i

TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES OF INCORPORATING

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

IN THE LIFE SCIENCES CLASSROOM

by

MELIDA MODIANE MOTHWA

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

MASTERS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

to the

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG SUPERVISOR: DR JJJ DE BEER CO- SUPERVISOR: DR U RAMNARAIN NOVEMBER 2011

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DECLARATION I declare that the work contained in this dissertation is my own and all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of references. I also declare that I have not previously submitted this dissertation or any part of it to any university in order to obtain a degree. Signature:---------------------------------------------------- (Melida M. Mothwa) Johannesburg November 2011

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ACNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to dedicate this study to my determined and dedicated husband, Lesiba Edward, who was with me despite all the odds. He helped me with everything I needed for the research and really encouraged me to complete the course. He was always behind me in everything and I thank him for the support he gave me. Our two sons, Maropeng Pat and Lesetja David, were also understanding. They encouraged me to look ahead with hope. They motivated me and even made sacrifices so that this study could be a success. Dr Josef De Beer, my supervisor, played a crucial role in my academic studies. Thank you once more, Doctor, for your guidance, courage and enormous patience throughout my studies, especially in giving direction in terms of my studies. You were a shoulder to lean on during the trying times and a pillar of strength all the way.Dr U Ramnaran, thank you also for yor support. I sincerely thank the National Research Foundation and the University of Johannesburg for their financial support. A word of gratitude to my RNA group which gave me support and brilliant ideas during my studies. Your deeds and inputs did not go unnoticed. Mrs MJ Mohale, who is my colleague at work and who studies the same learning area, played a crucial role throughout the research. She always picked me up with brilliant ideas and revived me. I salute you. The contribution you have made to my studies means a lot to me. Mokgadi Matlakala, you are a real sister. I thank you for your support and brilliant ideas. This carried me through tough times. Pastor L.E. Kgatle and his wife Mazo, you supported me all the way and gave me courage. Thank you also to the local congregation that prayed for me. I acknowledge your efforts. P.J. Ramathoka, principal of Phusela High, you are my hero because you encouraged me to further my studies in my learning area and you helped me with certain ideas. My colleagues with whom I exchanged knowledge and ideas at work – Mokware, Megokgo, Ntepane and Baatseba – I thank you all. You formed a very mighty team behind me. A special word of thanks and acknowledgement to all the people with whom I interacted throughout the research. The teachers who voluntarily responded to my pleas, I salute you. Your positive responses helped to turn this project into a success. Mashaba M V, with your knowledge of technology, were alsways available and your deeds did not go unnoticed.

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SYNOPSIS South Africa is one of the global hotspots of both biological and ethnic diversity.

Southern Africa is rich in angiosperm species, and the angiosperm species count is

considered to be 21,817. The traditional medicinal systems of different cultural

groups and their herbal, animal and mineral materia medica have ancient origins

which may date back to Palaeolithic times. Indigenous knowledge (IK) and cultural

practices in many areas of the country provide learners with a good “entry” into the

scientific world. A true constructivist teacher will realise the importance of building

new knowledge on learners’ existing knowledge. This will show the learners how

relevant science is to our daily lives. It might also open future career opportunities,

and develop learners’ entrepreneurial skills.

This fact is acknowledged by the new curriculum (the National Curriculum

Statement), and Life Sciences teachers are expected to infuse their teaching with

indigenous knowledge. When these new policies were created, policy makers

focused on the what of desired educational change, and unfortunately neglected the

how (Rogan & Aldous, 2009). Teachers often have limited understanding of the

curriculum changes. The textbooks used in class give little or even no proper

information about indigenous knowledge. Whereas some textbooks still provide

information on IK in the form of examples, hardly any attention is given to teaching

strategies and practical work that can be done in the classroom. My study highlights

the problem that many teachers simply ignore IK, due to their lack of Pedagogical

Content Knowledge (PCK) in this regard, and the lack of guidance and support from

the Department of Education. As many teachers were trained in the “old method” of

teaching and not in the pedagogy prescribed by the National Curriculum Statement

(NCS), many of them do not have specific knowledge about the indigenous

knowledge that they need to impart to learners. Those who are fortunate enough to

have sufficient knowledge of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS), often lack the

pedagogy. Once again, we need to go back in history to understand why teachers

find it so difficult to teach IK. In the apartheid era it was a taboo to mention traditional

medicine in the classroom. Our traditional medicine was often replaced by Western

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medicine. Black South Africans were robbed of their identity. Under the Suppression

of Witchcraft Act, indigenous belief systems were undermined and in most cases

referred to as pagan (heathen) belief systems. As a result, indigenous belief systems

were viewed as something that derails society.

This study focuses on a number of issues related to the incorporation of indigenous

knowledge in the classroom. One of the main concerns is teachers’ pedagogical

content knowledge (PCK). Two additional factors also make the introduction of

indigenous knowledge difficult in the classroom: (a) the multicultural South African

society (whose IK should be entertained?), and (b) the nature of science, and many

teachers’ perception that the introduction of IK would constitute pseudo-science.

The question arises whether it is possible to introduce indigenous knowledge in a

scientific way in the Life Sciences classroom. Is an IK focus compliant with the

syntactical nature of Life Sciences, namely an emphasis on inquiry-based

approaches? A second question arises: Are South African teachers able to teach IK

in such a context? As mentioned above, many Life Sciences teachers find it difficult

to follow heuristic approaches where learners engage with discovery learning –

making observations, formulating hypotheses, developing experimental designs,

collecting and interpreting data, and making conclusions. Now, in addition to this

challenge, teachers need to follow such a pedagogy to investigate indigenous

knowledge claims. It is just so much easier for teachers to rely on “chalk and talk”

approaches, as a study of Petersen (2010) reveals.

This study focuses on the lived experiences of Life Sciences teachers in

incorporating IK in their teaching, and on whether these teachers’ pedagogical

content knowledge is adequate. Explanatory, sequential and mixed-method research

– which involves both quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis – has

been done (Creswell, 2009). The quantitative study draws from a University of

Johannesburg Science Education study that was commissioned by the Gauteng

Department of Education (GDE). One of the sections in the questionnaire, which was

sent to all the Gauteng schools offering Life Sciences, deals with indigenous

knowledge. A Likert scale was used, and STATKON, the statistical unit of the

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University of Johannesburg (UJ), analysed the data. More than 250 completed

questionnaires have been returned to serve as underpinning for this study.

Based on the teachers’ feedback, an interview protocol was compiled for the

qualitative part of the research.

Phase 2 of the study entailed the generic qualitative inquiry (with elements of a

phenomenological approach, since I wanted to capture the “lived experiences” of the

teachers). A number of teachers were individually interviewed and the interviews

were recorded. Transcriptions were made and analysed to reveal a number of

codes, categories, patterns and themes. In addition to the interviews, the researcher

also made use of classroom observations and looked at both teachers and learners’

portfolios. Another data source informing the qualitative part of the study is the

Grade 12 examination scripts which were analysed. The researcher tried, through

the triangulation of the data, to provide a portrait of the lived experiences of teachers

regarding the introduction of IK in their teaching. In this regard, Cultural Historical

Activity Theory (CHAT) was used as a lens.

This study shows that teachers lack knowledge in all three the PCK domains:

(a) Teachers do not have sufficient content knowledge to adequately teach IK.

From the interviews it is clear that most teachers have very little knowledge of

how our indigenous flora can be used for medicinal reasons. Most teachers

also do not have sufficient chemical and pharmacological content knowledge

to understand complicated techniques such as chromatography (and the

organic chemistry to understand the different active ingredients that have

been isolated in plants).

(b) Teachers lack the pedagogical knowledge to use science-as-inquiry

approaches to teach IK. From the qualitative data it is clear that most teachers

pay lip service to IK, and merely mention a few examples of IK in class.

Golden opportunities exist where the teacher could have provided learners

with examples of scientific processes and procedures that support IK claims.

For example, Botany can come alive if a teacher introduces simple

chromatography techniques while busy with plant studies or organic

chemistry. Simple chromatography can be done on shoestring science in the

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laboratory. As enrichment, a teacher can also refer to modern techniques

used in laboratories today, such as thin layer chromatography (TLC), liquid

chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) or high-

performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These are basic procedures

applied in most university laboratories, and they will give learners a better

understanding of the nature of science, as well as future career opportunities.

(c) Teachers often lack the contextual knowledge insofar as they have limited (or

no) IK of different cultural groups in South Africa.

This study also contributes to new knowledge by providing a detailed curriculum,

based on the current NCS/CAPS, on how IK can be taught in the existing themes.

This will be part of the research report provided to the Gauteng Department of

Education, following a UJ research project that was commissioned by the GDE.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCING THIS STUDY

1.1 Background to the problem 1

1.2 Knowledge apartheid: the ROSE study and IK 6

1.3 What is the gap that this study addresses? 7

1.4 Research questions 8

1.5 Research design 9

1.6 Overview of the dissertation 9

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE OVERVIEW: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

IN THE LIFE SCIENCES CLASSROOM, AND THE THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK OF THIS STUDY

2.1 Introduction 11

2.2 Definitions 12

2.2.1 Indigenous Knowledge 12

2.2.2 Society 15

2.2.3 Culture 16

2.3 Constructivism and the nature of science 18

2.3.1 Constructivism 18

2.3.2 Globalisation as change 22

2.3.3 Integrating Western science and IK 24

2.3.4 Indigenous knowledge and education 25

2.3.5 Nature of science 27

2.4 South Africa – a rich source of IK 29

2.4.1 Transfer of culture and knowledge 29

2.4.2 Ethnobotany 30

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2.4.2(a) Medicine and traditional healing 31

2.4.2(b) Introducing ethnobotany with scientific rigour in the Life

Sciences classroom 37

2.4.2( c) Introducing ethical aspects, such as intellectual property rights,

in the classroom 37

2.5 The problem addressed by this research 40

2.5.1 Pedagogical content knowledge 40

2.5.2 PCK and role of critical reflection 43

2.5.3 The gap that this research addresses 44

2.6 Conceptual framework: Cultural Historical Activity Theory 45

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 49

3.1.1 Aim of the study 50

3.1.2 Objectives of the study 50

3.1.3 Research questions 50

3.2 Research design and methodology 51

3.2.1 Phase 1: Qualitative research 52

3.2.2 Phase 2: A generic qualitative study 52

3.3 Choosing a sample for the research 54

3.3.1 The setting 54

3.3.2 Population 54

3.3.3 Sample and sampling technique 54

3.3.3.1 Eligibility criteria 55

3.3.3.2 Sample size 56

3.4 Data collection 56

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3.4.1 Phase 1: Qualitative data collection 57

3.4.2 Phase 2: Qualitative data collection 58

3.4.2.1 Recruitment of the participants 58

3.4.2.2 The interviews 59

3.4.2.3 Classroom observations 61

3.4.2.4 Script analysis 61

3.4.3 Ethical considerations 62

3.4.3.1 Permission to conduct the study 62

3.5.1 Confidentiality 63

3.5.2 Respect for participants 63

3.5.3 Beneficence 63

3.5.4 Honesty with professional colleagues 63

3.6 Challenges encountered during data collection 64

3.7 Data analysis 64

3.7.1 Quantitative data analysis 64

3.7.2 Qualitative data analysis 64

3.8 Validity and reliability of data 65

3.8.1 Validiy 65

3.8.2 Reliability 68

3.9 Summary 68

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Introduction 68

4.2 Quantitative data 69

4.3 Qualitative data analysis 73

4.3.1 Interviews with teachers 73

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4.3.1.1 Biographies of teachers 73

4.3.1.2 Focus of the interviews 74

4.3.1.3 Assumptions 75

4.3.1.4 Data analysis 75

4.4.1 Lesson observations 107

4.4.2 Artefacts 117

4.4.2.1 Teacher and learner portfolios 117

4.4.2.2 Grade 12 Life Sciences exam scripts 118

4.5 Triangulation 122

4.6 Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) 127

CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND AREAS OF

FUTURE RESEARCH 134

5.1 Introduction 134

5.2 Major findings and discussion of findings 136

5.2.1 Changes in the education system and curriculum content 136

5.2.2 Perception of being disempowered 137

5.2.3 Feeling demotivated and lacking of urgency 138

5.2.4 Lack of resources 138

5.2,5 Cultural diversity 139

5.2.6 IK vocabulary to be used in the Life Sciences classroom 140

5.2.7 Insufficient pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to teach IK 141

5.2.8 Lack of support by the DoE 143

5.2.9 Belief systems 144

5.2.10 How teachers view science and its role in society

(nature of science) 145

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5.3 Recommendations 145

5.3.1 Developing resource materials addressing IK 145

5.3.2 Support from the DoE 146

5.3.3 Teachers’ agency and professional development within communities

of practice 146

5.3.4 Teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) 147

5.3.5 The curriculum must provide IK content and skills 147

5.4 Contribution of this study 148

5.4.1 Suggested curriculum for the inclusion of IK in Life Sciences

In the FET band 148

5.5 Limitations of this study 151

5.6 Suggestions for future studies 152

References 154

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Callilepis laureola (impila), a traditional medicine that

causes 1 500 deaths per year in KwaZulu-Natal 35

Figure 2.2: Sutherlandia frutescens, a plant known for its

medicinal properties 36

Figure 2.3: Hoodia gordonii and some of the products produced 38

Figure 2.4: Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) combines

integrated science knowledge, pedagogical knowledge

and context knowledge 41

Figure 2.5: The third-generation activity 46

Figure 3.1: An explanatory sequential mixed-method design 51

Figure 3.2: Data collection activities 57

Figure 3.3: Saldana’s theory model for qualitative inquiry 65

Figure 4.1: Triangulation design visual model 123

Figure 4.2: Integrating emerging themes with CHAT 128

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

Table 2.1: “Well-being enhancing” medicines and their uses in

percentages 33

Table 4.1: The GDE research data 69

Table 4.2: Frequencies and standard deviations 70

Table 4.3: Biographical details of the teachers 74

Table 4.4: What teachers said, codes, categories and themes 75

Table 4.5: The grid used to analyse Question 4.3, Paper 1 119

Table 4.6: The grid used to analyse Question 4.3, Paper 2 121

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LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX DESCRIPTION PAGE

Appendix A Consent form 172

Appendix B Interview questionnaire 173

Appendix C Transcripts of interviews with teachers 177

Appendix D RTOP instrument used 241

Appendix E RTOP observation readings with of lessons 246

Appendix F GDE questionnaire 188

Appendix G Script analysis rubric 303

Appendix H Letter to Limpopo Department of Education 306

Appendix I Response from Limpopo Department of

Education 308

Appendix J Letter to Mopani District Education 309

Appendix K Response from Mopani District 310

Appendix L Letter to Thabina Circuit 311

Appendix M Response from Thabina Circuit 312

Appendix N Letter to Shiluvane Circuit 313

Appendix O Response from Shiluvane Circuit 314

Appendix P Letter to Khudjwane Circuit 315

Appendix Q Response from Khujwane Circuit 316

Appendix R Response from Phusela High School 317

Appendix S Examples of IK that could be used in the

Classroom 318

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AAMPS Association for African Medicinal Plant Standards AfrHP African Herbal Pharmacopoeia BSCS Biological Sciences Curriculum Study CAPS Curriculum and Assessment Policy CHAT Cultural Historical Activity Theory CoRes Content representations CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research DNA De-oxyribose Nucleic Acid DoE Department of Education EU- ACP European Union Centre for the Development of Enterprise FET Further Education and Training GDE Gauteng Department of Education HPLC High-performance liquid chromatography HPD Holistic professional development IK Indigenous Knowledge IKS Indigenous Knowledge Systems INSET In-service Teacher Education and Training LC- MS Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry LO3 Learning Outcome number 3 LS Life Sciences NCS National Curriculum Statement NOS Nature of Science OBE Outcomes-based Education Pap-Res Pedagogical and Professional Experience Repertoires

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PCK Pedagogical Content Knowledge PRESET Pre-service Teacher Education and Training ROSE Relevance of Science Education RTOP Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol SAP Script Analysis Project SSI Socio Scientific Issues UJ University of Johannesburg

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCING THIS STUDY

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM

Science education has undergone several waves of change over the past few

decades. Wallace and Louden (1998) refer to three such waves of science

curriculum reform in the international arena, namely (a) a focus on science as

discipline knowledge in the 1950s and 1960s, (b) science as relevant knowledge in

the 1970s (with an emphasis on scientific literacy and a science-technology-society

approach), and (c) science as imperfect knowledge, with an epistemological shift

towards cognitive science and more constructivist approaches in the 1980s and

1990s. In the 1960s, following the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study (BSCS) and

the Nuffield Project, the emphasis in science education was on inquiry-based

learning. The more constructivist approach to science education today asks of the

Life Sciences teacher to acknowledge the indigenous knowledge that a learner might

have. In a true constructivist fashion, the teacher should build on this pre-knowledge

of learners. However, the current National Curriculum Statement (NCS) and the new

curriculum introduced in 2012, the Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement

(CAPS), still emphasise the foci of the first two waves, namely inquiry learning

(emphasising scientific investigation) and the role of science in society. This poses a

challenge to the Life Sciences teacher as it places high demands on a teacher‟s

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK).

Many South African Life Sciences teachers were educated under the old apartheid

education system. Under this divided system, many black teachers received their

teacher education at colleges with questionable standards. Many of these teachers

today rely on teacher-centred strategies in the classroom (chalk-and-talk), which

Nkabinde (1997) calls traditional teaching. Nkabinde further urges that the Bantu

education system was designed to suit the needs of the economy and was never

intended to provide Africans with sufficient education in order to allow them to

participate intelligently in conducting their lives. Today, many science teachers

experience difficulties in following more inquiry-based approaches in the classroom.

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Since South Africa became a democracy the government and all its stakeholders

have worked hard to ensure that the benefits of a good education are enjoyed by all

South Africans. Democratic elections in 1994 led to education in the country

experiencing many changes. The old education system was replaced with outcomes-

based education (OBE). Curriculum 2005 was introduced, and this new approach

was built on the new South African Constitution, emphasising the human right that

every learner should be provided the opportunity to succeed in a good education.

The new curriculum, the National Curriculum Statement, builds on the Constitution,

and the point of departure is that all learners should succeed in achieving the stated

outcomes. Education, as explained by White (1999), should prepare learners for life

within society, forming its future workers and citizens. This implies that education is

directed at producing good citizens, competent workers and sensible thinkers.

The political changes in the country had a great influence on educational policy

development. When these social and political changes came along the curriculum

also had to change. The official curriculum of South Africa is the National Curriculum

Statement (NCS), which is inspired by the Constitution. The following principles have

been established to ensure that the Constitution is being pursued:

Social transformation, Outcomes-based Education, high skills and knowledge

level integration and applied competence, progress integration and portability,

inclusivity, consistency environmental and social justice value on indigenous

knowledge systems, credibility, quality and efficiency (Petersen, 2010: 18).

The new content and expected pedagogy brought about problems with the

implementation, and a streamlined curriculum, the Revised National Curriculum

Statement, was introduced (Department of Education, 2003a). The National

Curriculum Statement for Life Sciences states clearly that indigenous knowledge

should be incorporated in the Life Sciences classroom. In the apartheid era,

indigenous knowledge was often marginalised in the science classroom, as this

study will explain later. Learning Outcome 3 (LO3) in the NCS includes this

knowledge that is found in a society. This will make learners aware of the existence

of different viewpoints in a multicultural society and encourage openness in their

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discussions. The Assessment Standard for Learning Outcome 3 (the application of

Life Science in the society) also states clearly that teachers should evaluate the

scientific ideas of the past and present indigenous knowledge systems.

The principle of inclusivity dictates that all learners should be involved in science that

embraces their diversity and cultural backgrounds. A learner should be able to have

a good understanding of the nature of science (NOS), the influence of ethics and

biases in the Life Sciences classroom, and the interrelationship between science and

technology, indigenous knowledge and society (Department of Education, 2003: 12).

Learners from different backgrounds should all contribute and participate in what is

learnt in the Life Sciences classroom. As they come from different cultural groups

they have different ways of perceiving the world around them. Petersen (2010)

argues that people from different cultures have contributed to the scientific

innovations through their indigenous knowledge.

Various ethnic groups have contributed to the scientific innovations of today.

Petersen (2010) also acknowledges the contribution of the indigenous people of

South Africa. Learners should not be deprived of the opportunity to learn about their

ancestors‟ contribution to science. With the incorporation of indigenous knowledge

(IK) in the classroom every learner will feel that his/her forefathers contributed

towards science, and they will appreciate that their culture is respected. Learners

must be able to evaluate the past and make informed decisions about the current

and future uses of science. International studies like the Relevance of Science

Education (ROSE) show that the incorporation of IK leads to a situation where

learners experience the science curriculum as more relevant (De Beer & Whitlock,

2008). This will lead to a claim in ownership of the learning content. Life Sciences

teachers therefore need to incorporate IK into their teaching. The policy states that

indigenous knowledge should be part of the curriculum and should be infused in the

Life Sciences classroom.

However, anecdotal evidence shows that this incorporation of IK in the teaching of

Life Sciences is easier said than done. The lack of teaching skills among Life

Sciences teachers or poor teaching styles make it difficult for teachers to incorporate

indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom. One of the major obstacles in

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infusing IK in a sensible way into the Life Sciences curriculum is the lack of teachers‟

pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which is a theoretical construct that was

introduced by Shulman (1986, 1987) as a way to describe the particular form of

content knowledge that embodies the aspects of content most germane to its

teachability (Shulman, 1986: 9). Teachers need the knowledge and didactical skills

to incorporate indigenous knowledge in the classroom in a sound way.

The inadequate training that many South African teachers received during the

apartheid regime led to inferior science education in many of our schools. Today,

seventeen years after the first democratic elections, many teachers seem to have

little knowledge or understanding of the content they have to teach, and the skills to

be applied in their teaching. The lack of PCK also applies to the infusion of IK in the

classroom. Two additional factors make the introduction of indigenous knowledge

difficult in the classroom: (a) the multicultural South African society (whose IK should

be entertained?), and (b) the nature of science, and many teachers‟ perception that

the introduction of IK would constitute pseudo-science. Some teachers, who do

acknowledge IK in their teaching, use their own indigenous knowledge from their

own cultural backgrounds and ignore the indigenous knowledge of learners.

Insufficient knowledge, methods, skills and material make their teaching difficult.

The question arises whether it is possible to introduce indigenous knowledge in a

scientific way in the Life Sciences classroom. Is a focus on IK compliant with the

syntactical nature of Life Sciences, namely an emphasis on inquiry-based

approaches? A second question arises: Are South African teachers able to teach IK

in such a context? As mentioned above, many Life Sciences teachers find it difficult

to follow heuristic approaches where learners engage with discovering learning-

making observations, formulating hypotheses, developing experimental designs,

collecting and interpreting data, and making conclusions (Horak & Frieke, 2004).

Now, in addition to this challenge, teachers need to follow such a pedagogy to

investigate indigenous knowledge claims. It is much easier for teachers to rely on

chalk-and-talk approaches, as a study of Petersen (2010) reveals. The pleas of the

new curriculum, namely emphasis on scientific processes and the incorporation of

indigenous knowledge, are problematic for many South African teachers. They often

do not have the knowledge and skills required to follow science-as-inquiry

5

approaches. Teaching methods need transformation in order to meet the new

demands of a new curriculum in a changing environment.

As many teachers were trained in the “old method” of teaching and not in the

pedagogy prescribed by the NCS, many of them do not have specific know-how

about the indigenous knowledge that they need to impart to learners. Those who are

fortunate enough to have sufficient know-how on indigenous knowledge systems

(IKS), often lack the pedagogy. Once again, we need to go back in history to

understand why teachers find it so difficult to teach IK. In the apartheid era, it was a

taboo to mention traditional medicine in the classroom. Our traditional medicine was often replaced by Western medicine. Music and folktales also suffered the same

fate. Black South Africans were robbed of their identity. Under the Suppression of

Witchcraft Act, indigenous belief systems were undermined, in most cases referred

to as pagan (heathen) belief systems and viewed as something that derails the

society.

Most Life Sciences teachers are now faced with the dilemma of teaching the new

curriculum content and incorporating IK, using the little knowledge they have.

“Western science” without any reference to IK or the immediate worldview of the

learner will probably result in sub-optimal learning, since the incorporation of IK is a

constructivist approach which acknowledges the learner‟s everyday world in the

science classroom. By including IK in the curriculum the particular social identity of

the student is acknowledged.

This study focuses on teachers‟ experiences of the infusion or incorporation of

indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom. This research also

investigates whether a socio-scientific issues (SSI) approach to infusing the Life

Sciences curriculum with Indigenous Knowledge (IK) can be valuable in sensitising

learners to moral dilemmas which are so often neglected in the science classroom.

Furthermore, it also focuses on the perceived conflict between so-called Western

science and traditional science, and the extent to which Life Sciences educators are

trained in infusing their teaching with IK without advocating pseudo-science. The

study also wants to see whether secondary school learners can be turned into

scientific sleuths or investigators with lessons that focus on IK. The research will be

6

conducted within the framework of Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) so that

the bigger picture of the teachers‟ experiences in the incorporation of indigenous

knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom can be viewed, as well as the tensions

that emerge in the Life Sciences classroom as an activity system.

1.2 KNOWLEDGE APARTHEID: THE ROSE STUDY AND IK

During the apartheid regime the education system was designed to suit the needs of

the economy and to ensure African subordination. The education system at that time

was never intended to provide all Africans with sufficient education in order to allow

them to participate intelligently in conducting their lives (Nkabinde, 1997). The

previous science curriculum was favouring “Westernised” science, and the South

African curriculum had a very British feel to it. This Westernised focus on biology

often comes at the expense of indigenous knowledge – a practice that Odora

Hoppers (2004) calls knowledge apartheid. This Western education taught Africans

to feel, think and perceive themselves as inferior.

Indigenous knowledge can be referred to as knowledge about the world around us

which has been developed by local cultures and has been used to sustain their lives.

Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge found among the indigenous people of the

country. Such knowledge should be valued in the Life Sciences classroom since

community, culture and school cannot be treated as separate entities. They need to

work hand in hand in order to make the education of learners more meaningful.

The more developed a country becomes, the more irrelevant students often find the

curriculum (Tytler, Sjoberg & Schreiner, 2007). A possible reason for this might be

that curricula in developed countries subscribe to what Odora Hoppers (2004) calls

“cosmopolitan knowledge”, anchored in Western philosophies and scientific

discoveries that might be alien to some students. The Relevance of Science

Education (ROSE) project showed that there is an extraordinary high negative

correlation (between 0.77 and 0.94) between learners‟ perceptions of the relevance

of science and a country‟s development index. The more developed a country

becomes, the less relevant learners‟ views of science becomes (Tytle, Sjoberg &

Schreiner, 2007). Cummins and Swain (1986) are of the opinion that the language of

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science is “cognitively demanding” and “context reduced”. The scientific knowledge

of indigenous culture is cognitively less demanding than Westernised science

because it is based on experienced reality and it is associated with a vocabulary that

is more accessible to students. Incorporating IK in the Life Sciences curriculum will

enable students to better understand academic science content while accessing

scientific language.

1.3 WHAT IS THE GAP THAT THIS STUDY ADDRESSES? Indigenous knowledge need to be incorporated in Life Sciences teaching and

learning. The focus of the study is on the lived experiences of teachers in

incorporating IK in the classroom.This, however, places demands on the

development of teachers‟ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), since many

teachers‟ pre-service training did not adequately prepare them for teaching IK.

Anecdotal evidence suggests that little was done to address this problem through in-

service (INSET) training. Science teacher education and development is a problem

in South Africa as the country is challenged to provide properly qualified teachers.

This study focuses on the lived experiences of Life Sciences teachers in

incorporating IK in their teaching, and on the adequacy of these teachers‟

pedagogical content knowledge. Many studies suggest that teachers often lack a

deep conceptual understanding of the content they are supposed to teach, and that

their content knowledge is fragmented, compartmentalised and poorly organised,

making it difficult to access this knowledge efficiently when teaching (Loughran,

Mulhall & Berry, 2008). Would this also be true of teaching indigenous knowledge

systems?

With this new focus in the curriculum of teaching IK, this study will shed light on

teachers‟ experiences in teaching IK, Western science and the nature of science. Do

teachers provide sufficient scaffolding so that learners would be better empowered to

align their thinking with that of scientists? If Life Sciences teachers are to make

effective use of indigenous knowledge in the classroom, they must have a clear

understanding of the relationship between the traditional practices and beliefs in their

community and conventional science (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999).

8

The following points made by Semeli and Kincheloe (1999) also have a bearing on

this study:

Teachers are the product of society and perhaps construct meaning from an

indigenous base.

Teachers should first come to an understanding of their worldviews and the

Nature of Science, and the relationship between indigenous knowledge and

the conventional scientific view.

Teachers need to be encouraged to develop an understanding of indigenous

knowledge and an appreciation for traditional wisdom, its characteristics and

the purpose that it serves in the lives of students.

Teachers need to be trained to deal with complex situations in the classroom

in an attempt to make conventional science accessible to learners.

This study will highlight the challenges or barriers that teachers experience in

teaching about indigenous knowledge systems. In the official curriculum and policy

documents, very little guidance is provided to teachers on how IK could be taught in

a scientifically sound way. This study will result in the formulation of such guidelines,

based on teachers‟ lived experiences.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS The main research question is:

What are teacher`s lived experiences of the infusion of IK in the classroom?

The following sub-questions guide this research:

How do Life Sciences teachers experience teaching indigenous knowledge

systems in the Life Sciences classroom?

How do teachers view their own training and professional development for

infusing IK in their teaching?

Why should IK receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom?

How does a keystone species promote IK in the Life Science curriculum, and

what implications does it have for professional development of teachers within

in a community of practice?

9

1.5 RESEARCH DESIGN

Explanatory and sequential mixed-method research, which involves both

quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis, has been undertaken

(Creswell, 2009). The quantitative study was underpinned by a University of

Johannesburg Science Education study that was commissioned by the Gauteng

Department of Education (GDE). One of the sections in the questionnaire, which

was sent to all the schools in Gauteng that offer Life Sciences, deals with

indigenous knowledge. A Likert scale was used, and STATKON, the statistical

unit of UJ, analysed the data. More than 250 completed questionnaires have

been returned to offer a wealth of information for this study. Based on teachers‟

feedback, an interview protocol was compiled for the qualitative part of the

research.

Phase 2 of the study entailed the generic qualitative inquiry (with elements of a

phenomenological approach, since this study wanted to capture the “lived

experiences” of the teachers). A number of teachers were individually interviewed

and the interviews were recorded. Transcriptions were made and analysed to

reveal a number of codes, categories, patterns and themes. In addition to the

interviews, this study also used classroom observations and looked at the

portfolios of both teachers and learners. Another data source informing the

qualitative part of the study is the Grade 12 examination scripts that were

analysed. This research also attempted, through the triangulation of the data, to

provide a portrait of the lived experiences of teachers regarding the introduction

of IK in their teaching. In this regard, this study uses Cultural Historical Activity

Theory (CHAT) as a lens.

1.6 AN OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION

In Chapter 2, the researcher provides a literature review (in other words, what

other researchers say and this researcher‟s own views on this). Smith (1999)

views indigenous knowledge as a term that internationalises the experiences,

10

concerns and struggles of some of the world‟s colonised peoples. Indigenous

knowledge, as pointed out by Dei (2000), does not reside in “pristine fashion”

outside of the influence of other knowledge. The argument is that bodies of

knowledge continually influence each other, demonstrating the dynamism of

all knowledge systems (Le Grange, 2004). This chapter also introduces the

conceptual framework used in this study, namely Cultural Historical Activity

Theory (CHAT). This provides a useful lens in trying to capture teachers‟ lived

experiences, since CHAT effectively captures tensions in an activity system

(in this case, the Life Sciences classroom, and the challenges and barriers in

incorporating IK in Life Sciences learning).

This is followed in Chapter 3 by a discussion of the research design and

methodology. This chapter will also explain the specific nature of the mixed-

methods approach followed in this study. A generic qualitative study with

elements of phenomenology has been conducted (in order to capture the

“lived experiences” of a selected group of teachers). For this purpose, in-

depth personal interviews with Life Sciences teachers were done with

purposive sampling. The quantitative component of the study (UJ research,

commissioned by the GDE) will also be discussed. This study further draws

on classroom observations, and script analysis of the Grade 12 Life Sciences

examination papers of 2008.

Chapter 4 covers an analysis of the data, and explains emerging patterns and

themes. The findings are integrated with the literature, and CHAT is used as a

lens to paint a portrait of teachers‟ lived experiences.

Chapter 5 discusses the findings and makes conclusions and

recommendations to help create an awareness of how important it is that the

teaching of IK should be addressed in pre-service teacher education

(PRESET) and in-service teacher education (INSET). This chapter also

focuses on limitations of this study, and on the scope for future research in

this field.

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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE OVERVIEW: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE IN

THE LIFE SCIENCES CLASSROOM, AND THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THIS STUDY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

As the Life Sciences curriculum policies urge the inclusion of indigenous knowledge

in the classroom, teachers need to incorporate IK into their teaching. This will enable

learners to better understand biological, physical, environmental, technological and

societal processes that influence the environment – such as food production,

distribution and consumption, health promotion, conservation and sustaining the

environment. When prior knowledge or IK is integrated in classroom settings or

learning environments, students had better connect with the material taught and can

become a major source for their community‟s sustainable development (World Bank,

2005).

Today, indigenous knowledge continues to be marginalised, even denigrated, but it

Sustains millions of people economically, socially and spiritually as a living

framework for continuing and innovating in most fields of technology. It is a source of

wealth, both as an economic asset and as cultural patrimony (Odora Hoppers,

2004). The school community in the form of parents, learners, teachers and

departmental officials need to work together so that there can be a smooth exchange

of knowledge. By acknowledging students‟ particular cultures, science programmes

can turn learning into a more positive experience for students who are resistant to

studying the Westernised science curriculum.

By including indigenous knowledge in the curriculum, the particular social identity of

the student will also be acknowledged. Learners will be able to acquire more skills

for their real life, for example problem-solving and socialisation skills. They will also

be able to collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information while

12

becoming culturally and ethically aware. The incorporation will extend the borders of

education and learning beyond the classroom while teachers will develop the desire

to do more research since learners have the desire to learn more.

2.2 DEFINITIONS 2.2.1. Indigenous knowledge Indigenous knowledge (IK) can be defined as a legacy of knowledge and skills

unique to a particular culture and involving wisdom that has been developed and

passed on from generation to generation (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999). It is the

knowledge of the indigenous people of a country about what happens in that country.

Africans are the indigenous people of this country and therefore their indigenous

knowledge should be given due recognition in the schools of this land.

Indigenous knowledge is local knowledge, derived from interactions between people

and their environment (Kibirige & Van Rooyen, 2006). Indigenous people are people

who originally belong to a particular country. Indigenous people are not there by

virtue of having been displaced or having moved to the said country. Their origin is in

that country. Kibirige and Van Rooyen (2006) further suggest that it is a form of

“traditional wisdom” which is the product of practical engagement with the

environment in everyday life. Smith (1999: 7) views indigenous knowledge as a term

that internationalises the experiences, concerns and struggles of some of the world‟s

colonised peoples while Dei (2000: 113) points out that IK does not reside in “pristine

fashion” outside of the influence of other knowledge. It is also important to note that

the term indigenous is not used by all in the same way. Different cultural groups use

it to suit their own descriptions.

Grenier (1998) defines IKS as the sum total of the knowledge and skills that people

in a particular geographic area possess, and which enables them to get the most out

of their environment. Most of this knowledge and these skills have been passed

down from earlier generations, but individual men and women in each new

generation adapt and add to this in a constant adjustment to changing circumstances

and environmental conditions (Odora Hoppers, 2004). She further argues that

traditional knowledge is the totality of all knowledge and practices, whether explicit or

13

implicit, used in the management of socio-economic, spiritual and ecological facets

of life.

Indigenous Knowledge Systems in the South African context refer to a body of

knowledge embedded in African philosophical thinking and social practices that have

evolved over thousands of years (Le Grange, 2005: 204). This knowledge qualifies

as indigenous because it was in existence prior to the first contact with the colonial

power of the outside world. They are the practices that people have been engaged in

long before the colonists set their foot on African shores.

Emeagwali (2003) urges that the community is a source of strength for IK in terms of

the discovery process and knowledge production. IK – like knowledge of the

medicinal properties of plants – is also a social capital of the poor and their main

asset to invest in the struggle to survive, produce food, provide shelter or achieve

control of their own lives. In the emerging global economy, a country‟s ability to build

and mobilise knowledge capital is equally essential for sustainable development as

the availability of physical and financial capital (World Bank, 1997). Flavier et al.

(1995: 479) states that IK information systems are dynamic (ever changing, never

static) and are continually influenced by internal creativity and experimenting as well

as by contact with external systems. Understanding indigenous ways of seeing as

subjugated knowledge alerts us to the fact that there are different ways of seeing the

world (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999).

The National Curriculum Statement for Life Sciences (Department of Education

2003b, 64) views IK as follows: “Indigenous Knowledge is knowledge that has been

produced by groups of people in an area, such as a province, country or continent,

for a long period of time. Some of this knowledge may have served as the basis for

modern technologies. In some instances, this knowledge and the wisdom that

accompanies it have been lost either because established practices have changed

or because people have moved away from their well-known environment.”

The researcher views Indigenous Knowledge as the dynamic knowledge together

with the skills and wisdom of a particular cultural group that has been acquired

through ages and transferred from generation to generation. The researcher agrees

14

with Semeli and Kincheloe (1999: 3) when they explain that IK reflects the dynamic

way in which the residents of an area have come to understand themselves in

relationship to their environment and how they organise their folk knowledge of flora

and fauna, cultural beliefs and history to enhance their lives. The knowledge is

acquired through the interaction of cultural people in an environment that involves

practical engagement in everyday life. Indigenous knowledge has been inherited

from ancestors and it has been adopted from parents and grandparents. It will be

transferred to their children and adapted to ever-changing circumstances based on

what a person has known since birth. It is knowledge applied in a given territory in

different cultures. This is what people of a particular community or population

accumulate over generations in a particular environment and it is based on tradition,

religion and customs. Indigenous Knowledge encompasses all forms of knowledge –

including techniques, skills, practices and beliefs – that enable communities to

achieve a stable livelihood in their environments.

One of the participants in this study referred to Indigenous Knowledge as follows

during an interview: “It is a knowledge that is spontaneous and informal because it

occurs naturally where people do not need to go to school to acquire it. The

knowledge is gained from home and all over the place in which a person is living. I

think there is no specific time and method to acquire it as it is informal. When a child

goes to school, he or she goes there having it already as it is acquired through

ages.”

The following excerpt from a transcribed interview highlights the complexity of

infusing IK in the curriculum, and the contested nature of this.

This participant said: “Indigenous knowledge can be regarded as a knowledge based

on what a person knows by nature or since birth. The knowledge normally starts at

home by parents and grannies who have adopted it from their parents. Most of this

knowledge is transmitted orally, so how can we be sure of them? Huh? Mostly, it

cannot be scientifically proven and is not worth being taken to class. For instance,

we normally hear a lot about the Modjadji people who are well known about rain

making but no one will ever tell you what do they exactly do to make rain. This is the

secret that is only known to them only. I think even the community cannot tell about

15

the processes over there. It is the secret which is known by the royalties only. This is

the science that is needed in the Life Sciences and other science-related classes?”

Queen Modjadji is a female ruler who is normally known as the rain queen. It is

traditionally accepted by the tribe of Balobedu that the Queen has the powers of

making rain and she is still regarded as the most famous rainmaker on the sub-

continent (Limpopo province). The queen is still regarded as the focal point and

source of strength of their kingdom. To date, it is still the Lobedu‟s (Modjadji people)

custom for the rain queen to be succeeded by the eldest daughter. Krige (1993)

explains that as the queen grows older, she is expected to pass on the baton

(secrets of rainmaking) to her successor and then to commit what is normally known

as “ritual suicide” by drinking a mixture of poison. Some traditional societies may

show a strong symbolic dimension in which every action that occur within is highly

ritualised and will allows humans to participate in the preservation of the natural

order.

The rituals differ from culture to culture as each society has its own belief system

that determines its cultural identity and type of technology. Some of the traditional

practices are extinct, like the secret drum. This drum may still be heard on special

occasions, normally when the tribe appear before their queen. This is practised

barefooted in a kneeling position to show that they respect and obey her. The queen

does not normally appear in public as a male member from the royal family is

appointed as a proxy to act on her behalf.

The queen‟s fascinating rainmaking skills are a secret. The rainmaking can form an

important part of a science lesson, as this will enable learners to learn about the

water cycle. Important processes, like evaporation, precipitation and condensation,

will be practically observed and acquired.

2.2.2. Society Society can be explained as the sum of relationships among groups of people who

are related to each other and who are living in a particular area or surrounding

(Pretorius, 2000). t society can also be referred to as the structured community of

people that bound together by similar or same traditions, institutions or nationality. A

16

society is a body of individuals outlined by the bounds of functional interdependence,

possibly comprising characteristics such as national or cultural identity, social

solidarity, language or hierarchical organisation (Liston & Zeichner, 1996). A society

in South Africa that still upholds its identity to date is the Zulu. They are proud of who

they are, they speak their language proudly in other societies and practise their

culture with respect. They put on their traditional clothing; males often have some

weaponry in their hands as the protectors of their families. They carry their weaponry

irrespective of how hard one may try to convince them otherwise. Sometimes even

the laws of the country fail to take their weapons away from them.

Society cannot be separated from culture, and it plays an important role in the

education of our children. Schools and society are symbiotic (gain from each other)

and cannot be separated because when major occurrences shock society the

schools change in one way or another. Society and school play a major role in the

education of a child and therefore change is impossible if the two do not work

together. The knowledge that society has can be given to children in the form of

indigenous knowledge that forms part of their culture. Both the society and the

school are able to exchange knowledge. Therefore, indigenous knowledge comes

from the society in which the school is situated and it is supported by its cultural

groups. The school that attempts to operate in isolation or as an island is bound to

fail in its efforts.

2.2.3. Culture Culture in its broader sense stands opposite nature and entails everything man‟s

hand and spirit took from natural materials because it represents some value to him.

Nature is transformed into cultural goods and man cultivates his activities in work

and creates a spiritual culture such as science, morality and religion (Pretorius,

2000). Pretorius refers to culture as spiritual and moral life that includes everything

regarded as belonging to the field of science and art, life-view and religion. This can

be seen as learned or acquired ideas, beliefs and knowledge that are shared by

people in the society. What goes on inside schools is greatly influenced by what

occurs outside of schools (Liston & Zeichner, 1999). Teachers who work within those

walls at school bring in all sorts of cultural assumptions, social influences and

contextual dynamics which may include the customs and achievements of a

17

particular civilisation or group. It is best understood as the totality of socially

transmitted behaviour, arts, beliefs, institutions and all other products of human work

and thoughts.

Culture is all the knowledge and values shared by a society. Culture exists when

members of the society know the same things in the same or similar way and attach

value to the same or similar things. These are attitudes and behaviours that are

characteristic of a particular social group or organisation. A group of boys or girls

who attended circumcision school (mountain school) together belong together; they

behave almost the same. They are even given a “clan name” such at Mangana or

Magas. They have a cultural way of doing things and a way of speaking that

distinguishes them from other groups. If a person happens to be among them

accidentally, this person might feel like a misfit. Culture draws the lines between

what is permissible and what is “taboo”. There are certain things that are permissible

in one culture and totally unheard of in the next. In some societies, respect for

women and children‟s rights is the way of life while the same is unheard of in the

next society. People from different cultures have different ways of thinking.

Learners‟ ability to evaluate and make informed decisions about current and future

uses of science in the society, environmental management and lifestyle choices, will

also depend on their cultural backgrounds. Their views are based on scientific

knowledge, beliefs, ethics, values and norms, and may over time change

(Department of Education, 2003: 10).

Culture is best understood as the totality of socially transmitted behaviour patterns,

arts, beliefs, institutions and all other products of human work and thoughts (Odora

Hoppers, 2002). Certain values are held in high esteem by organisations while

others disregard these values. A society may possesses a culture or way of life,

which members of that society share. Not all values and beliefs are held in common

in a complex society, as there are sub-cultures within the major society. The link

between education and culture is very important. Those involved in educational

services make decisions about those aspects of culture considered important

enough to be included in school programmes or school curricula. Students should be

18

exposed to the different cultural perspectives as part of their history and heritage

rather than ignoring the diverse cultural perspective completely.

2.3 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND THE NATURE OF SCIENCE 2.3.1. Constructivism The lens through which this researcher looks at this research is constructivist

philosophy where learners come to school with certain knowledge from home that

needs to be built on in such a way that learning can be effective. (It will be explained

later how this relates to CHAT as conceptual framework.) The term constructivism

holds different meanings for different people. Originally, it was used to describe a

theory of learning. More recently it has “become associated with a theory of

knowledge that says the world is inherently complex, that there is no objective

reality, and that much of what we know is constructed from our beliefs and the social

milieu in which we live” (Killen, 2000). When the term is used to describe cognitive

models of learning, constructivism can be defined as “an approach to learning in

which learners are provided with the opportunity to construct their own sense of what

is being learned by building internal connections or relationships among the ideas

and facts being taught” (Killen, 2000). This approach emphasises that learners may

actively construct knowledge for themselves by forming their own representations of

the material to be learned and selecting information that they perceive to be relevant

in interpreting this on the basis of their present knowledge, and needs .

