures,

    tudents

    can

    engage

    n

    so-

    cial action

    projects

    aimed at

    making

    a

    real

    differencen their or others' ives.The rationale

    for social

    action is that critical

    iteracy

    nstruction

    should not be

    limited to the

    promotion

    of

    per-

    sonalized

    or internalized

    econceptualizations

    f

    language,

    power,

    and text.Whereas

    tudent-

    choice research

    rojects

    move

    important

    real-life

    issues

    nto the school

    setting,

    an outcome of so-

    cial action s

    to move students' eal-lifeconcerns

    beyond

    classroomwalls.

    Taking

    ocial action re-

    quires

    students o

    become

    involvedas

    members

    of a

    larger

    community.

    Sucha socialactionprojectwasdescribed n

    Powell,

    Cantrell,

    nd Adams

    (2001).

    After

    earn-

    ing

    that the

    highest

    peak

    n

    Kentucky

    was

    slated

    for

    strip

    mining,

    students

    became

    determined o

    save

    Black

    Mountain.

    nitially

    hestudents

    want-

    ed

    simply

    o learnmore

    about the

    mountain,

    o

    take an

    informed

    position.

    Through

    nterviews

    with

    miners,

    mining company

    officials,

    andac-

    tivists,

    hey

    came to

    recognize

    he

    competing

    en-

    vironmentaland

    economic interests.

    They

    visited

    the mountain

    and tookwater

    samples

    rom ocal

    wells.Eventuallyheytook a moreassertive ole

    in

    trying

    to save

    he

    mountain.After

    raising

    thousandsof

    dollars,

    hey

    contacted ocal

    news-

    papers

    and television

    stationsand held

    press

    con-

    ferences o raise

    public

    awareness.

    They

    submitteda

    10-pageproposal

    o a

    state

    agency

    with

    alternative

    ecommendations nd

    appeared

    before

    a

    subcommitteeof the

    state

    egislature.

    n

    part

    through

    he students'

    fforts,

    a

    compromise

    solution was

    adopted

    by

    the

    stateof

    Kentucky.

    Of

    course,

    not allsocial action

    projects

    will

    have such a

    satisfactory

    esult.

    Unsatisfactory

    e-

    sults are

    hardly

    wasted

    efforts,

    hough,

    as exami-

    nationof

    why

    the effortwas

    unsuccessful an

    drawattentionto imbalances

    hat

    may

    exist

    throughout

    he course of

    decision

    making.

    In ei-

    ther

    case,

    taking

    social action

    allows students o

    recognize iteracy

    as

    a

    sociocultural

    process

    and

    to

    engage iteracy

    as

    a vehicle for social

    change.

    Integrating

    ctivities

    Although

    for

    illustrative

    purposes

    he six cate-

    gories

    described

    previously

    n

    this article

    have

    been

    presented

    as

    discrete,

    n

    many

    of the class-

    room

    practices,

    activitiesare

    merged

    so that

    stu-

    dents are

    engaged

    n

    two or

    more of the

    tasks.

    For

    example,

    Henry

    (2002)

    detailed

    a

    lesson on

    multiple

    viewpoints

    n

    which

    students

    readtwo

    versions

    of several

    airy

    ales and

    completed

    compare/contrast

    iagrams

    or each

    pair

    (read-

    ing multiple

    texts).

    Students

    hen

    rewrotea

    fairy

    JOURiAL OF 1D0LESCE1T & ADULT LITERACY 48:8 MARCH 2008 495

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  • 8/10/2019 Teaching and Language and Literacy

    8/10

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    mmmt.

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    tale from

    the

    perspective

    of

    a

    differentcharacter

    or

    object

    within the tale

    (producing

    counter-

    texts).Bean and Moni (2003) describedhow

    reading

    he

    young

    adult novel

    Fighting

    Ruben

    Wolfeby

    MarkusZusak

    (2002,Push)

    (reading

    supplementary

    exts)

    can lead to discussionof

    subject-and-reader

    ositioning, gaps

    and si-

    lences,

    and alternative

    epresentationsreading

    from a

    resistant

    perspective).

    Wolk

    (2003)

    presented

    a

    generalized,

    multi-

    faceted

    strategy

    o

    teach for

    critical

    iteracy

    hat

    may

    involve

    adding

    fiction,

    nonfiction,

    and

    newspapers

    o the standard

    urriculum;

    onnect-

    ing students' xperiencesandopinionsto the

    subject

    matter;

    and

    using writing

    to

    foster criti-

    cal

    viewpoints.

    An

    example

    of such an

    approach

    was

    described

    by

    Schramm-Pate

    nd Lussier

    (2003).

    In

    their

    article,

    he school textbook

    was

    augmented

    with

    readings

    rom

    magazines,

    news-

    papers,

    and websites hat discussed he removal

    of the Confederate

    lag

    from

    atop

    the South

    Carolina tate house

    (reading upplementary

    texts).

    Studentswere

    encouraged

    o use

    literacy

    criticismand social science

    analysis

    o decon-

    struct

    texts

    (reading

    rom a resistant

    perspec-

    tive).

    Studentsalso

    debated,

    role-played,

    maintained

    ournals,

    and

    composed

    essays

    o

    ex-

    amine

    how their own values affected heir "read-

    ing"

    of texts

    (producing

    countertexts).