A person who is learning something new may bring to that experience of all his or

her previous knowledge and present mental patterns . These authors further state

that each new fact or experience is assimilated into a living web of understanding

that already exists in that person‟s mind. This model suggests that we construct and

reconstruct knowledge in order to make it meaningful (Killen, 2000).

In principle, human beings are shaped by both nature and culture but they are also

actively shaping their own development. A constructionist approach treats learning

as a social process whereby students acquire knowledge through interaction with

their environment instead of merely relying on the teacher‟s lectures (Powers-Collins,

1994: 5).

19

Its basic principle is that all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived by the

senses. Knowledge is not passively received; it is actively constructed. The

knowledge is actively built up (constructed) and developed to progressively higher

levels in each learner. Learners do not come to school as empty vessels. Instead,

they come with certain knowledge. Through engaging in experiences, activities and

discussions which challenge them to make meaning of their social and physical

environment, learners might actively engaged in building progressively more

complex understandings of their own world . The social constructivist explans that

learning holds the meaningful learning that occurs when people are explicitly taught

how to use the psychological tools of their culture (like language, mathematics,

diagrams and approaches to problem solving) and are then given the opportunity to

use the said tools to create a common or shared understanding of some

phenomenon.

Constructivism can starts from the assumption that knowledge is formed in person‟s

brain and that the thinking subject has no alternative but to construct what he or she

knows. The school should use the knowledge that the learner has and construct or

build the phenomenon from there. The teacher needs to help learners to construct

knowledge by building on the knowledge of each learners (including IK) and by

assimilating new concepts in the existing schemata. Using the ideas of

constructivism, the essence of a constructivist lesson will provide learners with

realistic problems that cannot be solved with their current level of understanding

while allowing them to interact mainly among themselves to work out new

understandings. The learner‟s prior knowledge should be used so that the desired

outcome can be reached. People need to accept that human beings cannot be

understood as objects that are passively influenced by the forces around them. All

stakeholders in education that include students, teachers, parents and school

management are active agents who are making meaning of their lives within and

through their social context .

The knowledge needs to be constructed in such a way that learners can understand

and realise the importance of this indigenous knowledge. Deepa Srikantaiah (2005)

acknowledges that the first important pedagogical technique is the recognition of

20

learners‟ prior knowledge that often is IK. Learners can be allowed to construct their

knowledge based on their prior knowledge. Teachers can pose problems of

relevance to students and value their points of view, i.e. respect the culture, tradition

and identity that students bring to the classroom. This involves both teacher and

learner in an ongoing active process of exploration of the physical and social world in

which they are involved.

Srikantaiah (2005) further highlights that what is taught and what is learnt cannot be

separated from social context. Constructing new ideas building on prior knowledge

can be done at the start of a new topic, but should not be limited to that part of the

lesson. Teachers should realise that there are many rich sources of IK in the local

environment, namely parents, peers and other members of society, who can all help

with the accumulation of knowledge, skills and understanding of their society and

immediate social context (Killen, 2000).

Snowman and Biehler (2000) refer to the following common principles of

contemporary interpretations of constructivism:

What a person “knows” is not just received passively but actively constructed

by the learner – meaning learning is the active creation of knowledge

structure from personal experience.

Because knowledge is the result of personal interpretation of experiences,

one person‟s knowledge can never be totally transferred to another person.

The cultures and societies to which people belong influence their views of the

world around them and, therefore, influence what they “know”. In general, the

understanding that people reach are largely consistent within a given culture

and society.

The construction of ideas is aided by systematic, open-minded discussions

and debate.

It is essential to place learners at the centre of the teaching and to structure learning

environments together with activities that help learners construct knowledge rather

than just absorb it. Killen (2000) expresses this idea as learners using their

21

experiences to actively construct understanding in a way that makes sense to them.

Constructivist teaching involves getting learners to use what they know to figure out

what they need to know. It should be clear that this approach to teaching

emphasises that it is the learners‟ interaction with the content that is important rather

than the content itself (Killen, 2000). Learners need to be given the opportunity to

integrate information from different sources while teachers facilitate. Learners need

to be given the chance to construct their indigenous knowledge in order to construct

meaning in such a way that they can learn.

Killen (2000) suggests that a teacher can use the following to help learners to

construct meaning:

Scaffolding: This Vygotskian concept refers to providing a learner with

enough help to complete a task. Help is then gradually decreased as the

learner becomes ready to work independently.

Realistic learning content: A teacher needs to be able to select topics and

content that can help learners in their real-life situations. The content needs to

be real in the life of a learner

Multiple perspectives: The teacher needs to be able to use multiple

techniques that will deliberately encourage learners to view situations from

different angles.

Suggested characteristics of constructivist teaching practices, according to Borich

and Tombari (1997, in Killen, 2000), include:

Teachers organise learning and instruction around important ideas (such as

the primary concepts, generalisations and underlying themes of the content)

rather than focusing on isolated facts.

Prior knowledge is important because it provides learners with a cognitive

structure that can be used to make sense of new learning.

Some teachers challenge the adequacy of the learner‟s prior knowledge, often

by creating some conceptual conflict.

22

Other teachers provide for ambiguity and uncertainty to students with

problems that have ambiguity, complexity, uncertainty and multiple solutions.

Most teachers teach learners how to learn, how to regulate their skills and

how to direct their own learning efforts.

Others view learning as a joint cognitive venture between learners, peers and

teachers.

Teachers assess learners‟ knowledge acquisition during a lesson so that the

learning activity is tested and learners receive immediate feedback.

When learners are allowed to construct meaning from new content or a new learning

situation, their prior knowledge is recognised and utilised effectively. The indigenous

knowledge that learners bring from their homes and surrounding areas will be

constructed to make learning meaningful for these learners.

A constructivist approach to teaching encourages teachers to look for patterns in

students‟ thinking (Killen, 2000). Dominick and Clark (1996) suggest that being

aware of the thinking patterns that students typically use may help teachers to

anticipate and appreciate their students‟ understanding. This happens when

teachers are able to plan for situations that learners can examine or think about

carefully in order to understand (analyse) their learning.

2.3.2. Globalisation as change Globalisation describes a process by which regional economies, societies and

cultures have become integrated through a global network of communication,

transportation and trade (Torres, 2009). It is a vehicle through which the economies

of the world are put together and benefit from one another. Under the revised social

setup there is a clear expectation that in return for public funds, scientists and

universities must address the needs of users in the economy and in society. It is

globalisation that influences institutions of tertiary education all over the world.

Science is the systemic enterprise of gathering knowledge into testable laws and

theories. It is an expression of human creativity, both individual and collective. It is

therefore concerned with the origin and development of human society, relationships

23

and ideas involved in social life. In recent years, a number of scientific bodies and

development agencies have called for indigenous and traditional systems of

knowledge to be recognised as valuable reservoirs of learning (Bala & Joseph,

2007). The interface between indigenous knowledge and globalisation develops a

model for systemic integration of indigenous knowledge into formal and semi-formal

education. It should not be restricted to Western science but should include the

knowledge systems of diverse cultures in different periods of history.

The World Conference on Science for the 21st Century declared that all cultures can

contribute scientific knowledge of universal value (World Bank, 2007). They also

emphasised that there is a need for a vigorous, informed and constructive

intercultural and democratic debate on the production and use of scientific

knowledge. The practice and application of scientific knowledge should not be seen

to conflict with the recognition of spiritual, cultural, philosophical and religious values

(Odora Hoppers, 2004). Buford et al. (2008) call for a re-acknowledgement of the

power and contemporary relevance of indigenous knowledge. The conceptual issues

associated with indigenous knowledge, and the nature of the intersection between

science and IK, should be acknowledged and explored in terms of needs, goals,

teaching strategies and instructional resources in the classroom.

Indigenous knowledge as part of science must therefore become a shared asset

benefiting all people. Scientists, therefore, have the responsibility to practise and

apply the sciences in a manner that is inclusive of participation of indigenous people

and ethnic minorities. Scientific research and its applications can yield significant

returns towards economic growth and sustainable development including poverty

alleviation. An example of this is the commercialisation of the Hoodia plant, as will be

discussed later. Used as an appetite suppressant by the Khoi-San, this is now

commercially available to the global village as a dietary product.

There is great concern about the unprofessional conduct of scientists, especially the

tradition of making local communities anonymous in scientific practice even when

they have divulged key information regarding certain plants or drugs (Odora

Hoppers, 2004). The author further encourages transparency in the interaction

24

between the collectors of knowledge that visit local communities and the holders of

indigenous knowledge.

2.3.3. Integrating Western science and IK Western science is a body of knowledge that has a specific and unique origin in “the

scientific revolution”. Western science normally isolates its objects from their context

by putting them in simplified and controllable experimental environments. Its

objectives are based on literature and academic transmissions, and favours

analytical and reductionist methods (Nakashima & Roue, 2002). This was favoured

in South African schools in the previous dispensation. Traditional science may be

regarded as the science that is established by indigenous people and it includes

traditional knowledge or local knowledge.

The word traditional emphasises the transmission of knowledge from a cultural point

of view; but it might ignore the ability of traditional societies to adapt to changing

circumstances. Traditional societies live in ever-changing times and circumstances.

Indigenous medicines are now bottled. This is a significant change that attests to the

fact that the society is not static. The word indigenous explains the nature of knowledge. At the same time, it might

overlook knowledge from populations who are not officially recognised as

indigenous. The depth of indigenous knowledge rooted in the long inhabitation of a

particular place offers education that can benefit everyone, from educators to

scientists searching for more satisfying and sustainable ways to live on this planet.

Indigenous knowledge should be viewed as living knowledge, full of creativity and

continuous learning. Western science perspectives influence decisions that impact

every aspect of indigenous people‟s lives . Despite their differences, different forms

of knowledge can learn from each other.

Cultures from all over the world have developed different views of nature throughout

human history. Many of them are rooted in traditional belief systems in which

indigenous people use to understand and interpret their biophysical environment .

The indigenous communities developed their own way of managing and using their

resources to ensure their conservation for the future. Their knowledge includes a

25

wealth of wisdom and experience of nature gained over years from direct

observations, transmitted orally over generations.

The incorporation of IK in the Life Sciences classroom should not be a case of

introducing pseudo-science to learners. De Beer and Whitlock (2009) and De Beer &

Van Wyk (2011) show that IK can be used to illustrate the scientific process and

rigour in the sciences. This will be discussed later in the dissertation. 2.3.4. Indigenous knowledge and education The National Curriculum Statement (NCS) document for both General Education and

Training (GET) and Further Education and Training (FET) encouraged a major shift

in orientation by incorporating societal and cultural aspects into science education

(Van Rooyen & Kibirige, 2006). In the Life Sciences Curriculum Statement “the

learner is able to demonstrate an understanding of the nature of science, the

influence of ethics and biases in the Life Sciences and the interrelationship of

science, technology, indigenous knowledge, the environment and society”

(Department of Education 2003b: 12).

By including IK in class, learners might view Life Sciences as being more relevant.

Also, the particular social identity of the learner will be acknowledged. In this case,

the learners also need to be active in order to learn effectively and to contextualise

the knowledge. They can also be motivated and develop a personal interest in the

material taught to them. Learners will not learn facts in a purely abstract way, but in

relationship to what they already know. When IK is integrated in classroom settings

or learning environments, learners better connect with the material taught. Hence,

learners can become a major source of knowledge for the sustainable development

of their communities.

How teachers interpret the infusion of IK into Life Sciences can result in very

different learning experiences in South African classrooms. This poses a serious

challenge to them in multicultural classrooms as they should deal with the application

of science in society as well as the negative effects of its application.

Learning activities should be constructed around big ideas and explorations that

allow learners to create meaning. Such learning activities should allow learners to do

26

complex tasks and show learners the processes needed to carry out such tasks.

These learning tasks should also allow learners to think about and challenge their

thinking strategies while solving problems. Teachers need opportunities to reflect on,

and develop their understanding of the structure of science knowledge as well as

opportunities to apply this understanding in classroom practice (Loughran, Mulhall &

Berry, 2008). They also need to have a good knowledge of child development and

learning theory so that they can judge more accurately what learning can offer.

Barnhardt (2004) describes a ten-year educational restoration effort aimed at

bringing the IK systems and ways of knowing that have sustained the native people

of Alaska to the forefront in the educational system serving all Alaskan students and

communities today. The focus was to reintegrate their own knowledge systems into

the school curriculum as a basis for connecting what students learn in school with

what they learn from life out of school. He further states that the process has sought

to restore a traditional sense of place while at the same time broadening and

deepening the educational experiences for all students.

Curricula, teaching methodology and teacher training are normally based on the

world views that do not always recognise or appreciate indigenous knowledge . In a

curriculum that builds on indigenous knowledge, educators and their learners

appreciate the need to analyse what they know, how they came to know it, why they

believe or reject it, and how they evaluate the credibility of the evidence (Semeli &

Kincheloe, 1999). This includes may include the role of local elders, cultural atlases,

traditional values, experiential learning and cultural standards. The curriculum

designers should be able to design curricula that can incorporate different cultures

and indigenous knowledge systems. Emeagwali (2003) states that curriculum

planning must always take into consideration existing power relations and multiple

centres of power involved in the process of decision making and implementation.

The local indunas and chiefs occupy a special place in society because of the

indigenous knowledge they have.

The Education Act of 1988 resulted in the implementation of the National Curriculum,

and its assessment framework had supporters among the educational establishment

(White, 1997). Along with policies such as the Reconstruction and Development

27

Programme (RDP) and Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR), the birth of

the movement called the African Renaissance have been witnessed (Le Grange

2004). Odora Hoppers (2002: 2) writes: “the African Renaissance aims at building a

deeper understanding of Africa, its languages and its methods of development. It is a

project that includes the rewriting of major tenets of history, both past and

contemporary. Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) thus posit tremendous

challenges for the reconstruction and development strategies in Southern Africa.”

Semeli and Kincheloe (1999) state that the curricular reforms based on the analysis

of indigenous knowledge require that teachers become hermeneutist (scholars and

teachers who structure their work and teaching around an effort to help students to

make sense of the world around them) and epistemologists (scholars and teachers

who seek to explore how accepted knowledge came to be validated). The knowledge

can be used to illustrate and introduce scientific concepts and inquiry procedures.

One procedure for obtaining and using these scientific concepts in Life Sciences

could be via direct interaction with the community and society.

Le Grange (2005) points out that teachers require approaches to effectiveness that

is based on an in-depth understanding of the context-specific socio-political causes

of ineffectiveness.

2.3.5 Nature of science Life Sciences education in school should focus on scientific knowledge (the facts,

principles and laws of science) and also emphasise scientific processes. Learners

should be assisted to state hypotheses, test predictions, do experiments and analyse

data. In this way, students will get a better understanding and a “feel” for the true

nature of science. Our understanding of the Nature of Science (NOS) can be

described as the ideas and assumptions we hold in terms of scientific knowledge

and the science process (Vhurumuku, 2010). The NOS can be described as the way

of knowing and the characteristics of scientific knowledge which are intrinsic or

internal ideas guiding all scientific investigations. One of the greatest ideas regarding

the nature of science is that scientific knowledge is not stable or cast in stone and

can change at any given time. This implies that other scientists around the country

are able to test and challenge the previous assumptions and findings. By doing so,

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the nature of facts, hypothesis or theories as important key words of scientific

knowledge are often wrongly interpreted. Learners‟ understanding of the nature of

science can influence how learners attend to evidence in support of or in conflict with

their own belief systems regarding social issues (De Beer & Whitlock, 2008). The

two authors further suggest that all science is embedded in cultural assumptions and

historical processes, which are deterministic to the ways knowledge is apprehended

and encouraged. Education research and reform documents strongly stress the need

for teaching learners to appreciate the nature of the scientific enterprise and its

social ramifications (Laugksch, 2000). For learners to acquire an understanding of

the NOS, there needs to be a radical change in the learning opportunities provided to

learners in school (Vhurumuku, 2010).

The question arises whether the inclusion of IK in the Life Sciences classroom can

assist students in obtaining a better understanding of the NOS. If a person‟s

perception of indigenous knowledge includes metaphysical views on traditional

healers making contact with ancestors, the answer is probably no. However, if IK is

introduced in the classroom in a rigorous scientific way, students will get a better

understanding of the nature of science. De Beer and Whitlock (2008) and De Beer

and Van Wyk (2011) propose teaching strategies that could be followed when

introducing indigenous knowledge in the classroom, based on observation,

hypotheses formulation, data collection and data analysis. Such an approach in the

Life Sciences classroom will give learners a more nuanced understanding of the

NOS.

Scientific facts which are observable phenomena in a particular situation are very

important in the Life Sciences classroom. So, scientific knowledge should not be

referred to as facts as this will tend to perpetuate the idea that scientific knowledge is

unchangeable. In this case there is an example that says: “Mopani worms feed on

mopani leaves.” This is a fact because the phenomenon was observed in a particular

situation. The responsibilities of Life Sciences teachers towards their learners extend

far beyond the delivery of science content. Personal integration of science should

prepare learners to evaluate the reliability and merit of this information outside the

classroom (Laugksch, 2000). Theories are ideas that have not been validated and

have stronger meaning and broadly based concepts that make sense of a large body

29

of observations and experimentation. This forms the most important ideas in science.

Scientific method is a step-by-step process that must be followed in order to conduct

scientific research which is restrictive in its sense. Scientific methods normally give

direction on how to perform an experiment or research. As methods will be followed,

observations will at the same time be made. In this case, learners need to make

good observations to actively integrate knowledge into their daily lives.

The nature of science can be incorporated in the Life Sciences classroom, e.g.

during the harvest time of mopani worms. Several themes – like metamorphosis,

conservation, exploitation, preservation and extinction – can be investigated. Pre-

research activities such as the following can play an important role in the Life

Sciences classroom: gathering information on traditional medicines used for the

healing of certain diseases, traditional methods used for the prevention of

pregnancy, causes of water pollution in a nearby river or stream, and traditional

methods of preserving seeds, vegetables and other materials.

2.4 SOUTH AFRICA – A RICH SOURCE OF IK The multicultural South Africa has a wealth of indigenous knowledge that the Life

Sciences teacher can utilise in the classroom. The following section provides

examples of IK that could be used when planning learning opportunities in the

classroom.

2.4.1 Transfer of culture and knowledge The school has a transfer function with regard to the cultural heritage of society. If

the school children are given the opportunity to actively participate in culture and to

create and develop their own world. The incorporation of indigenous knowledge in

the Life Sciences classroom will help learners to actively integrate this knowledge

into their daily lives. Cultural practices and the IK of society must systematically be

revealed to children so that they can adopt this know-how. Society needs to be

instrumental in children‟s development by transferring knowledge that can help them

grow and become adults. The education that children get from the community in the

form of skills and technology should help them to improve the economy and

30

technology of the society. The above activities in local communities create

employment and put food on peoples‟ tables.

2.4.2 Ethnobotany Ethnobotany is defined as the part of ethno-ecology that concerns plants (De Beer &

Van Wyk, 2011). The term ethno-ecology has in recent years received considerable

emphasis in international literature. This term refers to studies which describe local

people‟s interaction with the natural environment (Martin, 1995). Ethnobotany is that

part of ethno-ecology which concerns plants. Ethnobotany has been defined by

Balick and Cox (1996) as “the study of relationships between plants and people” as

ethno refers to the study of people and botany refers to the study of plants.

Ethnobotany is therefore the study of the knowledge, skills and daily uses of plants in

a particular area which enable people in local communities to get the most out of

their natural environment (De Beer & Van Wyk, 2011: 90). Jones and Hunter (2003)

and Michie (2000) identify a number of common themes embedded in indigenous

knowledge which are intrinsic to its integration into the science curriculum. According

to them, indigenous knowledge is characterised by the following:

Based on experience

Often tested over centuries of use

Developed as a collective database of observable knowledge

Adapted to local culture and environment

Dynamic and changing: a living knowledge base

Application of problem solving

Transmitted orally and sometimes encapsulated in metaphor

Inseparably embedded in ethics, spiritually, metaphysics, ceremony and

social order

Bridging the science of theory with the science of practice

A holistic (IK) versus a reductionist (Western science) approach

An ecologically based approach

Contextualised versus decontextualised science.

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Ethnobotany is important for curriculum perspective as it can help to ensure that

school science reflects the intellectual and cultural traditions that characterise the

practice of contemporary science. Teachers need to implement ethnobotanical

surveys in the Life Sciences classroom as De Beer and Van Wyk (2011) urge that it

can put learners in touch with their cultural roots. The incorporation of ethnobotany

in the school curriculum will also show learners that IK claims do not constitute

“pseudo-science”, but that many of these IK claims can be shown to have a

scientific basis.

2.4.2 (a) Medicine and traditional healing South Africa is one of the global hotspots of both biological and ethnic diversity.

Southern Africa is rich in angiosperm species, and Germishuizen and Meyer (2003)

give the species count as 21,817. Van Wyk and Gericke (2000) estimate that about

3,000 medicinal plants are regularly used in South Africa. The combination of

botanical and cultural diversity in Southern Africa has resulted in a complex regional

mosaic of traditional plants that has not yet been properly recorded. All communities

understand health in terms of their culture, which in turn shapes the ways in which

people make sense of the causes and manifestations of illness. Traditional healing is

done by traditional healers, people who play a major role in the healing of different

types of diseases (De Beer & Whitlock, 2009). These healers call for an

understanding of the impact of culture on the treatment of diseases and illnesses. As

outlined in the article by Gqualeni (2007), traditional healers are not a homogenous

group. The group normally shares the same socio-cultural values as their

communities, including beliefs about the origins, significance and treatment of

illnesses.

Three main categories of healers need to be distinguished:

The divine or igai aup (Laidler, 1928) who treats serious ailments.

The herbalist or bossiedokter who treats minor and chronic ailments. Van Wyk

(2008) makes it clear that the term bossiedokter (bush doctor) is a designation

of honour, referring to highly skilled herbalists.

The poison or snake doctor, who normally specialises in the treatment of

snake bites (Van Wyk, 2008). Snake doctors daily ingest small doses of

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snake poison to make them immune against snake bite. Laidler (1928: 438)

referred to Jacob Klaas, whose father was a full-blooded Nama, and who

used to be the poison doctor for the northern parts of Namaqualand. His

father made two small cuts above the elbow of each of his (Jacob‟s) arms,

and rubbed a small portion of dried cobra and night adder venom into the

cuts. Two weeks later his father prepared a mixture of venoms that he had to

put onto his tongue, until he felt “funny and shivery”.

The approach of the traditional healers is usually a holistic one, dealing with all

aspects of the patient‟s life, including his/her relationship with other people, with the

natural environment and with supernatural forces as well as physical or emotional

symptoms (Gilbert et al., 2008).

Increased recognition is given to the contribution of African traditional medicinal

practices and knowledge to present-day treatment and understanding of diseases.

South Africa has a remarkable bio-cultural diversity and a rich herbal medicine

tradition with origins that probably reach back to Paleolithic times. Gericke (1996)

argues that it is an indictment on South Africa‟s medical and scientific research

establishments that have no significant official support for the institutionalised,

systematic development of the enormous wealth of medicinal plants that this country

possesses. He further states that the Traditional Medicines Programme (TRAMED)

at the Pharmacology Department of the Medical School, University of Cape Town,

was started in June 1994 to promote the sustainable development of South Africa‟s

medical plants primary through providing information on folk anecdotes and scientific

information to encourage scientists, and to provide traditional healers with access to

the results of scientific investigations into the traditional materia medica. This

suggests that imperialism did not succeed entirely in undermining indigenous

knowledge production; it merely drove it underground. People who use traditional

healing systems also invest in products which they believe could promote their

health. Cocks and Moller (2002) looked at the consumption of herbal remedies in an

African culture. They focused on indigenous herbal remedies that can easily be

purchased from an amayeza (Xhosa chemist) and discovered that “well-being

enhancing” medicines are used for various purposes.

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Table 2.1: “Well-being enhancing” medicines and their uses in percentages

Type of “well-being enhancing” medicine (based on 180 medicine purposes)

Specific use to which medicines are put %

As protection against evil spirits 61

For good luck 23

To cleanse one‟s blood 5

To remove poison from witchcraft 5

Other and customised uses 6

Total 100

Source: Cocks & Moller, 2002.

This data clearly illustrates an earlier point: the distinction between herbalism for

medical conditions and plant use for metaphysical purposes. Freidson (1990) argues

that in the communities the first step of “help-seeking behaviour” includes

consultations with family members, friends and neighbours. This is referred to as the

“lay referral system”. Following this referral, a person may decide to seek help from

“traditional” healers. How people react to treatment is shaped by cultural factors and

reflects predominant value orientations (Gilbert et al., 2008). As outlined in the article

by Gqualeni (2007), traditional healers are not a homogenous group. The group

normally shares the same socio-cultural values as their communities including

beliefs about origins, significance and treatment of illnesses.

The approach of the traditional healer is usually a holistic one, dealing with all

aspects of the patient‟s life, including his/her relationship with other people, with the

natural environment and with supernatural forces, as well as with physical or

emotional symptoms (Gilbert et al., 2008). They provide culturally familiar ways to

explain ill health and relationships to the social and supernatural world. Ashforth

(2005) also acknowledges that in societies where ill health and other forms of

misfortune are blamed on social causes, relationships, witchcraft or supernatural

(gods or ancestors) causes, traditional healers are particularly common. Due to

decades of colonialism, cultural imperialism and the power of the multi-national

pharmaceutical industry, traditional healers and traditional medicines have been

34

marginalised and their value to communities underplayed (De Beer & Whitlock,

2009).

In 1977, the World Health Assembly of the World Health Organization (WHO)

passed a resolution promoting the development of training and research related to

traditional medicine. Many developing countries have taken action to develop

policies and programmes for the integration of traditional systems of medicine into

national primary health care systems.

In South Africa, the government is strongly committed to rectify the situation of

traditional healers. They are committed to take steps to legalise African traditional

health care. It recognises that traditional healing is an integral part of health care and

various processes have been set in motion to elevate the legal status of traditional

healers. Traditional healers or sangomas have been recognised as important

partners in providing health care to all South Africans. In order to include traditional

healing as part of holistic health care in South Africa and to regulate the practices of

traditional healers in South Africa, a National Reference Centre for African

Traditional Medicine was established. Partners include the Department of Health, the

Medical Research Council and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

(http://www.mrc.ac.za/traditionalmedicines/national.htm).

Whereas many people benefit from treatment by traditional healers, it is also well

recorded that many people die every year because of poisoning by such healers.

This often relates to traditional healers not being clear on dosages. There is often a

very fine line between a therapeutic dose and a lethal dose. An interesting example

is Callilepis laureola (Impila). This plant belongs to the Astereceae family. This

traditional remedy is used by the Zulu, mainly in KwaZulu-Natal, for stomach

problems, tapeworm infestations and impotence. It is administered orally or as an

enema. Mortality rates from the use of impila is estimated to be 1 500 deaths per

annum in KwaZulu-Natal (GAIA, 2001).

35

Figure 2.1: Callilepis laureola (Impila), a traditional medicine that causes

1500 deaths per year in KwaZulu-Natal Source: Josef de Beer, November 2009

In South Africa, letters from traditional healers are recognised for leave purposes in

some places of employment. African Traditional Medicine (ATM) is holistic and

attempts to go beyond the boundaries of the physical body into the spiritual realm

(Emeagwali, 2003). African Traditional Medicine can therefore be categorised as

mind-body medicine. Traditional healers have a crucial role to play in building the

health system in South Africa and in strengthening the national response to HIV/Aids

(De Beer & Whitlock, 2009). Traditional healers are consulted on matters related to

HIV/Aids.

An interesting example of a “healing plant” that Life Sciences teachers can use in the

classroom is the “cancer bush” or Sutherlandia frutescens.

36

Figure 2.2: Sutherlandia frutescens, a plant known for its medicinal properties

Source: Josef de Beer, September 2009

According to the traditional healer, Credo Mutwa, the cancer bush radiates energy

and well-being, cleanses the blood, serves as a tonic, combats flu symptoms and

can be used to combat cancer and STDs. These sentiments were echoed by Jan

Baadjies, the main source of information in De Beer and Van Wyk‟s survey in the

Hantam, Northern Cape Province, in South Africa. Researchers have realised that

this indigenous shrub common in South Africa has potent medical qualities that were

known in early times by the Khoi, San and Zulu healers. Early people have observed

that people suffering from cancer responded well to extracts made from this plant.

They hypothesised that Sutherlandia frutescens may assist cancer patients, since

there are active ingredients in this plant that assist the immune system to fight

disease. Recent research has shown that the shrub contains an amino acid which

fights depression, pinitol which helps patients to gain weight, and canavanine which

37

is successful in treating retroviruses (Van Wyk, 2008). It is used to treat Aids patients

today. Although it does not cure Aids, it definitely helps people with Aids to enjoy a

better quality of life. This is an interesting example of how modern science is giving

status to the work of traditional healers.

2.4.2(b) Introducing ethnobotany with scientific rigour in the Life Sciences classroom De Beer and Whitlock (2009) and De Beer and Van Wyk (2011) show that

ethnobotanical perspectives can be brought into the Life Sciences classroom with

rigour, and without introducing pseudo-science. By using ethnobotanical

approaches, students can engage with the true Nature of Science, as well as with

the so-called scientific method. These authors indicate how learners can do

ethnobotanical surveys, tapping into the IK of cultural groups, using the rapid

appraisal methodology. Learners can prepare herbarium voucher specimens of the

plants used by people, identify these plants, and also consult literature and websites,

like the website of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), for

clinical tests carried out on these plants in order to identify active ingredients with

anti-microbial activity. The authors also suggest methodologies, based on the

scientific method, where learners can isolate active substances from plant material

(using simple chromatography techniques) and test for anti-microbial activity. The

question is whether teachers have the PCK to effectively guide learners in rather

sophisticated procedures.

2.4.2(c) Introducing ethical aspects, such as intellectual property rights, in the classroom An interesting South African example that can be used to illustrate the ethical

minefield we find ourselves in, is the ghaap or ghoba (Hoodia gordonii) which is a

popular food item used locally to suppress hunger and thirst and also to treat

stomach pain. (The Khoisan hunters had to endure hunger and thirst on their hunting

expeditions.) The appetite-suppressant properties of the plant have been studied

scientifically and are ascribed to a chemical compound in the plant known as P57

(Van Heerden et al., 1998). This plant, sometimes incorrectly referred to as the

“South African desert cactus”, has become internationally famous as potential anti-

obesity drug. The economic implications are huge as the current market potential for

38

dietary control of obesity is billions of US Dollars per annum in the USA (Wynberg,

2004). Hoodia gordonii provides an interesting example of some of the ethical issues

encountered in science (Wynberg, 2004). The earliest people in South Africa, the

Khoisan, used it as an edible plant, and the fleshy stem provided the necessary

water in a very dry part of South Africa. Research undertaken by the Council for

Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in South Africa shows that this plant, with

an active ingredient named P57, is an effective appetite suppressant.

In the late 1990s, the American firm Pfizer was given the rights to develop Hoodia

tablets as a commercial undertaking. However, questions were asked about the

intellectual property rights of the indigenous (San) people, who have used this plant

for many decades or perhaps even centuries. The CSIR therefore signed an

agreement with a particular San group in the Kalahari, whereby this San group will

receive royalties from the sales of this plant product. However, this created problems

as only one San community was acknowledged and the plant is widespread in the

dry areas of South Africa. This might be one of the reasons why Pfizer announced

that it will no longer develop the commercial use of Hoodia, although restructuring of

the company was given as official reason for withdrawal from the project. However,

illegal trade in Hoodia has led to the plant becoming a threatened species. These

issues should be addressed in the Life Sciences classroom.

Figure 2.3: Hoodia gordonii

Source: Josef de Beer, November 2009

39

Josef de Beer, November 2009

40

2.5 THE PROBLEM ADDRESSED BY THIS RESEARCH Many teachers feel unsure, even anxious, to address IK in the classroom, partly

because of their lack of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). In many cases, they

are unsure of what needs to be taught to learners and tend to ignore some aspects

of the learning content. Although the curriculum policy states clearly that IK should

be included in the Life Sciences classroom, many teachers tend to ignore this. There

is no clear indication of which IK content should be taken into consideration, or

whose indigenous knowledge should be applied.

Most teachers are faced with the challenges of multiculturalism because of the

different cultures that form our Rainbow Nation. Culture has a great impact on

learning and school achievement, and the geo-socio-cultural environment represents

the link between what is already known and what is learned. Moreover, it has been

shown that effective science in South Africa depends on understanding how non-

Western learners learn (Le Grange, 2007).

2.5.1 Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) Life Sciences teachers are expected to have clear and in-depth knowledge of the life

sciences content to be taught to learners. Teachers‟ knowledge needs to stretch far

beyond the knowledge found in the school curriculum and textbooks. Life Sciences

teachers are expected to have knowledge of general pedagogical approaches which

are suitable for different topics. PCK focuses on the knowledge of what method or

teaching strategy would be most useful to ensure student understanding of a

particular topic. Contextual knowledge is also necessary. Teachers should know the

students, and the environment they come from. This will enable teachers to

understand and anticipate misconceptions that learners might encounter on specific

topics (Shulman, 1986; Sanders, 2007). Knowledge of the context in which the

knowledge is mediated is important and such that individual students‟ abilities and

possible barriers to learning. The context also includes knowledge of the setting of

the school and the facilities or lack thereof, and how this could be overcome (e.g. the

teacher‟s agency of introducing science-on-a-shoestring approach). Sanders (2007)

explains pedagogical content knowledge or PCK as integrated science knowledge,

pedagogical knowledge and context knowledge.

41

Figure 2.23 below shows the subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and

content knowledge which are the primary elements of a teacher‟s pedagogical

content knowledge. The three must be combined in order to give learners a proper

insight of the knowledge.

Figure 2.4: Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) combines integrated science knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and context knowledge

Shulman (1986) introduced PCK in 1985 after America revealed that there was a

poor correlation between learners‟ needs, teaching methodology and the content to

be taught. According to Shulman (1986: 9), PCK includes “the most useful forms of

representation of topics, the most powerful analogies, illustrations, examples and

demonstrations – in a word the ways of representing and formulating the subject that

make it comprehensible to others”.

Pedagogical knowledge in the diagram is seen to be the knowledge concerning

learning and learners, principles of instruction, classroom management, aims and

purposes of education. Pedagogical knowledge may be regaded as the knowledge

that helps a teacher understand how learners construct knowledge and acquire

certain skills. Teachers need to understand how learners apply cognitive, social and

developmental theories of learning in the classroom.

Knowledge of context

Subject matter knowledge

PCK

Pedagogical knowledge

42

Content knowledge refers to the subject matter to be taught by teachers to learners

in the classroom. In this case, it refers to the Life Sciences knowledge to be taught

as described by the NCS, and the infusion of relevant IKS in class. According to

Shulman (1986), content knowledge must include knowledge of concepts, theories

and ideas. Established practices and approaches towards developing such

knowledge will also be included.

Knowledge of content includes knowledge of the school setting, the culture of the

school and its surrounding area and individual learners as a whole. The social

circumstances and abilities of learners are also included.

The PCK of Life Sciences teachers is a big concern in South Africa. Although

teachers‟ PCK is important, Loughran, Mulhall and Berry (2008) argue that there is

very little literature on how teachers can develop and acquire PCK. The three

authors are of the opinion that PCK can be learned through access to experienced

teachers‟ teaching. Teaching styles or skills evolve as a combination of one‟s

educational philosophy and preferred teaching methods, techniques and strategies

(Katzenmeyer & Moller, 1996: 113).

The way in which PCK is presented to student teachers in order to acquire and

reflect on their teaching practice is offered by Loughran et al. (2008). The method is

known as the CoRes and PaP-eRs which uses the concept of content

representations (CoRes) and pedagogical and professional-experience repertoires

(PaP-eRs) to address both the science content as well as specific ways to teach it.

This approach focuses on the main content ideas (“big ideas”) and on possible

misconceptions and areas that students will find difficult. This also includes creative

ways and methods to determine whether learners understand certain concepts and

ideas to scaffold their understanding. A PaP-eR will focus on the teaching and

learning aspect of the specific topic. The specific content determines which

pedagogical approach will be followed. This will help to determine why the teacher

follows a specific method of teaching. Critical reflection is of the utmost importance in

developing one‟s PCK. Teachers will improve their teaching practices only if they

reflect critically on what happened in the classroom and on the teaching philosophy

that underpins the methods they use.

43

The methods proposed by Loughran et al. (2008) can be used as a framework in a

community of practice in order to help teachers understand and develop PCK. The

CoRes and PaP-eRs concepts can be an approach that can help teachers to reflect

on their own teaching practice and on their professional development and PCK

development. The benefits of acquiring PCK may lead to teachers being more

knowledgeable, flexible and capable in their work. Acquiring PCK will also allow

teachers to cater for the individual needs of each learner. Without sufficient PCK

teachers are likely to focus on covering a certain amount of study material in a

certain time instead of focusing on deep conceptual understanding.

Teachers are required to apply the knowledge they acquired or experienced in their

teaching lifetime. According to Shulman, a teacher should have “different

knowledges”.

2.5.2 PCK and the role of critical reflection No single teaching strategy is effective for all learners at all times. Teaching

strategies should work hand in hand, supplementing each other in order to ensure

effective learning. Factors such as learners‟ attitudes, abilities and learning styles,

teachers‟ beliefs, knowledge and abilities, and learning context have important an

effect on what learners learn (Killen, 2000). Teaching needs to be conducted in such

a way that learning is optimal, and teachers should ensure that any barriers to

learning are addressed.

The Department of Education has high expectations of teachers, and values their

professional development. Teachers are professionals and specialists in curriculum

development, assessment and teaching. They are also community members,

scholars, care givers, leaders and managers (Smith & Nduna, 2008). One important

focus of the new curriculum is that the teacher should facilitate learning, and that the

teacher should not, as the source of all knowledge, follow a “chalk-and-talk”

approach. This means teachers need to help learners construct their own

knowledge. This is a challenge, especially when it comes to the incorporation of IK.

Learners should be at the centre of teaching and they should discover meaning by

including their indigenous knowledge. Learners can be given the opportunity to

connect the information they receive at school with their knowledge from home. They

can be given a topic to explore or discuss on their own and to research at home and

44

their surrounding area. By using a learner-centred approach, teachers will no longer

be able to filter all the knowledge or information reaching the learners because some

of the information will come from the learners‟ individual or group investigations and

discussions. Teachers will be facilitating learning while at the same time monitoring

the situation.

Teachers often experience problems in infusing indigenous knowledge in their

teaching because of their lack of pedagogical content knowledge. Hence, they

encounter barriers in the infusion of IK. For example, teachers may find it difficult to

source the material they want to use in class or they do not have sufficient

knowledge of IK or of appropriate teaching methods. Some teachers are also

hesitant to infuse IK in their teaching out of a fear for introducing “pseudo-science” in

the classroom. Teachers ought to learn to use their local environment and to expand

from it into the large world (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 1996: 154). Furthermore, the

knowledge that teachers have is often only situated in a particular culture, and many

teachers lack insight into the IKS of other cultural groups.

It is difficult for teachers to know all the indigenous knowledge systems that operate

in South Africa‟s multi-cultural environment. Little IK content is provided in the

prescribed school textbooks and this makes teaching difficult. Teachers only rely on

the knowledge that learners bring from home after they were given a task or

research to conduct. Teachers often lack the skill to critically reflect on their own

teaching. Only through critical reflective practice can teachers develop their own

PCK. There is a need for teacher development programmes that will help them to

develop professional practice in their learning area.

2.5.3The gap addressed by this research Despite the fact that the curriculum document for Life Sciences advocates for the

inclusion of IK in the classroom, it provides very little information or guidance on how

this should be achieved. This research highlights the problems that teachers face in

the implementation of this curriculum requirement, and try to determine whether

teachers have the necessary PCK to effectively succeed in this regard. Anecdotal

evidence shows that teachers:

45

Have insufficient content knowledge – both biological content knowledge and

indigenous knowledge – to effectively design lessons showing how science

influences our daily lives.

Do not have sufficient pedagogical knowledge. Too many South African

teachers still use “transmission” approaches in the classroom and, where

practical work or scientific investigations are involved, it is often done as

“cookery book” approaches and not as true science-as-inquiry approaches

(Petersen, 2010; Cronje, 2011). Teachers do not know how to introduce IK in

an effective way, especially in a way that uses the “scientific method” while

reflecting the Nature of Science.

Teachers experience problems with contextual knowledge, for example

knowing about the cultural practices of so many different South African

cultural groups.

2.6 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: CULTURAL HISTORICAL ACTIVITY THEORY (CHAT) Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) was seen as a model for change that has

the potential to “drive innovation in practice” (Meyer, 2007:1 3). The model was

developed by the co-workers of Lev Vygotsky (1978), who is generally considered

the founder of social and cultural constructivism. Vygotsky believes that learning

takes place during social and cultural endeavours between the child and

knowledgeable adults (or more competent peers). The theory explains that human

beings never react directly to their environment, but that an artefact (cultural means,

tools and signs) always mediates learning. This is a useful lens that can be used in

research to look at the dynamics in a classroom (called an „activity system‟ in CHAT

language). I have therefore used third generation CHAT as a lens to discuss my

findings.

The positioning of research within the broad theoretical framework of an interpretive

study fits in with the adoption of Activity Theory as conceptual framework.

According to Leontiev (1981), the concept of first-generation activity theory included

the idea of mediation and included the concept of collectivity as well as individual

action from which the second generation of activity evolved. This can also be linked

46

to the concept of the division of labour which is seen as the fundamental historical

process assisting in the development of cognitive functions. Engestrom (1987) built

on Vygotsky and Leontiev‟s model to generate the third-generation activity theory

which is represented in Figure 2.24.

In this case, the NCS states clearly that indigenous knowledge needs to be

incorporated by teachers in the Life Sciences classroom. Due to the insufficient

pedagogical content knowledge of many teachers, it is often difficult to comply with

this curriculum principle. The training that was given to teachers for the teaching of

the NCS was often not sufficient for teachers to incorporate or infuse indigenous

knowledge in their teaching. The pedagogical content knowledge of teachers is

therefore seen as an important tool to obtain the desired outcomes.

Figure 2.5: Third-generation activity theory

Division of labour Community Rules

Tools

Pedagogy

Language NCS policy

Subject Object

Learning more about IK

HOD, DoE Subject Advisor, Principal

Outcome

Local examples and resources

Learners

Knowledgeable people (sangomas), parents, LS teacher

Teaching about IK

Developing PCK

Guidelines in the NCS

Rules of the school or community, Cultural heritage

LS teacher Incorporation of IK

Footing + voice of LS teacher

PCK Development

47

Indigenous Knowledge (IK) can act as a powerful tool in a learning environment to

teach learners about the social dimensions of science. The third-generation activity

theory will be used where the actions of an individual are seen as embedded within

an activity system which includes the subject (individual), the object of action and a

community engaged in collective activity. The subject of the activity system is the person or subgroups whose actions we seek

to understand – this is the focus of our analysis. In this case, our subject is the Life

Sciences teacher incorporating indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences

classroom. The object motivates the actions of the subject and can be thought of as

the “raw material” or “problem space” at which the activity is directed (Center for

Activity Theory and Developmental Work Research, 2003: 4). In this study, the

object will be the incorporation of indigenous knowledge, and the development of

teachers‟ pedagogical content knowledge. The subject uses tools which can be

physical, cognitive or symbolic to direct actions towards the object and to produce

outcomes (Beatty et al., 2009). The tools include the curriculum (NCS), the

pedagogy used, language and local resources such as medicinal plants used in an

area. The community consists of the participants engaged in collective activity with

the subject, along with other individuals or groups with a stake in the object of

activity; the object defines the community and distinguishes it from other

communities (Engestrom, 2001; Murphy & Rodriquez-Manzanares, 2008).

Therefore, the community in this study is the parents as community members,

learners, knowledgeable people (for example, sangomas or traditional healers)

supplying teachers with information, the Life Sciences teacher, colleagues, HOD,

principal, DoE and also subject advisors. The Department of Education does not give

teachers enough support in teaching IK and as a result teachers become

demotivated.

Engestrom (1987) presented these elements and their interconnections as a triangle

showing the subject as a teacher whose actions need to be understood, and the

object as the effective incorporation or infusion of indigenous knowledge in the Life

Sciences classroom.

48

The division of labour in the classroom specifies the power structure, including the

teacher‟s authority to design learning goals or outcomes, and establish performance

criteria and measures. It also reflects on two distinct “hats” that the teacher wears:

that of teacher, facilitating learning activities in which IK is examined, and that of a

life-long learner, learning more about the IK of different cultural groups and

developing PCK. Guidelines in the National Curriculum Statement, the rules of the

school or community and cultural heritage will act as the rules. Religious beliefs are

factors that often hinder or affect the infusion of IK because both teachers and

learners sometimes do not want to engage themselves in class discussions. This will

be discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.

The activity system‟s tools warrant a more detailed discussion:

The NCS policy document:

This document is informative but does not give direction on how to infuse the

IK. Most school textbooks run short of IK content to be taught to learners.

Language and terminology: Terminology has been and continues to be a

serious challenge in infusing indigenous knowledge in the classroom. Some of

the indigenous events do not have scientific names and therefore it becomes

a challenge to explain them to scientists. As a result, it is sometimes difficult

to explain IK and cultural practices, which normally require colloquial

language, in scientific language.

Pedagogy: Teachers find it difficult to use effective methods because they

are not well trained to infuse IK in Life Sciences. Teachers are often not well-

versed in science-as-inquiry approaches and the Nature of Science.

Local examples and resources: South Africa is a rich source of indigenous

knowledge, as illustrated in this chapter. Local products and plants can be

used and skilful people in the community, such as traditional healers, can be

invited as guest speakers into the classroom.

Books and the internet: There are a number of very good books that can be

used in the Life Sciences classroom, especially in the field of ethnobotany,

and medicinal plants. Teachers can also access excellent websites, notably

those of the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) and the

National Reference Centre for African Traditional Medicines (NRCATM).

49

The outcome in this activity system will be the professional development, footing and

the voice of Life Sciences teachers in the incorporation of indigenous knowledge in

their teaching.

Using CHAT as a lens in this research will help to highlight tensions in this activity

system. If teachers do not receive adequate support in their PCK development from

the community (e.g. from an HOD or subject advisor), such tension might result in

ineffective teaching of IK.

Teachers are directed by the Life Sciences policy to infuse indigenous knowledge in

the classroom, which forms part of the community. Teachers always find themselves

at a crossroad, not knowing which route is the most suitable. They must obtain

knowledge from the community, yet the same community is sometimes reluctant to

offer such knowledge. The learners from the same community are yearning for the

same information. It resembles the story of the chicken and the egg: Which one

came first? Must teachers teach before obtaining information from the community or

must they obtain the information before teaching?

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Research designs are the plans and procedures used to construct the research

process. The chosen design includes the entire spectrum from assumptions made to

the methods of data collections and analysis (Creswell, 2009: 3). Henning et al.

(2005: 1) refer to the whole research process as a home of knowledge or an

epistemological home. In terms of this metaphor the research design chosen for this

study resembles the architectural plans for the custom-designed research home of

the study (Cronje, 2011). This chapter explains in detail the research design and

50

methodology used for this study. Methodology is the procedure followed by the

researcher in obtaining data to answer the research question (Van Der Walt & Van

Rensburg 2006: 191). The quality of research findings is directly dependent on the

methodological procedures followed in the study. Therefore, a complete account of

the way in which this study has been planned, structured and executed will be

described in this chapter.

3.1.1 Aim of the study The aim of this study is to explicate the participating teachers‟ experiences of

incorporating indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom.

3.1.2 Objectives of the study The following objectives were identified for the study:

To determine whether Life Sciences teachers have the expertise to address

IK in the classroom

To identify the problems that teachers experience in infusing IK in their

teaching

To identify communities of practice where teachers support each other in

applying IK

To identify keystone species teachers, and to identify best practices in

teaching indigenous knowledge in an integrated way in the Life Sciences

classroom.

3.1.3 Research questions The main question is : Wwhat are teacher`s lived experiences of the infusion of IK in

the classroom?

The following research sub-questions guided this research:

How do teachers experience teaching IK in the teaching of Life Sciences?

How do teachers view their own training and professional development for

infusing their teaching with IK?

Why should IK receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom?

What problems do teachers experience in incorporating IK in the classroom?

51

How does a keystone species promote IK in the Life Sciences curriculum in a

community of practice?

3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

A mixed-method study that involved collecting, analysing and integrating quantitative

and qualitative research data was used as a programme of inquiry (Creswell, 2003).

The method was used to achieve richness of data. Both quantitative and qualitative

research data were combined to provide a better understanding of the research

problem – an outcome that would not have been possible if one approach was used

on its own. This was done in the Gauteng province, in order to identify basic

challenges in addressing IK in the classroom.

This study is divided into two phases. During Phase 1, quantitative research

approach was used, and this was followed by a generic qualitative research design

in Phase 2.

Creswell refers to various sequential designs, and this study will be implementing an

explanatory design (see Figure 3.1).

Follow up

Figure 3.1: An explanatory sequential mixed-method design Source: Creswell, 2003.

This design will enable triangulation to ensure rich, thick research data.

3.2.1 Phase 1: Quantitative research

QUANT Data & Results

QUAL Data & Results

Interpretation

52

Quantitative research is underpinned by a formal, objective and systematic process

which uses numerical data to obtain information about the phenomenon (Burns &

Grove, 2005: 23). Information was collected through structured questions (see

Appendix B) using a questionnaire to explore and describe the experiences of Life

Sciences teachers regarding the incorporation of indigenous knowledge in the

classroom. The insight gained from this quantitative inquiry was utilised to develop

interview questions for Phase 2 of this study.

The quantitative research component included a questionnaire that was sent to all

Life Sciences teachers in Gauteng province. A surprisingly high number of teachers

completed the questionnaire. As a result, 255 completed questionnaires were used

for this study. One of the sections (Section F) dealt with indigenous knowledge, and

teachers were requested to answer a set of 20 questions, using a Likert scale. Data

was analysed by UJ‟s statistical division, STATKON, providing a wealth of

information for this study.

3.2.2 Phase 2: A generic qualitative study In Phase 2 of this study, a generic qualitative inquiry was built on the quantitative

data in an explanatory sequential design style (Creswell, 2009), with traces of a

phenomenological study that aimed to find the essence or structure of Life Sciences

teachers‟ experiences of the inclusion of IK in their classroom. Mostert (2009)

describes phenomenology as the descriptive methodology of human science seeking

to explore and describe phenomena as they present themselves in the lived world in

order to find the meaning of the phenomena.

Giorgi (1997) explains that, in qualitative research, the researcher needs to have an

attitude of openness to let the unexpected meanings emerge. This study wants to

uncover the true meaning of infusing or incorporating indigenous knowledge into the

themes explored in the Life Sciences classroom by peeling back the various layers

of moral, ethical, social and cultural influence that learners and teachers encounter in

their life world. This study also aims to describe the lived experiences of Life

Sciences teachers in this regard. Van Manen (1997: 39) states that lived

experiences is the starting point and the end point of phenomenological research. It

is best to obtain information from people who have lived the life one wants to

53

research. There in an English adage that goes: “Take it from the horse‟s mouth.”

Burch (1989) suggests that phenomenology does not produce new information but

rather appropriates and interpret a meaning already implicit to experiences as its

truth.

This method of study will uncover the experiences of Life Sciences teachers in their

inclusion of indigenous knowledge in their classrooms. This study also envisages to

identify the problems teachers encounter during their teaching in relation to the

infusion of IK, as well as their knowledge about IK (or lack thereof) in terms of

infusing IK in multicultural classrooms. This is what Shulman (1986) refers to as

teachers‟ pedagogical content knowledge, or PCK.

There is an alignment between the research questions and methods used for the

study. This study uses the following data collection methods: questionnaires,

individual interviews, an analysis of Grade 12 examination scripts (answer sheets),

classroom visits and observation of portfolios. As part of the study, the data and

findings of the UJ Script Analysis Project (SAP) done by staff and postgraduate

students of UJ (of which the researcher was also part) for Umalusi will be looked at.

In line with the methodology followed in undertaking phenomenological studies, the

researcher conducted personal interviews with Life Sciences teachers and recorded

their “lived experiences” of dealing with indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences

classroom. The researcher observed lessons and looked at students‟ portfolios to

obtain an idea of how IK is incorporated in the classroom. Through triangulation the

different data sets will be integrated to provide a rich description of teachers‟

experiences in incorporating indigenous knowledge in their teaching.

The focus of this study is on the qualitative data, because of the phenomenological

nature. The data obtained in Gauteng province, with its arguably more diverse

cultures, is simply to provide background on the challenges experienced.

54

3.3 CHOOSING A SAMPLE FOR THE RESEARCH

The following were taken into account in selecting a sample for the research on

teachers‟ experiences of teaching IK in the Life Sciences classroom:

3.3.1 The setting The setting may refers to the physical location and conditions in which the data

collection takes place during the of the study . This study was conducted in

secondary schools in the Thabina, Khujwane and Shiluvane circuits of the Mopani

district in Limpopo province, South Africa. The Mopani district was selected because

the researcher works in this area and because it would be convenient to conduct the

study here.

3.3.2 Population According to various authors (Van Der Walt & Van Rensburg, 2006: 123; Babbie,

2004: 190; De Vos, 2002: 198), a population is the entire group of persons that is of

interest to the researcher or that meets the criteria the researcher is interested in

studying. As stated, the population consists of 10 teachers working in the proposed

secondary schools in Mopani district, Limpopo province.

The target population is all the elements, individuals or members that meet certain

criteria for inclusion in the study (Polit & Beck, 2006: 259; Burns & Grove, 2003: 43,

491). In this case, the target population is teachers who are teaching Life Sciences

to Grade 10, 11 and 12 learners.

3.3.3 Sample and sampling technique From the population of teachers who are teaching Life Sciences in the FET grades of

the proposed schools, only a portion was selected as suited for the study in the form

of a sample. A sample is a subset of a large population selected by the researcher to

participate in a research study (Van Der Walt & Van Rensburg, 2006: 124; Burns &

Grove, 2005: 750) or a portion of the population to represent the entire population .

55

Van Der Walt and Van Rensburg (2006: 124) further indicate that sampling involves

selecting a group of people (sample) from a population in order to obtain information

regarding the phenomenon in a way that represents the population of interest.

For the quantitative component of the study, a questionnaire was sent to Gauteng

schools so that it could be completed by Life Sciences educators. Over 250

completed questionnaires were returned.

In the case of interviews, a teachers‟ forum or meeting was scheduled where

interested participants could learn about the research and ask questions. The

purposive sampling method was applied. According to Burns and Grove (2003: 255)

and Creswell (2008), purposive sampling involves the conscious selection of certain

elements by the researcher. In this case, the researcher wanted to specify criteria for

screening potential participants, the number of people to be recruited, the location of

schools and the approach to be used.

3.3.3.1 Eligibility criteria Burns and Grove (2005: 343) indicate that a study may have inclusion or exclusion

sampling criteria (or both). The inclusion sampling criteria are those characteristics

that a subject must possess to be part of the target group while the exclusion

sampling criteria are those characteristics that can cause person or subject to be

excluded from the target population (Burns & Grove, 2005: 343; Van Der Walt & Van

Rensburg, 2006: 124). Teachers were selected on the basis of their ability to provide

or generate data that will be suitable for the research. The sample of teachers will be

Life Sciences teachers. To be included in the study the teachers should:

Have 10 years or more of teaching experience

Teach at the Thabina, Khujwane or Shiluvane circuit in Mopani district in

Limpopo province (for the qualitative research). The quantitative research was

done in Gauteng. However, the Life Sciences curriculum is a national

curriculum, and teachers would face the same challenge in all provinces.

Teach Life Sciences in Grade 10, 11 or 12.

Have the ability to incorporate indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life

Sciences.

56

3.3.3.2 Sample size The sample size is the number of study participants in a sample (Polit & Beck, 2005:

509). Participants who meet the eligibility criteria will be included according to their

availability and willingness to participate. The minimum sample size depends on the

data collection method for the different phases. The researcher was summoned to a

meeting at the circuit office to discuss the research with the three circuit managers

and three Life Sciences subject facilitators. They helped with identification of Life

Sciences educators who can do well in the incorporation of indigenous knowledge in

their lessons at school. In identifying them, the researcher desired to make sense of

their lived experiences and to be open to discovering new meaning. This clearly

showed that science education is not only found in observational experiences but in

the experiences of its presence in real-life situations (Mostert, 2009: 16). The

researcher started off with a sample of fifteen (15) teachers, but some dropped out

during the research process for different reasons. Ten (10) teachers remained. This

number is sufficient to capture the lived experiences of teachers on the inclusion of

IK in the classroom. Data saturation was actually obtained before all ten interviews

were done.

3.4 DATA COLLECTION The study seeks to uncover the experiences of teachers that have taught Life

Sciences for more than 10 years and will focus on their infusion of IK in their

teaching. The study also aims to explore the knowledge and skills that teachers have

in the infusion of IK and to describe the problems they encounter in this regard.

The quantitative data used the results of questionnaires that were sent to all schools

in the Gauteng province and that were returned. The qualitative data includes

transcriptions of the interviews, classroom observations, an analysis of Grade 12

scripts, and the portfolios of both teachers and learners.

Based on Creswell‟s view (2007: 118) of data being a series of activities that are

connected to each other, the data collection activities for this study is presented in

Figure 3.2.

57

Figure 3.2: Data collection activities

3.4.1 Phase 1: Quantitative data collection A questionnaire was used to collect data. The study questionnaire drew on the UJ

Science Education study that was commissioned by the Gauteng Department of

Education. The questionnaire explored a number of issues, including the research

focus of IK in the Life Sciences classroom, and was sent to all schools offering Life

Sciences in Gauteng province.

The questionnaires were sent to schools so that Life Sciences educators could

complete them. Fortunately, 255 teachers completed the questionnaires. A Lickert

scale was used, and data was analysed by UJ‟s statistical division, STATKON. As a

1. Site

selection

5.

Analysing

data

4.

Generat-

ing and

recording

data

3.

Building

rapport

2. Gaining

access,

obtaining

permission

58

result, a wealth of information informed the study. Based on teachers‟ feedback, an

individual interview schedule of Life Sciences teachers was compiled for the

qualitative part of the research in which purposive sampling took place.

3.4.2 Phase 2: Qualitative data collection The qualitative research included individual interviews with ten (10) of Life Sciences

teachers. These interviews were conducted at their schools. The teachers‟

experiences in the teaching of Life Sciences, the way they incorporate indigenous

knowledge in their teaching and problems that they encounter were explored.

In-depth unstructured interviews were conducted in order to capture the exact

description of experiences and to preserve the spontaneity of the participants.

Probing follow-up questions were posed, based on the responses of the participants.

The study attempted to obtain in-depth opinions from participants in order to show

what range of experiences was possible in the world that the participants live in. As it

includes attitudes, behaviour and experiences which are important, people took part

in the research so that contact with them could last longer.

The interviews were conducted in English, and each individual interview lasted

approximately 35 to 40 minutes. The interviews were conducted in the specific

schools where the teachers are employed as it is a convenient place for them

considering time constraints and other work commitments. Each of the schools

organised a private office for the interviews. The interviews were conducted in these

quiet and private offices, away from other activities, distractions and noise from

learners and bells.

3.4.2.1 Recruitment of the participants Recruitment consisted of a project-specific plan to identify and enrol teachers to

participate in this research study. In this case, the researcher wanted to specify

criteria for screening potential participants, the number of people to be recruited, the

location of school and the approach to be used. The participants were recruited

before the initiation of the study. The relationship with participants was developed

before the interviews. A teacher‟s forum or meeting was scheduled where interested

59

teachers could learn about the research and ask questions. The research and its

purpose were clearly explained to potential study participants.

3.4.2.2 The interviews The interviews were seen as formal meetings in which participants as interviewees

were asked questions by an interviewer for the purpose of the research. Formal

interviews were pre-arranged on occasions. Meetings took place at a time

convenient to both parties and in a location suitable for the purpose. Venues at the

teachers‟ place of work, i.e. schools, were used.

Before the interviews the broad nature of the research was discussed with the

teachers (see Paragraph 3.5. where ethical considerations are discussed). This was

done with the intention to reassure teachers and give them the opportunity to

prepare themselves for the interview.

Interviews began with questions about the personal backgrounds of the teachers and

provided a context for evaluating subsequent information provided by the

interviewees. This was followed by open-ended questions on the inclusion of IK in

the lessons.

The following questions were posed to the teachers:

1. How do you incorporate IK in your teaching?

2. What problems do you encounter in your teaching of LS?

3. How does IK differ from “Western science”?

4. Why should IK receive consideration in LS?

5. How do you incorporate IK in your lessons? (i.e. the skills you use to

teach IKS).

6. What problems do you experience with the inclusion of IK in your teaching?

7. Where do you get information and relevant material on IK?

8. How do you view the training that you received at university or college? Did it

prepare you to teach IK?

9. How do learners and colleagues experience IK?

10. What support structures are available to help you in the incorporation of IK?

11. How do you manage to infuse IK in a multicultural classroom?

60

12. How does a keystone species (master teacher) promote IK?

Questions were always phrased as simple and straightforward as possible and in a

familiar language, namely English. Complex and double-barrelled questions were

avoided. During the interview, the interviewer remained neutral because her opinions

on the research were not the focus of the interview.

The interviewer listened carefully and politely to participants without interrupting

them while waiting for them to finish talking. Follow-up questions for clarification

were asked. Hints such as pauses or slight changes in voice that indicated the

participants may have additional thoughts or feelings to describe, were observed

while follow-up questions were asked.

The use of body language and eye contact to encourage the interviewee‟s response

were taken into consideration. The researcher also managed to observe the

participants‟ body language because at times they were not comfortable with other

lines of questioning, became tired or even wanted to take a break. Smiles and nods

were often effective for the interview. Silence was also used as an effective tool to

elicit reaction from the interviewees. At times, participants kept quiet in order to think

about what they were going to say.

The interviews were digitally recorded, and a notebook was used to keep track of

follow-up questions and additional points. This really helped to keep the interview

organised, and to concentrate on the participants as interviews are tiresome.

Some participants habitually answered with short sentences, or one or two words.

Questions were asked to elicit as much information as possible, remembering that

each participant was unique and treating the situation with respect. In cases where

participants were talkative, the researcher tried to keep the interviews focused on the

topic at hand in a polite and gentle manner.

For the interviews to be successful, qualities such as the following were used: an

interest in and respect for participants as individuals, flexibility in responding to them,

an ability to show understanding and sympathy for their point of view, and the

61

willingness to sit quietly and listen to them. As this is a qualitative research it allowed

participants to respond more elaborately and in greater detail. Most of them

managed to bring new meaning to the research.

3.4.2.3 Classroom observations Lessons were observed on the days of the interviews to assess how teachers

incorporate indigenous knowledge in their teaching. Teachers were observed within

their classroom teaching during their teaching periods so that the smooth running of

the school was not disrupted. A careful and systematic description of the lessons

were done, focusing on whether IK content was introduced, the pedagogy used, and

how the Nature of Science was introduced.

The Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) was used as an instrument

for analysing the lessons. This included background information about the teacher,

contextual background and activities with the description of the lesson observed

together with relevant details about the learners and teachers, lesson design and

implementation methods, content and classroom culture that involved

communication interactions and learner/teacher relationships. The instrument uses a

Likert scale, with ratings that range from never occurred (0) up to very descriptive

which was rated as five (5). Aspects of the lesson presentation were rated according

to the ratings and additional comments about the lessons were made.

3.4.2. Script analysis Grade 12 scripts of 2008 were to determine if the exam questions assessed subject

outcomes and to evaluate the question paper in terms of its inclusivity and sensitivity

to culture, gender, religion and race, e.g. the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, as

prescribed in the NCS policy document. A team of four analysts conducted the

analysis. The four analysts were a university Biology lecturer, a Senior Certificate

Biology/Life Sciences examination moderator, a Biology/Life Sciences subject

advisor, and the researcher as a FET Biology/Life Sciences teacher.

Both Papers 1 and Paper 2 were analysed but only selected questions that could

provide insight in terms IK were taken into consideration. Only Question 4.3 in both

papers were analysed. A rubric consisting of five columns containing the question

62

number, misconception, scientific investigations, general problems and IK application

with codes was used to analyse the scripts (see Table 4.5 in Chapter 4). The codes

used were also abbreviated in the columns provided. The last column, which referred

to indigenous knowledge application, was emphasised as the IK experiences needed

to be explored.

3.4.3 Ethical considerations Every code of ethics is designed to guide research in terms of the requirements of

fully informed voluntary consent on the part of individuals concerned (Gregory, 2003:

35).

3.4.3.1 Permission to conduct the study The nature of the study was explained to the participants, and they were provided

with an option to either participate or not. The participants were also informed of their

inherent right to withdraw at any stage without being held accountable. The teachers

all entered the research process voluntarily and were given the consent form to

complete and sign. The individual informed-consent forms for participants included

the following aspects:

The purpose of the research

What was expected of participants, including the amount of time likely to be

required for participation

The fact that participation was voluntary and that one could withdraw at any

time with no negative repercussions

How confidentiality will be protected, e.g. through the use of pseudonyms

The name and contact information of the researcher, should the participants

want to contact her.

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3.5.1 Confidentiality In reporting on the interviews, the privacy and anonymity of the participants were

ensured by using pseudonyms. Personal opinions were not shared with others or

participants or even with anyone not directly involved in the study.

3.5.2 Respect for participants This required a commitment to ensure the anonymity of research participants and it

was done in order to protect them from exploitation of their vulnerability. The

participants‟ dignity was respected. Adherence to these principles ensured that

participants were not used simply as a means of achieving research objectives. They

were assured that they will not be exposed to undue physical or psychological harm.

3.5.3 Beneficence This required a commitment to minimise the risks associated with research, including

psychological and social risks and minimizing accrue to research participants. The

study was for academic purposes and therefore there were no financial benefits.

However, the researcher was of the opinion that the findings and recommendations

of this study would help the participants overcome the problems encountered in the

infusion of indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom.

3.5.4 Honesty with professional colleagues The findings were reported in a complete and honest fashion without

misrepresenting what the researcher has done or intentionally misleading others as

to the nature of their findings. Discussions and feedback were sent to participants

from time to time as this served to keep participants updated on what happened in

the research. The discussions and verbal report preceded the final report. The

research was under no circumstances aimed at fabricating data to support a

particular conclusion.

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3.6 CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED DURING DATA COLLECTION At times, the researcher arrived as scheduled for the interviews at a school only to

discover that the participant has changed his or her mind about participating for a

variety of reasons. These reasons included the following: the participant‟s health was

not good or personal issues that demanded immediate attention (e.g. family matters

like a sick child). A few participants became unwilling to be interviewed or terminated

their involvement. In 2010, soccer mania plagued the country, and we suffered a

prolonged teacher strike, and this also disrupted the interview schedule and school

visits.

3.7 DATA ANALYSIS

Data is the information collected by the researcher during the course of the study

(Streubert & Carpenter, 2003: 467).

3.7.1 Quantitative data analysis In the quantitative analysis, the statistical analysis for description, comparing and

relating variables was used. Returned questionnaires were analysed, and the

frequencies (means) and standard deviations will be discussed in Chapter 4.

However, the focus of this study is on the qualitative part, since this research tries to

portray the lived experiences of teachers teaching IK. The quantitative data was

used to finalise the interview protocols.

3.7.2 Qualitative data analysis Audio-recorded data was transcribed verbatim. Data was analysed by coding it into

meaningful themes and categories. This enabled the researcher to organise large

amounts of texts and to discover patterns that would be difficult to detect by just

listening to a tape or reading a transcript. The transcripts are attached at the end as

Appendix C.

65

Figure 3.3: Saldana’s theory model for qualitative inquiry Source: Saldana, 2009: 12.

Similar units were grouped together as subcategories. Initial short names were

assigned to categories according to the interpretation of what each seemed to be

saying.

3.8 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF DATA

3.8.1 Validity Validity involves measuring what is supposed to be measured or the accuracy of

measurements. Validity checks whether or not the researcher investigates what he

Code

Code

Code

Code

Code

Code

Category

Category

Themes/

Concepts

Themes/

Concepts

Subcategor

y

Subcategor

y

66

originally wanted to investigate. Validity keeps the researcher on track. Validity itself

refers to the criterion of ensuring that the researcher is actually studying and

reporting on what he or she claims to be reporting. It is also defined by Cook and

Campbell (1979) as the best available approximation to the truth or falsity of a given

inference, proposition or conclusion. Four types of validity were examined in this

research, namely conclusion validity, internal validity, construct validity and external

validity.

Conclusion validity This type of validity asks whether there was a relationship between the research

instruments and methodologies. The requirement was fulfilled by the nature of

sampling the participants. As the study seeks to explore the infusion of IK in the

teaching of Life Sciences, the participants were experienced Life Sciences teachers.

As such, they could provide the required information. The type of questions that were

posed to them was in line with what was being investigated. The themes that

emerged from the data were discussed within the postgraduate Research Niche

Area (RNA) which is headed by the researcher‟s study leader.

Internal validity Internal validity asks whether there was a connection between the research

instruments and methodologies and the outcome, and whether that was a causal

relationship. The causal relationship investigated by this study is whether the

infusion of IK in the teaching of Life Sciences demoralised both the educators and

the learners, and whether any tensions existed. This will be further discussed in

Chapter 4, which focuses on emerging tensions.

Construct validity Construct validity deals with finding out if there was a relationship between the

operationalization of the concept in this study and the actual causal relationship

studied. Construct validity tests the relationship between how the researcher

operated as a researcher in order to come up with the causal relationship studies. In

this study, there was a linkage between all the data collected. Qualitative and

quantitative data were linked together in order to provide a rich, thick description

(Henning, 2005).

67

External validity This type of validity refers to the ability to generalise the results of the study in terms

of other settings. The results cannot be generalised in terms of other situations as

this study was contextualised in the Mopani district only, with some insight (through

the GDE questionnaires) from Gauteng.

The validation strategies, as described by Creswell (2007: 207-210) and Cohen et al.

(2002: 109-115), followed in this study are:

Triangulation:

Data-generating methods were used to explain the richness of observed

phenomena. In this study, data was generated using multiple methods, such

as questionnaires, classroom observations, personal interviews, Grade 12

script analysis, and learner and teacher portfolios. The combination of the

above instruments reduced the bias on the part of the researcher.

Rich and thick data description:

This study described the participants‟ lived experiences in detail as it will help

the readers of this study to use the information in other settings or in future

research. The Life Sciences teachers and the tensions that arise in the Life

Sciences classroom (as an activity system) when introducing IK are described

in detail.

Clarifying researcher bias:

The report findings reflect the views and feelings of the participants and not

those of the researcher.

Member checking:

The transcriptions of the interviews were taken back to the respective

teachers in order to check if they were correctly understood, and whether the

transcriptions resembled their sentiments. By so doing the accuracy of the

recordings were clearly checked.

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3.8.2 Reliability Reliability estimates the consistency of measurements or, more simply, the degree to

which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used in the same

conditions with the same subjects. It also refers to the care taken by the researcher

to ensure that participants‟ responses were not prompted by the interviewer being

biased. The researcher remained neutral in her response to what she was told and

saw.

3.9 SUMMARY

The research methodology was highlighted in detail focusing on population,

sampling and sample size. A sample of ten experienced Life Sciences teachers from

the Thabina, Khujwana, Shiluvana circuits were interviewed. These circuits form part

of the Mopani district in Limpopo province. The data collection methods were also

discussed. The ethical considerations for the study were outlined. The next chapter

will focus on data analysis and interpretation.

CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS OF DATA

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses the data from the GDE research study (quantitative data) as

well as the qualitative data obtained through individual interviews, lesson

observations (where the RTOP instrument was used – see Appendix D) and the

script analysis (where a rubric was used – see Appendix E). The researcher hopes

to provide the reader with a portrait of the status of indigenous knowledge in the Life

Sciences classroom, and the challenges that teachers face in addressing IK in their

teaching.

69

This study built on the data obtained from the GDE-commissioned research. As a

result, this data and the data obtained from the interviews, classroom observations

and script analysis project will be merged. The aim is that this triangulation will assist

the researcher to describe and analyse the experiences of Life Sciences teachers

regarding the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the classroom and to describe the

problems that they encounter. The researcher critically looked at the data through a

Cultural -Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) lens, which forms the theoretical

framework of the study.

4.2 QUANTITATIVE DATA The quantitative study draws on the GDE-commissioned research that was done by

the Department of Mathematics, Science, Technology and Computer Education,

Faculty of Education, University of Johannesburg. Questionnaires were sent out to

Life Sciences teachers in all the schools in Gauteng and 255 completed

questionnaires were returned to the University. Table 4.1 gives an overview of some

of the data obtained on IK in the Life Sciences classroom. The following are selected

data from the questionnaire about the indigenous knowledge for this study:

Table 4.1: The GDE research data

Indigenous knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom Strongly disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Agree = 3, Strongly agree = 4

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Agree Strongly agree

By referring to indigenous

knowledge, science

becomes more relevant to

my learners

Count

%

4

(1.7%)

27

(11.7%)

140

(60.9%)

59

(25.7%)

Learners do not understand

science concepts because

they want to cling to their

indigenous knowledge

Count

%

21

( 9.4%)

150

(67.3%)

39

(17.5%)

13

(5.8%)

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Science explains all natural

phenomena completely

Count

%

17

(7.6%)

115

(51.3%)

75

(33.5%)

17

(7.6%)

The importance of

indigenous knowledge is

exaggerated

Count

%

10

(4.5%)

143

(64.1%)

57

(25.6%)

13

(5.8%)

There is little connection

between indigenous

knowledge and Western

science

Count

%

21

(9.4%)

142

(63.4%)

51

(22.8%)

10

(4.5%)

I understand what is meant

by indigenous knowledge

Count

%

2

(0.9%)

133

(58.1%)

94

(41.0%)

Indigenous knowledge is

often in conflict with Western

science

Count

%

1 .

(0.5%)

82

(38.0%)

111

(51.4%)

22

(10.2%)

Table 4.2: Frequencies and standard deviations

Strongly disagree = 1, Disagree = 2, Agree = 3, Strongly agree = 4

Valid Missing Mean Standard deviation

E5 By referring to indigenous knowledge

science becomes more relevant to my

learners

230 6 3.10 .659

E7 Indigenous knowledge that my learners

possess interferes with the learning of

science

228 8 2.23 .651

E8 I welcome any new views on science

phenomena

232 4 3.36 .548

E9 Learners do not understand science

concepts because they want to cling to

223 13 2.20 .682

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their indigenous knowledge

E10 Science explains all natural

phenomena completely

224 12 2.41 .740

E11 People from all cultures contribute to

scientific knowledge

229 7 3.21 .602

E14 Science is an integral part of social

and cultural traditions

228 8 3.35 .607

E16 There is little connection between

indigenous knowledge and Western

science

224 12 2.22 .672

E17 Ideas for science research come from

indigenous knowledge

212 24 2.87 .683

E19 Indigenous knowledge is often in

conflict with Western science

216 20 2.71 .648

From the data it is clear that most Life Sciences teachers see the value of IK in the

Life Sciences classroom. Of the 230 teachers whose answers were used, 86.6%

indicated that the incorporation of IK in the classroom makes science more relevant

to the learners. This is in line with the findings of the Relevance of Science

Education Study (ROSE) (De Beer & Whitlock, 2008). A high percentage of teachers

(76.7%) indicated that IK is not limiting the acquisition of scientific knowledge by

learners. These teachers are of the opinion that learners, despite being taught IK,

are open to explore and embrace scientific investigations (Sjoberg & Shreiner,

2006). In constructivist fashion, these teachers start off by teaching IK, and then

introduce learners to the “scientific content”.

The majority of teachers (67.3%) disagree with the statement that learners might

cling to their IK (IK is not a barrier in the understanding of science), which might

negatively impact on the learning and understanding of science. Another 9.4% of the

teachers strongly disagreed. Some teachers did feel that IK has a negative influence

on learners‟ understanding of science. A total of 17.5% of teachers agreed with the

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statement, and 5.8% strongly agreed. A large percentage of teachers (86, 6%) felt

that by referring to IK, science might become more relevant to learners. About 60.9%

of teachers agreed with this in the questionnaire, while 25.7% strongly agreed. A

total of 11.7% disagreed, and 1.7% strongly disagreed with the statement.

The question on whether science adequately explains all natural phenomena led to,

a split in opinions. A total of 58.9% of teachers felt that science alone cannot

adequately explain natural phenomena, while 41.1% felt that it does. In the survey,

51.3% of teachers disagreed with the statement that says science explains all

natural phenomena completely, while 7.6% strongly disagreed, 35.5% agreed and

7.6 strongly agreed. In retrospect, the researcher wishes that the nature of science

(NOS) questionnaire/instrument was administered to determine how teachers view

the nature of science. This item shows that there are massive differences in

teachers‟ perceptions of the NOS (nature of science).

In the survey, 31.4% of teachers are of the opinion that IK is overrated and over-

emphasised in the curriculum (25.6% agreed, while 5.8% strongly agreed). On

whether the importance of IK is exaggerated, 64.1% of teachers disagreed and 4.5%

strongly disagreed. It is therefore encouraging that 68.6% of teachers disagree with

the statement that IK is overrated.

It is encouraging that 72.8% of teachers feel that there is a connection between IK

and Western science. Hopefully, these links are discussed in the classroom. This

means that conceptual change could take place where both scientific concepts and

indigenous knowledge concepts are assimilated into learners‟ worldviews. It is of

concern that 22.8% of teachers felt that there is not a connection between IK and

“Western science”, and that 4.5% of teachers strongly felt that IK and Western

science cannot be merged.

A very positive outcome is that 99.1% of teachers indicated that they have a good

understanding of what is meant by IK (41% strongly agreed that they have a good

understanding of IK, whereas 58,1% agreed to this statement). This shows that the

majority of teachers (99.1%) indicated that they understood what is meant by IK. The

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question on whether teachers have adequate pedagogical content knowledge to pay

justice to the teaching of IK will be dealt with later in this dissertation

A cause for concern is that 61.6% of teachers are of the opinion that there is conflict

between “IK” and “Western science”. In response to the item whether indigenous

knowledge is in conflict with Western science, 38% of teachers disagreed, and 0.5%

strongly disagreed. A worrying 51.4% agreed, while 10.2% of teachers strongly

agreed. If we look at this through a lens of conceptual change theory, it has severe

implications for students‟ understanding and concept formation. This will be

discussed in more detail later in the dissertation.

4.3 QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

As mentioned, this qualitative research built on data obtained from the GDE-

commissioned research. The quantitative data informed the researcher‟s interview

protocol, and also made the researcher realise that it will be useful to do script

analysis and lesson observations (for which the researcher used the Reformed

Teaching Observation Protocol – RTOP). The researcher analysed the experience of

Life Sciences teachers about the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the classroom

and identified problems that the teachers encounter by using the above-mentioned

qualitative data. The researcher therefore implemented an explanatory mixed-

methods design (Creswell, 2008).

4.3.1 Interviews with teachers This study has elements of phenomenology, and the researcher wanted to capture

the essence of teachers‟ lived experiences through interviews. For this reason, the

researcher limited the sample to ten teachers.

4.3.1.1 Biographies Table 4.3 summarises the biographic information of the teachers who participated in

the qualitative study.

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Table 4.3: Biographical details of the teachers

Population Teachers working in secondary schools in Mopani district in

Limpopo province

Sample Ten (10) participants included in the individual interviews

Qualifications Most of them have STD, SPTD, HED with specialisation in

Biology

Sampling method Purposive

Setting Interviews were conducted in the schools where the teachers

work

Gender Four males and six females

Inclusion criteria Teaching Life Sciences in Grade 10 to 12 classes

Teaching

experience

More than 10 years

4.3.1.2 Focus of the interviews The qualitative part of the study contains elements of a phenomenological study,

capturing the lived experiences of teachers in the inclusion of indigenous knowledge

while teaching the subject Life Sciences.

The central question was: What are the experiences of teachers in the inclusion of IK

while teaching the subject Life Sciences? The following were some of the questions

that guided interviews:

1. How do teachers experience IK in the teaching of Life Sciences?

2. How do teachers view their own training and professional development for

infusing their teaching with IK?

3. What problems do teachers experience in incorporating IK in the classroom?

4. What support structures exist to assist teachers to address problems

emanating from the inclusion of IK in their teaching?

5. Do teachers invite knowledgeable parents and community members to school

to address IK in their classrooms? What other resources do teachers use?

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6. How does a keystone species promote IK in the Life Sciences curriculum in a

community of practice?

4.3.1.3 Assumptions Assumptions are basic principles assumed to be true without proof or verification.

The following assumptions were made for this study:

1. Human beings assign meaning to their experiences.

2. Human beings live in a world of experiences that are bound with both cultural

and social influences.

3. Qualitative research supports narrative data collection in order to capture the

life worlds of people and the meanings they assign to their experiences.

4.3.1.4 Data analysis The audio-taped information from the interviews was transcribed verbatim. The

transcriptions of the interviews are provided in Appendix C. Data was analysed using

the descriptive phenomenological analysis method according to Georgi (1985, in

Polit & Beck, 2008: 519) and qualitative content analysis (Polit & Beck 2008: 518)

using thematic distinctions (delineate units according to themes) and categorical

distinctions (define units by identifying something they have in common in a

category). The following major themes emerged and are coded in tabular form

according to themes, categories and subcategories:

Table 4.4: What teachers said, codes, categories and themes

What teachers said

Codes

Categories

Themes

“As a Life Science educator I have overcome more experiences that I cannot explain them all. Some are the changes that are brought about by the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) that reduces the love of LS to me. The change in the learning area makes me feel less comfortable in my

Lack of training

Category 1.1: Changes in the education system and curriculum content

Theme 1: The challenges experienced in relation to the infusion of IK in teaching life sciences

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teaching career because we were not trained to do what the Department is expecting us to do.”

“My main problem is that of lack of teaching methodology and it is difficult to teach the learners. I think this is the teacher‟s greatest concern.”

Lack of PCK

“We have got a problem of not having enough material concerning IK. Teachers do not have places of reference or at times do not get necessary material to use in class. As I have already said that this type of knowledge verbally transmitted, there is nowhere one can get the proof of a solution.”

“Okay, I normally encounter a problem of not getting enough information to teach learners. As I move around, visiting elderly or knowledgeable people I waste time to complete the syllabus and the knowledge I got is sometimes folklore as it is not written anywhere or there is no proof thereof.” “It makes teaching difficult because mostly it is not written in the books. Teachers have got nowhere to refer.”

IK not written in books

Knowledge is verbally transmitted

Category 1.2: Lack of IK-related material resources in school

“Mmmm… as an educator I‟m from my community and cultural group, while

Teachers and learners come from

Category 1.3: Culture differences

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learners are also from their group. This makes me not to be sure of what I am teaching because the two do not match. So we come up with different things altogether.”

different communities, cultural groups and religious beliefs

“For instance, they have introduced indigenous knowledge and evolution as part of the content to be taught to learners but did not give us the direction on how to infuse or where to get the information to teach learners.”

Changes brought about by the NCS

The inclusion of IK in the syllabus or LS

Category 2.1: Feeling of lack of control over own practice

Theme 2: The emotional experience (feelings) of the participants (teachers) in relation to teaching life sciences

“Eish… it is difficult to handle but you just invite other teachers to give help. Most of them have a negative attitude towards IK as they take it to be outdated and barbaric. Maybe it is because of their religion. To some people, anything that is not European is not just worth their time.”

“Most of them have a negative attitude towards it as I have already said because of their beliefs. At times it is because it is time wasting and money to run around seeking help from other people and knowledgeable people and even come up empty handed.”

“As they are divided I think the positive ones will be excited and accept it without questions or doubts while the negative ones will feel bored and

Negative attitude of teachers towards IK

Attitudes of learners towards IK

Category 2.2: Perceptions of teachers regarding teaching IK

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not be interested to learn. Only the positive learners will show interest and be eager to know and explore more about it. We know that if a learner can be positive in what the teacher is teaching he/she will grasp quickly and be able to help others. So, few as they are as a teacher I feel happy because they will always be there to help each other.”

“My learners are very negative as they have already showed no interest in such knowledge. Their response to certain questions did show that they dislike it. As I normally give them some research to ask for more information from their parents, they proved that even some of their parents show lack of interest by the way they respond.”

“Eeh … indigenous knowledge is a knowledge that is spontaneous and informal because it occurs naturally where people need not go to school to acquire it. The knowledge is gained from home and all over the place in which a person is living. I think there is no specific time and method to acquire it as it is informal. When a child goes to school he or she goes there having it already as it is acquired through ages.”

“Mmm… this is the

Defining IK and the origin of IK

Category 3.1: Having an understanding of IK

Theme 3: The discovery of the meaning of IK in teaching life sciences

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knowledge inherited from our forefathers and was transmitted from generation to generation. Each child inherited it from the parents who got it from their parents. This type of knowledge is from long ago known by elders.”

“The two cannot be separated because the knowledge that one has can be linked with the knowledge that can be acquired in everyday life. Western science favours analytic and reductive methods as opposed to the mere intuitive and holistic view often found in traditional knowledge. It is based on academic and literature while indigenous knowledge is passed on orally from generations.”

“Indigenous knowledge is home based and does not require one to make experiments or prove the findings. It is just what you have learned from home and the surrounding area in which you live and from the community. This knowledge is subjective. Western science is based on academic and literature. It is normally not influenced by your own feeling or opinions (objective) and analytic, that is, using methods that help you examine your facts or assumptions carefully.”

Lack of inter-dependence between IK and Western science

Category 3.2: The relationship between IK and Western science

“Because, eeh…mmm… it will connect learner‟s traditional knowledge with

IK as the basis for science

Category 3.3: The

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curriculum knowledge science at school.”

“Okay, I think it helps to make learners aware of the scientific methods and ideas that were used in the past that they don‟t differ from the ones they learn from class.”

“Mmh … This will make students to be actively engaged in trying to provide a conventional science explanation for their everyday practices.”

“I think parents will have access in the education of their children because they will be participating by giving them information. The indigenous knowledge will serve as a link between the school and home.”

Parents‟ involvement in learners‟ education

importance of IK in Life Sciences

“Eeh…I normally gather information from parents even though some part is not reliable. Elderly people from the community and other traditional healers give information as required.”

“Knowledgeable parents in the community such as traditional leaders together with traditional healers will give a helping hand. If it is the problem of the curriculum, I will also invite curriculum advisors to help. Even those who specialise in IK from the universities will be

Working with parents and community leaders from the surrounding area

Organising regular meetings and forming discussion

Category 4.1: Consultations with parents, and curriculum advisors

Theme 4: Strategies to overcome the challenges with inclusion of IK in teaching Life Sciences

81

contacted. This will depend on the type of problem.”

“I think of organising regular meetings wherein educators can be able to discuss topics to be treated in class and share information in order to help others. In our schools we may form discussion groups in the learning area where we can also help one another. Mm… clusters together with forums can be formed for such discussion.”

groups

The following section discusses the themes and categories that emerged in more

detail.

Theme 1: The challenges experienced in relation to the infusion of IK in teaching Life Sciences The data revealed that the participants experience several challenges in relation to

the infusion of IK in teaching Life Sciences. When requested to share their

experiences as an educator one participant mentioned the following:

“Eish, mmm… teaching Life Sciences is very much challenging, especially that you

teach learners from different cultures and communities. As a teacher you cannot

cover all their cultures, some of which you do not know. When you emphasise

knowledge from one cultural group, others feel belittled while others feel excluded. At

times you do not get the necessary or enough information or material you want to

teach learners. Learners are from different cultures and environment and it is difficult

to know and cater for their different cultural backgrounds in class. Our policy states

clearly that we must include their indigenous knowledge in class, but it is difficult

because as an educator I did not know them all. It is only few that I am acquainted

with.”

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Learners and teachers all come from different cultural backgrounds. Teachers

realise that they need to include IK from different cultures (based on who the

learners in their class are), and that they do not always have the necessary

knowledge to do so. It is evident that there are problems that the educators come

across with the infusion of IK in their teaching and several categories emerged from

the theme and are discussed below as follows:

Category 1.1: Insufficient training and professional development for the implementation the NCS With regard to the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) in South Africa, which

states that indigenous knowledge must be incorporated in the Life Sciences

classroom, the participants acknowledged that the infusion of IK in Life Sciences

posed challenges. It was indicated that the changes in the education system brought

about challenges related to the National Curriculum Statement (NCS) content. The

narratives also revealed that the teachers were concerned with the extent to which

Life Sciences educators are trained to infuse their teaching with IK. Teachers

acknowledged that they lack knowledge related to the contemporary curriculum of

OBE and infusing IK in their teaching, due to a lack of training.

Some participants revealed the following:

“As a Life Science educator I have overcome more experiences that I cannot explain

them all. Some are the changes that are brought about by the National Curriculum

Statement (NCS) that reduces the love of LS to me. The changes in the learning

area make me feel less comfortable in my teaching career because we are not

trained to do what the Department is expecting us to do. They expected more than

we anticipated and make us even to forget the content that we are supposed to

teach. For instance, they have introduced indigenous knowledge and evolution as

part to be taught to learners but did not give us the direction on how to infuse or

where to get the information to teach learners. Heh … how can we teach whereas

we are not sure of what we are teaching? Mmmh … what do they expect from us? It

makes teaching difficult because mostly it is not written in the books. Teachers have

got nowhere to refer.”

83

“Eish … mmmh … As educators we find it difficult to teach OBE and NCS to learners

eventually depreciated the standard of education in our area. My main problem is

that of the lack of teaching methodology and it is difficult to teach the learners. I think

this is the teacher‟s greatest concern. Learners are adapted to western life and

mostly their belief system makes them loose interest in their indigenous knowledge.

This makes them relate IK to evil spirits (Satanism). The practical application of the

indigenous knowledge in class is also difficult. As a teacher I am challenged to

develop some practices that can convince them to be at least gravitated towards

science.”

“Most of the colleague will tell me that they don‟t want to teach something that they

do not understand.”

Teachers need relevant pedagogical content knowledge in order to infuse their

teaching with IK. A Life Sciences teacher needs content knowledge, i.e. know-how

of the indigenous knowledge claims of different cultural groups, e.g. plants used for

medicinal reasons; pedagogical knowledge, i.e. how to effectively structure

learning opportunities for learners when exploring IK claims, and contextual knowledge, i.e. what the cultural background of the learners are. Teachers need to

know the environment from which the learner comes.