    Classroomtructures

    If

    social

    justice

    and

    democracy

    are ndeed

    goals

    of critical

    iteracy,

    hen we

    might

    expect

    not

    only

    classroom

    practices

    but also

    classroom

    structures

    to reflect hose goals.Yet n almosteveryclass-

    room

    practice

    reviewed,

    he hierarchical ela-

    tionship

    betweenteacherand student remained

    clearly

    defined,

    and decision

    making

    was

    almost

    always

    n

    the hands of the teacher.

    n

    the few

    in-

    stanceswhen the

    studenthad some control

    of a

    decision

    (as

    in

    selecting

    a

    topic

    for

    research),

    t

    was within

    boundaries

    as

    prescribed

    nd

    ap-

    proved

    by

    the teacher.Hanrahan

    1999),

    for

    one,

    explicitly

    wantedto

    change

    he

    power

    relations

    in

    the class.But

    having

    students

    keep journals

    hardly

    constitutes

    a

    revolutionarydeparture

    from the orthodoxyof teacheras boss the stu-

    dents didn'thave the choice

    of whether

    o

    keep

    a

    journal, hey

    didn't

    get

    to

    pick

    the

    journal

    opic,

    and

    the teacherread

    and

    responded

    o the

    jour-

    nal

    entry(though journal

    entries

    are

    anony-

    mous).

    Students

    were even instructed

    what and

    how to writein their

    journals.

    Not evident

    n

    any

    of the classroom

    practices

    was a

    fully

    collabora-

    tive

    relationship

    betweenteacherand

    students

    as

    members

    of a

    learning

    community. ronically,

    n

    authoritative

    ather han

    negotiated

    pedagogy

    (Morgan,1997)appears o be a hallmarkof criti-

    cal

    literacy

    nstruction.

    Teachers

    nd teacher

    ed-

    ucatorsmust confront

    the

    question

    of

    whether

    any

    pedagogy

    hat

    presumes

    a hierarchical

    ela-

    tionship

    between

    teacherand

    students

    ruly

    sup-

    ports

    the

    development

    of

    critical

    nquiry.

    Critical

    iteracy

    nthe

    content reas

    Anotherquestion tillto be resolvedshow to

    move critical

    iteracy

    eyond

    he

    language

    rtsand

    social

    studiesclassrooms.

    What

    would

    t mean and

    whatwould it

    look

    liketo be

    critically

    cientific,

    critically

    mathematical,

    r

    critically

    ocational?

    Critical

    pproaches

    o

    literacy

    n

    any

    content

    area

    might

    nclude

    questions

    uch as

    these:

    How does

    specific

    ext content

    gain

    accept-

    anceand

    prominence?

    What

    counts

    as

    "true"withinthe

    discipline,

    andwho makes hat determination?Why?

    How do

    particular

    ext

    genresgain

    accept-

    anceand

    prominence?

    Whatareconsidered

    legitimate"

    odesof

    inquiry

    within

    the

    discipline?

    How do the

    content,

    genres,

    nd

    modes

    of

    inquiry

    within

    a

    discipline

    ffect

    he social

    relations

    f

    participants

    n the

    disciplinary

    community?

    496 JOURNAL

    OF ADOLESCENT

    ft ADULT LITERACY 4S:I

    MARCH 2000

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  • 8/10/2019 Teaching and Language and Literacy

    9/10

    I

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    At the heartof critical

    iteracy

    nstruction

    n

    any

    content area

    s

    attention o the

    interrelationships

    of language,power,andtext.To thatend,the six

    categories

    f

    classroom

    practice

    described n

    this

    article

    may

    serveas

    springboards

    or

    local

    and

    creative

    daptations.

    Snapshots

    f current

    practice

    While the

    examples

    of instruction

    presented

    n

    thisreviewdo not

    exhaust

    all

    possible

    approach-

    es to critical

    iteracy

    n the

    upper

    primary

    or

    sec-

    ondary

    classroom,

    hey

    do

    providesnapshots

    of

    currentpractice.Classroomiteracypractices

    that

    involvestudents n

    reading upplementary

    texts,

    reading

    multiple

    texts,

    reading

    roma re-

    sistant

    perspective,

    nd

    producing

    countertexts

    all

    help

    develop

    an

    understanding

    hat

    text

    is

    given

    meaning,

    as

    opposed

    to

    containing

    mean-

    ing.

    Such

    practicesmay

    lead studentsto

    recog-

    nize that

    reading

    and

    writing

    are

    necessarily

    interpretive

    vents.

    On the other

    hand,

    class-

    room

    literacypractices

    hat

    involve

    students

    n

    conducting

    student-choiceresearch

    projects

    to

    a

    lesserextent)and

    taking

    social action (to a

    greater

    xtent)

    have the

    potential

    for

    affirming

    therole of

    reading

    and

    writing

    as

    "ways

    of

    being

    in

    the

    world"

    Gee,

    1992,

    2001).

    In this

    sense,

    reading

    and

    writing

    are not

    merely

    communica-

    tiveactsbut

    part

    of the

    habits,customs,

    and

    be-

    haviors hat

    shape

    social

    relations.

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  • 8/10/2019 Teaching and Language and Literacy

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