Category 1.2: Lack of IK-related material resources in school The transcriptions of interviews revealed that it was difficult to include IK because of

a lack of material resources. The participants indicated that it was difficult to obtain

further information about this indigenous knowledge. It was also mentioned that

parents and elders do not respond when invited to share information. Department

officials and other teachers have also been consulted and are willing to share the

information. However, the information is found to be insufficient. A participant

mentioned that:

“We have got the problem of not having enough material concerning IK. Teachers do

not have places of reference or at times do not get necessary material to use in

class. As I have already said that this type of knowledge is verbally transmitted, there

is nowhere one can get the proof of its existence in the first place. Everybody comes

84

up with his or her own statement. This leads us to the misconceptions and

misrepresentations about indigenous knowledge.”

“My experiences as an educator is that our education system is now Westernised

and is difficult for us to implement indigenous knowledge. Modern technology and

other related materials make us not to put more emphasis on such knowledge. Even

our textbooks say little about it while we are expected to incorporate it in class.

Mmmh … it is difficult for me to teach when I think of this knowledge because it

hinders my progress as I will be running around looking for people who can give

clarity, ideas and assistance in some of the topics.”

On the other hand, it was mentioned by some teachers that members from the

community did help with information. Most of the information is obtained from cultural

villages where the learners live. At times, the school organises trips to African

museums – such as the Bakone Malapa open-air museum in Polokwane, the Dzata

ruins and museums in Makhado, the Muti wa Vha-Tsonga open-air museum

Tzaneen in the Mopani area, and the Tsonga Kraal Tzaneen in the Letsitele area –

where they can obtain a significant amount of information to supplement the

information they already have. Some undertake research on the internet while others

ask for information from elderly community members. Certain radio and television

programmes highlight strategic topics that deal with the indigenous people of this

country.

However, the participants acknowledged that they as educators are encountering

problems with the infusion of IK in teaching. A participant mentioned that:

“Okay, I normally encounter a problem of not getting enough information to teach

learners. As I move around, visiting elderly or knowledgeable people I wasted time to

complete the syllabus and the knowledge I got is sometimes folk as it is not written

anywhere or there is no proof for thereof. Sangomas can also give us unreliable

information because they want customers. Some teachers have a negative attitude

because of their belief system. The method to apply it is not clearly stated but we are

requested to include it. I didn‟t come across any question paper wherein the

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examiner asks something about indigenous knowledge because there will be no

specific answer.”

This seems self-evident as research shows that many teachers in South Africa do

not know or understand the content they have to teach – their knowledge may be

very superficial or they themselves have misconceptions about the content (Sanders,

2006). Effective learning depends on teachers‟ understanding of their learning areas

and their ability to manage classroom discourses related to learning (Le Grange,

2007).

Despite the problems with knowledge and skills, the narratives revealed that the

participants are aware of the sources of IK, and where and how to obtain

information. The sources of IK were identified as members from the community,

information from the cultural villages where the learners live, the internet, traditional

healers, radio and television programmes. Sometimes schools organised trips to

African museums where they could obtain information to supplement what they

already have. It was also indicated that learners are given research projects from

time to time, encouraging them to source information from their parents, the people

around them and the community. The participants indicated that despite the sources

identified, it is sometimes difficult to obtain comprehensive information as it is given

selectively. In addition, Life Sciences themes like molecular biology and DNA

structures hardly allow for any IK. Hence, very little (if any) IK on the DNA molecule

will exist in indigenous cultures. One participant revealed that:

“Eeh … I normally gather information from parents even though some part is not

reliable. Elderly people from the community and other traditional healers give

information as required. There is also hidden information that they do not want to

give to us but one can hear those who used to visit them to seek help. There is this

issue of classified information, i.e. information that can only be given to a particular

class of people. It is a taboo, for instance to discuss any topic related to circumcision

with anybody who has never been there, be it a male or female. This can be valuable

to us if given information because it forms part of our learning area.”

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Where curriculum problems are encountered, curriculum advisors and those who

specialise in IK from the universities are consulted to help solve the problem.

Srikantaiah (2010) suggests that the learning environment needs to be adapted to

help students build on their indigenous communities‟ knowledge and to recognise

students‟ culture and value systems. Various strategies can help educators to

recognise the IK that learners bring with them to the learning environment. This IK

can be used as stepping stones to help them succeed academically.

Category 1.3: Cultural diversity and differences The narratives indicate that sources of IK include knowledgeable parents in the

community – such as elderly people, traditional leaders and other teachers.

However, it was noted that it is challenging to obtain information in time. One such

challenge with regard to the infusion of IK is the diversity of cultures. It was indicated

that each culture has its own indigenous knowledge. In addition, the teachers have

their own indigenous knowledge while the learners have their own unproven

knowledge. Teachers might be knowledgeable in terms of their own culture, but do

not necessarily know much about IK in other cultures. This leads to a confusion of

whose culture to consider as they do not match. One of the participants revealed the

following:

“Mmmm … as an educator I‟m from my community and cultural group, while learners

also from their group. This makes me not to be sure of what I am teaching because

the two do not match. So we come up with different things altogether. At times there

is no enough information about things to be taught so you will have to go around,

seeking people to help you and may not get them. Members of the community will

promise to come and disappoint you at the very last minute. Other learners may

have a negative attitude towards IK and not willing to work.”

According to Van Rooyen and De Beer (2006), IK is not easily shared with members

of another community as certain information is not shared with other cultural groups.

Each community guards its IK. This may have added to arguments by Afrikaans

people who are pushing the agenda for a volkstaat. They want to be free in their own

area to practise their culture without any hindrances. Certain things are only known

to them and they would like to keep it that way.

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This poses a serious challenge to teachers in multicultural classrooms in South

African schools because they do not know which IK to teach to learners. Learners

are also confused about whose IK needs to be taken seriously in class. In a

multicultural country like South Africa, there needs to be a clear understanding of

how this IK can be incorporated in class.

Category 1.4: Lack of support systems from the Department of Education The participants indicated that there is lack of support from the DoE. As such, they

try to work on their own by organising Saturday schools and inviting knowledgeable

people from the community to come and share lessons on IK. The only available

support comes from colleagues, educators from surrounding areas, parents and

community elders. The participants mentioned that:

“We are not supported by anybody, instead we run around seeking help from others.

We are just like a train moving without the head. You as a teacher will see how to

come up or to solve problem.”

“As I have already said, we do not have any assistance from the Department and

this makes us lose interest in teaching.”

“The most serious problem is that of not getting the relevant information. Teachers

run around digging information from elders and community leaders at whose

expense? Some refuse to tell the truth while others do not just want to discuss

anything. The subject facilitators also do not have anything in hand that can give

relevant information. We are expected to teach knowledge that the Department

cannot give with insufficient training they have given us. As our country is a

multicultural country teachers only know their indigenous knowledge. What about

knowledge from other cultures? Heh….? The belief system is also a problem that

needs teachers to be very careful with. A teacher needs to present IK in an

acceptable way. In the process of teaching no one‟s rights should be tampered with.

You may find a teacher violating one child‟s right to privacy during his teaching to

cite just but one example. This takes time discussing in class and trying to make

clarifications where necessary.”

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The Department needs to organise in-service education and training for the teachers

in order to upgrade their skills and the knowledge they impart to learners. In-service

education and training (INSET) refers to instructional programmes to provide for

continued professional development of education practitioners during their working

years (Le Roux, 2005: 236). These programmes should be aimed at upgrading the

skills and qualifications of educators by providing ingoing professional development.

Of course, one should also question whether initial teacher education (PRESET)

adequately prepares teachers to infuse their teaching with IK.

Category 1.5: Lack of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) Teachers seem to have a problem with teaching IK to learners. They highlighted the

problem of not knowing the content that forms part of the IK to be taught to learners

in the classroom. They struggle to obtain the relevant content they need for their

learners as some members of the community withhold such information.

“Okay, I normally encounter a problem of not getting enough information to teach

learners. As I move around, visiting elderly or knowledgeable people I waste time to

complete the syllabus and the knowledge that I get is sometimes folk as it is not

written anywhere or there is no proof for thereof. Sangomas can also give us

unreliable information because they want customers. Some teachers have a

negative attitude because of their beliefs and not getting any form of support. The

method to apply it is not clearly stated but we are requested to include it. I didn‟t

come across any question paper wherein the examiner asks something about

indigenous knowledge because there will be no specific answer. Lack of specific

methodological training and continuous consultation also plays a role.”

Shulman (1986, 1987, in Loughran, 2010) suggests that teachers need strong PCK

to be the best possible teachers. This has resulted in a range of studies on PCK in

pre-service science teacher education. Teachers need an opportunity to reflect on

and to develop their understanding of the structure of science knowledge as well as

opportunities to apply this understanding in classroom practice (Loughran, 2010).

Therefore, they must be able to select and match content which is closely related to

science.

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Over and above developing PCK, teachers should also be critical and reflective

practitioners. During interviews with teachers and classroom visits, the researcher

realised that teachers do not often reflect on their own teaching practice. This is one

reason why teachers do not build capacity in terms of PCK. Although some teachers

respond positively, it was also revealed that some struggle to incorporate IK with

new subject matter in class as they feel they are being deskilled.

The participants indicated that, in their opinion, several factors are making their work

difficult and are giving them problems with regard to teaching Life Sciences. These

factors include lack of knowledge, lack of skills and insufficient training in OBE.

Teachers also are unclear on when, where and how to use IK, and how to include it

in their lessons. It is concluded that the participants feel that they lack teaching skills

even though they have undergone training and meet the requirements of the DoE.

Theme 2: The emotional experience (feelings) of the participants (teachers) in relation to teaching IK in Life Sciences

The findings of the narratives indicate that the participants experienced negative

emotions (feelings) because of the perceived risk of not being able to convey the

correct IK content to learners. The curriculum changes, without thorough

professional development support, also create stress among teachers. Some

participants indicated the following:

“There are changes in our education system that leads to the confusion and

frustration on us. For instance, we are trained in an old method of teaching and they

brought us OBE which was followed by NCS. It is difficult for us to apply them in

class. When doing the NCS there are some outcomes that we need to accomplish

with the inclusion or infusion of indigenous knowledge, but it is difficult because of

the lack of material, different cultures from different communities and our own

experiences as educators.”

“My experience is that teaching has brought confusion and frustration in trying to link

it with the knowledge indoctrinated or the knowledge that we got in our teaching. I

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overcome challenges that come my way especially in class where I am supposed to

teach some of the things that I as a teacher do not even understand. This brought

confusion and frustration in trying to link the information I accumulated over past

years and the newly formed one.”

Category 2.1: Feeling of a lack of control over own practice (e.g. changes in the

education system and curriculum, and the inclusion of IK in the LS syllabus)

The narratives indicated that the participants felt they have no control over their

teaching as educators and as professionals because of the changes in the education

system and curriculum, and the inclusion of IK in the syllabus for Life Sciences. This

is almost the same as Category 2.2. This research therefore shows a similar pattern

to that of Rogan & Aldous (2005: 331). The following quote from Rogan and Aldous

also applies to the inclusion of IK in Life Sciences:

Teachers are at times described as being reluctant to changes, of being bound to

tradition, or even active saboteurs of the intended curriculum. In our case studies,

the low level of implementation, for the most part, cannot be described to „foot

dragging or lack of effort‟. The interview revealed an overwhelming desire to faithfully

implement the new curriculum, but tinged with an enormous perplexity about how to

do so, and an uncertainty as to whether their efforts in the classroom were „the right

way‟.

Category 2.2: Teachers’ own negative perceptions of IK Some teachers are negative about IK, and feel that IK cannot be scientifically proven

and that it constitutes “pseudo-science”. This once again brings the researcher to

PCK and teachers‟ perceptions of the nature of science (NOS). Many teachers do

not have the know-how to incorporate PCK in a scientific and rigorous way.

“Eish, eeh … some of the things cannot be scientifically proven and do not have a

living evidence. Some cannot be brought to class so that they can be done

practically or even show to learners when the teacher needs to give an explanation.

It is difficult to convince them as they are from different cultures. Being different, we

cannot all be convinced by one‟s experience, so, this gives a teacher tough work.”

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The participants indicated that they use several different strategies of teaching and

including IK in the teaching of LS – such as introducing IK at the beginning of the

lesson to connect with the learners‟ prior knowledge or at the end of the lesson so

that the learners can go and investigate or inquire more. Some indicated that they

task the students with research so that they can further explore the topic under

discussion. This might be a strategy to pass the responsibility on to the learners

themselves, and it might also portray teachers‟ lack of confidence in teaching IK. It

was indicated that it is rare to come across LS topics that allow for the inclusion of

indigenous knowledge and where the so-called scientific process can be followed

(which again points to the lack of PCK among teachers). One participant indicated:

“According to our syllabus, it is on rare occasions. At times one has to create his

activity but you will find that they come up with different responses in such a way that

as a teacher it is difficult to reach the objective or even the outcome.”

In terms of how colleagues feel about indigenous knowledge, the narratives revealed

that educators were divided as their belief systems differ from each other. Most of

them have no interest and dislike IK.

“Eish… it is difficult to handle but you just invite other teachers to give help. Most of

them have a negative attitude towards IK as they take it to be outdated and barbaric.

Maybe it is because of their religion. To some people, anything that is not European

is not just worth their time.”

Category 2.3: Positive attitudes of teachers’ colleagues towards IK Colleagues‟ feelings could be hurt when seeking help from them or sending learners

to ask for more information. However, the findings indicated that some of the

participants are keen to engage educators in their immediate area in incorporating

indigenous knowledge as they indicated that the educators can be invited to the

forums, and be encouraged to form clusters where they can be motivated and help

each other. Well-functioning communities of practice may therefore be useful in

developing teachers‟ PCK in terms of teaching IK. In the forums, knowledgeable

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people could be invited to share their know-how with the teachers. The Department

should also be involved by sending subject advisors, local people and other

academics to improve the situation.

It was mentioned that not all the educators were positive about IK. However, a few

showed interest in the work and they were willing to deliberately share their

information. In such a community of practice, teachers can perhaps jointly devise

lessons on IK according to the principles of the Japanese “lesson study” initiative.

Certain matters are then discussed before going to class in order to get clarity on

these issues. This shows that teachers find it difficult to influse IK in their teaching.

Most of them are confused about what to teach to learners.

Some participants indicated the following as challenges that caused educators to

have a negative attitude towards IK:

“They seem to be negative because of their religious beliefs and difficulty in

incorporating IK in class. Some of them do not want to share the knowledge with the

thought that they will be belittled and develop an attitude towards them.”

“Most of them have a negative attitude towards it as I have already said because of

their beliefs. At times, it is because is time wasting and money to run around seeking

help from other people and knowledgeable people and even come up empty handed.

Lack of specific methodological training and continuous consultation also play a role.

Those who are traditional are positive because mostly are the things that they enjoy

and practice.”

Category 2.4: Attitude or perception of learners towards IK With regard to the perceptions of the learners about IK, it was indicated that the

learners have not yet recognised the importance of IK. However, the participants

anticipated that the learners will be very excited because they will learn about things

that occur in their everyday life and their surrounding areas. The Relevance of

Science Education Study (ROSE) showed that a very high correlation exists between

students‟ perceptions of the relevance of science and the development of the country

(De Beer et al., 2008). It was highlighted that in most cases each learner becomes

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more interested and is eager to discover more about the concept if it was well known

before. Some participants explained that they expect the following in terms of

learners‟ attitude towards IK:

“As they are divided I think the positive ones will be excited and accept it without

questions or doubts while the negative ones will feel bored and not be interested to

learn. Only the positive learners will show interests and be eager to know and

explore more about it. We know that if a learner can be positive in what the teacher

is teaching he will grasp quickly and be able to help others. So, few as they are as a

teacher I feel happy because they will always be there to help each other.”

On the other hand, the educators mentioned the following about their experience of

teaching IK to learners:

“My learners are very negative as they have already showed no interest in such

knowledge. Their response to certain questions did show that they dislike it. As I

normally give them some research to ask more information from their parents, they

proved that even some of their parents show lack of interest by the way they

respond.”

This may happen because teachers seem to introduce IK in class in an uninspiring

way, indolently and in a sloppy manner, which makes their lessons uninteresting. If

the lesson in class is not well introduced, learners will lose interest and develop a

negative attitude.

“In most cases they become excited and interested because of their knowledge they

gained from their forefathers while some take it as a joke. Some lose interest and

become discouraged. The inclusion has divided the learners because they are from

different communities with different cultures and belief systems. So, as a teacher you

will have to be careful of what you are saying at all times. Being too sarcastic when

coming to certain topics may ruin the little trust and confidence the learners might

have built towards you as their teacher.”

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Theme 3: The discovery of the meaning of IK in teaching Life Sciences

The transcripts indicated that the participants have an understanding of the meaning

of IK. The participants verbalised their inner satisfaction of knowing what IK is, its

importance and relevance to teaching LS, and the impact that IK has on the

involvement of parents in learners‟ education.

Category 3.1: Having an understanding of IK The findings of this study indicated that the participants understood the definition and

meaning of IK even though they put it in different words. Beliefs, values, customs,

traditions, family, culture and norms, communities and societies, generations and the

environment were among the common terms used in the definition of IK. From the

narratives, the term IK was explained as follows:

“Eeh … indigenous knowledge is a knowledge that is spontaneous and informal

because it occurs naturally where people need not go to school to acquire it. The

knowledge is gained from home and all over the place in which a person is living. I

think there is no specific time and method to acquire it as it is informal. When a child

goes to school he or she goes there having it already as it is acquired through ages.”

“Mmm … this is the knowledge inherited from our forefathers and was transmitted

from generation to generation. Each child inherited it from the parents who got it from

their parents. This type of knowledge is from long ago known by elders.”

The narratives also revealed that indigenous knowledge is the knowledge applied in

a given territory in a specific culture, that it is normally communicated verbally and

that it is passed on from generation to generation. Indigenous knowledge was

referred to as the knowledge acquired from the community one comes from. It

involves the values of the inhabitants (original people) of that particular area.

Traditions, beliefs, customs and local skills are also involved. It is said to be the

knowledge that is based on contextual concepts and that is more deeply rooted in

the communities and the environment. It is interpreted as knowledge of indigenous

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people and it is traditional while based on the communities that are integrated within

the societies which have their own distinct cultures.

In terms of IK information, it was mentioned that it is sometimes difficult to trust the

accuracy of the information as it is not written down anywhere, nor is it scientifically

proven. A participant indicated that:

“We hardly find it in the prescribed books.”

It was also indicated that sometimes the information is not given fully because of

some taboos related to it or because it is a family or cultural secret. One participant

revealed the following:

“This can be regarded as a knowledge based on what a person knows by nature or

since birth. The knowledge normally starts at home by parents and grannies who

have adopted it from their parents. Most of this knowledge is transmitted orally, so

how can we be sure of them? Heh? Mostly some cannot be scientifically proven and

are not worth being taken to class. For instance, we normally hear a lot about the

Modjadji people who are well known about rain making but no one will ever tell you

what do they exactly doing to make rain. This is the secret that is only known by

them only. I think even the community cannot tell about the process over there. It is

the secret which is known by the royalties only. This is the science that is needed in

the Life Sciences and other science related class. The knowledge is worth knowing

to learners. Why do people hide this valuable information which is rich for all the

learners?”

Some teachers also understand (as constructivists) the value of building on this prior

knowledge. Prior knowledge can be considered as learners‟ experiential knowledge.

Teaching supported by this form of knowledge increases learners‟ ability to grasp the

material taught to them (Srikantia, 2010). Teachers can allow learners to construct

their knowledge based on their prior knowledge. They can pose problems of

relevance to students. It can also value their point of view by respecting the culture,

tradition and identity that they bring to classroom. In Pedagogy of the Oppressed,

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Paul Freire suggests that allowing students or individuals to have ownership of their

knowledge is equivalent to respecting their culture, tradition and identity.

Category 3.2: The relationship between IK and Western science According to the findings, there is a difference between IK and “Western science” in

that indigenous knowledge is acquired from home while Western science is acquired

from school. IK is gathered from the communities in different cultures and is learned

through experiences. Western science, on the other hand, is said to be normally

scientifically proven and is also positivist and materialist in contrast with indigenous

knowledge which is normally spiritual. Some participants indicated that:

“The two cannot be separated because the knowledge that one has can be linked

with the knowledge that can be acquired in everyday life. Western science favours

analytic and reductive method as opposed to the mere intuitive and holistic view

often found in traditional knowledge. It is based on academic and literature while

indigenous knowledge is passed on orally from generations.”

“Indigenous knowledge is home based and does not require one to make

experiments or to prove the findings. It is just what you have learned from home and

the surrounding area in which you live and from the community. This knowledge is

subjective. Western science is based on academic and literature. It is normally not

influenced by your own feeling or opinions (objective) and analytic, i.e. using

methods that help you examine your facts or assumptions carefully.”

Indigenous knowledge is imbedded in cultural beliefs and addresses traditional and

cultural practices within the learning context and learning curriculum. Western

science is the search for valid explanations for physical reality. Consequently, the IK

that deals with practices and beliefs with regard to the conduct of African learners‟

lives may be used in the science class to allow students to evaluate the relationship

between indigenous knowledge and school knowledge for the conduct of their own

lives. In that case, it supports the reason why communities have practices and

beliefs that pertain to child rearing, menstruation, pregnancy, child birth, human

nutrition, food preparation, food preservation, medicines and others. Some

participants indicated that:

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“Indigenous knowledge is normally practiced by indigenous people using their

unfounded methods and ideas that are only known to them. It was implemented in

order to earn their normal living and to make their lives just prosper and have got to

do with cultural beliefs and customs. Western science is practiced by each and every

person who is westernized (either by birth or colonization) and lived a westernized

life. Most of the activities that occur in this practice can be scientifically proven. Most

of us were taught for a long time that anything Western is good for us, if has been

tested, it stands the test of time, etc. Western scientific perspectives influence

decisions that impact on every aspect of indigenous people‟s lives. It is based on

academic and objectives.”

“Indigenous knowledge is more concerned with life in the past while Western science

is more concerned with knowledge of the future. It is more concerned with cultural

and community‟s activity. IK is native and is within a particular plan of a particular

society while Western science is universally known and can be scientifically proven.”

Turnbull (2000: 5) suggests that Western science is a body of knowledge that has a

specific and unique origin in the scientific revolution of 17th century. Western science

and indigenous knowledge may be viewed either as disparate epistemologies or

complementary frameworks depending on whether one views science or knowledge

as representation or performance (Srikantia, 2010). It is therefore crucial for teachers

working in this context to be aware of the interaction between indigenous knowledge

and Western knowledge, and to understand the way in which the learning process

can be complicated by the two.

Category 3.3: The importance of IK in Life Sciences Many teachers are of the opinion that there are positive changes that can be brought

about by the infusion of indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences. It

was indicated that learners need to connect the knowledge from home with the

knowledge from school. Their traditional knowledge is equally important in

comparison to the curriculum knowledge they receive at school. Learners do not

come to school as empty vessels. Hence, their knowledge from home and their

knowledge from school need to form a connection. One participant indicated that:

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“I think the infusion can make learners love and be interested in Life Sciences

although some do not like indigenous knowledge. Even if you give they are given

work to complete or investigate; only few of them seem to be reluctant to work or just

leave it. Our traditional healers will have a wide and broad opportunity of imparting

the knowledge of plants and animals to our learners while taking part in the teaching

process.”

The findings revealed that it was important to include indigenous knowledge in the

curriculum because learners need to know where they come from. They should be

able to know their roots before they will be able to know where they are going. Their

traditional knowledge is important for their future. The findings indicate that learners

will appreciate inclusion of IK in Life Sciences because it connects them with their

knowledge from home and it takes them to their roots. Hence, they will realise the

importance of their culture.

“Because, eeeh … mmm… it will connect learners‟ traditional knowledge with

curriculum knowledge science at school. This will make learners feel proud of their

culture and tradition.”

With regard to the importance of including IK in the curriculum, one participant

indicated that it was important, however, to note that there were some problems

related to inclusion of IK on the side of the educators. The participant revealed the

following:

“Indigenous knowledge brought fear to us as educators because we don‟t know how

to approach it as we were never given courses or trained about it. We are just

striving to understand it and feel that it is a challenge to us as we are having different

belief systems. As teachers we are divided where some of us just brush it aside and

continue with the other part of the syllabus.”

It was also indicated that IK serves as recognition of traditional practices and that

learners need to appreciate this. The educators want learners to remember and love

their roots, as was practised by their parents at home. They want to remind learners

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of the past experiences so that they can connect with new ones. From the findings it

is evident that IK forms the foundation of the learners‟ education and that people

possess knowledge that have been handed down from the forefathers. It connects

both learners and educators to the community in which they are living. Learners are

now aware of their grandparents‟ science and they link it with the science learnt in

the class. They become aware of the impact and influence of their culture on

education. The findings indicated that the participants regarded IK to be relevant in

teaching of Life Sciences.

It was indicated that learners are given a new dimension from which to view life,

leadership and community, and to realise that IK may be different to Western

knowledge. However, the two may lead to the same outcome or objective. Some

participants mentioned the following:

“Okay, I think it helps to make learners aware of the scientific methods and ideas

that were used in the past that they don‟t differ from the ones they learn from class.

The aim here should not be misconstrued to be that of aligning our science to the

European science. The two will remain somewhat parallel, i.e. going in the same

direction but not necessary being the same. Learners become more interested to

know about their scientific knowledge together with their science.”

“Hmmm … This will make students to be actively engaged in trying to provide a

conventional science explanation for their everyday practices. Such strategies can

serve to generate interest among students and to develop pride in the knowledge

and wisdom of their ancestors. This can serve as a point of departure to

conventional science that can be highlighted and discussed. Eeeh … it can also be

used to highlight the fact that there is still much to be explored and understood in our

world.”

It was posited that IK is concerned with the scope of Life Sciences teaching and that

it gives learners a chance to express or show the experiences they have gained from

home and to be more scientific in approaching life. Learners are able to connect Life

Sciences with science-related experiences in their everyday lives. Furthermore, it

was mentioned by teachers that IK can change learners‟ perspective towards Life

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Sciences and make them more understanding of the relationship between traditional

practices and beliefs in the community and modern science. It will give every aspect

of life a more scientific basis and learners will be able to understand their

surroundings, the relationship between them and their surroundings, and its

importance in their lives. Several examples could be used to sensitise learners in

terms of IK. A narrative indicated that:

“Learners are able to relate experiences from home or scientific matters to those

acquired at school e.g. making bread using Anchor yeast. In the past, they used to

dry bubbles/foam of the traditional beer to replace yeast. The making of Marula drink

is copied and modified from IK. Throughout indigenous knowledge, being interrelated

with science, people can now be able to make yeast from beer, fruit jam, foam bath,

skin lotion, etc. Learners can think scientifically so that they can be able to apply it in

their lives.”

Effective learning depends on teachers‟ understanding of the interaction of both

Western and indigenous knowledge, and their ability to manage classroom

discourses related to integration. It is therefore crucial that teachers infusing the two

be aware of the interaction and understands the way they could enhance the

learning process. Le Grange (2007) suggests that indigenous learners can perform

excellently in a Western science classroom without assimilating the associated

values. A good scientist at school can be a traditionalist at home without any feeling

of cognitive perturbation or dissonance (Le Grange, 2007).

Category 3.4: The effect of IK on parents’ involvement in learners’ education The findings indicate that IK was important as it led to positive involvement of the

parents in their children‟s education. It surfaces that, as parents are members of the

community, they have a wealth of IK. It is easy for them to involve themselves in

learners‟ education by imparting their IK-related information, especially when

learners have been given projects and research to perform at home. Parents as

source of information are also able to identify the relevant people in the community

who are knowledgeable about the subject at hand. Some participants indicated the

following:

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“I think parents will have access in the education of their children because they will

be participating by giving them information. The indigenous knowledge will serve as

a link between the school and home. Teachers will be able to communicate with

parents and this will also form a link between the home and the school. The scientific

principles that are applied at school will help them to improve their lives. I think this

will be able to turn them into scientists.”

“Parents will have access to their children‟s education related issues as they will

have to share their knowledge with them. There will be a connection between the

school and home while learners will change their attitude towards Life Science.

Learner will be actively involved in their education by giving inputs.”

Theme 4: Strategies to overcome the challenges associated with including IK in the teaching of Life Sciences

The barriers related to including IK in Life Sciences came from the teachers, the

learners as well as the curriculum. However, teachers also indicated that they

support each other within the communities of practice in their schools. One of the

teachers in the interview indicated that support in infusing IK into teaching is

provided by colleagues:

“Eeh … normally we are supported by our colleagues and at times some moral

regeneration movements from the community if ever they have visited us.”

The teachers suggested that it is difficult, especially if the teacher is not teaching LS

or is not interested in IK. However, consultation was mentioned as one method to

overcome barriers to IK in LS.

Category 4.1: Consultation The narratives revealed that teachers consult colleagues or people from the

community before going to class. Colleagues were consulted every time an educator

encountered problems and when help or assistance of some sort was required.

Teachers also gathered information from parents and elderly people from the

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surrounding areas, or specialists like traditional healers. One participant revealed the

following:

“Eeh … I normally gather information from parents even though some part is not

reliable. Elderly people from the community and other traditional healers give

information as required. There is also hidden information that they don‟t want to give

to us but one can hear from those who used to visit them to seek help. There is this

issue of classified information, i.e. information that can only be given to a particular

class of people. It is a taboo, for instance, to discuss any topic related to

circumcision with anybody who has never been there, be it a male or female. This

can be valuable to us if given information because it forms part of our learning area.”

It is apparent from these interviews that teachers are committed to consult with

knowledgeable holders of IK before they go to class so that they can gather sufficient

information to impart to learners.

There is an indication that some of the participants are working with their colleagues,

notably in schools where they function well. Some schools can be labelled as

“pseudo-communities” of practice. In these schools, teachers often experience the

silo effect, and do not receive assistance from colleagues. Teachers in pseudo-

communities of practice are struggling with the infusion of IK as they have no

direction on how to apply it, and they do not receive assistance from colleagues. The

division among them may be caused by the struggle, lack of understanding and

attitude. Some participants revealed that:

“As I have already said they are divided. Some are negative while others are positive

because of their religious beliefs. The positive ones really give support and help with

the information.”

“Not all of them were positive but the few showed interest in the work. They were

willing to deliberate more and share the information that they got. We normally

discuss certain matters before going to class in order to get clarity on certain issues.”

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“Some teachers seem to be negative because of their religious beliefs and the

difficulty in incorporating in class. As I have already said, we do not have a clear

strategy on how to apply and the fact that teachers are to seek information on their

own without any assistance from Department makes them lose interest. Most of

them will tell me that they don‟t want to teach something they do not understand.

Some of them do not want to share the knowledge with the thought that they will be

belittled and developed a negative attitude towards them.”

On the other hand, it was mentioned that other colleagues are willing to give a

helping hand in order to achieve their desired goals. Knowledgeable people, who in

Vygotskian terms can be called the “more competent peers”, are even invited to

schools with the aim of sharing their knowledge. This showed a spirit of working

together as they hold meetings where they are encouraged by motivational

speakers, share information and form clusters. Clusters, as ecologies of practice,

can also be valuable in empowering teachers to infuse their teaching with IK.

One such keystone species, who has been invited to other schools to assist

colleagues with IK, had the following to say: “I am normally invited to other school in

the afternoon to address learners and give help to educators if possible.”

“Hmmm … As I have already indicated, at school we are used to gather every

morning before we go to class to discuss about each and every aspect or topic we

are to teach for that particular day. We make sure that we treat the same section in

all the grades which is similar and help each other where possible. If the section

differs we just help each other.”

Category 4.3: Working with teachers from the surrounding area (e.g. formulating

clusters, inviting knowledgeable people, inviting Departmental officials)

Teachers need a well-functioning community of practice where in they can work

together and help each other with the incorporation of IK. This will enable them to

learn by participating in a group. Smith (2003) refers to this as a social participation.

This can be an important tool as it can help to drive strategy, solve their problems

quickly and to develop professional skills. With regard to the formation of a

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community of practice by working together with other teachers from neighbouring

schools, the narratives highlighted the following:

“I think of organising regular meetings wherein educators can be able to discuss

topics to be treated in class and share information in order to help others. In our

schools we may form discussion groups in the learning area where we can also help

one another. Hmm … clusters together with forums can be formed for such

discussions.”

“Hmm … I think of posing issues to them even though I did not do it so that we can

share what we have. I will make it a point that we contact each other, form a group

work or discussion wherein we will help each other. This will be a good idea because

we are having or sharing the same sentiments.”

“Teachers from the surrounding areas or schools are also invited especially in the

afternoon and on Saturdays. This is where we invite elderly people and community

members even if they at times do not show up.”

The narratives revealed that the DoE needs to involve itself with the teachers and

assist them in their professional development. The Department needs to supply

more material in the form of magazines to teachers and help with the formation of

clusters where teachers can help each other as peers. Subject advisors need to visit

schools regularly with the aim of assisting teachers in their teaching. More often than

not, they assume the position of critics. Instead, they should do more than that by

also assisting with the formation of living and functioning clusters. One participant

mentioned the following:

“I think we will have to form a cluster from our circuit with the help of Departmental

officials wherein we discuss certain topics and help each other. This can help us to

gather more information and be sure of what we are teaching in class. Yah, from

there we can move from school to school to give help. By so doing we can form a

very strong team that interacts with each other.”

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The interviews showed that subject facilitators act as support structures although

they visit schools per chance and teachers perceive these visits as “fault-finding

engagement”. Teachers feel that these subject facilitators do not simply come to the

school to help or support, but to look for mistakes and to criticise teachers while

seeking for written work. They seem to enjoy telling teachers what to do instead of

doing the job themselves. For the bigger part of the academic year, they remain

dormant claiming to do office work and planning. Most of them come out of their

closets during the Cass moderation period. These advisors then demand information

about the amount of work undertaken during the year, the number of tests written,

the marking of the tests and more. This has been revealed by participants when

saying:

“Curriculum advisors act as support structure although they do not normally show

themselves when they are needed. Actually, nobody is supporting us. We as

teachers just help one another where we can. We support ourselves because we just

keep on going on our own.”

“We normally see the officials when they are in need of written work, for problems

and for clarification, no.”

Category 4.4: Inviting knowledgeable people from the surrounding area or community In addition to consultation (Category 4.1), some of the teachers also indicated that

they occasionally invite holders of IK to their classrooms to come and share their

expertise with the learners. The teachers also mentioned that it is not common

practice due to logistical obstacles. For example, it takes a long time for invited

guests to respond, and guest speakers sometimes expect payments for their

presentations. In one instance, a teacher invited a traditional healer to the classroom

to discuss the common diseases he deals with and some of the plants he uses to

treat such diseases. Some participants revealed the following:

“Knowledgeable parents in the community such as traditional leaders together with

traditional healers will give a helping hand. If it is the problem of the curriculum, I will

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also invite curriculum advisors to help. Even those who specialise in IK from the

universities will be contacted. This will depend on the type of the problem.”

“I run around seeking information from knowledgeable people and elderly ones from

the community.”

Theme 5: Religious beliefs

The narrative revealed that most participants are bound by their religious beliefs in

their infusion of IK. It sounded as if their belief systems discouraged them to involve

themselves in IK. This led to some of them being negative about teaching IK.

“Most of them really give me a very negative attitude towards IK by not even

attending to me while others say it is against their religious beliefs. It is only few who

seem to be interested in it. This makes learners also to lose interest and become

reluctant in doing the work.”

“The belief system is also a problem that needs teachers to be very careful with. A

teacher needs to present IK in an acceptable way. In the process of teaching no

one‟s rights should be tampered with. You may find a teacher violating one child‟s

right to privacy during his teaching to cite just but one example. This takes time

discussing in class and trying to make clarifications where necessary.”

“They seem to be negative because of their religious beliefs and the difficulty in

incorporating in class.”

“Most of them have a negative attitude towards it as I have already said because of

their beliefs. At times, it is because is time wasting and money to run around seeking

help from other people and knowledgeable people and even come up empty handed.

Lack of specific methodological training and continuous consultation also plays a

role. Those who are traditional are positive because mostly are the things that they

enjoy and practice.”

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It is important for teachers to separate religious beliefs and IK. Most Christians think

that visiting a sangoma or traditional healer is belittling their faith in God. Hence, it is

against their belief as it seems that religious beliefs and indigenous knowledge are

incompatible. The two belief systems cannot survive in the same space without one

trying to eliminate the other.

Religion is a set of beliefs about the cause, nature, and the purpose of life and the

universe, especially when seen as the creation of a supernatural agency. Christians

and sangomas do not believe in the same principles, or agree on who or what the

source of life is. Most Christians think that visiting a sangoma and making contact

with their ancestral spirits is against their religious belief system. Also, most

Christians do not believe in muthi and herbs from sangomas and traditional healers.

People will rather refrain from discussing anything than have their religion

questioned.

More often than not, Christians are not prepared to discuss anything that will

challenge their own belief systems. The same goes for traditionalists and other

religions. As a consequence, religion can become a vivid obstacle in infusing IK in

the classroom.

4.4.2 Lesson observation A number of Life Sciences lessons presented by teachers for this survey were

evaluated to see how these teachers incorporate IK in their lessons. The Reformed

Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP) instrument was used for this evaluation. The

notes of one such observed lesson will be provided to illustrate how the RTOP

instrument has been used. The other lessons are described in Appendix E. The

following is one example of a lesson that was observed:

LESSON 1 Background information Name of teacher: Participant 1

Announced observation: No

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Location of class: Middle classroom of Block C

Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12

Date observed: 10 August 2010

Topic/theme: How modern biotechnology provide evidence for ethnobotanical

knowledge claims

Contextual background and activities Teacher used examples and applications to illustrate scientific concepts such as

biotechnology and ethnobotanical knowledge while learners were attentive, engaged

and asked questions in the context of everyday life. The learners were tasked with

an investigation to perform at home.

Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learners‟ prior knowledge and

the preconceptions inherent therein.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning

community.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

3. In this lesson, students‟ exploration preceded formal presentation.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of

investigation or of problem solving.

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Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating

with students.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 3 X 4

CONTENTPropositional knowledge 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were

encouraged when it was important to do so.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

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10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real-world phenomena were

explored and valued.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

Procedural knowledge

11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials,

manipulates, etc) to represent phenomena.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses, and devised means

for testing them.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activities that often

involved the critical assessment of procedures.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

14. Students were reflective about their learning.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

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15. Intellectual rigour, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were

valued.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative interactions 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a

variety of means and media.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it

occurred between and among students.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 x 3 4

19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of

classroom discourse.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

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20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

Student / teacher relationships

21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution

strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

23. In general, the teacher was patient with students.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance

student investigations.

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 X 2 3 4

25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom.

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Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4

0 1 2 X 3 4

Lesson observations In this particular lesson, there was an opportunity to focus on how modern

biotechnology provides evidence for ethnobotanical knowledge claims – an

opportunity that the teacher unfortunately did not utilise. Two interesting examples of

indigenous plant uses came to mind while the researcher was observing this lesson,

namely the use of Lippia javanica as a mosquito repellent, and the use of

Sutherlandia frutescens in treating diabetes. The CSIR has initiated a project in

conjunction with the local community in Giyani in Limpopo which involves the

registration of a patent which uses the molecules of Lippia javanica as insect

repellent. Whereas clinical tests on citronella oil as mosquito repellent show a

success rate of 40%, the oils in Lippia javanica seems to be 95% effective. Another

case in point: ProBetix is a drug, mainly consisting of derivates of the Sutherlandia

plant which is now used commercially for the treatment of diabetes. Unfortunately,

the teacher only mentioned that indigenous plants can have economic use, without

giving examples. It is a pity.

The researcher’s findings of the observations Most teachers managed to use IK as an introduction to their lessons. In most cases,

one could deduct from the lessons that these teachers were not very knowledgeable

on the content. Neither were they always sure of what they were trying to say. The

researcher realised that teachers do not reflect on their own teaching practice. The

explanations were not clear, which made the researcher realise that the teachers

lack the Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) to be used in class. Teachers feel

threatened when confronted with the challenges and demands because of their lack

of the necessary knowledge and skills to apply in the incorporation of indigenous

knowledge. Some were simply confused about how to introduce and incorporate IK

in their teaching because of the lack of understanding of fundamental concepts in

Life Sciences. Teachers tend to have misconceptions about the subject content and

seem to mislead learners. Lack of training and even lack of clear information was

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observed. Some teachers looked nervous and trembling while some of the facts and

concepts were not clearly explained. Golden opportunities were missed, where

teachers could have provided learners with examples of scientific processes and

procedures to support IK claims. For example, botany can come alive if a teacher

introduces simple chromatography techniques while teaching plant studies or

organic chemistry. Simple chromatography can be done on shoestring science in the

laboratory. As enrichment, a teacher can also refer to modern techniques used in

laboratories today, such as thin-layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography

coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-MS) or high-performance liquid

chromatography (HPLC). These are basic procedures applied in most university

laboratories, and the teachers could easily have arranged a trip to a professional

laboratory to give students a “feel” for science. Unfortunately, the incorporation of IK

was seen as sterile and without much excitement.

Lack of enthusiasm was detected when learners were amazed because they did not

understand what the teacher was trying to explain. Some learners were curious or

even eager to know more. Those who showed interest managed to ask more

questions because they wanted to know more about the content. Not all learners

participated well in the lesson. Most learners were quiet; looking at the teacher and

just listening to what the teacher was saying without seeming to understand anything

the teacher was saying.

In general, it was clear that IK was only introduced through selected examples

provided by the teacher, and that very little attention was given to the “syntactical”

aspects of IK in the classroom. There are so many hands-on enquiry-based activities

that the teacher could have introduced in the classroom. Learners could have done

surveys among local communities in order to record IK claims. De Beer and Van

Wyk (2011) provide a methodology where learners can follow a rapid appraisal

methodology linked with the Matrix Method. The researcher has already referred to

the use of simple chromatography techniques that can be used in the classroom to

introduce learners to the biochemical and pharmacological work that is currently

done in the field of ethnobotany. However, most teachers do not have the technical

know-how to use such methods in the classroom, and therefore the PCK

development of teachers should receive urgent attention. Some teachers even

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mentioned that they were trying to teach the part of IK that is against their belief

system. They did not want to go deeply into the matter, and just introduced a lesson

by asking questions to learners while only few took part. In most cases, learners

were told to go and investigate on their own or even ask their parents at home. No

clarification was given on how the investigation should be done.

Some teachers mentioned problems with the lack of academic knowledge, the

packaging of new content to learners and the incorporation of indigenous knowledge

into the science curriculum. Other teachers mentioned that they would have done

better in their explanations to the learners if they had the necessary resources. In

some instances, learners were asked to bring different muthi and herbs that are used

by parents and people in the surrounding area to heal Aids-related diseases. The

learners brought a variety of herbs and muthi to the class but nobody could identify

the herbs or explain their uses.

Based on the observations, the researcher realised that few teachers were proud of

their culture or could even make others develop an interest in their culture. The

teachers loved their culture and even enjoyed explaining this to their learners. One

could therefore enjoy the lesson even though one understands nothing about their

culture. Their lesson presentations showed that thorough consultation, research and

presentation was clearly done.

In the researcher‟s observation of teachers‟ lessons, she could identify only one

teacher who did justice to IK in teaching. This teacher is proud of his culture and

succeeds in making others develop an interest in their culture. The lesson

presentation showed that thorough consultation, research and presentation was

done. The teacher successfully tapped in into the rich database of IK that South

Africa has.

The teacher taught the learners about the exploitation of rooibos. Rooibos

(Aspalathus linearis) is an indigenous legume native to South Africa‟s Western Cape

region. Local inhabitants, the so-called Khoi-San, were the first to collect and use it

as a herbal beverage. Documented biological properties of rooibos include

antioxidant activity, antimutagenic properties, hepatoprotective effects, phyto-

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oestrogenic properties, antimicrobial and antiviral activities. Nakano et al. isolated a

polysaccharide that showed strong anti-HIV activity.

Learners were asked about the stages of preparing rooibos and how they prepared

and used rooibos in their homes. The teacher and the learners discussed different

ideas in class. The learners also had to complete an exercise for the following day. A

debate followed on whether or not Rooibos is an indigenous plant. Two groups of

learners were chosen to argue for or against the topic.

Life Sciences teachers can also use the Association for African Medicinal Plants

Standards‟ website at www.aamps.org as a useful resource. This initiative was

established by the European Union Centre for the Development of Enterprise (EU-

ACP), with funding from the EU ProInvest. This resulted in the publication of the

African Herbal Pharmacopoeia, which has now established ethnobotany as an

exciting new scientific field that has the potential to drastically improve the lives of

Africans (Eloff, 2011).

Sometimes, IK was introduced towards the end of the lesson when learners were

given work to do at home. Learners were asked to look for different methods for the

prevention of pregnancy used by their parents in the olden days. They needed to

visit elderly people and traditional healers to enquire about traditional methods used

to prevent pregnancy. They also had to write a report that would be assessed.

Teachers mentioned that they attended multi-day short courses in order to be trained

in the new content and policies of the NCS. According to them, they did not benefit

from these workshops and requested an ongoing professional development process.

Some teachers mentioned that they were introducing IK unwillingly, since they

perceived it as being against their belief system. They reported that they did not want

to go deeply into IK in the classroom. As a consequence, they simply introduced IK

briefly in a lesson by asking learners a few questions. In many cases, learners were

told to go and investigate indigenous knowledge systems on their own or ask their

parents at home about this. They received no guidelines on how to do this

investigation. Many teachers seem to equate IK and emerging fields such as

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ethnobotany with pseudo-science or even “witchcraft”. Fundamentalist Christians

often see holistic healing practices, such as the alleged “contact with ancestors”, as

Satanism. This aspect will be discussed in Chapter 5.

4.4.3 Artefacts In addition to the lesson observations, the researcher also studied artefacts such as

teachers‟ lesson plans, teacher portfolios and learner portfolios, and analysed Grade

12 Life Sciences scripts.

4.4.3.1 Teacher portfolios and learner portfolios During the ten school visits for this research report, the researcher analysed a total

of ten teacher portfolios and 30 learner portfolios. The researcher noted that

teachers occasionally gave IK-related assignments and “investigations” to learners.

One such example is where learners were given a task to investigate the uses of the

African potato and a number of diseases that can be cured by using this particular

plant. Another example is where learners were given a research project to

“investigate” (the researcher would prefer “report”, since the teacher did not give

guidelines on how to conduct research) traditional methods of pregnancy prevention

or contraception that were used by the learners‟ parents and grandparents. The

researcher noted that there was no follow-up after the learners had handed in their

assignments. This showed the researcher that teachers do not really know where to

slot in IK, and that teachers found it difficult to assess the learners‟ IK-related work.

Many portfolios and teacher lesson plans had no indication of IK incorporation.

Where IK was addressed, it was usually only one or two examples of an IK practice.

It became clear that lip service was paid to the IK requirements of the NCS.

However, one of the few “best practices” observed, was on Sutherlandia frutescens

(see Chapter 2). Albrecht (2011) draws attention to the fact that Sutherlandia

frutescens is sometimes compared to a Swiss army knife with multiple functions.

Various textbooks and review articles have indicated the many functions of

Sutherlandia: it is used as a treatment for cancer, diabetes, stomach ailments,

influenza, inflammation, chicken pox, fever, varicose veins, haemorrhoids, bladder

infections, liver ailments, stress-related ailments and severe depression. It is also

used as an appetite stimulant and an eye wash (Albrecht, 2011). However, there are

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no clinical studies to support these claims. This particular teacher made a few

articles available to the learners, and also encouraged learners to do research on the

internet and to write research reports on the evidence for such claims. One learner in

this teacher‟s class was clearly stimulated by this creative assignment, and wrote an

excellent report, with the basic finding (slightly simplistic, which is understandable,

since the learner did not have access to all the scientific journals) that there is only

sufficient clinical evidence for one of these claims: Sutherlandia‟s use to treat

diabetes. This learner referred to ProBetix, a commercial product available for

treating diabetes, made from Sutherlandia. It contains Pinosundia, which is an alpha

lipoic acid. What impressed the researcher was that the learner reported on how this

drug assisted his grandfather, who suffered from diabetes. He indicated how his

grandfather‟s sugar levels, which constantly varied between 7 and 8 when he used

other medication, dropped to 5 a few weeks after his grandfather started to use

ProBetix. The learner also looked at other indigenous plants that can assist in the

treatment of diabetes. One such example that the learner referred to was Athrixia

phylicoides, which, during clinical tests, stimulated in vitro glucose uptake,

suggesting that it can be beneficial to type 2 diabetes.

4.4.3.2 Grade 12 Life Sciences examination scripts As part of this study, the researcher was involved in the University of

Johannesburg‟s Script Analysis Project (SAP), done for Umalusi. One thousand

Grade 12 learners‟ answer sheets for both Paper 1 and Paper 2 in Life Sciences

(December 2008) were analysed. The researcher wanted to determine whether IK

filtered through into the learners‟ answers. The researcher specifically looked at

questions which made provision for the incorporation of IK, and revealed the

following findings:

Question 4.3 deals with human reproduction, determining the sex of the child, and

medical assistance to help people to fall pregnant. This question lends itself to

answers in which IK is incorporated.

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Table 4.5: The grid used to analyse Question 4.3, Paper 1

Question 4.3

Misconception CODES An: (analogical)

Ap:

anthropomorphic

F: Functional

G: Genetic

M: Mechanical

Mp: Metaphysical

P: Practical

Ra: Rational

Ta: Tautological

Te: Teleological

Re: Relational

Pr: Problem

based

Mo: Model based

Scientific investigation CODES:

Ps: Lack of

problem solving

skills

HYP: Cannot

formulate

hypothesis

DR: Cannot

interpret graphs

AN: Cannot

analyse data

KN: Lack of

scientific

knowledge

General problems CODES:

ExT: Poor

examination

technique

L: Language

problems

TM: Time

management

MIS:

Misunderstood

question

IK application CODES:

NT: Not

introduced

NA: Not applied

at all

(only briefly

mentioned) NI:

No idea about

it

DNC:Difference

not clear

LC: Little said

about it

WM: Western

methods used

REL: Religious

beliefs

mentioned

Comments on findings:

1. The learners did not perform well at all in this question, and the average mark

for the question was 27% (4 marks out of a possible 15). There was extremely

little evidence of IK insights in learners‟ answers, and they mostly reflected on

how Western medicine can help childless couples.

2. From analysing the answers, it seems as if educators mostly concentrated on

Western science, and did little in terms of IK practices to ensure healthy

pregnancy.

3. It seems as if old teaching methods or pedagogic methods were used instead

of the NCS‟s teaching methods.

4. Educators seem unsure about which IK to consider in dealing with such

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matters.

5. It seems as if educators were not trained in the infusion of IK and that they

need to be motivated to infuse it.

6. As a result of these problems learners end up achieving poor results.

7. Most learners use their general knowledge to answer the questions.

Some learners mentioned religious beliefs in attempting to answer the question

(for instance, some learners feel that Western scientists sometimes “play God” by

helping a woman to fall pregnant through modern fertility techniques).

It seems as if the examiner tried to assess Learning Outcome No 3, which refers to

the application of Life Sciences in society, as well as learners‟ know-how of

indigenous knowledge in one question. Very little materialised in this regard in the

learners‟ answers. The question was related to the learning content while it required

the learners to respond to unfamiliar data. It was based on the data given although

the researcher was not assured that the candidates were compelled to study the

data for answers.

Very little reference was made to plants that could help during pregnancy, though a

significant amount of attention was given to this in both scientific and popular

magazines. To mention two examples: it is reasonably well documented that rooibos

(Aspalathus linearis) has phyto-oestrogenic properties, and that Combretum

erythrophyllum can assist during labour and birth (Ledwaba, 2011).

Question 4.3 in Paper 2 dealt with the exploitation of indigenous plants, and the

sustainable use of plants for food and medicinal purposes.

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Table 4.6: The grid used to analyse Question 4.3, Paper 2

Question 4.3

Misconception CODES:

An: ( Analogical)

Ap:

(Anthropomorphic

F: Functional

G: Genetic

M: Mechanical

Mp: Metaphysical

P: Practical

Ra: Rational

Ta: Tautological

Te: Teleological

Re: Relational

Pr: Problem

based

Mo: Model based

Scientific investigations CODES:

PS: Lack of

problem solving

skills

HYP: Cannot

formulate

hypothesis

GR: Cannot

interpret graphs

AN: Cannot

analyse data

KN: Lack of

scientific

knowledge

General problems CODES:

ExT: Poor

examination

technique

L: Language

problems

TM: Time

management

MIS:

Misunderstood

question

IK application CODES:

PU: Poor

understanding

LS: Very little

said about IK

IKP: No

knowledge of

IK (ethno-

botany) plants

IKNC:

Indigenous

Knowledge not

considered

BWS: Based on

Western

methods

MGN: General

knowledge

applied

AI: Answers

irrelevant to

questions

1. The average mark for this question was 4.47 out of a possible 15 (a percentage

average of 29.8%). Learners had very little knowledge of indigenous plants, its

uses (ethnobotany), or issues regarding the conservation of these plants.

2. Learners do not seem to have a clear understanding of issues regarding

indigenous knowledge.

Based on the researcher‟s analysis, it seems that indigenous knowledge was not

properly introduced in the Life Sciences classroom. Very few students referred to the

endemic plants of their particular region, or to the ethnobotanical uses of these

plants. The researcher also missed an LO3 focus. Learners in general did not seem

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to be too concerned about the illegal harvesting of plants. This suggests that

teachers focus too strongly on cognitive content and on preparing learners for

examinations.

3. Learners had several misconceptions about IK (for instance, some learners think

that sangomas and inyangas only use indigenous plants). OBE and NCS policies did

not give educators direction and clarity on the inclusion of IK. Learners were not able

to express their feelings and sentiments on IK while others did not understand the

use of medicinal plants by different cultural groups.

4.The examiner managed to include LO3, which refers to the application of Life

Sciences in society, by asking learners about the risk that indigenous plants may be

overexploited for medicinal and nutritional purposes. The question critically evaluates

beliefs, attitudes and values on science, technology and society.

The NCS expects teachers to indicate that our rich South African flora can supply

food, medicine and raw materials for arts and crafts. There is a wealth of data

available on how plants are used by different cultural groups. There is also concern

about the harvesting of plants in a non-sustainable way. The demand for natural and

organic products is estimated to be growing at 25% per year (Swanepoel & Alberts,

2011). The pressure on natural resources can be prevented if careful and

sustainable measures are taken, and if communities are involved in growing these

plants and crops. Very little of this discourse has been captured by learners in their

answers.

4.5 TRIANGULATION To analyse the data and establish emerging themes, the researcher triangulated the

GDE quantitative data, the interviews, observations, artefacts like the portfolios, and

the scripts analysis. This triangulation assisted the researcher to paint a portrait of

how teachers experience indigenous knowledge. The following concurrent

triangulation design visual model was used:

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Figure 4.1: Triangulation design visual model Source: Creswell, 2009.

Although most Life Sciences teachers see the value of IK in the Life Sciences

classroom (quantitative data), most teachers either pay lip service to IK, or ignore it

QUAN Data collection

Survey Checklist

Composite model

RESULTS Comparing results

Codes Themes Grounded theory

QUAN Data analysis

Statistical analysis

QUAN Data analysis

Coding Thematic

analysis

QUAN Data collection

Individual interviews

Observations Artefacts

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altogether (qualitative data). Some teachers understand (as constructivists) the value

of building on prior knowledge. A high percentage of teachers (76.7%) indicated that

IK does not stand in the way of learners trying to acquire scientific knowledge. These

teachers are of the opinion that learners “do not cling” to their IK concepts, but that it

opens opportunities for learners to explore and embrace scientific investigations.

However, the fact that so little IK materialises in most classrooms, is probably the

result of many teachers‟ lack of PCK.

The study would have benefited from the administration of the Nature of Science

(NOS) questionnaire or instrument to determine how teachers view the nature of

science. This item shows that there is a large difference in teachers‟ perceptions of

NOS. The majority of teachers feel that there is a connection between IK and

Western science. Theoretically, this should pave the way for such discussions in

class. A cause of concern is that 61.6% of teachers are of the opinion that there is

conflict between IK and Western science. One of the reasons is fundamentalist

viewpoints, and a lack of knowledge.

The qualitative findings revealed that the participants experience several challenges

in relation to the infusion of IK in the LS classroom. Problems include insufficient

training and insufficient professional development to implement IK. Teachers were

concerned about how well Life Sciences educators were trained to infuse their

teaching with IK. They acknowledged that they lacked the knowledge and skills in

terms of the OBE curriculum to infuse IK in their teaching. The people who create

policies and legislation seldom look down the track to the implementation stage

(Rogan & Aldous, 2004). Little guidance is provided in the official policy documents

on how teachers should incorporate IK in their teaching.

Teachers‟ comments highlighted that there is a need to assist teachers in the

development of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Another concern highlighted

by some teachers is that the inclusion of IK calls for the promotion of pseudo-

science. Such sentiments show teachers‟ ignorance about the growth of a field such

as ethnobotany. An African Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AfrHP) has recently been

published by the Association for African Medicinal Plant Standards (AAMPS) (Eloff,

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2011), and if one looks at the AfrHP, it is clear that ethnobotany should be

recognised as a rigorous science.

Teachers should be critical and reflective practitioners. This was revealed during

interviews with teachers and the classroom visits that teachers do not really reflect

on their own teaching practice. This is also one of the reason why teachers do not

build capacity regarding PCK (Conley, 2010). This involves content knowledge,

teaching experience and pedagogy. IK should encompass the so-called scientific

methods and should assist learners in developing critical thinking skills.

The lack of material resources was also revealed as one of the difficulties

encountered by teachers in their incorporation of IK in the LS classroom. However,

having said this, many teachers do not utilise resources and resourceful people from

the local community. Not all Life Sciences content allows for IK. It will be challenging

to add an IK focus to themes such as molecular biology and DNA structures.

Indigenous cultures probably have very little IK on the DNA molecule. The DoE

needs to develop curriculum material like books that can address IK, and assist

teachers to teach IK.

The rich South African cultural diversity can also pose a challenge in the Life

Sciences classroom. Teachers might be knowledgeable in terms of IK in their culture

but do not necessarily know much about IK in other cultures. This poses a serious

challenge to teachers in multicultural classrooms in South African schools.

There is also a lack of support from the DoE. As a result, teachers try to work on

their own by organising Saturday schools and by inviting knowledgeable people from

the community to share lessons on IK. The interviews with the teachers made it clear

that teachers are committed to consulting knowledgeable holders of IK before they

go to class. Subject advisors (curriculum specialists) are often not providing

guidance on the teaching of IK.

Teachers are negative about IK at times, and feel that IK does not belong in the Life

Sciences classroom. Some teachers say that IK cannot be scientifically proven, and

that it constitutes pseudo-science. This again raises the issue of PCK. Many

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teachers do not have the know-how to incorporate PCK in a scientific and proper

way.

The research findings indicated that participants understood the definition and

meaning of IK even though it was placed in different meanings. It was mentioned

that it is sometimes difficult to trust the accuracy of the information as it is not written

anywhere, nor is it scientifically proven.

Teachers are starting to believe in the importance of IK in Life Sciences. They have

come to realise that traditional knowledge is as important as curriculum knowledge.

Learners do not come to school as empty vessels. Hence, they need to make a

connection between their indigenous knowledge and their classroom-acquired

knowledge. Participants revealed that it is important to include indigenous knowledge

in the curriculum because learners need to know where they come from, i.e. they

need to know their roots before they will be able to know where they are going.

Colleagues from the same school are supporting each through regular group

discussions. They have even formulated morning classes to help each other in a

learning area. Some of the participants work with their colleagues, notably in schools

with well-functioning communities of practice. Teachers therefore support each other

within the ecologies of practice (clusters). Clusters, as ecologies of practice, can

therefore be valuable in empowering teachers to infuse their teaching with IK.

Teachers from neighbouring schools can also provide guidance and scaffolding.

However, in other schools teachers often experience the silo effect as they do not

receive assistance from colleagues. Teachers in such pseudo-communities of

practice are struggling with the infusion of IK as they have no direction or assistance

in this regard.

In addition to consultation, some of the teachers indicated that they occasionally

invite holders of IK to their classrooms to share their expertise with learners.

However, this was not common practice because of logistical obstacles, payment

expectations and other issues.

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The interviews revealed that most participants are bound by their religious beliefs in

their infusion of IK. It seems as if their belief system discouraged them to become

involved in IK. As a result, some of them are negative about infusing their teaching

with IK. Most people are not open to discuss religion as they regard religion as a

matter of life and death. The fact that most of the indigenous knowledge is not

recorded and is associated with evil or ancestral spirits aggravates the situation.

Learners did not perform well at all in Question 4.3 of Paper 1. The average mark for

the question was 27% (4 marks out of a possible of 15). The lack of teacher PCK

results, unfortunately, in underperformance by the learners. This was clear from the

researcher‟s analysis of the examination scripts. There was extremely little evidence

of IK insights in learners‟ answers. From analysing the answers, it seems as if

educators mostly concentrated on Western science without taking IK practices into

account.

4.6. CULTURAL HISTORICAL ACTIVITY THEORY (CHAT) The pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) is impotant to teaching profession and

can be considered to be useful part of the teacher`s lived experience. It is also

described as a transformation of teacher knowlwdge from a vriety of domains of

knowledge, which includes subject matter knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and

knowledge about content ( Botha & Reddy, 2011; 257).This change model has the

potential “to drive innovation in practice” (Meyer, 2007; 13).

Lev Vygotsky (1978), as the founder of social and cultural constructivism, believes

that learning takes place during social and cultural endeavours between children and

knowledgeable adults. According to this theory, learning is always mediated by an

artefact like tools, signs and cultural means.

Leontiev (1981) suggested first-generation activity theory that included the idea of

mediation and the concept of collective as well as individual action from which the

second generation of activity theory evolved. Linked to the concept of the division of

labour, it is seen as a fundamental historical process assisting in the development of

cognitive functions. Engestrom (1987) built on Vygotsky and Leontiev‟s models to

generate the third generation of activity theory.

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Viewing the findings through a CHAT lens The themes that emerged will now be studied through a CHAT lens in order to come

to an understanding of the tensions that teachers experience in teaching IK. The

themes that emerged will be used to identify the tension and relationship between

tools (NCS, policy document, pedagogy and PCK), subject (the teacher), rules,

community (the school), division of labour (teacher role, professional development),

object and outcome.

Figure 4.2: Integrating emerging themes with CHAT Source: Engestrom, 1987.

Subject Advisor

Multicultural IK

Subject-(LS)Teacher

PCK Deskilled

Policy Lack of materials

Object- Incorporation of IK

Outcome-Footing+ Voice of LS teacher

Community of practice

Religious beliefs

Prof Development

Emotional factor

Tools

Resources Professional development

Language

Pedagogy NCS Policy doc

Community

Management an

Parents

Colleagues Multicultural learners Learner

factors

Rules

Management

Teachers; role

DoE Division of labour Professional Development

Teachers’ role

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Examples of activity systems include teachers working together at the school,

classroom activities, the school itself, Departmental officials, and parents as

community members who interact with the school. These people are continuously

helping each other to develop in a social relationship. The top part of the triangle

represents the tool. The bottom of the triangle represents individual actions that are

embedded in a social realm.

Third-generation activity theory (CHAT) was chosen as the conceptual framework for

this study to view the bigger picture of teachers‟ experiences in the infusion of IK.

Subject: This can be referred to as the Life Sciences teachers in the schools who

are supposed to infuse indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences in the

classroom. This occurs when teachers have a good understanding of NCS policy

and its application, sufficient material and a sound PCK. Teachers need to have the

required skills to apply the content knowledge acquired.

Rules: This refers to the guidelines of the NCS and the rules of the school in which

these teachers are operating. Rules include the norms, values and social interaction

around the school and in the classroom. They also include the norms, values, beliefs

and traditional values that exist in the school. It is the role of the Department of

Education, the school‟s management and the teachers to ensure compliance with

the rules.

Object: The object of the activity system is the teachers‟ PCK development in order

to effectively teach IK; in other words, finding a professional “footing” and “voice”.

Outcome: For the successful incorporation of indigenous knowledge, both teachers

and learners must be able to understand each other and to apply the knowledge to

their everyday lives.

Community: Communities of practice include cluster meetings, colleagues working

together and the community in which teachers work. The community includes

parents, community members in the form of sangomas, the Department of Education

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(DoE), community leaders and other knowledgeable members of society. There is a

need for mutual relationships between teachers, management, Departmental officials

and community members. Colleagues and management also form part of the

community as they give learners information about IK.

Community of practice: This refers to the way in which people interact with each

other and the relationship they have in the social networks in which they operate.

Whitelaw at al. (2008: 36) explain the community of practice as a group of people

who share a concern or passion for something they do and who learn how to do

things in a better way through regular interaction. Learning in a community of

practice is not so much about acquiring knowledge from other members of the

community as it is a process of social participation (Smith, 2003). Jarzabkowski

(2002), and Wenger and Snyder (2000) suggest that communities of practice can be

an important tool for any organisation as these communities can help to drive

strategy, solve problems quickly, and transfer best practices and skills. Cluster

meetings can help to achieve this. Working together can be very effective to improve

teachers‟ professional development and acquisition of PCK while social interaction

can improve the quality of teaching and learning.

Communities of practice can be sustained by teachers who gather to share

knowledge. This includes gatherings of teachers from different schools. Whitlock et

al. (2008) also refer to a “pseudo-community of practice” where teachers refuse to

share information on IK. In this case. it shows a tension in the community of practice.

As mentioned, CHAT is not simply a classification system, but a barometer for

tensions. For instance, it will point out if there is tension between the subject (Life

Sciences teacher) and the tools used to achieve the outcome (effective teaching of

IK). The teacher often does not have sufficient tools to achieve the outcome (object)

of the activity system. As mentioned, PCK is often not sufficient to teach IK in the

classroom. Very often, the teacher does not know which resources to use in the

classroom. IKS now includes fields such as ethnobotany. To pay justice to these

emerging fields in the classroom, calls for specialised knowledge and skills. Modern

ethnobotany requires teachers to be knowledgeable about techniques such as the

rapid appraisal method, matrix method, chromatography and spectrometry. Teachers

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need sufficient background knowledge of biochemistry to be able to make sense of

modern medical standards and pharmacological analyses of the active ingredients in

traditional plants. Teachers need to be knowledgeable on bio-assays, and how to

interpret data to make conclusions about plants‟ anti-microbial, anti-inflammatory,

anti-secretory and immunomodulatory properties.

Where will teachers get the scaffolding and professional development to incorporate

biotechnological knowledge and skills in their teaching? Unfortunately, we have a

large percentage of under-qualified teachers in South Africa. The INSET

programmes on offer (notably in the form of short workshops) seem ineffective, and

educationists indicate that professional development is best achieved within well-

functioning communities of practice. Here is another tension: Many schools have

pseudo-communities of practice, and a lack of a keystone species might mean that

teachers do not have a support base.

Under the division of labour, it was highlighted that the teacher is both a facilitator of

knowledge and a life-long learner. Two tensions need to be highlighted here:

Teachers often do not critically reflect on their own practice, and this hinders

professional growth and PCK development.

Many teachers do not keep abreast of the latest developments in biology. This

ignorance became very clear during this research.

Below are the benefits of teamwork as suggested by Squelch (1994: 71-72).

Cooperation Members work together in order to achieve a certain goal in life. The community

members, teachers, learners and Department can also cooperate with one another

in the education of learners for good results. The same good results will translate

into good scientists from the Life Sciences class. When people work on their own,

this can lead to competitiveness which might not be in the best interest of the

learners. All people benefit from working together. Competition cripples the

community while cooperation builds it up. When people compete, they become

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selfish and do not consider other peoples‟ feelings. When this happens, there is no

collaboration.

The sharing of information If all stakeholders are able to share information and to help each other with new

ideas and knowledge, this will make solutions flow. By sharing and exchanging

knowledge, teaching will be made easier and learners will be able to understand

science and its implications. The society we aspire to build needs sharing and not

selfishness. There are adults who are unable to share. This is a clear indication that

sharing should be taught to learners at an early age. People who do not share are

hiding information from other people up. This could lead to the loss of valuable

information. Others use information to add value to them. Should somebody possess

certain information, a meeting needs to be arranged to disseminate this information

instead of just giving it to the first person who wants it.

Sharing resources, special talents and strengths Nothing will be hidden or hoarded if everybody is willing to exchange knowledge.

Teachers need basic resources to achieve their teaching goals. Books are an

important source of information and are needed in larger quantities in schools.

However, quality information and age-appropriate information should be a serious

pre-requisite and books should add value to activities. A large collection of books is

no indication of a school that is well-equipped with books.

Morale High morale is often seen when people work in a group and not in isolation.

Teachers need to be motivated all the time as low morale among teachers could

hamper the quality of their teaching. Teachers need to be encouraged, praised and

even thanked when they make an effort with their teaching or when they infuse their

teaching with indigenous knowledge. Through the incorporation of IK, teachers can

contribute to the development of tomorrow‟s scientists. Teachers need to collaborate

and share their expertise with others, while principals should foster learning and

sharing. Professional growth and development also need to be encouraged and

accommodated.

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To ensure that teaching and learning work well with the infusion of indigenous

knowledge in the Life Sciences classroom, there should be guidelines on how to

incorporate IK and which IK should form part of the learning content. Such guidelines

do not curb creativity or initiative. They allow space for teachers to share ideas and

to be creative but in a controlled environment. Guidelines on the incorporation of IK

will make teachers focus more strongly on their work to reach their desired goals.

Teachers can use socio-scientific issues in the teaching of Life Sciences (for

example by bringing preserved seeds to class). By doing so, they will encourage

students to consider how science-based issues affect their lives and to reflect on the

moral principles that underpin science. Teachers in the Life Sciences classroom also

need to realise the importance of hands-on experiences. To achieve this, teachers

need to be equipped with the knowledge and skills to incorporate IK more

meaningfully and successfully.

Some teachers show great dedication to incorporate IK in the Life Sciences

classroom despite a lack of skills, methodology and resources.

There is a need to form communities of practice among teachers. Regular meetings

will lead to the exchange of useful information and ideas. Teachers will experience

well-chaired meetings as stimulating, time-effective and worthwhile. This will help

teachers to stay focused, to monitor progress and to be keystone species within their

ecologies of practice. Henning (2008) refers to such teachers as are leaders in their

field and possibly also leaders in an emergent ecology of practitioners in certain

geographical areas. The input of every person needs to be welcomed and

encouraged.

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CHAPTER 5

FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND AREAS OF FUTURE RESEARCH

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter looks at the major findings of this study, including recommendations

that will help to address the problem, the limitations of the study, and suggestions for

future research.

The findings revealed that teachers are facing difficulties in incorporating IK in their

teaching. Shulman (2004) in Gravett et al. (2010) suggests that classroom teaching

is the most complex, challenging, demanding and frightening activity our species

have ever inherited. Teaching is not just about transferring knowledge and

implementing the methods and techniques acquired through teacher training at

colleges or universities. It is a challenging profession that requires teachers to think

and reflect (Gravett et al., 2010). In the process, learners need to gain in such a way

that their knowledge can be applied throughout their lifetime. Therefore, teaching is

not merely the transfer of knowledge from textbooks while making sure that learners

learn. Teachers need to know and apply different teaching methods in class and they

need to know the learning content to be taught. It should also be emphasised that

teachers must be ready and prepared to learn throughout their teaching career. In

addition, teachers need to be critically reflective practitioners.

However, before summarising the major findings of this study, it is important to first

focus on the incorporation of IK in the classroom. South Africa with its rich cultural

diversity and rich biodiversity offers wonderful learning opportunities to Life Sciences

learners. As an emerging economy, South Africa is faced with a number of

challenges. These challenges include unemployment, a lack of scientists (which

prevents us from becoming a global player in the world economy), poverty and

issues regarding food security, diseases and pandemics such as HIV and Aids, and

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a lack of proper healthcare for many South Africans, especially those in rural areas.

These obstacles pose a threat to economic growth. The inclusion of indigenous

knowledge can help to address many of these issues.

Firstly, the rich IK and cultural practices in many areas in the country provide

learners with a good entry point into the scientific world. A true constructivist teacher

will realise the importance of building new knowledge on learners‟ existing prior

knowledge. This will show learners how relevant science is in our daily lives. It may

even open future career opportunities and develop learners‟ entrepreneurial skills.

An example of the application of IK: The local people in the Giyani district have been

using the plant Lippia javanica as an insect repellent for decades. The CSIR, in

conjunction with the local community in Giyani in Limpopo, has registered a patent

on the use of Lippia javanica as insect repellent. Clinical tests on citronella oil as a

mosquito repellent showed a success rate of 40% while the oils in Lippia javanica

seems to be 95% effective. The commercialisation of this application is also

benefiting the community by creating jobs.

In South Africa, a large percentage of the population is dependent on traditional

healers for medical care. Even though many people benefit from treatment by

traditional healers, it is also well recorded that many people die every year because

of poisoning. This often relates to traditional healers not being clear on dosages.

There is often a very fine line between a therapeutic dose and a lethal dose. An

interesting example here is Callilepis laureola (impila). This plant belongs to the

Asteraceae. This traditional remedy is used by the Zulu, mainly in KwaZulu-Natal, for

stomach problems, tapeworm infestations and impotence. It is administered orally or

as an enema. Mortality rates from the use of impila is are estimated to be 1500

deaths per annum in KwaZulu-Natal (Gaia, 2001). The government is strongly

committed to rectifying the situation of traditional healers. In order to include

traditional healing as part of holistic health care in South Africa, and to regulate the

practices of traditional healers, a National Reference Centre for African Traditional

Medicines was established. Partners include the Department of Health, the Medical

Research Council and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research

(www.mrc.ac.za/traditionalmedicines/national.htm).

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Another example: The Association for African Medicinal Plants Standards was

established by the European Union Centre for the Development of Enterprise (EU-

ACP), with funding from the EU ProInvest. This resulted in the publication of the

African Herbal Pharmacopoeia, which has established ethnobotany as a new

scientific field that has the potential to drastically improve the lives of Africans (Eloff,

2011). Ethnobotanical and pharmaceutical research could lead to possible

treatments for HIV/Aids and TB, using our indigenous flora.

These developments also offer the opportunity to reflect on biotechnology and

modern pharmacology in the Life Sciences classroom. This provides teachers with

golden opportunities to introduce learners to scientific processes and procedures

that support IK claims. For example, botany can come alive if a teacher introduces

simple chromatography techniques or organic chemistry. Simple chromatography

can be done on a shoestring in the laboratory. As enrichment, teachers can also

refer to modern techniques used in laboratories today, such as thin-layer

chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-

MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). These basic procedures

are applied in most university laboratories, and they will give learners a better

understanding of the nature of science, as well as future career opportunities.

5.2 MAJOR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.2.1 Changes in the education system and curriculum content When new policies were created, policy makers focused on the what of desired

educational change, neglecting the how (Rogan & Aldous, 2009). Teachers often

have limited understanding of the curriculum changes, and government officials do

not always implement them. The inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the NCS

policy for Life Sciences was highlighted as one of the unique features of the NCS

(Document 8:4), and it accounts for 8.1% of the total content. Examples of

indigenous knowledge include the use of indigenous plants to treat nutritional

disorders, to preserve food and to control external parasites on livestock, and the

use of natural resources in cultural practices.

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The inclusion of indigenous knowledge in the science curriculum is considered

important to attract children of non-Western cultures to science (Aikenhead, 2006).

The NCS favours science for everyday living but it is ambiguous about what it means

by relevance to everyday life. The official policy documents do not provide sufficient

guidance to teachers on the implementation of IK in their teaching.

Another point highlighted by some teachers is that the inclusion of IK does not call

for the promotion of pseudo-science or even medical quackery. IK should

encompass the so-called scientific methods, and should assist learners in

developing critical thinking skills. By so doing (including IK in their lessons), teachers

will be encouraging students to consider how science-based issues affect their own

lives and to reflect on the moral principles that underpin science. Some teachers

show great dedication with the incorporation of IK. However, when teachers are not

well trained in application methods, they become confused about how to implement

IK in their Life Sciences classrooms.

5.2.2 Perception of being disempowered Constant curriculum changes (first NATED 550, then the NCS, then the RNCS,

followed by CAPS in 2012) are challenging teachers. Many teachers show great

dedication to incorporate IK in the Life Sciences classroom despite a lack of skills,

methodology and resources. They are confused about the methods to use in the

implementation of OBE, the NCS and also IK. This leads to poor teaching styles.

Hence, teachers need help with methodology, teaching techniques and practical

solutions (Horak & Fricke, 2004). Therefore, they should develop generic knowledge

or general approaches in which suitable pedagogical methods are used for a

required topic. They need to develop methods that can help them reflect on their own

teaching practice – for instance, the Guided Reflection Protocol or DATA process, as

described by Gravett and De Beer (2010) in Becoming a teacher. Knowledge,

flexibility and the ability to incorporate IK in an effective way will help teachers to

cater for the individual needs of learners.

Teachers‟ agency is something that should receive serious consideration in South

Africa. However, this cannot be separated from teachers‟ PCK development.

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5.2.3 The feeling of being demotivated and a lack of agency Teacher morale is very low due to overload, a shortage of content and pedagogical

skills, and the stress associated with working in challenging schools where discipline

and/or resources are lacking. Teachers often blame their situation on external forces

such as the lack of resource material and support from the Department. Some of the

teachers have a tendency to neglect self-study to improve their subject knowledge.

As a result, most of them are demotivated and lack interest in their teaching in

general, and also in the infusion of IK specifically.

Motivation is necessary in the teaching profession to make teachers perform more

effectively. Teachers‟ agency should receive more attention as we need creative

teachers who are problem-solvers, and who can take accountability for their own

professional development.

5.2.4 Lack of resources The findings revealed that teachers are facing difficulties in incorporating IK in their

teaching. Shulman (2004) in Gravette et al. (2010) suggests that classroom teaching

is a most complex, challenging, demanding and frightening activity. Teaching is not

just about transferring knowledge and implementing the methods and techniques

acquired through teacher training at colleges or universities. It is a challenging

profession that requires teachers to think and reflect (Gravett et al., 2010). In the

process, learners need to gain in such a way that their knowledge can be applied

throughout their lifetime. Therefore, teaching is not merely the transfer of knowledge

from textbooks while making sure that learners learn. Teachers need to know

different teaching methods and the learning content to be taught. In addition to this,

they need to be prepared to learn throughout their teaching careers and they need to

be critically reflective practitioners.

Teachers find it difficult to present or incorporate indigenous knowledge because of

the lack of resources. They encounter problems in finding material they can use in

class. Life Sciences teachers are unsure of what they need to teach, while some of

the evidence cannot be easily be brought to class. Textbooks used in class give little

or even no proper information about indigenous knowledge. While some textbooks

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still provide information on IK in the form of examples, hardly any attention is given to

teaching strategies and practical work that can be done in the classroom. As most of

the IK is transmitted verbally, some people regard it as a myth because it cannot be

tested scientifically. When textbooks do not address IK sufficiently, teachers often

ignore this important part of the curriculum. Unfortunately, many teachers in South

Africa are textbook bound as they teach only the content of the textbook. If IK is

ignored in the textbook, it will also not materialise in the classroom.

When textbooks do not adequately address indigenous knowledge, teachers who

are looking at the NCS and policy documents have to rely on the information that

learners bring to the class and on the advice of colleagues, parents as community

members, sangomas, community leaders and other elderly people from the

community. Teachers need to organise the little information they have according to

the purpose(s) or goal(s) of teaching, the content or subject matter to be taught to

learners and the methods of instruction and evaluation, teacher role(s), learner

role(s) and characteristics (Katzenmeyer & Moller, 1996). Unfortunately, many

teachers do not have sufficient PCK to do justice to the incorporation of IK in their

teaching.

5.2.5 Cultural diversity The cultural society in which learners are living plays a very important role in their

education. Henning (2008) explains culture as carriers of extremes of race and

ethnicity. It has also been referred to as the fine-tuned ways of doing and living that

are present in a child‟s earliest learning and communication experiences, and that

changes as the environment changes. Teachers revealed in the interviews that they

sometimes send learners home to seek information about indigenous knowledge. As

learners look for the information, they will come to realise that culture is transferred

from generation to generation. Nature is transformed into cultural goods, and man

cultivates his activities in work and creates a spiritual culture such as art, science,

morality and religion (Pretorius, 2000). The school, therefore, has the transfer

function with respect to the cultural heritage of society. So, the society is a linguistic

or verbal society in which learning takes place. Cultural bias invades professional

relationships negatively, and so teachers have to learn to work with “the other”

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(Whitelaw et al., 2008). Culture continually changes in respect of contents and form

of transfer, using new methodologies and technical aids.

The construction of science as a culture in which belongings are characterised by

the assimilation of cultural norms is consistent with socio-cultural learning theories

(Leve & Wenger, 1991). It was further suggested that the theories see cognition as

constructed by social, cultural and historical factors. This implies that culture plays

an important role in the education of learners. Therefore, science communities of

practice cannot be separated from social, cultural and historical elements of

teachers‟ identity.

This study made the researcher realise that the rich cultural diversity of the learners

(often with up to eight different cultural groups represented in a classroom) pose a

challenge to teachers regarding the introduction of IK in the classroom. It requires

experience, knowledge and skill to do justice to the IK of all the cultural groups

represented in a classroom. For many teachers this is an overwhelming task. The

question can be asked whether students in education are adequately prepared

during their undergraduate training for the cultural diversity they have to deal with as

teachers.

5.2.6 IK vocabulary to be used in the Life Sciences classroom There is often no clear scientific language to be used when integrating indigenous

knowledge in class. The scientific knowledge of indigenous cultures are less

demanding cognitively than Western science because it is based in experienced

reality, and associated with a vocabulary more accessible to students (Whitlock et

al., 2008). Learners come up with knowledge in their own language that cannot

always be translated to either of the non-African official languages, namely Afrikaans

or English. The same applies to teachers who do not have sufficient knowledge of

languages because some of the terms cannot be translated.

Another problem is teachers‟ lack of knowledge of the techniques used by scientists

in modern ethnobotany. Most teachers simply do not know about thin-layer

chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-

MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). For this reason, the

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discussion of IK and its application to science is often done without much academic

rigour. This relates to the following paragraph, namely teachers‟ lack of PCK.

5.2.7 Insufficient pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) to teach IK Teaching has historically been a profession which granted practitioners some degree

of power to make independent decisions or rules in the classroom. It is perhaps for

this reason that the official curriculum and policy documents do not prescribe specific

IK content for Life Sciences. The assumption is probably that teachers have the

necessary PCK to decide upon suitable content and teaching strategies to infuse

classroom teaching with IK. Unfortunately, the reality is that many South African

teachers have insufficient PCK to address indigenous knowledge in Life Sciences.

What‟s more, IK and ethnobotany are gaining in complexity as rigorous chemical and

pharmacological procedures are applied to test IK claims.

Some of the teachers‟ comments highlighted the need to assist teachers with the

development of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which is knowledge about

learning and learners, the principles of instruction, classroom management, and the

aims and purposes of education. PCK will help learners to construct and acquire

skills that can be used in their lives. No qualification can prepare one adequately as

professional qualifications and PCK are partially obtained at academic institutions

(Whitelaw, De Beer & Henning, 2009). Developing PCK in the field of IK and

ethnobotany is a continuous process due to new developments in this emerging

science. A bachelor‟s degree (which many South African teachers do not have) will

lay a solid foundation on which to build in-service training, and it will help teachers to

teach IK in a stimulating and authentic way. Learners‟ attitudes and perceptions will

be positively influenced by teaching strategies that involve interaction, and this will

help to give students a “feel” for science (Kahle, 1999).

During the observations, it was noticed that most of the participants looked nervous

and were unsure of what was supposed to be taught. Teachers were unclear of what

they were teaching. In most cases, old methods of teaching were used as they took

time to explain some of the concepts. Their lessons were also teacher-centred.

Some learners tried to participate, some were listening and some were unwilling to

take part. There was also some confusion among learners and other participants as

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they disagreed on many points. At the end of the lesson, most teachers tried to give

tasks to be performed at home to enable learners to get more clarity from parents

and community members.

The learners‟ portfolios showed that teachers give assignments to learners where

they need to research IK. Unfortunately, the learners received no feedback on the

findings they brought to the class. This suggests that the teachers do not really know

where to slot in IK, and that they find it difficult to assess learners‟ work.Learners‟

attitudes and perceptions will be positively influenced by teaching strategies that

involve interaction, and that give students a “feel” for science (Kahle, 1999).

The researcher referred to the three “knowledges” that resort under PCK. This study

has shown that teachers lack knowledge in all three these domains:

Teachers do not have sufficient content knowledge to adequately teach IK.

From the interviews, it is clear that most teachers have very little knowledge of

how our indigenous flora can be used for medicinal reasons. Most teachers

also do not have sufficient chemical and pharmacological content knowledge

to understand complicated techniques such as chromatography and organic

chemistry, or to know the different active ingredients in plants.

Teachers lack the pedagogical knowledge to use science-as-inquiry

approaches to teach IK. The qualitative data clearly indicated that most

teachers pay lip service to IK by only mentioning a few examples of IK in the

class.

Teachers also often lack contextual knowledge as they have limited (or no)

knowledge of the IK of different cultural groups in South Africa.

Loughran et al. (2008) suggest that there is not much literature on how teachers can

develop and acquire IK. The recommendations of this study will provide a possible

strategy for developing the PCK of Life Sciences teachers.

The professional development of teachers should also address PCK development.

Kriek (2005) developed a professional development model for science teachers in

South Africa. This model is known as the Holistic Professional Development (HPD)

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model. This helps to address teachers‟ content knowledge, teaching approaches and

professional attitudes. (The recommendations will elaborat on this).

5.2.8 Lack of support by the Department of Education The curriculum changes posed challenges to Life Sciences teachers as the how of

curriculum implementation should have received more attention. The NCS is a good

curriculum (so is the new CAPS to be introduced in the near future). However, the

challenge lies in assisting teachers to implement this curriculum. From the

interviews, it is clear that many teachers feel that there was not sufficient support

from the Department of Education. This causes stress among teachers. Subject

facilitators need to assist teachers with the implementation of IK, and many teachers

felt that they do not receive sufficient guidance from subject advisors. Also,

workshops focusing on enhancing teachers‟ PCK in terms of IK should be arranged.

The workshops that were offered focused more on policy and not on PCK. Teachers

deserve the support due to them in order to produce the desired results and

objectives of their teaching. Classroom support is often marginalised, and the focus

of the DoE is often more on the what (curriculum) and not the how (empowering

teachers to effectively implement the new curriculum).

There is little community of practice among teachers as some are unwilling to share

and help. At some schools, teachers are trying to help each other by forming

discussion groups in the morning and afternoon. In some regions in the country, the

cluster groups (an initiative of the DoE) are working effectively. However, in the area

where this research was conducted, the clusters are not working well. As a result,

teachers do not receive professional support from colleagues.

Time is wasted when teachers run around seeking information from colleagues,

parents and community members. When this happens, they cannot finish the

syllabus because they cannot teach content that they do not know. Professional

development of teachers should focus more on improving PCK, and less on the

curriculum jargon and policy that seem to have surfaced in in-service training.

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5.2.9 Belief systems Different belief systems in the teaching and learning of Life Sciences lead to

disagreement and sometimes also dysfunctional learning. For example:

Teachers have different views on the nature of science (NOS) and may well

ask whether there is space in the Life Sciences classroom for IK.

Fundamentalist religious beliefs can have a negative influence on the

teaching of IK in the classroom. Some (uninformed) people are sceptic about

traditional healing because they equate traditional healing with communication

with the ancestors. Christians, for example, may find this offensive.

In accordance with the Constitution, the South African Schools Act and rules made

by the appropriate authorities, the governing bodies of public schools may make their

facilities available for religious observances in the context of free and voluntary

association, provided that facilities are made available on an equitable basis. It was

revealed that some learners view educators who incorporate IK in their teaching in a

bad light (Appendix C, pp. 25, Participant 6). On the other hand, there are teachers

and learners who feel comfortable with indigenous knowledge.

Another point highlighted by some teachers is that the inclusion of IK does not call

for the promotion of pseudo-science or medical quackery. IK should encompass so-

called scientific methods, and should assist learners to develop critical thinking skills.

By including IK in their lessons, teachers will encourage learners to consider how

science-based issues affect their own lives and to reflect on the moral principles that

underpin science.

It was revealed in the interviews that most participants are bound by their religious

beliefs in their infusion of IK. Their belief system therefore discouraged them to

involve themselves in IK. Consequently, some of them are negative about infusing

their teaching with IK. The main reason for this is that most people do not want to

discuss anything – including indigenous knowledge – that makes them feel that their

religion is being compromised. The fact that most of the indigenous knowledge is not

recorded and that it is associated with things done by evil or ancestral spirits

aggravates the situation.

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Many belief systems do not allow people to visit traditional healers. Visiting

sangomas is against some people‟s beliefs since they do not want to come into

contact with so-called evil spirits. These people see traditional healers in the same

light as evil spirits. Any mention of traditional medicine or help from members of

other religions is met with the contempt.

5.2.10. How teachers view science and its role in society (Nature of Science) Some of the participants did not pitch for the pre-arranged interviews for this study.

Various reasons were given for their withdrawal: tiredness, an unsuitable time

schedule for the interview due to personal or family matters, unexpected

appointments, not being able to prepare for the interview, and irritation with IK

because of their belief systems. The interviews made it clear that teachers have a

very limited understanding of the NOS. For many teachers, science is static. It also

became clear to the researcher that many of teachers‟ misconceptions stem from

their lack of effort to keep abreast of developments in the Life Sciences.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

From the qualitative data, it is clear that very few of the lofty goals of the National

Curriculum Statement have materialised in the classroom, especially when it comes

to the inclusion of IK. This is a pity, because emerging sciences like ethnobotany has

the potential to assist the country in overcoming many of the problems it faces as an

emerging economy. Based on the qualitative data in particular, the following

recommendations are made:

5.3.1 Developing resource materials addressing IK Curriculum material for both teachers and learners should be developed, e.g.

textbooks that address IK. Such textbooks should cover content (examples of IK) as

well as modern techniques used in especially ethnobotany. Few Life Sciences

teachers are knowledgeable about modern techniques used in laboratories, such as

thin-layer chromatography (TLC), liquid chromatography coupled with mass

spectrometry (LC-MS) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The

Teacher Guides that supplement school textbooks (Learner Guides) should take

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cognisance of teachers‟ lack of PCK in teaching IK, and should suggest suitable

pedagogies that can be used. Books are useful in the teaching of learners as they

supply both teachers and learners with the desired information. The Department of

Education‟s website includes a Thutong portal (www.thutong.doe.gov.za) and this

portal can be used to disseminate information to teachers (also see Paragraph

5.3.2).

4.3.2 Support from the Department of Education Departmental officials (subject advisors) need to be in touch with teachers, motivate

both learners and teachers, and be willing to help at all times. Scaffolding is

necessary, and teachers‟ PCK development should be a primary aim of the DoE.

The Department of Education should not regard teachers are masters of all

trades. Instead, the Department needs to give guidance, especially in

developing PCK. There must be a direct link between schools and the

Department. The Department of Education also needs to address teacher

problems by frequently visiting schools.

The Department of Education needs to provide centres in every district or

circuit where teachers will find the resources they need. Teachers need to be

assisted in the matters that make their teaching difficult. The Department can

also make electronic materials available on its website for teachers to access

and to download. With the Gauteng On-Line initiative, even rural schools have

access to the internet, and this can be an effective way of making much-

needed resources available.

Subject facilitators should visit schools to offer assistance not to find fault. These

facilitators should assist teachers with their professional development.

4.3.3 Teachers’ agency, and professional development within communities of practice Teachers need to be empowered so that learners can benefit from the teachers‟

expert guidance. This study highlighted that there are very few top-level teachers

who know how to infuse IK in the Life Sciences classroom. These “keystone species”

(Petersen, 2011) must interact with teachers who have PCK developmental needs.

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Cluster meetings, which are called every now and then for moderation of

assessment, should be turned into fruitful and educative gatherings where PCK

development is emphasised. Subject advisors, as the coordinators of cluster

meetings, should address teachers‟ immediate needs – especially in terms of

teaching IK in a more sound way. Advantaged schools need to adopt disadvantaged

schools under mentorship of the Head of the Department. The “advantaged” schools,

keystone species or master teachers need to assist needy schools or inexperienced

teachers with support in terms of equipment, resources and teachers‟ PCK

development. Teachers need to form communities of practice. They need to form

clusters where they work together with the aim of helping each other.

5.3.4. Teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) This has been touched upon in Paragraph 5.3.3, but it warrants more attention.

Teachers need to upskill their pedagogical content, subject knowledge and

contextual knowledge in order to understand the following:

The importance of including IK in their teaching: The quantitative survey

showed that teachers value IK in the classroom. Yet, the qualitative study

indicated that teachers pay lip service to IK.

The complexity of the field: This requires knowledge of recent advances in

Life Sciences, such as biology, microbiology, biochemistry and pharmacology.

Workshops and in-service training on the inclusion of IK are necessary.

Unfortunately, many South African teachers are not in the habit of critically reflecting

on their own teaching practice. This needs to be addressed on both PRE-SET and

INSET level. Teachers can only develop their own PCK if they are critical and

reflective educational practitioners.

5.3.5 The curriculum must provide detailed IK content and skills In order to assist teachers in their professional growth and PCK development, we

need a curriculum that clearly states the envisaged outcomes or specific aims when

dealing with IK. Unfortunately, many science educators have a naïve understanding

of IK in Life Sciences. Hence, it is time for a knowledgeable task team to develop

guidelines in this regard.

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The next paragraph sets out the researcher‟s suggestions for the inclusion of IK in

Life Sciences. These suggestions will form part of an official report sent to the

Gauteng Department of Education.

5.4 CONTRIBUTION OF THIS STUDY Suggested curriculum for the inclusion of IK in Life Sciences in the FET band As mentioned earlier, the researcher formed part of a GDE-commissioned research

project. The quantitative data on which this study draws comes from the GDE

research. This contribution of this study lies in the guidelines and possible content

and skills that could be introduced in FET Life Sciences, centring on the four strands

or knowledge areas that were identified in the FET Life Sciences curriculum as well

as a fifth dimension which focuses on the Nature of Science. The following

suggested curriculum will form part of the official Research Report that will be

submitted to the GDE.

1. Life Sciences, IK and the Nature of Science

1.1. What is meant by indigenous knowledge? 1.2. Why is IK important in our daily lives? 1.3. The difference between IK and Western science 1.4. IK and the Nature of Science (NOS)

(a) Science is empirically based (b) Scientific knowledge is tentative, yet durable (c) Difference between observation and inference (d) Scientific knowledge is theory-laden, yet partly subjective (e) Imagination and creativity play a role in science (f) There is no single scientific method

1.5. IK and the scientific method

(a) Observations (b) Formulate a problem for investigation (c) Formulate a hypothesis to be tested (d) Design an investigation to collect data (e) Take relevant measurements

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(f) Interpret observations (g) Conclusions and reporting results

1.6. Careers in ethnobotany / ethno-veterinary science: e.g. biochemical, microbiological and pharmacology applications in modern ethnobotany and ethno-veterinary science

2. Structure and control in processes of basic life systems

2.1. Life systems and diseases: indigenous knowledge systems offer a holistic perspective

2.2. Drug absorption studies using animal tissues in the laboratory 2.3. The Nagoya Protocol on access to genetic resources and the fair and

equitable sharing of benefits arising from their utilisation to the convention on biological diversity (CBD-COP 10)

3. Tissues, cells and molecular studies

3.1. Anti-microbial activity of indigenous medicinal plants 3.2. How bio-assays work 3.3. The use of Escherichia coli in studies on medicinal plants that can treat

diarrhoea; the difference between in vitro and in vivo studies 3.4. IK on fermentation processes (e.g. traditional beer making, marula

(Sclerocarya birrea) fruit beer, cereals) 3.5. The antioxidant activity of plant extracts 3.6. Plant active ingredients and their influence on metabolism: e.g. plants

claimed to help in the treatment of diabetes, tests on the influence of α-amylase

4. Diversity, change and continuity

4.1. Plant studies

4.1.1. Ethnobotany as an emerging science 4.1.2. How people use plants as sources of food, and for arts and crafts

(a) Local examples of food plants (e.g. uphoku (isiZulu); mpogo (Sepedi); mojolothi (Ndebele); mufhoho (Tshivenda)

(b) Case studies: rooibos (Aspalathus linearis); sorghum (Sorghum bicolour)

(c) Plants used to make mats and baskets (d) Plants used for cosmetics, e.g. Helinium integrifolius

(ubhubhubhu or mampehlele) used for making soap;

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Cassipourea malosana (umemezi in isiZulu) used as a face mask.

4.1.3. Medicinal plant use and traditional healing in South Africa

(a) Local examples of indigenous plants used for medicinal reasons (e.g. in Limpopo, the use of the baobab for fever and diarrhoea)

(b) Case studies, also focusing on scientific evidence and clinical tests for medicinal claims. An example from the following: Sutherlandia frutescens (emphasis on its use to treat diabetes); Hoodia gordonii (focus on media hype regarding its use as an appetite suppressant, and the issue of intellectual property rights); Artemisia afra (wilde-als); medicinal plants used for the treatment of sexually transmitted infections; Sceletium tortuosum (Mesembryanthemaceae) as a treatment for central nervous system related disorders

(c) The publication of the African Herbal Pharmacopoeia (AfrHP), and regulating traditional healing in South Africa

(d) Medicinal plants and poisoning: the fine line between therapeutic and lethal doses.

4.1.4. The rapid appraisal method of gathering data, and the matrix

method, Species Popularity Index (SPI) and Ethnobotanical Knowledge Index (EKI)

4.1.5. Chromatography techniques (shoestring-science, using paper chromatography)

4.1.6. Biochemical and pharmacological testing of medicinal IK claims (e.g. high-performance liquid chromatography; mass spectrometry – briefly mention principles; no detail required)

4.1.7. Herbarium voucher specimens and identifying plants (introduction to taxonomic keys)

4.1.8. Project: Investigating IK claims in my community (learners to interview knowledgeable people in the community; collecting plant specimens for herbarium voucher specimens; identification of plants; literature search to determine whether clinical studies were done to test efficacy; writing a report (or doing a poster).

4.2. Animal studies

4.2.1. IK related to animal diseases 4.2.2. Livestock nutrition (sustainable production of livestock involves

efficient utilisation of locally available resources) 4.2.3. Ethno-veterinary practices used by rural farmers to influence

reproduction of livestock

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5. Environmental studies

5.1. The Khoi-San people: an example of sustainable living 5.2. Sustainable harvest of natural resources 5.3. Models for the development of indigenous plants as industrial crops 5.4. Empowering local communities through commercialising indigenous

plants 5.5. “Green” science: examples of green innovations, e.g. BP1, a novel

mosquito repellent from Lippia javanica, developed by the CSIR and local people of Giyani.

5.5. LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY

The study was conducted in Limpopo, and had a relatively small sample.

Consequently, the findings cannot be generalised. Similar research needs to be

undertaken elsewhere in the country in order to compare the results. (Although a

relatively large sample of teachers responded to the questionnaire, a limited number

of participants took part in the qualitative study. However, given the

phenomenological stance of the study, this is acceptable.)

As interviews were done during the school break, some teachers wanted to go for

tea or even to get something to eat. Schools normally use break time for their

briefing meetings and announcements, so some teachers were in a hurry to attend

such gatherings. In some cases, this did not warrant the ideal conditions to obtain

rich data.

Teachers were not comfortable with the visit as they thought that the study was done

to expose problems or weaknesses in their teaching, despite the fact that the

researcher briefed them on the rationale for the study.

One of the factors that hindered the study was the teachers‟ strike, which took nearly

a month. After the strike, teachers had to catch up with their classroom teaching, and

this ripple effect made it difficult to arrange the interviews. In retrospect, the researcher wishes that the nature of science (NOS)

questionnaire/instrument could have been administered to determine how teachers

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view the nature of science. This item shows that there are massive differences in

teachers‟ perceptions of the NOS. However, this study already triangulates from a

significant amount of quantitative and qualitative data, and for a master‟s degree the

focus cannot be too broad.

The researcher is a teacher with a significant amount of school responsibilities.

Hence, a lack of time also had its limiting effect on the quality of the study. The

researcher had to do the study part-time, and did not have the luxury of study leave

to engage more with issues emerging from the study. The researcher also needs to

acknowledge the fact that, as a third-language English speaker, it was at times

challenging to communicate findings, especially in terms of the fine nuances in some

of the African languages.

5.6 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES

The incorporation of IK in the Life Sciences classroom is a challenge which should

be addressed systemically. Higher Education Institutions (universities), the

Department of Education, curriculum developers and the teacher unions should all

apply their attention to the incorporation of IK in the curriculum. Teamwork leads to

success. In her book Life interrupted, the scoop on being a young mom, Tricia Goyer

shared this quote from an anonymous person: “When you dream alone, your eyes

shut, asleep, that dream is an illusion. But when we dream together, sharing the

same dream, awake and with your eyes wide open, then that dream becomes a

reality!”

Of crucial importance is setting standards for teaching IK in Life Sciences. As

highlighted in this dissertation, an emerging field like ethnobotany requires

specialised knowledge and skills. However, the lack of guidance from official

curriculum documents makes it very difficult to implement a professional

development programme for teachers. A PhD candidate now needs to undertake

design-based research on an intervention programme where teachers are assisted

in their PCK development, and where transfer (or lack thereof) is monitored in the

classroom.

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The researcher has already drawn attention to the relatively small sample. Similar

research in other parts of the country is also needed.

From informal discussions with colleagues in faculties of education at South African

universities, it seems as if IK does not receive much attention in teacher education

(BEd degrees). This can be a worthwhile focus for an MEd study.

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172

APPENDIX A: Participant consent form Dear Participant

Thank you for considering being part of our research project. We feel honoured to

have you as part of us, and we value your contribution more than the words can

describe. The aim of the research is to find answers to the following:

How much teachers know about indigenous knowledge.

How they plan to teach indigenous knowledge in Natural sciences or the life

sciences, and if they come across any problems.

Which impediments stand between the teachers and the teaching of

indigenous knowledge

If they have already been including indigenous knowledge in their teaching,

and if they came across any problems.

What these problems are and what it is that could be done to remedy them.

The role this course can play in trying to help the teachers to understand

indigenous knowledge or to make better their teaching of indigenous

knowledge.

Volunteering participants will be asked to fill out a questionnaire at the beginning of

the course and to participate in a focus group interview at the end of the course. All

participants will be identified in the research by a pseudonym. At no stage will the

actual names of the participants be mentioned in the research reports.

I will also keep in touch with the participants for the duration of the course. Once

again, participation is voluntary.

Agreement to participate in research project

I …………………………………………………agree to participate in this study. I am

aware that I can withdraw at any stage.

Signed at……………………………..On……………………..Date………………….

173

APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW QUESTIONNAIRE

Surname:…………………………………………………

First name(s):…………………………………………….

Pseudonym (for the purpose of the

course)…………………………………………………….

Date……………………………………………………….

1. What do you understand under the term Indigenous Knowledge?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

2. How does Indigenous Knowledge differ from “western science”?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………….......

3. What change do you think can be brought about by the infusion of Indigenous

Knowledge in the teaching of Life Science?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

4. Why should Indigenous Knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences

classroom?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

5. Could you substantiate your response to the previous question ?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

174

6. How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including

indigenous knowledge in your teaching ?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................

7. How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of IK?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………

8. Why is it important to include IK in the curriculum?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................

9. Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in

your teaching.

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

................................................................................................................

10. How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter

them in your inclusion of IK?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................

11. Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………

12.What relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

..................

13. How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

175

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………

14. What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion

of indigenous knowledge in your teaching ?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................

15. How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………

16. What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK

in Life Science education?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

..................................................................................................................

17. How frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents in the community to address

IK in your classroom?

…………………………………………………..………….…………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………

18. What type of activities do you envisage for your learners pertaining to indigenous

knowledge?

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

..................

................................................................................................

19.What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge?

176

.......................................................................................................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

..................

20. How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in

incorporating IK?

.......................................................................................................................................

.........................................................

.......................................................................................................................................

.........................................................

Let me take this opportunity to extend a word of gratitude to all the participants for

their precious time and other resources they have invested in this work. Your efforts

won‟t go unnoticed. Anyone who would like to participate in these activities can feel

free to chat to me at any time during the course. Let me further remind the

participants that their participation in this activity remains voluntary.

Yours truly,

Melida Modiane.

177

APENDIX C: TRANSCRIPT OFINTERVIEW WITH EDUCATORS

1. PARTICIPANT As part of my research I visited a school in the Khujwane area on the 10th August to

make interviews with a Life Sciences educator teaching grade 10-12.

Interviewer: Good afternoon, sir.

Interviewee: Good afternoon, mam.

Interviewer: Can you tell me about your experiences in your learning area as an educator?

Interviewee: There are changes in our education system that leads to the confusion and

frustration on us. For instance, we are trained in an old method of teaching and they

brought us OBE which was followed by NCS. It is difficult for us to apply them in

class. When doing the NCS there are some outcomes that we need to accomplish

with the inclusion or infusion of indigenous knowledge, but it is difficult because of

the lack of material, different cultures from different communities and our own

experiences as educators. Each culture has got its own indigenous knowledge and

the teacher with his or her own. Learners come up with their unproven knowledge

and the teacher with his. The two do not match and we do not know whose to

consider.

Interviewer: How could you explain indigenous knowledge if you were to do it in class?

Interviewee: Mmm… , this is the knowledge inherited from our forefathers and was transmitted

from generation to generation. Each child inherited is from the parents who got it

from their parents. This type of knowledge is from long ago known by elders.

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Interviewer: Thank you, how does indigenous knowledge differ from ``western knowledge``?

Interviewee: I think mmm…, indigenous knowledge is known from home. It is gathered from the

community in different cultures and is learned through experiences while western

science is learned from school. Western science is normally proven scientifically and

is also positivist and materialist in contrast with indigenous knowledge which is

normally spiritual.

Interviewer: Thank you. What changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of

indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Science?

Interviewee: I think this will make learners to love science and connect them with their knowledge

from home. Most of them cannot really connect science with their prior knowledge

and do not know that they can work together. They perceive science and their prior

knowledge as entirely two separate entities.

Interviewer: Okay, why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences

classroom?

Interviewee: Because learners need to connect the knowledge from home with the one from

school. Their knowledge is equally important in comparison to the one they receive

at school. The fact that he does not come to school as an empty vessel, his

knowledge needs to form a connection between school and home.

Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question?

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Interviewee: Learners need to know where they come from, i.e. they should be able to know their

roots before they can be able to know where they are going. Their knowledge is

important for their future.

Interviewer: Thank you. How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like

including indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: According to our syllabus, it is on rare occasions. At times one has to create his

activity but you will find that they come up with different responses in such a way that

as a teacher it is difficult to reach the objective or even the outcome.

Interviewer How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of indigenous

knowledge?

Interviewee: Mmm …I think they will appreciate it because it connects them with their knowledge

from home. It takes them to their roots and will realize the importance of their culture.

Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum?

Interviewer: Because, eeeh…mmm…it will connect learner‟s knowledge with knowledge science

at school. This will make learners feel proud of their culture and tradition.

Interviewer: Thank you sir, could you explain the problems you as an educator normally come

across with the infusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching.

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Interviewee: Eish, eh, some of the things cannot be proven scientifically and do not have a living

evidence. Some cannot be brought to class so that they can be done practically or

even shown to learners when the teacher needs to give an explanation. It is difficult

to convince them as they are from different cultures. Being different, we cannot all be

convinced by one‟s experience, so this gives a teacher tough work.

Interviewer: This means, it makes your work difficult and give you problems?

Interviewee: Yes, of cause.

Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in

your inclusion of indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Eee, I normally give them assignments or research so that they can go and ask their

elders and some community members and come up with the information. Most of the

community members like it when being asked questions by learners and enjoy it

because they normally come and tell us to give them more work so that they can

share their knowledge with us.

Interviewer: Thank you. Where can you obtain further information about this indigenous

knowledge if you want to know more about it?

Interviewee: As I have already said, members from the community help us with the information.

Most of the information is obtained from the cultural villages where the learners live.

At times the school organizes trips to the African museums where they can get lots

of information to supplement the information they already got. Some research from

the internet, not forgetting to ask the elderly from the community. There are some

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radio and television programs that highlight very strategic topics that deal with

indigenous people of this country. Learners start to have a new dimension from

which to view life and leadership and community.

Interviewer: What relevance does indigenous knowledge have to Life Sciences today?

Interviewee: Okay, I think it helps to make learners aware of the scientific methods and ideas that

were used in the past that they don‟t differ from the ones they learn from class. The

aim here should not be misconstrued to be that of aligning our science to the

European science. The two will remain somewhat parallel, i.e. going in the same

direction but not necessarily being the same. Learners become more interested to

know about their scientific knowledge together with their science.

Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Learners are called individually and politely talk to them. If the problem persists, I call

upon colleagues, head of department or even the principal to address them. At times

I even invite elders or even knowledgeable people to come and address them.

Interviewer: What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of

indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Eeh…., normally we are supported by our colleagues and at times some moral

regeneration movements if ever they have visited us.

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Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: I normally introduce it at the beginning of the lesson as I want to connect them with

their prior knowledge or at the end of the lesson so that they can go and investigate

or inquire more.

Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to

indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: I normally give them research so that they can explore more about the topic we were

discussing. They can also be given investigation to seek more knowledge or are

given work in the form of practicals.

Interviewer: How frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address

indigenous knowledge in your classroom?

Interviewee: Inviting people occurs rarely and after a long period as it takes time. This is normally

done by the principal through the help of the departmental officials.

Interviewer: Thank you, what are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous

knowledge?

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Interviewee: They were divided as their belief systems differ from each other. Most of them show

to have no interest and dislike it. Their feeling could be heard when I normally seek

help from them or send learners to ask information.

Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in

incorporating indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: They can be invited to the forums, and be encouraged to form clusters where they

can be motivated and help each other. In the forums more knowledgeable people

could be invited to come and share the knowledge with them. The department

should also be involved by sending helpers, I think this can help us a lot and more

improvement can be done.

Interviewer: Thank you, sir for your precious time you have invested in this work. Your efforts

won‟t go unnoticed. If you would like to participate once more in this activities feel

free to chat to me at any time during the course. My arms are always open for the

comments and additions at any time. Thank you once more.

2. PARTICIPANT. The researcher visited a school in the Thabina area on the 12th August 2010 to

make interviews with a Life Sciences educator.

Interviewer: Good afternoon, mam.

Interviewee: Good afternoon , mam.

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Interviewer: As a Life Sciences educator, can you share with me your experiences in your

learning area?

Interviewee: Eish, mmm… teaching Life Sciences is very much challenging, especially that you

teach learners from different cultures and communities. As a teacher you cannot

cover all their cultures, of which some you do not know. When you emphasize

knowledge from one cultural group, others feel belittled while others feel excluded. At

times you do not get the necessary or enough information or material you want teach

learners. Learners are from different cultures and environment and it is difficult to

know and cater for their different cultural backgrounds in class. Our policy states

clearly that we must include their indigenous knowledge in class, but it is difficult

because as an educator I do not know them all. it is only few that I am acquainted

with.

Interviewer: Okay, you said something about indigenous knowledge, how can you explain this

term if you where to do it in class?

Interviewee: Eeh …., indigenous knowledge is a knowledge that is spontaneous and informal

because it occurs naturally where people need not go to school to acquire it. The

knowledge is gained from home and all over the place in which a person is living. I

think there is no specific time and method to acquire it as it is informal. When a child

goes to school he or she goes there having it already as it is acquired through ages.

Interviewer: Thank you mam, how does indigenous knowledge differ from ``western

knowledge``?

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Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is acquired naturally without schooling and western science is

acquired through formal education wherein scientific principles are applied to have

knowledge of something. Mmm…. Ya! That is all.

Interviewer: What change do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous

knowledge in the teaching of Life Science?

Interviewee: I think , the infusion can make learners love and be interested in Life Sciences

although some do not like indigenous knowledge. Even if you give them work to

complete or investigate, few of them seem to be reluctant to work or just leave it. Our

traditional healers will have a wide and broad chance of imparting the knowledge of

plants and animals to our learners while taking part in the teaching process.

Interviewer: Thank you, could you explain the problems you as an educator come across with the

infusion of IK in your teaching?

Interviewee: Mmmm…as an educator I‟m from my community and cultural group, while learners

also from their group. This makes me not to be sure of what I am teaching because

the two do not match. So we come up with different things altogether. At times there

is no enough information about things to be taught so you will have to go around,

seeking people to help you and may not get them. Members of the community will

promise to come and disappoint you at the very last minute. Other learners may

have a negative attitude towards IK and not willing to work.

Interviewer: Thank you, how do you manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them

in your inclusion if IK?

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Interviewee: I normally invite colleagues and heads of department.

Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: It is difficult to get the information because most of the parents and elders do not

even respond if you invite them or seek help. They would normally promise you but

do not respond, especially the departmental officials. Other teachers are willing but

the information is not enough.

Interviewer: Thank you. What relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today?

Interviewee: To me it shows no relevance as learners do not like it and show no interest in the

work. It will only help or benefit those from rural areas or a particular cultural group.

Only few will benefit from it.

Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: At times I normally treat them as if they do not exist and continue with the work.

Some of the barriers are beyond our control and there is nothing we can do to

address them. Departmental officials are normally called to intervene even though

the response is slim. Willing parents from the community as members are very much

supportive and visit the school even if not invited. They show love and support at

times.

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Interviewer: Thank you mam, eeh.., what support structures exist in case of problems emanating

from the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Knowledgeable parents in the community such as traditional leaders together with

traditional healers will give a helping hand. If it is the problem of the curriculum, I will

also invite curriculum advisors to help. Even those who specialize in IK from the

universities will be contacted. This will depend on the type of the problem.

Interviewer: Thank you, now how would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee When teaching about plants and their uses I will invite traditional people, especially

the traditional healers to come and share the knowledge with us or even to arouse

learners‟ interest. I think this will make them to investigate more from their families at

home.

Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in

the Life Sciences education?

Interviewee: Mmh....I think this will change learners‟ perception they have on indigenous

knowledge and make them love the learning area. Even learners from urban areas

will have a chance to be eager to know more and be exposed to many things

pertaining to IK.

Interviewer: Thank you. How frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents in the community to

address IK related issues in your classroom?

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Interviewee: Sometimes when I have a challenge in dealing with diseases and their cure, I have

to consult knowledgeable parents from the community. Some normally do not

respond to our invitation as I have already said and they frustrate us.

Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage for your learners pertaining to indigenous

knowledge?

Interviewee: I normally give learners a research on the topic to be conduct about the portion to be

studied and an investigation to perform.

Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Most of them really give me a very negative attitude towards IK by not even

attending to me while others say it is against their religious beliefs. It is only few who

seem to be interested in it. This makes learners also to loose interest and become

reluctant in doing the work.

Interviewer: Thank you, how do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in

incorporating IK?

Interviewee: I think of engaging them by inviting them to our discussion and meetings where in

knowledgeable people will be invited. Those who are not willing to go I will ask those

people to come to my school to share the knowledge. Parents from the community

my also be invited to the meetings to give motivating speech. The department can

also give a helping hand by supplying teachers with more information and

magazines that will help.

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Interviewer: Let me take this opportunity to thank you for your wonderful time and effort you took

to help me in my research. I really appreciated it and my God bless you. Once more

feel free to contact me if ever you need to give me advice or information concerning

the research.

Interviewee: Thank you. I feel honored to be part of the research or to give an input. Feel free to

come for more information. And let it not be for the last time.

3. PARTICIPANT On the 16th August I visited a school in the Shiluvane area for the continuation of my

research project and the interviews with the Life Science educator teaching grade

10-12.

Interviewer: Good day mam.

Interviewee: Good day mam.

Interviewer: As we know that the National Curriculum Statement , i.e. NCS states clearly that the

indigenous knowledge be incorporated in the Life Science classroom.

Mam, can you please share with me your experiences as a teacher in your learning

area, i.e. Life Sciences educator?

Interviewee: Yes mam. My experience is that teaching has brought confusion and frustration in

trying to link it with the knowledge indoctrinated or the knowledge that we got in our

teaching. I overcame challenges that come my way especially in class where I am

supposed to teach some of the things that I as a teacher do not even understand.

This brought confusion and frustration in trying to link the information I accumulated

over past years and the newly formed one.

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Interviewer: What do you understand under the term indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge applied in a given territory in different

cultures. It normally occurs verbally or orally and being passed on from generation to

generation.

Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differ from `western science`?

Interviewee: The two cannot be separated because the knowledge that one have can be linked

with the knowledge that can be acquired in everyday life. Western science favors

analytical and reductive method as opposed to the mere intuitive and holistic view

often found in traditional knowledge. It is based on academic and literature while

indigenous knowledge is passed on orally from generations.

Interviewer: Thank you, what changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of

indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences?

Interviewee: As I have already said that indigenous knowledge cannot be separated from western

science, according to me there will be no change. Our learners do not want to learn,

so how can they be interested as most of them are feeling somehow about the IK.

Only few can.

Interviewer: So, why should this indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life

Sciences class?

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Interviewee: Because it will link what the learner‟s knowledge they already knows and the

knowledge acquired through learning in class. The content taught needs to be linked

with the learner‟s prior knowledge as it forms the basis of his or her education. It is

always important to the teacher to consider the learners‟ knowledge. In the past we

teachers used to ignore what the learner knew from home.

Interviewer: Thank you mam, could you substantiate your response to the previous question?

Just elaborate on what you have said.

Interviewee: Learning is a continuous process that stars from home. Parents at home educate

learners about their cultural activities, i.e. about everything that happens within their

surrounding area and home. This education needs to be linked with the one they

receive at school. The child‟s education stars at home and this needs to be

supplemented at school, so the two need to be linked by the teacher in order to form

one whole thing.

Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: I will start by giving learners research or project to gather information so that we can

compile and make it one and apply it in class. Where the information cannot be

reached I will make a point that I ask my colleagues. The IK can be applied at the

beginning or at the end of the lesson if possible.

Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like

including indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

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Interviewee: On several occasions when certain parts of the content prompt or force us to relate

to this indigenous knowledge to make learners understand what we will be teaching,

for example when trying to find out how traditional doctors work, pharmacists and

inyangas or herbalists mixing herbs differently. This can be done when treating

different diseases and their cue in class.

Interviewer: How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of IK?

Interviewee: For the first time they were timid and shocked but their shock made them aware of

the IK and were able to understand that it is necessary for their lives as it has been

applied all along. I think they will react positively provided sufficient information is

supplied to convince them, but at times it could be confusing to those who know

nothing about a certain cultures. It is not all the learners who like indigenous

knowledge because of their religious beliefs. Learners normally don‟t believe that

some of these things ever existed and they do not use them at home.

Interviewer: Why is it important to include IK in the curriculum?

Interviewee: mmm.. I can say yes and no and no. Yes, because it brings back ubuntu whereby

people will be proud of their cultures. No because educators must first be trained in

order to be given more information. Most of us are just working but we don‟t know

the how part of infusing this knowledge. We were not given more training so what do

they expect from us? The government is just used to impose things onto us whereas

they themselves can‟t do them. They are expecting too much from us.

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Interviewer: Thank you, could you explain the problems you as an educator come across with the

infusion of IK in your teaching?

Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge brought fear to us as educators because we don‟t know how

to approach it as we were never given courses or trained about it. We are just

striving to understand it and feel that it is a challenge to us as we are having different

belief systems. As teachers we are divided where some of us just brush it aside and

continue with the other part of the syllabus.

Interviewer: Thank you, mmm…how do you normally manage to resolve problems if ever you

encounter them in your inclusion of IK?

Interviewee: I normally ask colleagues to help me if it is class related or subject content related. It

is difficult to get information from elderly people as it is very rare to find them around.

It takes time to make arrangement and is time wasting. If the problem can be taken

to the departmental officials they won‟t even respond. We are just going on our own.

Interviewer: Okay, where can you obtain further information about this indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: We normally look around for elderly people and traditional doctors because they

are very rich in information.. I give learner a research project to go and dig

information from their parents and people around them, but sometimes you will find

different meanings that confuse us even worse although little information can be

useful and be relevant to what we are supposed to teach.

Interviewer what relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today?

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Interviewee: I cannot say much as I have already said that to some it is very relevant because

they are interested in their tradition. In our learning area, it helps to connect

information from home to the one from school.

Interviewer: Thank you, mmm…how do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing

indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Okay, I normally ask colleagues to help me if it is relevant to what I am busy with. If it

is irrelevant I normally don‟t entertain worthless arguments.

Interviewer: What support structures exist incase of problems emanating from the inclusion of

indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Yah , there are no support structures, but we normally invite people from outside in

the form of old people or knowledgeable people. Some can be able to make a turn or

respond while others disappoint us.

Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community

to address IK in your classroom?

Interviewee: Normally if I were to introduce a new lesson or topic or if I come along difficult

situations were in I cannot explain some of the things.

Interviewer: Okay, what are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of

IK in the LS teaching?

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Interviewee: I think parents will have access in the education of their children because they will be

participating by giving them information. The indigenous knowledge will serve as a

connection between the school and home. Teachers will be able to communicate

with parents and this will form a link in between. The scientific principles that are

applied at school will help them to improve their lives. Learners will be able to see

and understand the importance of science and apply it in their everyday life. I think

this will be able to turn them into scientists.

Interviewer: Okay, what type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners

pertaining to indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: They are normally given research projects and assignments to complete. At times

they are urged to make models, planting and conserving indigenous trees, making

horticulture and performing experiments were possible.

Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: They are also divided because of their beliefs. Most of them are against it because

they are struggling with the infusion in class. They do not just want it and think it

takes people back.

Interviewer: Now, how do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in

incorporating IK?

Interviewee: I think of organizing regular meetings wherein educators can be able to discuss

topics to be treated in class and share information in order to help others. In our

schools we may form discussion groups in the learning area where we can also help

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one another. Mm….clusters together with forums can be formed for such

discussions.

Interviewer: Let me take this opportunity to thank you for your contribution to this research. I

really appreciate your input. Thank you.

Interviewee: Pleasure.

4. PARTICIPANT Lebitso High School in the Shiluvane are was also visited as part of the research on

17th August 2010 to interview a participant teaching both grade 11 and 12 at the

institution.

Interviewer: Good day mam.

Interviewee: Good day mam.

Interviewer: Our National Curriculum Statement ( NCS) Policy states clearly that the indigenous

knowledge be incorporated in the teaching of Life Sciences classroom.

Can you share with me your experiences as an educator in the Life Sciences

classroom?

Interviewee: My experiences as an educator is that our education system is now westernized and

it is difficult for us to implement indigenous knowledge. Modern technology and other

related equipments make us not to put more emphasis on such knowledge. Even our

textbooks say little about it while we are expected to incorporate it in class. Mmm…it

is very difficult for me to teach when I think of this knowledge because it hinder my

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progress as I will be running around looking for people who can give clarity, ideas

and assistance some of the topics.

Interviewer: How would you explain indigenous knowledge if you were to do it in class?

Interviewee: This can be regarded as a knowledge based on what a person knows by nature or

since birth. The knowledge normally starts at home by parents and grannies who

have adopted it from their parents. Most of this knowledge is transmitted orally, so

how can we be sure of them? Heh? Mostly some cannot be scientifically proven and

are not worth being taken to class. For instance we normally hear a lot about the

Modjadji people who are well known about rain making but no one will ever tell you

what do the exactly doing to make rain. This is the secret that is only known by them

only. I think even the community can not tell about the processes over there. It is the

secret which is known by the royalties only. This is the science that is needed in the

Life Sciences and other science related class. The knowledge is worth knowing to

learners. Why do people hide this valuable which is rich for all the learners?

Interviewer: Okay, how does IK differ from `western science`?

Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is home based and does not require one to make

experiments or to prove the findings. It is just what you have learned from home and

the surrounding area in which you live and from the community. This knowledge is

subjective. Western science is based on academic and literature. It is normally not

influenced by your own feeling or opinions (objective) and analytic, i.e. using

methods that help you examine your facts or assumptions carefully.

Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

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Interviewee: I normally include it at the beginning of the lesson maybe to arouse learner‟s interest

and to link my lessons so that they can grasp clearly what I want to teach them. I

only use what I know and ask them to relate to what I have started. mmh…., this is

the only plan I can make so that normal proceedings can continue.

Interviewer: Thank you, what type of activities do you envisage for your learners pertaining to

indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: I normally request my learners to collect indigenous fruits from home and come up

with their methods of catching and preparing Mopani worms. This is the time where

one will separate those who are interested from the ones who are not. Make them all

come up with indigenous objects in which science can be applied. Such activities

make them to work because everybody will be looking for marks.

Interviewer: Why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences

classroom?

Interviewee: Mmh …I think it forms connection between home and school. It serves as a bridge

over which learners cross to the better side of life. It helps them to prepare for their

future career using scientific methods gained at school.

Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question?

Interviewee: Life science is all about science and needs to be appreciated as it forms our daily

activities. So, by including IK we will be shaping the future of our learners and

making them future scientists. The connection will be made tighter than before.

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Interviewer: Why is it important to include IK in the curriculum?

Interviewee: I think maybe to cater for all the cultures in the learning area or to make learners to

feel their culture being recognized and cherished.

Interviewer: How frequently do you come across situations in which you feel like including

indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: When teaching about flue-virus and its treatment. Indigenously there are other

remedies to treat flue besides using modern treatment. We were taught to use lemon

mixed with mint as a medicine and it won‟t last for two to three days. When your

tooth decay we use certain roots cooked to subside the pain. Our parents are

herbalists and can help us to mix all those herbs but there is a great danger that

overdose will lead to death.

Interviewer: Okay, what changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of IK in the

teaching of Life Sciences?

Interviewee: Mmm…this will make them change their negetive attitude and have that love of

science and see things differently. I think they will start thinking scientifically while at

the same time recruiting others to their learning area. Maybe they can realize that

Life Science is our everyday life.

Interviewer: Thank you, what are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the

inclusion of IK in the LS education?

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Interviewee: This will make learners future scientists and be able to think scientifically. I think they

will be able to use scientific methods they acquired at school to produce more

products produced at home. They will also help and encourage their parents to use

scientific methods in the making of their products. Everybody in the surrounding area

will start thinking scientifically.

Interviewer: How do you think your learners will react to the inclusion of this IK?

Interviewee: My learners are very negative as they have already showed no interest in such

knowledge. Their response to certain questions did show that they dislike it. As I

normally give them some research to ask for more information from their parents,

they proved that even some of their parents show lack of interest by the way they

respond.

Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your

teaching.

Interviewee: We have got problem of not having enough material concerning IK. Teachers do not

have places of reference or at times do not get necessary material to use in class.

As I have already said that this type of knowledge is verbally transmitted, there is no

where one can get the proof of a solution. Everybody comes up with his or her own

statement. This leads us to the misconceptions and misrepresentations about

indigenous knowledge.

Interviewer: Thank you, how do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you

encounter them in your inclusion of IK?

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Interviewee: This normally prompts me to have a class discussion about the topic and send

learners to go and explore more in order to bring information to class. At times I

move around the village seeking help from colleagues and traditional leaders.

Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about IK?

Interviewee: Eeh …I normally gather information from parents even though some part is not

reliable. Elderly people from the community and other traditional healers give

information as required. There is also hidden information that they don‟t want to give

to us but one can hear from those who used to visit them to seek help. There is this

issue of classified information, i.e. information that can only be given to a particular

class of people. It is a taboo, for instance to discuss any topic related to circumcision

with anybody who has never been there, be it a male or female. This can be valuable

to us if given information because it forms part of our learning area.

Interviewer: Thank you, how do you handle barriers that come your way when teaching or

introducing IK in class?

Interviewee: Eish …it is difficult to handle but you just invite other teachers to give help. Most of

them have a negative attitude towards IK as they take it to be outdated and barbaric.

Maybe it is because of their religion. To some people, anything that is not European

is not just worth their time.

Interviewer: How do you frequently invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address

IK in your classroom?

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Interviewee: These people are invited if there is a need to do so, like for instance if you have to

deal with a difficult topic or to introduce a new topic to the learners.

Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: As I have already said they are divided. Some are negative while others are positive

because of their religious beliefs. The positive ones really give support and help with

the information.

Interviewer: And how do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area?

I think we will have to form a cluster from our circuit with the help of Departmental

officials wherein we discuss certain topics and help each other. This can help us to

gather more information and be sure of what we are teaching in class. Yah, from

there we can move from school to school to give help. By so doing we cam form a

very strong team that interacts with each other.

Interviewer Eeh….mam, let me take this opportunity to thank you for the patience and effort you

have put in my research. If you would like to give more information for the research

feel free to chat to me during the course. Thank you once more.

5. PARTICIPANT As part of my research I visited a School also in the Shiluvane area on the 19th

August 2010 to make interviews with the Life Science educator who is teaching

grade 11 and 12.

Interviewer: Good day sir.

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Interviewee: Good day mam.

Interviewer: Life Sciences is an interesting learning area wherein one as a teacher can gain more

experience in teaching it. Can you share with me your experiences as a Life Science

educator?

Interviewee: As a Life Science educator I have overcome more experiences that I cannot explain

them all. Some are the changes that are brought about by the National Curriculum

Statement (NCS) that reduces the love of LS to me. The change in the learning area

makes me feel less comfortable in my teaching career because we are not trained to

do what the Department is expecting us to do. They expected more than we

anticipated and make us even to forget the content that we are supposed to teach.

For instance, they have introduced indigenous knowledge and evolution as part to be

taught to learners but the how part or where to get the information we do not know.

Heh …how can we teach whereas we are not sure of what we are teaching?

Mmmh…what do they expect from us? It makes teaching difficult because mostly it

is not written in the books. Teachers have got nowhere to refer.

Interviewer: Thank you. What is this indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Well, I do take it to be the knowledge that is local to a particular people. Each group

of people or culture have its own indigenous knowledge. This knowledge I can say

explains the way the forefathers used to perform in order to live and is transmitted

through the ages from generation to generation. I think it is better known by the

elders because they know well about it.

Interviewer: Okay, how does indigenous knowledge differ from `western science`?

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Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is internalized, verbally transmitted, culturally based, i.e. not

refined, mmmh…unscientific and normally linked with the belief system.

Interviewer: Thank you. How would you include this knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: By giving its background and history to the learners before teaching, trying to clarify

the concept from different perspective (converge) and develop a different way of

solving the particular problem (divergent) of various thinking. This will help learners

to arouse their interest and understand what will be taught that particular moment or

day.

Interviewer: What changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous

knowledge in the teaching of Life Science?

Interviewee: Mmmh…I think learners will be able to connect the knowledge from class to the one

they already have. They will link their knowledge from home and surrounding to the

new knowledge they acquire at school. This can be important to them as they will

develop that love of science and be willing to explore more. Learners will now be

able to be scientifically orientated as every aspect of their lives will be scientifically

based.

Interviewer: Why should IK receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom?

Interviewee: Mmmh …I think it is because it forms the bases or foundation in the education of a

learner. It is very important to lay a foundation before one can build something. So

we cannot teach without laying a foundation. It is very much important to consider

the learner‟s existing knowledge in order to succeed in education.

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Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question?

Interviewee: It is able to link learners to their daily experiences from their respective households

with the academic environment. They want us to take the learners knowledge from

home to school so that he or she does not feel the difference. By so doing learners

can be able to grasp whatever content they will be given by their teacher.

Interviewer: Thank you sir, why is it important to include IK in the curriculum?

Interviewee: It is because it serves as a recognition of our traditional practices and needs to be

emphasized to our learners. They want learners not to forget and love their roots as

was practiced by their parents at home. They just want to remind us of the past

experiences so that we connect with new ones.

Interviewer: How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Not very often. It is sometimes applied when learners feel abstract or do not

understand other scientific concepts that I will be introducing to them for the first

time.

Interviewer: Okay, how do you think learners will react to the inclusion of IK?

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Interviewee: I think they will be very much excited because I will be teaching about things that

occur in their everyday life and their surrounding areas. In most cases each learner

becomes more interested and be eager to discover or to find out more about the

concept if it was well known before. They really show the enjoyment and become

more willing to learn.

Thank you sir, what relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today?

Interviewee: As it is fundamental and basic it will turn learners to be more scientific and think

positively about science at all the times. I think this will make our teaching easier and

understandable as learners will love it. Most learners were not aware of their science

from home, but now they can be able to form a connection between the two. It also

takes hidden science to the public as it will be known by everybody.

Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your

teaching.

Interviewee: In most cases I do not get the desired information I want to impart to my learners.

The little knowledge I got seems not to be enough for the learners. At times the

information seems to be unreliable because you have to make it be real even though

you are not sure of the results. Learners become more doubtful to your teaching and

loose trust in you.

Interviewer: Thank you. How do you manage to solve the problems in your inclusion of this IK?

Interviewee: By instilling confidence in learners so that they feel proud of who they are or their

identity and were we are coming from in terms of our influence of culture. I run

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around seeking information from knowledgeable people and elderly ones from the

community.

Interviewer: Okay, where do you obtain further information about IK?

Interviewee: As I already said I move around seeking help from elderly people and

knowledgeable community members. At times I even ask my colleagues to chip in

with help.

Interviewer: And how do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing IK in your

teaching?

Interviewee: Most of them cannot be handled as they are beyond our control. They just need the

Department to resolve as they are curriculum related. As there is no time to run

around they need to do something. Elderly people also refuse to give evidence

concerning certain issues.

Interviewer: Thank you, what support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the

inclusion of this IK in your teaching?

Interviewee: Curriculum advisors act as support structure although they do not normally show

themselves when they are needed. Actually, nobody is supporting us. We as

teachers just help one another where we can. We support ourselves because we just

keep on going on our own.

Interviewer: Mmm ..what are the general feeling of your colleagues towards IK?

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Interviewee: Not all of them were positive but the few showed interest in the work. They were

willing to deliberate more and share the information that they got. We normally

discuss certain matters before going to class in order to get clarity on certain issues.

Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators from your immediate area?

Interviewee: Mmmh…. I think of posing issues to them even though I did not do it so that we can

share what we have. I will make it a point that we contact each other, form a group

work or discussion wherein we will help each other. This will be a good idea because

we are having or sharing the same sentiments.

Interviewer: Thank you for your precious time to share with me all the information. My research

will not be a success without you. I thank you so much.

6. PARTICIPANT I visited a School in the Thabina area on the 25th August 2010 to further my

research project and interview teachers on how they implement or incorporate

indigenous knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences.

Interviewer: Good day mam.

Interviewee: Good day mam.

Interviewer: What do you understand by the term indigenous knowledge?

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Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge acquired from the community one comes

from and it involves the values of the inhabitants (original) of that particular area.

Traditions, beliefs, customs and local skills are also involved. This is the knowledge

which is based on contextual concepts and is more deeply rooted in the communities

and environment. It is interpreted as knowledge of indigenous people and is

traditional or locally based. The communities intergraded within the societies which

have their own distinct cultures.

Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differs from `western knowledge?

Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is about cultural beliefs and addresses traditional and cultural

practices within the learning context and learning curriculum. Western science is the

search for valid explanations of physical reality. So, the IK that deals with practices

and beliefs with respect to the conduct of learner‟s lives may be used in science

class to permit students to evaluate the relationship between indigenous knowledge

and school knowledge for the conduct of their own lives. For example, communities

have practices and beliefs that pertain to the child rearing, menstruation, pregnancy,

child birth, human nutrition, food preparation and preservation, medicine, etc.

Interviewer: Thank you. What change do you think can be brought about by the infusion of IK in

the teaching of Life Science?

Interviewee: This infusion can turn learners into scientists and will permit learners to carefully

consider relevance of science from home and that one at school. If all Life Sciences

teachers are to make effective use of indigenous knowledge in their classrooms

there will be a clear understanding of the relationship between the traditional

practices and belief in their community and science. Life Sciences can be made

more interesting and understandable in such a way that learners will love it because

it deals with their life experiences.

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Interviewer: Okay, why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences

classroom?

Interviewee: I think learners need to know where they come from and what modern education

teaches them is not completely foreign. It has elements of our education, so, it is the

basic towards the acquiring of knowledge by our learners. It can serve to motivate

learners as they begin to see that recognition is given to what they practice and say

in their communities. It will further more make them to bring their experiences that

form an important component of the learning content to school.

Inter viewer: Could you substantiate or elaborate more to your response to the previous question?

Interviewee: The learners should be made aware of the importance of IK in their lives. It will help

them to explore values, to analyze changes, etc. This can help to permit learners to

evaluate the relative effect of IK and science education they receive from school.

Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you come across situations or topics in which you feel

like including IK in your teaching?

Interviewee: It is sometimes in a particular section of the work or a little bit after certain topics has

been treated. We normally incorporate when we feel like. There is only portion of it

that appears in the textbooks. If ever I come across information or clarity about the

topic I am treating or busy with it, I incorporate.

Interviewer: How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of IK?

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Interviewee: As they are divided I think the positive ones will be excited and accept it without

questions or doubts while the negative ones will feel bored and not be interested to

learn. Only the positive learners will show interests and be eager to know and

explore more about it. We know that if a learner can be positive in what the teacher

is teaching he will grasp quickly and be able to help others. So, few as they are as a

teacher I feel happy because they will always there to help each other.

Interviewer: Okay, why is it important to include IK in the curriculum?

Interviewee: Mmmh….I think it is because they want the learners to recognize the importance of

their scientific cultural practices and skills. It will also emphasize the practical science

integrated in the education of the learner. Maybe they want to address the

imbalances of the past.

Interviewer: Could you explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of

IK in your teaching?

Interviewee: Eish ..mmmh.. The first challenge was the difficulties with regard to the ill discipline

of the learners towards the educators. The difficulty of educators to impart OBE and

NCS to the learners that eventually depreciated the standard of education in our

area. My main problem is that of the lack of teaching methodology and it is difficult

to teach the learners. I think this is the teacher‟s greatest concern. Learners are

adapted to western life and mostly their belief system makes them loose interest in

their indigenous knowledge. This makes them relate IK to evil spirits (Satanism). The

practical application of the indigenous knowledge in class is also difficult. As a

teacher I am challenged to develop some practices that can convince them to be

scientifically proven.

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Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in

your inclusion of IK?

Interviewee: By giving tasks which will include parent involvement to the learners will allow

learners to socialize and realize the value of their learning through incorporating

what they already know in their life contexts.

Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: I normally run around seeking information from elder in our community. As a teacher

I must first access the knowledge, then understand it and its likely relation to what is

to be taught in class and then teach to the learners. Other teachers from my school

sometimes help with the information.

Interviewer: What relevance does IK have to Life Science

Interviewee: Mmh ..This will make students to be actively engaged in trying to provide a

conventional science explanation for their everyday practices. Such strategies can

serve to generate interest among students and to develop pride in the knowledge

and wisdom of their ancestors. This can serve as a point of departure to

conventional science that can be highlighted and discussed. Eeeh …it can also be

used to highlight the fact that there is still much to be explored and understood in our

world.

Interviewer: Thank you mam, how will you handle barriers that come your way when introducing

indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

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Interviewee: I will just try to contact my colleagues where possible but if it is beyond our control I

will make sure that it reaches the Department by following correct procedures or

channels or procedures.

Interviewer: Okay, what support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the

inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: We are not supported by anybody, instead we run around seeking help from others

teachers. We are just like a train moving without the head. You as a teacher will see

how to come up with that problem.

Interviewer: How do you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: At times I did not include it because I will have not got enough information about it. If

I am not sure of what I want to teach my learners I just ignore and move on with

other topics. If I get the strategy on how to implement it together with the necessary

information I will implement it especially at the beginning of the lesson.

Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in

the life Sciences education?

Interviewee: Parents will have access to their children‟s education as they will have to share their

knowledge with them. There will be a connection between the school and home

while learners will change their attitude towards Life Science. Learners will be

actively involved in their education by giving inputs.

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Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: They seem to be negative because of their religious believes and the difficulty in

incorporating in class. As I have already said we do not have a clear strategy on how

to apply and the fact that teachers are to seek information on their own without any

assistance from Department makes them loose interest. Most of them will tell me

that they don‟t want to teach something they do not understand. Some of them do

not want to share the knowledge with the thought that they will be belittled and

developed a negative attitude towards them.

Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate surrounding area in

incorporating IK.

Interviewee: Together with the arrangements of the Departmental officials I will invite them to the

forums, forming clusters to engage them so that they can be able to help each other.

By organizing more meetings inviting experts or knowledgeable people I think we will

go somewhere.

Interviewer: Thank you mam for your contribution in the research. Feel free to contact me if ever

you want to give other additional information.

Interviewee: I tank you.

7. PARTICIPANT As part of my research I visited school in the Thabina area on the 27th August 2010

and do interviews with the Life Sciences educator teaching grade 12.

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Interviewer: Good day sir.

Interviewee: Good day mam.

Interviewer: Our policy states clearly that the indigenous knowledge be incorporated in the Life

Sciences classroom. What do you understand by the term indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: With reference to the Life Sciences indigenous knowledge is the knowledge that we

acquire from our forefathers e.g. about plants and animals that are useful to us.

These plants are used for healing some ailments and are also used as `charms`.

They are believed to give luck to boys or males so that they can be loved by the girls

and other females. Such plants are regarded as part of indigenous knowledge which

is not written in the books. It is verbally transmitted by the elderly people from the

surrounding area or community. There are other skills related to Life Sciences that

can be used in class to clarify other concepts in the classroom. We hardly find it in

the prescribed books.

Interviewer: So, how does indigenous knowledge differ from `western science`?

Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is culturally based and occurs within the surrounding area

while western science favors methods that help learners to examine things carefully

(analytic) and reduction methods as opposed to indigenous knowledge which is

based on feelings rather than facts and examining the whole thing not just part of it.

Interviewer: What changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous

knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences?

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Interviewee: It will make us aware of skills or matters that we did not know, for instance I did not

know about African potato. Its inclusion in the syllabus made me aware that it can

cure or heal different diseases, reduces blood pressure, etc. There is also a certain

plant known as Phayabasimane which is used by boys or men so that they can be

loved by girls or even women. They used to smear themselves with the lion‟s fat in

order to give them power. This knowledge can make learners to think scientifically as

they will be able to connect science they learned from home and that one at school.

Interviewer: Why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences

classroom?

Interviewee: Because it forms the foundation to the teaching and learning in the classroom. It

makes learners to connect their everyday life experiences to ones gained in class.

Indigenous knowledge makes learners feel included in their education. It also makes

parents to form part of their children‟s education. I think it is the learner‟s life process

that occurs in everyday life that they want to address.

Interviewer: Could you substantiate to your respond to the previous question?

Interviewee: The knowledge that is acquired from the surrounding community can be used as the

foundation to learning at school. For example, children are taught how to make new

plants, look after them, used for nutritional purposes and treatment of other diseases

forms the basis for environmental studies. The making of African beer and Amarula

drink and making of traditional bread can be linked with aerobic respiration in class.

Interviewer: How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

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Interviewee: Sometimes, especially in the section of reproduction, environmental studies, e.g.

there is a believe that men should not beat women with a stick from a tree called

Motlopoloman because this will make her infertile. You just include indigenous

knowledge where you think it necessary to do so. There is no specific area in books

that displays the infusion.

Interviewer: How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of indigenous

knowledge?

Interviewee: In most cases they become excited and interested because of their knowledge they

gained from their forefathers while some take it as a joke. Some loose interest and

become discouraged. The inclusion has divided the learners because they are from

different communities with different cultures and belief systems. So, as a teacher you

will have to be careful of what you are saying at all times. Being too sarcastic when

coming to certain topics may ruin the little trust and confidence the learners might

have built towards you as their teacher.

Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum?

Interviewee: Mmm …Maybe to encourage teachers to research more if some of the plants they

are to be discussed are really effective and write books that can be kept in the

libraries so that everybody can have access to it. Because South Africa is a

multicultural country, maybe they want us to know and understand the roots of every

culture. They just attempts to incorporate traditional practices for the teaching of

skills within the local context.

Interviewer: Explain the problems that you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in

your teaching.

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Interviewee: Okay, I normally encounter a problem of not getting enough information to teach

learners. As I move around, visiting elderly or knowledgeable people I waste time to

complete the syllabus and the knowledge I got is sometimes folk as it is not written

anywhere or there is no proof for thereof. Sangomas can also give us unreliable

information because they want customers. Some teachers have a negative attitude

because of their beliefs and not getting any form of support. The method to apply it is

not clearly stated but we are requested to include it. I didn‟t come across any

question paper wherein the examiner asks something about indigenous knowledge

because there will be no specific answer.

Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in

your inclusion of IK?

Interviewee: Mmh ..I usually invite other teachers to come in or seek help from the Departmental

officials. Even if you can invite the parents or knowledgeable people they take long

to respond or at times do not show up. We normally see the officials when they are

in need of written work, for problems and for clarification, no.

Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Eeh .. I move around asking elderly people, sangomas, visiting museums and

anthropologists, but it takes time because you have to organize them bearing in mind

that not all of them will respond. Teachers in my school who are teaching the same

learning area used to came together and discuss about such matters.

Interviewer: What relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today?

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Interviewee: It is concerns with the scope of Life Sciences and gave learners chance to express

or show their experiences from home and be more scientific. Learners will be able

connect Life Sciences to the experiences they gained in their everyday lives that has

to do with science.

Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Eish …mmm …it is very difficult to handle them but I normally try to call learners

individually if ever they are the cause. If it is about the subject matter I summon a

meeting with my colleagues in the learning area so that we can discuss and each get

a chance to give an input where necessary. We always have morning lessons with

learner and before we meet as Life Sciences educators to discuss about the topic or

portion we are to teach that day. Yah …my group is really cooperative because they

even sacrifice to come to school early in the morning, knock off late in the evenings

and come on Saturdays. At times I used to go around schools discussing with other

teachers. They invite me to their school in the afternoon to address learners and give

help if possible. The curriculum advisors have left us alone because they do not help

us with any thing. We tried to call them several times but couldn‟t give any respond.

We are just trying to work on our own.

Interviewer: Mmmh…Thank you sir. What support structures exist in case of problems emanating

from the inclusion of IK in your teaching?

Interviewee: As I have already said, we are just trying to work on our own because we have

organized our own programs even learners from neighboring school attend Saturday

lessons in our school. This is where we invite knowledgeable people like community

leaders, elderly people to come and give help. There is no any other structure I ever

came across.

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Interviewer: Thank you sir, so how would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: I will include it at the beginning of a lesson by giving them an overview of what I want

to teach and give them work in the form of a research or an assignment at the end of

the lesson. This will allow them to go and seek information within their surrounding

area and come up with different answers and information.

Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in

the Life Sciences?

Interviewee: Mmmh … I think this will make them aware of their scientific culture activities being

connected to Life Sciences. They will change their attitude towards their culture as

they will notice its importance. Learners will think scientifically as they will be able to

improve their lives by using more scientific methods and skills in their production at

home made products. They will also teach their parent about the new scientific

methods they learned at school. The whole community will be able to see and to

understand the importance of their children‟s education.

Interviewer: Thank you, how frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community

to address IK in your classroom?

Interviewee: Eeeh …not always. I normally invite them when I come to situations were in-depth

explanation is required. As I have already said it takes long for them to show up.

Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to

indigenous knowledge?

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Interviewee: I normally give them work in the form of a research, assignments so that they can go

and seek information from their parents or knowledgeable people. At times they are

encouraged to do models and practical if possible.

Interviewer: Thank you, what are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous

knowledge?

Interviewee: Most of them have a negative attitude towards it as I have already said because of

their beliefs. At times it is because is time wasting and money to run around seeking

help from other people and knowledgeable people and even come up empty handed.

Lack of specific methodological training and continuous consultation also plays a

role. Those who are traditional are positive because mostly are the things that they

enjoy and practice.

Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area in

incorporating IK?

Interviewee: Mmmh ..As I have already indicated, at school we are used to gather every morning

before we go to class to discuss about each and every aspect or topic we are to

teach for that particular day. We make sure that we treat the same section in all the

grades which is similar and help each other where possible. If the section differs we

just help each other. Teachers from the surrounding areas or schools are also invited

especially in the afternoon and on Saturdays. This is where we invite elderly people

and community members even if they at times do not show up.

Interviewer: Let me take this opportunity to thank you for your time and input you have made to

my research. I thank you very much.

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8. PARTICIPANT As a continuation of my research I happen to interview this participant who is a

grade 12 Life Science educator in the Thabina area on the 3rd September 2010

Interviewer: good afternoon mam.

Interviewee:

Good afternoon mam.

Interviewer: Mam, as I have already discussed with you about my research and research topic,

can you tell me what do you understand by the term indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: I will first explain what indigenous means because whenever you talk of indigenous

knowledge you will have to clarify meanings first. So, the word indigenous is within

the boundary that a learner needs to know. Actually in indigenous knowledge you will

find knowledge to the local or elderly people or even from people surrounding us. I

think this is the knowledge that learners acquire everyday in their lives at home. The

skills and teachings they receive in their everyday lives is very important and useful

to their education. It normally occurs spontaneously with the growing of the child.

Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differ from `western science`?

Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge deals with what the learner already have since birth until the

age of schooling. The learner gains knowledge from the area in which he/she lives

by relating to the community members and cultural group that he/she belong.

Western science is more scientific as prescribed methods are required to come up

with the desired results. It is more formal and scientific proof is required to the

statements given. Western science occurs in a formal learning situation.

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Interviewer: Okay, what relevance do you think can be brought about by the infusion of IK in the

teaching of Life Sciences?

Interviewee: Mmmh…This can change learner‟s perspective towards Life Sciences and make

them more understanding of relationship between traditional practices and beliefs in

the community or area surrounding them. It will make their every aspect of life to be

scientifically based. They will be able to understand their surrounding, its relationship

to them and its importance to their lives.

Interviewer: Thank you. Why should IK receive consideration in the Life Sciences classroom?

Interviewee: Because it forms the foundation or basis of the learners education. As we teach

learners we start from the known to the unknown or the abstract. So, indigenous

knowledge will be our known proceeding to the abstract. We will start with what the

learner already have until we reach the unknown that needs more explanation and

clrification.

Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question?

Interviewee: As I already said we always start with the known to the unknown. Learners will be

able to understand easily as we start with their knowledge from home and develop

that interest to learn more. All learning should start with what the student and

community know and are using in everyday life. Learners become more motivated to

learn when the subject matter is based on something useful and suitable to the

livelihood of the community.

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Interviewer: How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Eeh ..sometimes eeh …you just see aspects in the teaching where it can fit or you

feel that learners don‟t understand easily, e.g. respiration process in anaerobic

respiration. You just take in the scenario wherein they make a home made bread

using yeast, making of African beer and Marula beer because they know all those

processes.

Interviewer: Thank you. How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of IK?

Interviewee: I expect them to be surprised, eeh ..somehow frustrated but mostly were negative

while few were excited because I was talking of thing they already know. It must be

surprising and fascinating to them to here something that they had and which is

home based.

Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum?

Interviewee: Because it helps the learner to connect his previous knowledge to the one he

receives at school. As I have already said it forms the basis of learner‟s education as

they become aware of their environmental activities that are science related. Maybe

they want the community to form part of the learner‟s education by supplying

information to the teachers.

Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your

teaching.

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Interviewee: The most serious problem is that of not getting the relevant information. Teachers

run around digging information from elders and community leaders on whose

expense? Some refuse to tell the truth while others do not just want to discuss

anything. The Subject facilitators also do not have anything in hand that can give

relevant information. We are expected to teach knowledge that the department

cannot give with insufficient training they have given us. As our country is a

multicultural country teachers only know their indigenous knowledge. What about

knowledge from other cultures? Heh…? The belief system is also a problem that

needs teachers to be very careful with. A teacher needs to present IK in an

acceptable way. This takes time discussing in class and trying to make clarifications

where necessary.

Interviewer: Thank you, mmmh…how do you manage to resolve problems if ever you encounter

them in your inclusion of IK?

Interviewee: These are the problems that cannot be resolved by us as teachers. I usually try my

best to seek information, ask assistance here and there but it is very much difficult.

My colleagues are normally coming in when they are invited but it‟s hard for them

because of their work load.

Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: I go around ask elderly people and some parents in the nearby community.

Sagomas just need us to consult as patients so that they can share the knowledge.

According to my belief system, it‟s hard to me.

Interviewer: What relevance does IK have to Life Sciences today?

226

Interviewee: It is relevant to an extent to learners but to teachers I don‟t see any relevancy. It

makes learners to relate matters from class to that of their surrounding area. It can

also help them to contextualize subject matter so that they can apply in their

everyday lives.

Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing IK in your

teaching?

Interviewee: I think it is better to solve a problem when you come to it. About learners you have to

call them individually if it is in class or subject matter related. If is about the content I

involve colleagues. The other one about the curriculum I just consult Departmental

officials through proper channels.

Interviewer: What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the inclusion of IK

in your teaching?

Interviewee: Supporters could be my colleagues at times educators from the surrounding area,

elderly people and other structures from the community in the form of parents.

Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: I will start by motivating other teachers, showing them its importance and value so

that we can discuss before I go to class. With the learners it will serve as the

introduction of my lesson and give them work there after.

227

Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in

Life Science?

Interviewee: Situations like in our culture it have day to day lives. There was a case here at our

school were a learner failed, contacted the sangoma and was told that he/she

passed. This created a great problem to the school. As a teacher one must be able

to demarcate between the indigenous knowledge and folk knowledge. This brings a

serious problem to teachers it bring misconceptions to learner.

Interviewer: Mmmh! How frequently do you invite knowledgeable people in the form of parents

from the community to address IK in your classroom?

Interviewee: Okay, I invite them at times when I come to situations where I feel I don‟t have any

idea or explanation about a certain topic. This occurs if my colleagues are without

the idea or have little knowledge on other topics.

Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to

indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Learners are encouraged to perform some experiments, build up models, make

researches in order to gain more knowledge and assignments accumulate

information concerning the section treated or to be dealt with.

Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge?

228

Interviewee: As they are all part of the system, they were all seemed to be understanding even

though there were those that hide their feelings.

Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate are in incorporating

IK?

Interviewee: Through subject activities and workshops related to IK that can be organized by

subject facilitators. Knowledgeable people can be invited in the forums to came and

share with us.

Interviewer: Thank you for your participation in the research

9. PARTICIPANT The participant who is teaching Life Sciences grade 10-12 at a School in the

Khujwane area was visited for research interviews on the7th September 2010.

Interviewer: Good day sir.

Interviewee: Good day mam.

Interviewer: What do you understand under the term indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: It is the knowledge that emanated from our ancestors and is transmitted through the

ages from generation to generation. This really explains how different cultures used

to solve problems. It also includes the developments from how things worked in the

past and how they are working now.

229

Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differ from western science?

Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is normally practiced by indigenous people using their

unfounded methods and ideas that are only known to them only. It was implemented

in order to earn their normal living and to make their lives just prosper and have got

to do with cultural beliefs and customs. Western science is practiced by each and

every person who is westernized (either by birth or colonization) and lived a

westernized life. Most of the activities that occur in this practice can be scientifically

proven. Most of us were taught for a long time that anything western is good for us, it

has been tested, it stands the test of time, etc. Western scientific perspectives

influence decisions that impact on every aspect of indigenous people‟s lives. It is

based on academic and objectives.

Interviewer: What changes do you think can be brought by the infusion of indigenous knowledge

in the teaching of Life Sciences?

Interviewee: I think it can bring significance to the learning context with its explanations that

should be first to be explained to learners so that they can relate and then explained

in western terms. Learning should start with what the learner and community know

and are using in there are for their everyday lives.

Interviewer: Why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life Sciences

classroom?

Interviewee: Mmm .. because it helps learners to familiarize themselves with new concepts. It will

also help them to be prepared to concentrate and be willing to learn more.

230

Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question?

Interviewee: Like when I have to teach learners about environmental studies, I start by asking the

questions about their environment, its impact on human lives, effect to other living

organisms, etc. They know all those answers and eventually they will lead me to

where I want to start or to my abstract.

Interviewer: How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Not always. This can take time to get to those situations unless I want to emphasize

a certain point in order to reach my outcome or objective. At times I start with it so

that learners can start with what they already know before introducing new concepts.

Interviewer: Thank you, how do you think learners should react to the inclusion of indigenous

knowledge?

Interviewee: They will be excited because I will be teaching about what they already know,

starting from the known to the unknown which is the abstract concepts. By so doing

each and every learner will became anxious to share their knowledge and to

exchange their views.

Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum?

Interviewee: They wanted to make educators start with learner‟s knowledge in order to make

learning more interesting and understandable. They wanted learners to connect what

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their knowledge from home with learning at school so that they can contextualize it.

This will make learners to ask more and appreciate different culture and what they

learn at home.

Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your

teaching.

Interviewee: I normally encounter a problem of uncertainty in my inclusion because there is no

specific method of infusing it and there is no clear explanation that one can get to

give to learners. If direction and written proof of evidence can be given, I think our

education can improve and learning will be easier and understandable. Teachers will

be able to infuse IK without any hindrances.

Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in

your inclusion of IK?

Interviewee: I give learners chance to share their views and knowledge by discussing among

themselves, clearing misconceptions other learners have, making them able to

appreciate other‟s cultural beliefs and be proud of theirs. This will increase the love

of their content in the learning area and enjoy every aspect of their learning while

inviting others to join them.

Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Just by consulting villagers and other knowledgeable people in the surrounding area.

Interviewer: What relevance does IK have to Life Science today?

232

Interviewee: It forms the foundation to the learner‟s education and shows that people have been

developing with their knowledge from the forefathers. It connects both learners and

educators to the community in which they are living. Learners are now aware of their

grandparent‟s science and connect it with the learned one from class. They become

aware of their environmental impact and influence on their education

Interviewer: How do you handle barriers that come your way when introducing indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: I just ignore them and forces my way forward with teaching. If ever they persist I call

upon other teachers at school to help. The bigger ones cannot be handled on my

own without the help of the authorities.

Interviewer: Thank you. What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the

inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Eish….mmmh …we just support each other at school. As I have already said I call

upon my colleague to help me if ever there is a need. There is nobody from outside

who used to come with help at out vicinity.

Interviewer: Okay, how would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Hey …mmmh….I will just include or mention it if necessary as an introduction to my

lesson and leave it to diverge so that each learner can share the knowledge with the

233

class and give additions if ever they are needed. I think it will worth doing because it

will arouse the learner‟s interest and motivate them in their learning

Interviewer: What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the inclusion of IK in

the Life Sciences education?

Interviewee: I think learners will be turned into scientists who can be able to connect their cultural

views to education in class. They can be able to think scientifically while encouraging

their parents to work and produce scientific products.

Interviewer: How frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from the community to address

IK in your classroom?

Interviewee: This is normally done after some time if ever there is a need.

Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage for your learners pertaining to indigenous

knowledge?

Interviewee: I gave them tasks which will include parental help while allowing learners to

socialize the value of their learning through incorporating what they already know in

their life time.

Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: They respond positively but still struggle to incorporate it in class with new subject

matter. They just enjoy discussing and sharing the information to each other.

234

Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate are in incorporating

IK?

Interviewee: Here at our school we thought of organizing forums and workshops where we can

plan how to go about introducing IK in lessons. By so doing we will be helping each

other on how to gather knowledge in order to incorporate in class.

Interviewer: Let me take this opportunity to tell you that your efforts are recognized in this

research and thank you for your patience and contribution.

10. PARTICIPANT

On the 10th September 2010 I visited a School in the Khujwane area to further my

research and happen to interview a Life Science educator teaching grade 11- 12.

Interviewer: Good day mam.

Interviewee: Good day mam.

Interviewer: Our National Curriculum Statement states clearly that indigenous knowledge be

incorporated in the Life Science classroom. So, what do you understand by the term

indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: It is the knowledge that arises from our culture and society and is passed through

generations. It is normally concerns with cultural beliefs, values and norms.

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Interviewer: How does indigenous knowledge differ from `western science`?

Interviewee: Indigenous knowledge is more concerned with life in the past while western science

is more concerned knowledge of the future. It is more concerned with cultural and

community‟s activity. IK is native and is within a particular plan of a particular society

while western science is universally known and can be scientifically proven.

Interviewer: What changes do you think can be brought about by the infusion of indigenous

knowledge in the teaching of Life Sciences?

Interviewee: I think it can encourage learners to love Life Sciences and encourage them to learn

more.

Interviewer: Thank you, why should indigenous knowledge receive consideration in the Life

Sciences classroom:

Interviewee: It encourages people to understand their environment and know the practices of the

society while encouraging them to use more scientific methods in their lives.

Indigenous knowledge is very relevant to today‟s education.

Interviewer: Could you substantiate your response to the previous question?

Interviewee: Education should appreciate the vast knowledge system through which people

attach meaning to the world in which they live.

Interviewer:

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How frequently do you come across topics in which you feel like including indigenous

knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Not always, it depends on which chapters or topics you are teaching, e.g. in human

reproduction on birth control, diseases, preservation. Etc. On these sections learners

can be given tasks that will make them to seek more information from home.

Interviewer: Thank you. How do you think your learners would react to the inclusion of indigenous

knowledge?

Interviewee: Mmmh …I think they will respond positively as anticipated since this knowledge have

a positive impact on human nature and behavior.

Interviewer: Why is it important to include indigenous knowledge in the curriculum?

Interviewee: Okay, they wanted to connect the learner‟s prior knowledge to the knowledge in

class and make them future scientists. They want to make them aware of their

scientific activities that occurs at home and school to be applied in their lives. I think

the community and society will be able to understand each other.

Interviewer: Explain the problems you as an educator come across with the infusion of IK in your

teaching.

Interviewee: I encounter a problem of learners making noise, misbehaving and even refusing to

give inputs in the discussion. Some do so because of their belief systems or their

culture not willing to be exposed. Some bring myths or misconceptions in class e.g.

when resolving HIV/AIDS issues they will tell of sleeping with a virgin can cure an

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infected person. There is also a problem of cultural beliefs which leads to learners

being different. Indigenous knowledge needs to be compiled in the books so that

each and everyone can have access and form part of the syllabus.

Interviewer: How do you normally manage to resolve the problems if ever you encounter them in

your inclusion of IK?

Interviewee: I will make it a point that we discuss about issues that can be scientifically proven not

stories. Learners have different cultural beliefs and they need to understand and

respect each learner‟s belief. They must also respect everybody‟s background. I

think this can help to resolve all problems that may arise.

Interviewer: Where can you obtain further information about indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: It can be obtained from parents and community members and even indunas.

Interviewer: What relevance does IK have today?

Interviewee: Learners are able to relate experiences from home or scientific matters to those

acquired at school e.g. making bread using Anchor yeast can be related to the

making of bread using home brewed beer instead of Anchor yeast. In the past they

used to dry bubbles/foam of the traditional beer to replace yeast. The making of

Marula drink is copied and modified from IK. Through out indigenous knowledge

being interrelated with science people now can be able to make yeast from beer, fruit

jam, foam bath, skin lotion, etc. Learners can be science thinkers so that they can be

able to apply it in their lives.

238

Interviewer: Thank you. How do you handle barriers that came your way when introducing

indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: Mmmh…as an educator it is my responsibility to make sure that teaching and

learning is not disturbed and I will make sure that every learner gets the right to

education by keeping them disciplined. I will make sure that I carefully select the

desired information and leave out the misconceptions.

Interviewer: Thank you. What support structures exist in case of problems emanating from the

inclusion of indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: I normally supported by my colleagues and some few parents who responded by

helping learners when they are given work to do at home.

Interviewer: How would you include indigenous knowledge in your teaching?

Interviewee: This can be done through class discussions where learners will formulate groups

and each come up with their information to share in class. Learners can be given

chance to seek and gather information to present in class.

Interviewer: Thank you. What are the real life situations that may be impacted upon by the

inclusion of IK in the Life Sciences education?

Interviewee: Learners will be able to appreciate, love and respect their culture through scientific

application. They will also be able to connect their previous knowledge with the new

one at school.

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Interviewer: Mmmh.. how frequently do you invite knowledgeable parents from your community to

address IK in your classroom?

Interviewee: Truly speaking , I have never think of such a move. This people can be of help as

they are rich in information.

Interviewer: What type of activities do you envisage or anticipate for your learners pertaining to

indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Eeh ..mmmh…I anticipate to give them case studies to perform and challenging

researches that will make them explore more. Presentations and discussions will

make each learner to take part.

Interviewer: What are the general feelings of your colleagues towards indigenous knowledge?

Interviewee: Some feel excited and curious because their cultural experiences are being

recognized. Not all the people can be happy because of some other developments

Interviewer: How do you think of engaging other educators in your immediate area?

Interviewee: I an intending to invite them to our school so that they can share their knowledge

with other teachers. With the help of the Departmental officials we will formulate

committees and clusters. We will also make forums and symposiums.

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Interviewer: Thank you a lot for your input and information you contributed to this research.

Interviewee: I also feel honored to be included in the research team. Do not hesitate to give me a

call if ever another input is needed.

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APENDIX D: REFORMED TEACHING OBSERVATION PROTOCOL (RTOP)

Daiyo Sawada Michael Piburn

External Evaluator Internal Evaluator

And

Kathleen Falconer, Jeff Turley, Russell Benford and Irene Bloom

Evaluation Facilitation Group (EFG)

Technical Report No. IN00-1

Arizona Collaborative for Excellence in the Preparation of Teachers

Arizona State University

I. BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Name of teacher---------------------- Announced Observation----------------------------

(yes, no, or explain)

Location of class--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

(district, school, room)

Years of Teaching---------------------- Teaching Certification-----------------------------

Subject Observed----------------------- Grade level-------------------------------------------

Observer-------------------------------- Date of Observation---------------------------------

Start time--------------------------------- End time----------------------------------------------

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II. CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND AND ACTIVITIES

In the space provided below please give a brief description of the lesson observed,

the classroom setting in which the lesson took place (space, seating arrangements,

etc.), and any relevant details about the students (number, gender, ethnicity) and

teacher that you think are important. Use diagrams if they seem appropriate.

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Record here events which may help in documenting the ratings.

Time and Description of Events

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2000 Revision

Copyright 2000 Arizona Board of Regents

All Rights Reserved

III. LESSON DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

Never Very

Occurred

Descriptive

1) The instructional strategies and activities respected 0 1 2 3 4

243

students‟ prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein.

2) The lesson was designed to engage students as members 0 1 2 3 4

of a learning community.

3) In this lesson, student exploration preceded formal 0 1 2 3 4

presentation.

4) This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative 0 1 2 3 4

modes of investigation or of problem solving.

5) The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined 0 1 2 3 4

originating with students.

IV. CONTENT

Propositional knowledge

6) The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject 0 1 2 3 4

7) The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding 0 1 2 3 4

8) The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content 0 1 2 3 4

inherent in the lesson.

9) Elements of abstraction (i.e., symbolic representations, theory 0 1 2 3 4

building) were encouraged when it was important to do so.

10) Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world 0 1 2 3 4

phenomena were explored and valued.

Procedural knowledge

244

11) Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, 0 1 2 3 4

concrete materials, manipulatives, etc.) to represent phenomena.

12) Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and 0 1 2 3 4

devised means for testing them.

13) Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity 0 1 2 3 4

that often involved the critical assessment of procedures.

14) Students were reflective about their learning. 0 1 2 3 4

15) Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging 0 1 2 3 4

16) 0f ideas were valued.

Continue recording salient events here.

Time Description of Events

V. CLASSROOM CULTURE

Communicative Interactions Never Very

Occurred Descriptive

17) Students were involved in the communication of ideas to 0 1 2 3 4

others using a variety of means and media.

18) The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking 0 1 2 3 4

19) There was a high proportion of students talk and a significant 0 1 2 3 4

amount of it occurred between and among students.

20) Student question and comment often determined the focus and 0 1 2 3 4

direction of classroom discourse.

21) There was climate of respect for what others had to say. 0 1 2 3 4

Student/Teacher Relationships

245

22) Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. 0 1 2 3 4

23) Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative 0 1 2 3 4

solution strategies, and ways of interpreting evidence.

24) In general the teacher was patience with students. 0 1 2 3 4

25) The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support & 0 1 2 3 4

enhance student investigations.

26) The metaphor ``teacher as listener`` was very characteristic 0 1 2 3 4

of this classroom.

Additional comments you may wish to make about this lesson.

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2000 Revision

Copyright 2000 Arizona Board of Regents

All Right Reserved

246

APPENDIX E: RTOP OBSEVATION READING AND LESSONS

CANCER AND ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF HEALING AND TREATMENT

The background information of mitosis and its importance in life was given to

learners in the form of questions. Process of cloning discussed together with

methods of cloning. Learners were taught about diseases like cancer. How cancer

begin, what causes cancer, beliefs and attitudes concerning cancer.

In general ,the earlier a cancer is detected, the more likely it is that a patient will be

successfully treated. Many people have a negative attitude and belief about diseases

and do no want to be tested. Some of the attitudes are:

• Fear of the disease

People are terrified if they notice that they suffer from a certain disease like cancer

they will die, loose jobs or even some of their body organs will be cut off. Most

women feel that this will lead to loss of their ferminity and reproductive value.

• Most people are uncertain about the effectiveness of the treatment

Since they fear that the disease may kill them, prefer not to know about the status

of their health. Women are aware of the dangers of breast cancer and the

importance of early detection and some undertake self examination or medical

examination for fear of detection.

• The general reluctance of men to ask for help.

Apart from skin cancer prostate gland is the most common type of cancer for men

and this makes them to feel shy and remain silant. Men are reluctant to undergo

testing for prostate cancer. The belief that being diagnosed with the disease wil

lower their openion of their macuslinity

Types of cancer, treatment and `cure` of cancer were also taught to learners.

Alternative methods of healing and treatment included

Sangomas and traditional healers used materials obtained from many indigenous

plants and other animals for treatment. The cancer bush plant (Sutherlandia

frutescens) is one of the most well- known plants used for the treatment of cancer.

The plant grows about a metre high and has silvery leaves while bearing red flowers

247

that produces balloon- like pods. The plant is used for the treatment of pancreatic

cancer and the improvement of those suffering from terminal breast cancer. Patience

gain weight after treatment with the products of this plant.

The following questions were given to learner as home-activity:

1. What other materials can be used for the treatment of cancer?

2. Go and ask elderly people including sangomas and traditional healers on how

they can improve the treatment using different methods that were used in the past.

4.4.2 Lesson observation A number of Life Sciences lessons done by teachers were observed, in order to see how teachers incorporate IK in their lessons. To this effect I used the Reformed Teaching Observation Protocol (RTOP instrument). The following are few examples of lessons that were observed. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 1 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle of block Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 10th August 2010 II Contextual background and activities Teacher used examples and applications to illustrate scientific concepts, stayed attentive and engaged while others asked questions in the context of everyday life. Investigation to perform at home was given. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 3. In this lesson, student‟s exploration preceded formal presentation.

248

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

249

Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

250

18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

251

DEFENCE AGAINST INFECTIONS: IMMUNITY Different diseases that can affect men were discussed in class. Diseases can be grouped together according to their causes.

1.Those caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa, i.e. caused by outside agents. 2.Those caused by factors within the body, e.g. cancer and genetic diseases. 3.Those brought about by injury, including burns and poisoning. 4.Those caused by poor nutrition, e.g. kwashiorkor and obesity 5.Those caused as side- effects of drugs taken as medical treatment.

Several defence mechanisms to protect the body against diseases caused by outside agents were taught to learners including preventing the microbes from entering the body, destroying those microbes that succeed in entering and producing antibodies to fight off later infections. Antibiotics: a product of Research in Medical Biotechnology. They are made from living organisms mainly fungi and bacteria. Some used to slow down or stop the growth of diseases causing micro- organisms or microbes. Antibiotics my be given to sick people in the form of tablets, injections, directly into the blood stream by means of `drips` or in syrup (liquid) form. Examples of antibiotics including penicillin obtained from a blue- green mould and erythromycin obtained from a bacteria were given to learners. Boosting the immune system using traditional technology Different species of living organisms can be used for medicinal purposes. Most prescriptions are plant based ingredients that were used by traditional people in the form of herbs from certain species of indigenous plants and animals. The African potato It is a yellow flowering plant that is indigenous to Africa has a high nutrient value. It the potato is hairy, purple bulbous corm (Hypoxis hemerocallidea) and is also known as `sterretjies`. The plant is harvested by sangomas in the wilds as it has been used by the indigenous people as laxative for generations. It is also used to increase the body‟s natural resistance to diseases. Research studies indicated that sterols and sterolins that are concentrated in the plant can slow the progress of HIV/AIDS. The following research was given to learners at the end of the lesson: 1. Make a research of other uses of African potato for health purposes. 2. How the plant is processed for the use. 3. What dosage do they give for treatment. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 2 Announced observation: No Location of class: Far left of admin block Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 12TH August 2010

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II Contextual background and activities Teacher based a lesson on specific problem or issue faced by the local community and assist learners to explore the explanations of scientific phenomena by different cultural groups. Learners engaged on their initiative and offer contribution to the lesson. Requested to search for additional information in completion of given task. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 3. In this lesson, student‟s exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 9.Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 10.Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11.Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 12.Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 13.Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 14.Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 15.Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16.Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 17.The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 18.There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 20.There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21.Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 23.In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

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24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 DEVILS CLAW AS AN ATISEPTIC. This is a plant indigenous to our continent (Africa). The plant bears hook- like projections or `claws` protruding from its fruit. The name Davil‟s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) comes from the Greek word `harpagophytum` which means the `hook plant`. The hooks help in defence by discouraging the herbivores from eating the plant. The fruit contains seeds which means that if it is dispersed, the seeds are also dispersed. This means that the hooks help in spreading the plants by dispersing the seeds contained in the fruit. The most active component of the devil‟s claw plant is the `tuber` or root which is quiet large and often chopped and dried prior to using. Traditionally the plant is used for reducing pain and fever as well as for digestive problems. The secondary root tubers of the plant are used as herbal medicine for rheumatic diseases. The worksheet with a passage to read was given at the end of the lesson to be completed by learners with the following questions: 1.What was the hypothesis used by the scientists? 2.What is meant by a `placebo`? 3.What is the advantage of using a placebo? 4.What was the independent variable in this investigation? 5.Which was the experimental and which was the control group? 6.List two variables that the scientists may have attempted to keep constant in this investigation. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 3 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle block next to laboratory Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 16TH August

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II Contextual background and activities Teacher facilitated learners as they designed and undertook investigations and projects on different methods and techniques used for the healing of diseases. Learners did their own investigations. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 3. In this lesson, student‟s exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson.

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Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 X 1 2 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND MEDICINAL USE OF PLANTS Medicinal plants under threat The teacher stated by telling the learners of the scenario about the medicinal doctor that he visited few weeks ago. The man complained about the shortage of wild plants that he used to get at the nearby village. He wished he could make lots and plant them again. The old man was told that biotechnology can help. Biotechnology means using living things to do tasks and make useful products. There is away of making lots of copies of a plant and is known as tissue culture. This means growing many new plants from small pieces of one plant. Part of an adult plant is cut into little pieces and treated to kill any fungi or bacteria living on them. Pieces are put onto jelly-like substance containing plant food and left for sometime. The shoots will be seen growing on the plant pieces and are moved to a new plant food were in roots and leaves can grow. They can be planted in pots and be left for few weeks before they can be planted in the soil. The new plants are genetically the same as the parent plant and each makes his or her own nursery or buy to grow own medical garden. Plants like wild ginger (Siphonochilus aethiopicus) are under treat from overuse. The plant is normally used by traditional healers to treat diseases like asthma, hysteria, colds, coughs and flue. There are very few wild ginger left in the wild and is thought to be extinct in most parts of the country. Homework to learners: 1.Which other plants can be sustained by using biotechnology ? 2. Visit your nearest traditional healer and ask how they normally sustain plants in their area. 3.Make a table of commonly used plants in the area stating the diseases that they can heal how they are normally processed before use. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 4 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle block next to hotel and catering class

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Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 17th August II Contextual background and activities Teacher introduced learners to the evolving nature of scientific knowledge and probed their prior knowledge. Learners interpreted information to support their knowledge. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 3. In this lesson, students exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 X 1 2 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding.

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Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 X 1 2 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued.

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Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

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23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 LESSON THE BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION. The chemical energy in cell fuels (glucose) is released during this process and transferred into energy –rich ATP. This is the only process whereby carbon dioxide is liberated and oxygen is utilised. During fermentation (anaerobic respiration), products that are of economic importance like bread and alcoholic beverages can be produced. This means that without glucose people won`t have any energy. Starch is reduced to glucose which is broken up to release the energy that was absorbed from the sun which is the beginning of the chain. Discussion about beer making Traditional beer is brewed by African women at home. Grains like sorghum, maize and corn are used. The result is brews like rammoora, farsi, change, tella, umgomboti and many other traditional beers. Can be used to provide income to African women to feed their families. Homework 1.Ask elderly people in your village on how to make a home-made bread using traditional beer. 2.Discuss about more other uses of traditional beer. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 5 Announced observation: No Location of class: Far right of admin block Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 19th August

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II Contextual background and activities Teacher work designed work in such a way to encourage learner discovery of information. Learners wrote a scientific report in which they could justify their conclusions in terms of their information collected. Assessment based on extra writing of report after investigation. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 3. In this lesson, student‟s exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

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24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 LESSON BOOSTING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM USING TRADITIONAL TECHNOLOGY. The use of variety of living organisms for medicinal purposes is commonly practiced world wide. The garden herbs like ginger which is used to expel phlegm, thyme which is used as an antiseptic and tonic, commonly red or cayenne pepper for the suppressing high blood pressure and sugar diabetic, garlic for boosting immune system, etc. roughly one in four prescriptions is likely to contain plant-based ingredients. The African potato contains substances that help our bodies fight diseases. Traditional healers and indigenous people make a drink to strengthen sick children. It can also help people with prostate problems while the juice from the root is used to treat burns. Recently it has become widely used to increase the body`s natural resistance to diseases. All vegetables, especially the green and yellow varieties have a hormone-like plant fat called sterols and sterolins that are concentrated in seeds. These substances can boost the body`s immune system. Research studies indicated that sterols from the African potato thereby slows down the progress of HIV/ AIDS, fight against tuberculosis and cancer, and diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and psoriasis can be cured. 1.Research other traditional uses of plants and herbs by traditional healers. 2.Discuss about other uses of African potato. 3.Describe the structure of African potato. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 6 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle of block next to library Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 25th August

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II Contextual background and activities Knowledge was constructed, was relevant and based on indigenous knowledge while learners engaged themselves on making their own notes on IK from their communities. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 3. In this lesson, students exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

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8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulative, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

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V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 X 1 2 3 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 X 1 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 X 1 2 3 4 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 LESSON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES: THE PROCESSING AND DRYING METHODS OF MOPANI WORMS The worms are used as food rich in proteins. They are also used at homes as food and industries. The teacher was worried about the methods of processing and drying these worms. Health procedures should be followed because of biotechnology for the processing of the worms learners be encouraged to put on protective clothes for health. Divide yourselves in groups of eight and discuss about the processing of worms so that we can have a debate the following day. The loopholes, methods of contamination will be looked into so that they can be improved. Homework Go help your parents to follow hygienic process like washing hands, being clean during processing and avoid dirty clothes while working at a clean surface. Warn them about the cutting of trees and to avoid deforestation. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 7 Announced observation: No Location of class: in the laboratory Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 27th August

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II Contextual background and activities Teacher facilitates learners as they designed and undertake investigation and assists learner in constructing theories that attempted to explain the same phenomena. Learners interpreted data in support of competing theories or explanations. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 3. In this lesson, student‟s exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

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24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 LESSON THE BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION. The chemical energy in cell fuels (glucose) is released during this process and transferred into energy –rich ATP. This is the only process whereby carbon dioxide is liberated and oxygen is utilised. During fermentation (anaerobic respiration), products that are of economic importance like bread and alcoholic beverages can be produced. This means that without glucose people won`t have any energy. Starch is reduced to glucose which is broken up to release the energy that was absorbed from the sun which is the beginning of the chain. Discussion about beer making Traditional beer is brewed by African women at home. Grains like sorghum, maize and corn are used. The result is brews like rammoora, farsi, change, tella, umgomboti and many other traditional beers. Can be used to provide income to African women to feed their families. Homework 1.Find out from elderly people in your village on how to make a home-made bread using traditional beer. 2.Make a research about more uses of traditional beer. 3.Write short notes on how to make traditional bread. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 8 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle block library Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 3rd September II Contextual background and activities Teacher was active in participation of professional activities and showed willingness to change, improve and had a vision of incorporation. Learners from supportive

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home environment showed interest in the work. They were willing to try new implementation methods. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 3. In this lesson, student‟s exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

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24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 LESSON EXPERIMENT TO DEMONTRARATE ALCOHOL FERMENTATION Learners were divided into groups Apparatus Two thermos flasks, dry yeast , clear lime water, sugar or glucose solution, two thermometers, two rubber stoppers, vaseline and two beakers. Aim To prove that yeast releases carbon dioxide, alcohol (ethanol) and heat during alcoholic fermentation. Method - Mark the flasks A and B - Place some sugar or glucose solution , dry yeast dissolved in warm water, a thermometer and delivery tube in flask A. - Place some sugar or glucose solution, a thermometer and delivery tube in flask B. - Pour clear limewater into the beakers - Seal both flasks with rubber stoppers and make sure that the ends of the delivery tubes are below the liquid level in the beakers containing the clear limewater. Precautions - The bulb of the thermometer must be placed in the liquid - The delivery tube end inside flask be above the liquid. - The delivery tube end outside the flask must be below the surface of the liquid in the beaker. - Seal the stoppers with Vaseline. Result Draw a table of your result using the following headings: Temperature changes, change of colour, the smell and taste. Conclusion must be recorded in your workbook.

280

Homework Research about the making of Umqombothi and compare it with your results or findings. I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 9 Announced observation: No Location of class: Middle of admin block Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 7th September II Contextual background and activities Teacher designs investigation in such a way that it can encourage learner discovery of information. Learners perform guided discovery in group- activities. They investigated the inclusion of IK in their own environment, e.g. making of a home-made bread. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 3. In this lesson, student‟s exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

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IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 3 X 4

282

13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

283

Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

I Background information Name of teacher: Participant 10 Announced observation: No Location of class: Back block next to toilets Subject observed: Life Sciences Grade 12 Date observed: 10th September II Contextual background and activities Teacher shows willingness to incorporate and was actively participating in professional development activities. Learners interpret data in support of given explanations. III Lesson design and implementation 1. The instructional strategies and activities respected learner‟s prior knowledge and the preconceptions inherent therein.

284

Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 2. The lesson was designed to engage students as members of a learning community. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 3. In this lesson, student‟s exploration preceded formal presentation. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 4. This lesson encouraged students to seek and value alternative modes of investigation or of problem solving. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 5. The focus and direction of the lesson was often determined by ideas originating with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 IV Content Propositional knowledge. 6. The lesson involved fundamental concepts of the subject. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 7. The lesson promoted strongly coherent conceptual understanding. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 8. The teacher had a solid grasp of the subject matter content inherent in the lesson. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

285

9. Elements of abstraction (i.e. symbolic representations, theory building) were encouraged when it was important to do so. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 10. Connections with other content disciplines and/or real world phenomena were explored and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Procedural knowledge. 11. Students used a variety of means (models, drawings, graphs, concrete materials, manipulatives, etc) to represent phenomena. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 12. Students made predictions, estimations and/or hypotheses and devised means for testing them. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 13. Students were actively engaged in thought-provoking activity that often involved the critical assessment of procedures. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 14. Students were reflective about their learning. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 15. Intellectual rigor, constructive criticism, and the challenging of ideas were valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

286

V CLASSROOM CULTURE Communicative Interactions. 16. Students were involved in the communication of their ideas to others using a variety of means and media. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 17. The teacher‟s questions triggered divergent modes of thinking. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 18. There was a high proportion of student talk and a significant amount of it occurred between and among students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 19. Student questions and comments often determined the focus and direction of classroom discourse. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 20. There was a climate of respect for what others had to say. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 Student/Teacher Relationships. 21. Active participation of students was encouraged and valued. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 22. Students were encouraged to generate conjectures, alternative solution strategies, and ways of intercepting evidence. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4 23. In general the teacher was patient with students. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 2 X 3 4

287

24. The teacher acted as a resource person, working to support and enhance student investigations. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4 25. The metaphor “teacher as a listener” was very characteristic of this classroom. Never occurred 0 Very descriptive 4 0 1 X 2 3 4

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APPENDIX F: GDE Questionnaire for Life Sciences teachers

Dear Teacher

I am from the University of Johannesburg and I am currently engaged in research on

the implementation of the Life Sciences curriculum. This is research that has been

commissioned by the Gauteng Department of Education.

In this regard, I would appreciate if you would complete the enclosed questionnaire.

Please return the questionnaire to me in the stamped, addressed envelope provided.

I wish to assure you that all information obtained will remain confidential. You are not

required to provide your name.

The first 300 respondents to the questionnaire will receive support material from

Macmillan Publishers in the Quick-fix series.

Should you have any queries please feel free to contact me.

Thanking you in anticipation of your co-operation.

Yours sincerely

Dr Josef de Beer

Department of Mathematics, Science, Technology and Computer Education

Faculty of Education

University of Johannesburg

P.O. Box 524

Auckland Park

2006

Tel. 011 (559 2765)

josefdb@uj.ac.za

______________________________________________________________

Section A: Personal and School details

Mark your response by crossing the number you think is most appropriate.

Otherwise, indicate your response in the space provided.

Example: If you do not have DSTV then cross 2 as shown

Yes : 1

No : 2

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1. Where is your school located?

Township : 1

Suburb : 2

City : 3

Rural : 4

2. What is the annual school fee per learner?

Nil : 1

R1 - R200 : 2

R201 - R500 : 3

R501 - R1 000 : 4

R1001 - R 5 000 : 5

R5001 - R10 000 : 6

R 10 000+ : 7

3. How many years experience do you have teaching Life Sciences?

0 - 5 years : 1

6 - 10 years : 2

11 - 15 years : 3

15 + years : 4

4. Did you teach Grade 12 Life Sciences last year ?

Yes : 1

No : 2

5. What is/are your qualification/s to teach Life Sciences? (Cross more than one

number if necessary)

None : 1

ACE in Life Sciences : 2

Teaching diploma in Life Sciences : 3

Science degree : 4

Education degree in Life Sciences : 5

290

Honour‟s degree in science education : 6

Honour‟s degree in science : 7

Master‟s degree in science education : 8

Master‟s degree in science : 9

If other qualification, please specify: ____________________________________

6. Are you doing professional development studies in Life Sciences at the moment ?

Yes : 1

No : 2

If so, please specify your study: ____________________________________

7. How would you describe your school in terms of availability of resources for

teaching Life Sciences?

No resources : 1

Poorly resourced : 2

Adequately resourced : 3

Well-resourced : 4

8. How many Life Sciences laboratories does your school have?

0 1 2 3 4 4+

9. What percentage of your Life Sciences learners has English/Afrikaans as their first

language?

0-20% : 1

21-40% : 2

41-60% : 3

60-80% : 4

80%+ : 5

10. What is the primary medium of instruction at your school?

11. How many classes (groups) of Life Sciences learners per grade are there at your

school?

Grade 10 1 2 3 4 4+

291

Grade 11 1 2 3 4 4+

Grade 12 1 2 3 4 4+

12. What is the average number of learners in the Life Sciences classes you teach ?

0-20 learners : 1

21-30 learners : 2

31-40 learners : 3

41-50 learners : 4

50+ learners : 5

13. Do you have a laboratory assistant for Life Sciences?

YES : 1

NO : 2

Section B The following items relate to the new topics in the Life Sciences curriculum.

Mark your response by crossing the number you think is most appropriate.

Strongly disagree

Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

Uncertain

1 I feel competent at teaching the new topics 1 2 3 4 5

2 I did have exposure to the new topics through my previous studies.

1 2 3 4 5

3 I understand most of the content on the new topics 1 2 3 4 5

4 The Department of Education provided effective training in the new topics

1 2 3 4 5

5 It was a mistake to introduce the new topics 1 2 3 4 5

6 My previous teacher education studies prepared me well for the new topics

1 2 3 4 5

7 The new topics help to make science more relevant to the learner

1 2 3 4 5

8 I am familiar with the practical work on the new topics 1 2 3 4 5

292

9 The new topics are an extra burden on Life Sciences teachers

1 2 3 4 5

10

I see no reason to teach a new topic if it is not going to be examined in the national Senior Certificat examination.

1 2 3 4 5

11 I enjoy teaching the new topics 1 2 3 4 5

12 The new topics have concepts which are difficult for me to understand

1 2 3 4 5

Never Seldom Sometimes Often Very Often

13 My subject advisor/facilitator offers me suggestions on how to teach the new topics

1 2 3 4 5

14 I make use of the internet to get ideas on teaching a new topic. 1 2 3 4 5

15 I have the apparatus to do practical work on the new topics 1 2 3 4 5

16 The prescribed textbooks cover the new topics adequately 1 2 3 4 5

17 I spend more time in planning lessons to teach the new topics compared to old topics

1 2 3 4 5

18 My learners find the new topics interesting 1 2 3 4 5

19 I ask my colleagues to help me with the new topics 1 2 3 4 5

20 I need to consult numerous textbooks to prepare lessons on the new topics

1 2 3 4 5

21 I have discussions with my colleague/s on how to teach the new topics

1 2 3 4 5

You now need to rate your content knowledge of the following topics by using the

equal interval scale provided:

1 = excellent, meaning I am very knowledgeable on this topic

2 = good, meaning I have sufficient knowledge to teach this topic

3 = poor, meaning I have some knowledge but it is inadequate to teach these topics

293

4 = very poor, meaning I have serious knowledge gaps in this topic and need to

improve on this

Mark your choice by making a cross in the appropriate block

My content knowledge of the following topics is….

Excellent Good Poor Very Poor

1 Ecology/ people and the environment 1 2 3 4

2 Human anatomy and physiology 1 2 3 4 3 Plant anatomy and physiology 1 2 3 4

4 Diversity of life- plant and animal diversity and taxonomy 1 2 3 4

5 Micro-organisms 1 2 3 4 6 Cell studies 1 2 3 4 7 Population studies 1 2 3 4 8 Inheritance/ genetics 1 2 3 4

9 Molecular biology and biotechnology 1 2 3 4

10 Schwantz equation 1 2 3 4 11 Evolution and natural selection 1 2 3 4 12 DNA and protein synthesis 1 2 3 4 13 Theories of mass extinction 1 2 3 4

Section C The following items relate to your planning and preparation in Life Sciences.

Mark your response by placing a cross in the appropriate block.

Strongly disagree

Disagree Agree Strongly Agree

Uncertain

1 Writing a lesson plan is useful in helping me think about the lesson I will teach

1 2 3 4 5

2 Only new teachers should write lesson plans 1 2 3 4 5

3 When I am planning my lessons I find it useful to have discussions with my colleagues

1 2 3 4 5

4 It is okay for teachers to deviate from their written lesson plans 1 2 3 4 5

294

5 If a teacher has taught for over 10 years he/she should not have to write a lesson plan

1 2 3 4 5

6 Due to the newness of the curriculum all teachers should write lesson plans 1 2 3 4 5

7

The curriculum documents from the Department of Education is useful in telling me about the depth at which I must teach a topic

1 2 3 4 5

8 I wish I could use a simpler grid to plan my lessons 1 2 3 4 5

9 Teachers should be allowed to design their own lesson plan grids according to their ownneeds

1 2 3 4 5

10 Any lesson plan should always have a learning outcome 1 2 3 4 5

11 I wish I had more time available to plan my lessons 1 2 3 4 5

12 When planning a lesson, it is necessary to have an assessment task in mind

1 2 3 4 5

13 I only write a lesson plan because it is checked by somebody 1 2 3 4 5

14 Due to the new curriculum, teachers should plan for more practical activities in their teaching

1 2 3 4 5

15 I feel isolated when planning my lessons 1 2 3 4 5

16 Lessons need to be planned so that learners are involved in some activity 1 2 3 4 5

17 It is important to use more than one textbook in planning lessons 1 2 3 4 5

18 The National Curriculum Statement is written in language which is easy to understand

1 2 3 4 5

295

Never Seldom Sometimes Often Very Often

19 I find that I now spend more time planning for my lessons compared to the previous curriculum

1 2 3 4 5

20 I write a lesson plan 1 2 3 4 5

21 I plan my lessons so that learners from differentethnic backgrounds are conside red

1 2 3 4 5

22 When planning my lesson, I deliberately search for challenging questions to ask my learner

1 2 3 4 5

23 I make use of the internet to get ideas onhow to teach a topic 1 2 3 4 5

24

I follow a lesson plan grid which I received when I attended a Department of Education training workshop

1 2 3 4 5

25 I consult a variety of textbooks in planning my lessons 1 2 3 4 5

26 My lesson plan acts as a guide when I am teaching 1 2 3 4 5

27 When I plan my lessons I think about how my learners can be actively involved in the lesson

1 2 3 4 5

28

When planning my lesson, I consider a variety of questions at different levels of thinking to ask learners during the lesson

1 2 3 4 5

29 I use one textbook in planning my lessons 1 2 3 4 5

30 The Subject Assessment Guidelines helps me in developing appropriate assessment tasks for my learners

1 2 3 4 5

31

When planning to teach a certain topic I ask a teacher of another subject whether he/she is teaching something similar in his/her subject

1 2 3 4 5

32 When planning my lessons I look for examples which relate to the life experiences of my learners

1 2 3 4 5

33 I exchange ideas with colleagues on how best to teach a topic 1 2 3 4 5

34 The curriculum documents in Life Sciences guide me in my lesson planning

1 2 3 4 5

296

If you taught Grade 12 Life Sciences last year answer the following. Otherwise,

move on to Section D.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly

Agree Uncertain

35

I received sufficient guidelines from the Department of Education on how to prepare my learners for the Grade 12 National Senior Certificate 2008 examinations

1 2 3 4 5

36

My learners were adequately prepared for the Grade 12 National Senior Certificate 2008 examination

1 2 3 4 5

37

The Grade 12 National Senior Certificate 2008 examination was unfair as it contained some unexpected questions

1 2 3 4 5

38 The Grade 12 National Senior Certificate 2008 examination was difficult

1 2 3 4 5

39

I found it difficult to complete all topics in preparing my learners for the Grade 12 National Senior Certificate 2008 examination

1 2 3 4 5

Section D The following items relate to practical work in Life Sciences.

Mark your chosen response by placing a cross in the appropriate block.

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly

Agree Uncertain

1 I look forward to lessons where practical work is included

1 2 3 4 5

297

2 Practical work takes up too much of my teaching time

1 2 3 4 5

3 It is difficult to maintain control of learners during practical work

1 2 3 4 5

4 Scientific knowledge is a well-organized of facts 1 2 3 4 5

5 Practical work serves no purpose if learners do not obtain appropriate results

1 2 3 4 5

6 Science involves discovering new things about the world

1 2 3 4 5

7

I prefer my learners to design their own investigations (Note: Design means to decide upon the apparatus and arrive at a procedure to be followed)

1 2 3 4 5

8 I have much expertise doing science investigations

1 2 3 4 5

9

Science investigations help my learners to develop experimental process skills

1 2 3 4 5

10

My head of department supports the way in which practical work is done in my class

1 2 3 4 5

11 The purpose of doing an investigation is to confirm theory

1 2 3 4 5

12 I feel confident teaching lessons where learners do science investigations

1 2 3 4 5

13

For learners to do science investigations, the teacher needs to give clear procedures on what to do.

1 2 3 4 5

14 Science investigation activities are difficult to manage

1 2 3 4 5

15 My learners derive more benefit from doing a science investigation than

1 2 3 4 5

298

me demonstrating the practical to them

16 Scientific knowledge is stable and unchanging 1 2 3 4 5

17 My learners are capable of planning their own investigations

1 2 3 4 5

18

When making a hypothesis for an investigation learners are required to look for a pattern in the data they collect

1 2 3 4 5

19

Sometimes I am unclear on how to formulate a hypothesis for an investigation

1 2 3 4 5

20

My learners are quite competent at doing science investigations with little guidance from me

1 2 3 4 5

21

The management of my school could do more to support me in implementing the investigative approach to practical work

1 2 3 4 5

22

Most learners are capable of formulating a hypothesis for an investigation

1 2 3 4 5

NEVER: 1 SELDOM: 2 SOMETIMES: 3 OFTEN: 4 VERY OFTEN: 5

Never Seldom Sometimes Often Very Often

24 My learners enjoy practical work 1 2 3 4 5

25 I try the practical work myself when preparing for the lesson 1 2 3 4 5

26 My learners do science investigations/inquiry 1 2 3 4 5

27 My learners know how to identify variables in a science investigation

1 2 3 4 5

299

28

My learners use practical lessons as an opportunity to engage in casual chat on something unrelated to science

1 2 3 4 5

29 My learners follow my lab rules 1 2 3 4 5

30 I borrow apparatus from other schools 1 2 3 4 5

31 The lesson time allocated is adequate for my learners to do practical work

1 2 3 4 5

32 I do practical demonstrations 1 2 3 4 5

33 My learners take a lot of time to settle down before starting with the practical work

1 2 3 4 5

34 I give learners a worksheet with instructions to follow when they do practical work

1 2 3 4 5

35 I have discipline problems during practical work 1 2 3 4 5

36

My learners conduct science investigations (Note: Conduct means they follow a procedure, and manipulate apparatus to collect data)

1 2 3 4 5

37

When I need lab equipment and chemicals the management of my school makes funds available for the purchase of these

1 2 3 4 5

38

I give learners the experimental data and ask them to analyze it rather than asking them to do the practical themselves

1 2 3 4 5

39 My learners are willing to come and complete a practical during the lunch break or after school

1 2 3 4 5

40 With the new curriculum, I now include more practical activities in my teaching

1 2 3 4 5

41 I give my learners research projects involving practical work to do at home

1 2 3 4 5

42 I have learners working in groups during practical work 1 2 3 4 5

43

If my learners need more time to complete a practical, another teacher grants me the extra time from his/her lesson

1 2 3 4 5

44 The length of the lesson makes 1 2 3 4 5

300

it difficult for

45

My learners are well behaved when they are doing practical work my learners to do practical work in class

1 2 3 4 5

46

It is more effective for the teacher to explain a concept rather than having learners gain understanding of the concept through practical

1 2 3 4 5

Section E The following items relate to indigenous knowledge in Life Sciences. Indigenous

knowledge systems (IKS) in the South African context refers to a body of knowledge

embedded in African philosophical thinking and social practices that have evolved

over thousands of years. For example, there exists indigenous knowledge on the

medicinal use of plants by cultural groups. Mark your response by placing a cross in

the appropriate block.

STRONGLY DISAGREE: 1 DISAGREE: 2 AGREE: 3 STRONGLY AGREE:4

UNCERTAIN: 5

Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Strongly

Agree Uncertain

1 The indigenous knowledge of people needs to be recognized

1 2 3 4 5

2 Indigenous knowledge can be related to some of the topics I teach

1 2 3 4 5

3 My learners are willing to talk about their customs and traditions

1 2 3 4 5

4 Discussions on indigenous knowledge take up too much time

1 2 3 4 5

5

By referring to indigenous knowledge science becomes more relevant to my learners

1 2 3 4 5

6 My learners are willing to relate their customs and traditions to the concept

1 2 3 4 5

301

being taught

7

Indigenous knowledge that my learners possess interferes with the learning of science

1 2 3 4 5

8 I welcome any new views on science phenomena

1 2 3 4 5

9

Learners do not understand science concepts because they want to cling to their indigenous

1 2 3 4 5

10 Science explains all natural phenomena completely

1 2 3 4 5

11 People from all cultures contribute to scientific knowledge

1 2 3 4 5

12

I prefer my learners not to have any existing beliefs when I introduce a new concept

1 2 3 4 5

13 Learners points of view must be respected 1 2 3 4 5

14 Science is an integral part of social and cultural exaggerated

1 2 3 4 5

15 The importance of indigenous knowledge is exaggerated

1 2 3 4 5

16

There is little connection between indigenous knowledge and western science

1 2 3 4 5

17 Ideas for science research come from indigenous knowledge

1 2 3 4 5

18 I understand what is meant by indigenous knowledge

1 2 3 4 5

19 Indigenous knowledge is often in conflict with western science

1 2 3 4 5

20

I have sufficient knowledge on indigenous knowledge systems to incorporate

1 2 3 4 5

302

this into my lessons

Please use the space below or attach a separate sheet of paper to comment on the

new Life Sciences curriculum.

PLEASE WRITE YOUR DETAILS AND NAME OF YOUR SCHOOL IN THE SPACE

PROVIDED, SHOULD YOU WISH TO RECEIVE THE MACMILLAN SUPPORT

MATERIAL

NAME OF EDUCATOR:

_________________________________________________

TELEPHONE NUMBER: 1. HOME _____________________

2. WORK ------------------------------------

SCHOOL:__________________________________________

SHOULD I HAVE ANY FOLLOW-UP QUESTIONS WILL YOU BE AVAILABLE FOR

AN INTERVIEW?

YES NO

Thank you for taking the time to complete this questionnaire!

303

APPENDIX G: SCRIPT ANALYSIS

Life Sciences: Script Analysis

Question nr :_4.3______________________________

_

Cognitive level :___________________________________

__

Scri

pt

Afr

ika

an

s/En

glis

h (

A/E

)

Stu

den

t M

ark

Lack

of

kno

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dg

e

Lack

of

ap

plic

ati

on

Mis

con

cep

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n (

iden

tify

)

Lack

of

term

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log

y

Lack

of

gra

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ing

ski

lls

Ca

nn

ot

hyp

oth

esiz

e

Mis

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on

Mis

calc

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n

Lim

ited

lan

gu

ag

e p

rofi

cien

cy

Ca

nn

ot

dra

w t

ab

le

Lack

of

Pro

ble

m S

olv

ing

ski

ll

Po

or

exa

min

ati

on

tec

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iqu

e

Tim

e M

an

ag

emen

t

Oth

er

Co

mm

ents

6E+05 E 2 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 2E+06 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM

304

6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM

6169 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 1E+06 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 1E+06 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM

6E+05 E 5 K A CH INT G.EXM

6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 2 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 2E+06 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 2 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM

6E+05 E 4 K A CH INT G.EXM

6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 2E+06 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM

6E+05 E 3 K A CH INT G.EXM

2E+06 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM

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6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 6E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 A. 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 A 1 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 A 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 A 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM 5E+05 E 0 LK LA CNH M.INT P.EXM

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APPENDIX H: LETTER TO LIMPOPO PROVINCE

307

308

APPENDIX I: RESPONSE FRON LIMPOPO DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

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APPENDIX J: LETTER TO MOPANI DISTRICT

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APPENDIX K: RESPONSE FROM MOPANI DISTRICT

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APPENDIX L: LETTER TOTHABINA CIRCUIT

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APPENDIX M: RESPONSE FROM THABINA CIRCUIT

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APPENDIX N: LETTER TO SHILUVANE CIRCUIT

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APPENDIX O: RESPONSE FROM SHILUVANE CIRCUIT

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APPENDIX P: LETTER TO KHUDJWANE CIRCUIT

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APPENDIX Q: RESPONSE FROM KHUDJWANE CIRCUIT

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APPENDIX R: RESPONSE FROM PHUSELA

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APPENDIX : S EXAMPLES OF IK THAT COULD BE USED IN CLASSROOM

1. Socio-cultural activities

(a) The mopani worm (Imbrassia belina)

Particular societies have cultural, economic and spiritual practices or activities that

can complement the teaching of Life Sciences. One of the activities which is

performed by people in Limpopo and Mpumalanga is the harvesting of mopani

worms (Imbrassia belina) as a source of food. From a cultural point of view the

mopani worm is probably the most important insect in Southern Africa (Toms,

Thogwane & Lithole, 2009). This worm has great potential to be used as an icon in

the teaching of indigenous knowledge, sustainable harvesting, conservation and

food security.

Figure .1: The Imbrassia belina moth. Source: Van Wyk, 2005.

In Figure .1, the large and attractive moth can be seen, ready to lay eggs on the bark

and leaves of the mopani (Colophospermum mopane) tree. As one of the most

spectacular and well-known insects, it forms part of the Big 12 of African insects.

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Figure .2: Small mopani worms hatched from eggs Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/imbrasia-belina.

In Figure .2, small worms hatched from the eggs, feed on mopani leaves and mould

a few times before they reach maturity and are ready to be harvested.

Figure 3: Worms not harvested Source: http://natavillage.typad.com/shared/image.html?/photos/uncateg.

In Figure 3, the worms that have not been harvested leave the tree and pupate

underground. The life cycle is completed when the adult moth emerges from the

pupae, mate and lay eggs.

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Figure 4: Women from community carrying mopani worms after harvest Source: Adapted from www.iscanmyfood.com//hd/index.php?t=Imrasia+belina.

In Figure 4, women from the community are carrying mopani worms after the

harvest. These worms are ready to be processed. The women are going to squeeze

out the inner contents and make huge fire to dry the worms. These edible insects are

considered a delicatessen by many South Africans.

The mopani worm is also known as Mashonsha, Masonja or Amasonja. These

worms form the basis of a multi-million rand trade in edible insects providing a

livelihood for many harvesters, traders and their families. Masonja is a healthy and

nutritious food that can be used as a source of protein in a balanced diet.

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Figure 5: Dried mopani worms sold by community members Source: Phillips & Rix, 1988.

Community members sell mopani worms on the streets in order to generate an

income for their families as Masonja have both nutritious and economic value. In

Limpopo and Mpumalanga in particular, mopani worms contribute to economic

growth.

Figure 6: Protein-rich mopani worms are cooked and ready for consumption Source: Phillips & Rix,1988.

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In Figure 6, protein-rich mopani worms are cooked, delicious and ready for

consumption (Phillips & Rix, 1988).

The value, harvesting and uses of mopani worms therefore form part of the

indigenous knowledge that can be brought into the classroom and taught to learners.

The mopani worm and the associated IK could be incorporated in various sections of

the Life Sciences school curriculum: as an example of a complete metamorphosis, or

when discussing balanced diets as part of human nutrition curriculum. The irony is

that the silk worm, which is exotic, is most often used as an example of an insect

with complete metamorphosis. Yet, many South African learners will relate so much

more to the mopani worm.

Research conducted in the Limpopo Province by Toms, Thogwana and Lithole

(2003) established that there are many people, including school science and biology

teachers, who simply do not know the life cycle of the mopani worm. They find this

alarming because harvesting Mashonzha without knowledge of the life cycle is like

trying to farm with maize without knowing that it is necessary to plant seeds. Most of

learners could not associate the worms with the butterfly. Even some of the teachers

had forgotten that Mopani worms are part of the life cycle of this particular moth.

Teachers in Mpumalanga or Limpopo could effectively refer to this very important

economic activity in their regions when explaining, for example, metamorphosis or

human nutrition. Such a constructivist approach builds on learners‟ prior knowledge

and might make science more relevant for learners. It also addresses some of the

developmental outcomes in the NCS, namely career opportunities and

entrepreneurial skills.

(b). The marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) and marula beer Each year from January to March, frenzied fruit picking takes place in a community

of Phalaborwa in Limpopo as residents enjoy the harvest of marula fruit (Sclerocarya

birrea). During the harvest time, young boys push wheelbarrows filled with marula

fruit, women balance full sacks of marula on their heads and people drive bakkies

loaded with marula (Babalwa, 2010). Most animals like to eat marula fruit, and it was

discovered that overeating on this fruit can make them drunk.

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Figure 7: Ripe marula fruit ready for harvesting

Marula fruit is used to make jam, fruit juice, body lotion and beer. It is also used as

an ingredient in cakes and other recipes. A commercial alcoholic drink, Amarula

Cream, is made from the marula fruit (Van Wyk, 2005).

Figure 8: Ripe marula fruit

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One can ask the question whether sufficient credit (and compensation) has been

given to the indigenous knowledge and intellectual property of local people. The

answer is a definite No. Amarula has been a traditional drink for decades prior to its

commercialisation. When the Amarula drink became commercialised there was no

attempt to compensate indigenous people for their intellectual property.

This dilemma was also illustrated by the commercialisation of Hoodia (see later). In

both cases (marula and Hoodia), various communities possess this IK. How does

one decide which communities hold the intellectual property rights? These examples

make it clear that there are many ethical issues associated with IKS.

During the months of January to March the fruit is harvested. Different cultural

groups collect large quantities of ripe fruit for a variety of uses. This is an exciting

time for people because they say the fruit brings life and excitement to the

community for cream making.

Figure 9: Ripe marula fruit ready to be used as ingredient in perfume, body lotion, beer and juice

Ripe marula fruit has a light yellow colour with a tough skin enclosing white watery

fibrous flesh and a large stone. The fruit is used to make products such as perfume,

beer and juice. The oil extracted from the fuit is used for moking body lotion while the

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flesh is separated from the skin before it is fermented under similar conditions as

wine at Distell‟s cellars in Stellenbosch. The skin of the fuit can be boiled to make a

delicious drink or even burnt to make homemade coffee.

Figure 10: Each community brews its own brand of marula beer

Men and women brew their own special brand of marula beer. Women from the

community are hired to be part of the Amarula Cream production line during the

marula harvest season.This forms part of job creation and poverty alaviation

process.

In Life Sciences, anaerobic respiration is taught to learners. Teachers in Limpopo

and Mpumalanga, where marula trees grow, can therefore provide learners with the

opportunity to brew a marula drink, illustrating fermentation processes. A prompt

sheet such as the following may be useful:

Steps on how to make a traditional marula drink

Pick up ripe yellow marula fruit that have fallen from a marula tree.

Wash the fruit and peel off the hard outer cover. Put the fleshy seed in a

container and stir until the flesh is separated from the seed. You will now have

a thick mixture of marula flesh.

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Squeeze the mixture to separate the hard shells of seed from the mixture.

You will now have thick juicy flesh.

Pour a little water into the container. Stir while adding water until it changes to

a liquid.

Cover with a clean cloth and leave for one or two days.

Uncover the container. Take out the fleshy part that remains on top of the

container while the water settles at the bottom.

Put the mixture in a cool place or refrigerator to chill. The mixture is now ready to

drink.

If the mixture is covered with a tight lid and left for seven days or more in a

warm place, fermentation will take place and juice will turn into marula beer.

This aspect could be highlighted while discussing anaerobic fermentation in

the Life Sciences class.

Today, Amarula Cream is enjoyed in more than 100 countries and its production is

surprisingly modest and community-based. The brewing can be brought to the

classroom as this is alcoholic fermentation or anaerobic respiration in operation. This

aspect could also be dealt with when studying enzymes. This is the indigenous

knowledge which is long known from home, and learners can be assisted to

integrate this with the work done at school. Fermentation is fermentation, be it at

home or at school. Many learners have observed this process at home; now the

teacher can explain the fermentation process in yeast cells and how this good-

tasting alcoholic beverage is produced commercially. This constructivist way of

teaching might illustrate to learners how science is used in our daily lives.

The nuts inside the fleshy fruit can be eaten raw as they are rich in protein. They can

also be crushed and added to green morogo or vegetables to make it more tasty and

delicious. Extracted oils from the nuts can be used in cosmetics or as a therapeutic

body massage oil. Venda people in the Limpopo province use the oil for the

preservation of meat for future use. Sangomas use the bark of the marula tree for

medical purposes. Medicinal ethnobotany is discussed in Paragraph 2.4.3 (a) on

page 31.

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(c) Sorghum beer At cultural or traditional festivities like rain-making ceremonies, first fruit festivities

and weddings traditional beer made from sorghum, millet and, more recently,

mealies are served. Beer is deeply interwoven with African cultural life. Most Africans

use it during their yearly rituals and say it is very nutritious and healthy for the body.

The sorghum plant (Sorghum bicolor) (family Poaceae) is an example of a

monocotyledonous plant, and this indigenous plant is normally used for the making

of porridge and other cereals. This plant is also used in African beer making and can

be brought to the class because most learners know it well from their homes.

Figure 11: The sorghum plant falls under monocotyledonous plants Source: Wittenborn, 2010.

Sorghum falls under the monocotyledonous plants, and is used as staple food by

South Africans in their everyday life.

Ripe sorghum is put in water for few days, taken out and put in a warm place for a

few days to start germinating. It is then put in the sun to dry and is eventually used

to make umthombo mmila or mohlaba (grainded sorghum granules) which is used to

make African beer.

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Steps in making African beer

Grind the dried sorgham grains until it becomes a powder known as

umthombo mmila or mohlaba.

Mix the mmila with luke warm water and a little mealie meal. Close the

container tightly and leave for three days.

Cook in a cast-iron pot in an open fire until ripe. It will now look like soft

porridge called leseleba and left to cool.

Mix again with mohlaba or umthombo mmila and a little warm water and then

store in a covered container.

Leave for two to three days to ferment, i.e sugar will be converted into alcohol

and corbon dioxide.

Wait until turns sour, makes bubbles and changes into liquid.

The liguid is drained or filtered to remove mmila and any solids. It is now

ready to drink. The beer has a creamy colur and only 2 % alcohol. It is

believed that the beer is rich in nutrients and is good for diabetes and high

blood pressure. This home industry provides an income to millions of African

women. A study conducted in South Africa found that plus or minus 80 % of

rural women brewed the beer and 50 % of them brewed for sale at some point

in their lives.

As already mentioned, anaerobic fermentation is taught in the Life Sciences

curriculum. A teacher can start with this indigenous knowledge as the foundation in

class as learners‟ prior knowledge serves as a good starting point for abstract

curriculum work. Ask learners about the methods used at home; each one will

probably give a different view and describe different methods used at home. In

education it is said that teachers should start with the known and progress towards

the unknown. The inclusion of indigenous knowledge on can stimulate learners‟

interest in the topic (respiration).

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Figure 12: Ripe sorghum is picked from the fields for home use Source: Dave Wittenborn, 2010.

Practical applications of knowledge in the local community, where IKS is rationalised

and strategically employed, should take centre stage in the school curriculum

planning. Experiences that learners bring to the classroom are an important

component of the learning equation.

(e) Indigenous trees South Africa is blessed with rich and diverse flora. Indigenous trees species are

widely spread thrugh the country. Examples include the wild fig, Mopani tree,

marula tree,etc. the trees are normally used by Africans for food, medical purposes,

wood, development and farms.

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Figure 13: Clusters of mopani trees (Colophospermum) in the Phalaborwa part of Limpopo Source: Phillips & Rix, 1988.

The mopani tree is an indigenous plant from which people normally harvest mopani

worms. This is one of the big trees that can be found in Botswana, the northern parts

of South Africa and Namibia. The trees are well adapted to bushy, rocky areas and

are normally interspersed with other trees like the baobab (Van Wyk & Nigel, 2003).

In arid (dry) regions, the tree grows to the size of a bush but when water is abundant

it can reach heights of 25 meters. Mopani trees are characterised by their butterfly-

shaped leaves which are bright green at first and then turn into a beautiful

kaleidoscope of autumn colours (Van Wyk et al., 2000).

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From December to January, the tree bears inconspicuous small yellow-green flowers

in pendent clusters near twig terminals. Flattened and leathery pods which are

almost kidney-shaped are produced by the tree. The fruits are green while young

and contain one wrinkle flat dotted with sticky resin glands (Van Wyk, 2003). Fruiting

occurs from April to June. The fruits retain their nutritional value after they have

fallen to the ground. Both leaves and fruits are rich in proteins and are enjoyed by

elephants fond of all the parts of the tree. The tree is regarded as the host of mopani

worms (Imbresia belina) and the larvae of the mopani moths (Gonimbrasia belina)

which feed on the leaves.

It is also used for metaphysical (magical) practices, which form part of traditional

healing among many communities. During an interview with the researcher, a

female traditional healer, Raesetja, said: “The tree is very much important to us as it

supplies us with masonja / amasonja (mopani worms) for our families to survive. We

normally use the barks and the roots for medicinal purposes. The young bark is

lightly to dark grey in colour with very prominent longitudinal fissures while old stems

are very light-grey. They are normally used to strengthen the households

traditionally. In the African tradition during specific months as a traditional healer I

sprinkle and bury some medicines mixed with the barks around the yard and the

house with an aim of keeping bad spells away. Every year during that specific month

the traditional man comes again to revise or update what he has done the previous

year. The reason why we do it annually is because we think the evil-doers might

have come up with another plan. People try to remain ahead of the witches. The idea

is that when those people come during the night with their miracles, they should

either get hurt or lost”.

This, of course, poses a challenge to the Life Sciences teacher. As a result of these

metaphysical properties, IK and traditional healing are often marginalised as pseudo-

science. It is important for teachers to clearly distinguish between herbalism (and

scientific evidence for it) and “paljas” or magic.

Exploitation of such plants should be avoided at all costs as it will affect the

abundance of mopani worms. If the exploitation should continue this tree might

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become extinct. This should be emphasised to learners in class as some of them

probably helped their parents with harvesting and processing.

The marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) species caffera is one of Africa‟s botanical

treasures that bear fruits and nuts that can be eaten by all herbivores and that are

rich in vitamin C and minerals. Most trees form a component of the mixed vegetation

of the savannah or bush that covers the lower slopes of the plateau and lowveld of

Mpumalanga and Limpopo, including the Kruger National Park (Van Wyk et al.,

2000). The tree can grow 18 to 20 meters tall and is adapted to grow on sandy loam

soils. It produces its flowers from September to November while bearing fruits from

January to March (Van Wyk, 2003). The tree is normally dioecious, i.e. have a

specific gender. Both fruits and leaves are enjoyed by wild animals such as

waterbuck, giraffe, kudu, warthog and elephants.

Figure 14: A marula tree Source: Photographic Trees of Southern Africa, Van Wyk B et al.

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The marula tree also has uses in traditional practices, as described by the female

traditional healer, Raesetja: “The stem of the marula tree is used for the carving of

sculptures, making mahudu, mose used for grinding mealies at home and other

wooden utensils. It can also be used to make fire as it can retain heat for a longer

period during winter months when cooking winter dishes like stamp, dikgobe (mixture

of cowpeas and beans) and other dishes. The bark facing the eastern side is used to

cure makgoma (the swelling of the stomach after a person has entered the room

were the corpse was placed before the funeral).

During the interviews for this study, an elderly man, Lefoke, added: “The inner side

of the bark is used to make rope to tie wood, pieces of medicine, muti and other

substances while the other parts are used for medicinal purposes.” The old man

further said: “As it contains antihistamines it is used for cleansing by putting the plant

material, i.e. the inner parts, in boiling water and inhaling the steam. A piece of the

bark can be crushed into a pulp, mixed with cold water and swallowed for the

treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. It can also be used as malaria prophylactic as

our place is liked by mosquitoes that causes it. Some people combine the barks,

bulb of other tuberous plants and give to a woman to change the sex of the coming

baby.”

Another interviewee, Mmola, added that “there is a belief among Venda people that

the bark infusions can be used to determine the gender of an unborn child. Grinded

bark from the male tree to form powder is used if a woman is in need of a son and

female tree for a daughter. If it happens that the child of the opposite gender be

born, that child is said to be very special as it was able to defy the spirits. Sex of the

tree can be easily determined when the tree loses its leaves during winter, exposing

its stubby, finger-like branch tips.”

The prevention of deforestation and the conservation of these indigenous trees and

plants will help to preserve them for generations to come. The marula tree

(Sclerocarya birrea) can live up to 100 years. Hence, it is held with much regard in

the community. Members of the community enjoy sitting under the tree and normally

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hold their important gatherings, like kgoro (imbizo) or court meetings, under these

trees, with the traditional leader acting as a judge. The marula tree is valued by all

people in the community and if one sees a tree being cut down it is an indication that

the community is under pressure.

(f) Indigenous greens, leaves and wild fruits as nutritious food One of South Africa‟s most popular and useful herbaceous plants is the African

potato (Hypoxis hemerocalidea) which is hairy, purple in colour, and bears a bulbous

corm. It is an indigenous plant which is used by indigenous people as a laxative and

as a way to increase the body‟s natural resistance to diseases. It is believed to help

heal many diseases because of the sterol extracted from it and used to boost the

body‟s immune system by stimulating the T-cells which act as fighters against

diseases.

In Africa, an estimated 70% of edible plants are used either as food or as medication

(Nesamvuni, 2000). Different wild plants and cultivated traditional crops provide

edible leaves, seeds, fruits, flower, roots and tubers that enrich a starch-based diet

with important nutrients. As food production tradition, multi-cropping is a common

practice that includes various leafy vegetables. Food plants that are used mainly for

their leaves are collectively referred as morogo in Sepedi/Setswana and may either

be indigenous or naturalised in their growing areas. A variety of these plants that are

utilised as morogo are found mainly in the Limpopo and North West provinces of

South Africa. The distribution of the variety of wild merogo (plural of morogo) is

largely dictated by the geographical climate and seems to play a role in the cultural

taste preferences for particular vegetables (Science for South Africa Quest 6(2),

2010). This is also the indigenous knowledge which needs to be transferred to

learners in class.

Certain micronutrient deficiencies are common in South African diets. Mothers and

grandmothers know best when they tell their children to eat their veggies

(Nesamvuni & Steyn, 2000). Two recent research studies undertaken in the Limpopo

province proved this wisdom. Nesamvuni‟s research and the University of Limpopo‟s

Indigenous Edible Plant Programme found that wild green leafy vegetables are rich

sources of the vitamins and minerals that our bodies need. Certain cultures have a

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great knowledge of indigenous plants that can also be brought to learners.

Researchers acknowledged that Venda people have a wealth of knowledge about

various types of indigenous plants commonly known as green leafy vegetables

(miroho) that are used extensively. Wild plants are very rich in carotene, from which

vitamin A is derived. Even the poorest can use these plants and benefit from their

micronutrients. According to research findings, wild plants are a rich source of

micronutrients and a powerful weapon against malnutrition.

Most of the learners know plants from home but cannot necessarily connect this

knowledge to lessons about nutrition in their Life Sciences classroom. This needs to

be addressed in the Life Sciences classroom.

(g) Well-known leafy vegetables or morogo

Cowpea or dinawa (Vigna unguiculata) is one of the most cultivated vegetables in

South Africa. It can be used as both leafy vegetable and pulse crop (sometimes with

seeds growing in pods / pod-bearing crop / legume). The plant is known to have low

water requirements and is found in semi-humid to warm areas where water is scarce

and only ash from fires or kraal manure is used to enrich the soil. It can also act as a

natural fertiliser with the aid of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria in its root system.

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are bacteria that absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere and

chemically change it into a form that can be used by plants as a nutrient. It enriches

the soil with “originally produced” nitrogen to enhance the productivity of other

vegetables or grain when grown together (Science for South Africa Quest 6(2),

2010). Once again, when the Life Sciences teacher teaches the nitrogen cycle, this

can be a very useful example to use. Dry cowpea seeds are also stored and are

popular in cooked dishes like dikgobe in winter.

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Figure 15: Thebe (Amaranthus hydrides), a popular green leafy vegetable Source: Van Wyk, 2005.

Corchorus tridens (kushe, a Pedi name) or delele lupfumo (a Venda name) is rich in

proteins and is harvested in summer by picking only green leaves. It has a slimy

texture when cooked and the leaves are rich in betacarotine, iron, calcium and

vitamin C.

Figure 16: Corchorus tridens ready to be picked from the garden Source: Schippers, 2008.

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Another well-known leafy vegetable that can be found in the wild, but which may be

grown as a crop in home gardens, is lerotho or spider flower (Cleome gynandra). Its

leaves and flowers are cooked with other vegetables to reduce the plant‟s bitter

taste. Lerotho is an African traditional vegetable.

Cleome gyndra – which is commonly known as African cabbage, spider wisp

(English), oorpeultje or snotbelletjies (Afrikaans), Morotho (Pedi) or Moruthu (Venda)

– is a good source of beta-carotene, potassium and zinc. Many people like to eat

African cabbage, and women normally sell it on the street for a profit. It is used as a

vegetable to add important nutreints to the diet of people in the rural areas of

Southern Africa.

Figure 17: Cleome gyndra is picked to consume or to sell Source: Science for South Africa Quest 6(2), 2010.

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Table 1: Wild nutritious plants commonly eaten by people in the Limpopo area

Scientific name African plant name Edible parts Type

Amaranthus

esculentus

Thelele, Delele,

Ligusha

Leaves, flowers Weedy, natural

flora

Amaranthus hybridus Thepe, Thebe Leaves, flowers Weedy, natural

flora

Amaranthus

standleyanus

Vowa Leaves Weedy, natural

flora

Bidens pilosa Moshitsi, Mushidzhi Leavea, flowers Weedy

Citrullus lanatus Mochacha,

Makataan

Leaves Crop

Cleome gynandra Murudi, Lerotho Leaves, flowers Weedy, natural

flora, crop

Cleome monophyll Mutohotoho Leaves Weedy

Cleome maxima Thaga, Phuri Leaves, flower,

fruit

Crop

Corchorus tridens Lekushe, Delele

lupfumo

Leaves, flowers,

fruits

Crop

Curcurbita sp Dithaka, Thanga Leaves, flowers,

fruits

Crop

Momordica foetida Nku, Nngu Leaves Weedy, natural

flora

Solanum retroflexum Muxe Leaves Weedy

Source: Adapted from Archemedes 43(1) 2001/23 and Science for South Africa

Quest 6(2) 2010.

Wild figs (Figus platypoda) are edible fruit eaten as “bushfood” or “veldkos”. They are

extremely important food resources for wildlife and are also of paramount cultural

importance throughout the tropics, both as objects for worship and for their many

practical uses. Important meetings and cours are held under fig trees. This is also

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where elderly people can sit, relax and share knowledge. Fig trees have also

profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. It is an indigenous

species of the rain forest and a key resource for wild animals.

Figure 18: Wild ripe fig fruit ready to be eaten Source: Van Wyk, 2005.

The nutritious wild prickle pear (Opuntia) can be brought to class and form part of the

learning content. The fruit contain betalatin antioxidants and is rich in glucose. The

fruit is obtained from the prickle pear plant (Opuntia phaecantha) which is also

known as nopales or paddle cactus, which is a genus in the cactus family,

Cactaceae.

The plant normally grows into a dense, tangled structure that has flat, round

platyclades that are characterised by two different types of spines: large and smooth

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fixed spines and small, hair-like prickles called glochids. Small prickles can easily

penetrate into the skin and detach from the main plant.

Figure 19: The prickly pear with its fleshy leaves and thorns Source: Adapted from http://en.Wikipedia.org/file.

With the present crises in food production in Africa there is a clear need to build IK

into the curriculum, and to empower people to make sustainable use of their natural

environment. A different culture in education can use its experiences to form an

important component of the learning equation. The importance of traditional

knowledge for the protection of biodiversity and sustainable development is slowly

being recognised internationally (Semeli & Kincheloe, 1999).