teacher militancy and instructional media

Teacher Militancy and Instructional Medid

P A U L D A W S O N

Contractual negotiations between teacher groups and school boards have already had significant impact on the public schools. At first concerned primarily with welfare provisions, contractual negotiations have moved steadily toward policy matters affecting instructional programs. For this reason, and because of the current struggle for adequate funds, the following study of teacher-negotiator attitudes toward instructional media is important. The attitudes expressed by both NEA and AFT leaders are no doubt related to available money and to con- trol over the classroom. Perhaps ominously, students preparing to be teachers have attitudes that are strikingly similar to those held by leaders of organized teacher groups in regard to instructional media. One might also view with mixed feelings the finding that both NEA and AFT leaders felt that, in the future, instructional media will fall with increasing frequency within the context of collective negotiations.--Editor

1 This article was made possible through a grant from the U.S. Office of Education (BEPD), Contract No. OEG-o-9-~4437-18~9~-725. The research was conducted under the direction of the author in cooperation with the NSMI consortium, including: Syracuse University, Michigan State Uni- versity, the University of Southern California, and Teaching Research Di- vision of the Oregon State System of Higher Education.

Paul Dawson is assistant professor, Oregon State System of Higher Educa- tion, Monmouth.

VOL. I9, NO. 2, SUMMER z97I I 8 4

TEACHER MILITANCY AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA : "r8 5

DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLES

Teacher militancy is widely recognized as a major growing force in American education. The impact of this movement has become strikingly apparent in recent years, and indications are that professional teacher organizations will continue to exert a significant influence on school policies and practices in this country during the coming years.

The potential influence of professional teacher groups is not limited simply to matters of salaries and fringe benefits, although these must surely remain areas of vital concern to teachers. Instead, there is mounting evidence that teachers and their organization representatives are becoming increasingly involved in shaping school policies in virtually all aspects of education, and the area of instructional media is certainly no excep- tion. This suggests that leaders in the field of instructional media should develop a greater sensitivity to teacher militancy and to the impact this movement may have on the future of their field.

To shed light on the possible effects which teacher militancy might have in this field, the author and his colleagues conducted a survey of attitudes of teacher organization leaders toward aspects of instructional media. This research, a portion of which is presented in this article, involved a national survey of Ameri- can Federation of Teachers (AFT) and National Education As- sociation (NEA) leaders in 47 states. The survey included interviews with I67 NEA and AFT officials and the use of an attitude scaling instrument on a sample of 19o teacher organization leaders. Reference group data on the attitude test were provided through additional sampling by the author and by use of test results from research by other investigators.

The total sample of teacher organization leaders interviewed in the survey included i27 NEA representatives and 4 ~ AFT representatives. The NEA sample included 8 state presidents, z vice- presidents, 23 executive and assistant executive secretaries, 34 field representatives and field service directors, and 37 other state officials such as research directors and directors of professional services.

Interviews with the 40 AFT leaders included a sample of 4 presidents of large local chapters, so state presidents, 4 state vice-presidents, Ix field representatives or area organizers, 3 state executive secretaries, I national secretary, and 7 who held

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RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

AND

PROCEDURES

other positions such as negotiators and directors of professional services.

The same group of 267 NEA and AFT interviewees were included in a sample of 290 teacher organization leaders who responded to an attitude instrument, the Media Attitude Profile (MAP) (see Figure 2). This test was administered individually

to 5o AFT and 240 NEA leaders in state organizations in 47 states. Additional reference group data on the MAP were obtained independently from several sources.

One such reference group was a representative sample of Io 5 school principals in Oregon. These respondents were selected randomly from a complete list of elementary and secondary school principals throughout the state. The instrument was mailed individually to each administrator during the spring of 197o , with a 9 ~ percent return. A second reference group included a sample of I35 prospective teachers who were enrolled in the teacher education program at Oregon College of Educa- tion during spring term, 2970. Still a third group of respondents consisted of 58 individuals who had participated in a media training program at State College, Buffalo, New York, with test ad- ministration occurring six months following training. These individuals responded to the MAP during winter term, :[97 o. The two principal research instruments used in the survey were an interview guide and an attitude test. The interview guide consisted of a series of questions which required for the most part open-ended responses concerning teacher organization involvement in the area of instructional media. Interview items were included which provided information on the respondents' backgrounds and experiences in instructional media, as well as indications of their beliefs about teacher perceptions and priori- ties in this area. Results based on only a few of these items will be reported in this paper, with emphasis placed on findings obtained from the attitude scaling instrument, the Media Attitude Profile.

The MAP is a 57-item attitude test with items framed in a Likert-type format. Each test item provides opportunity for response variation along a bipolar continuum from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree." The MAP was designed to measure attitudes toward various aspects of instructional media, principally in five content areas, with each area corresponding

TEACHER MILITANCY AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA : I87

FIGURE I

Media Attitude Profile

Scale Values [ ] Agree

Strongly

] Moderately Agree

Neither ] Agree Nor

Disagree

] Moderately Disagree

[ ] Disagree Strongly

] Ambivalent

[ ] :i.

[] 2. [] 3"

[] 4"

[] .5.

[] 6.

[] 7'

[] 8.

[] 9'

[ ] I0 .

[ ] I I .

[ ] 3"2.

[] I3.

[] I4. [] I5.

[] *6.

[] 17.

[] 18.

[] ~9.

[ ] 20,

[ ] 2.I.

[ ] 22.

[] 2t.

[] 24.

[] 25.

[] 26. [] 27.

[ ] 28.

There is no reason for imposing limits on the use of instructional media in the schools. Technology in the classroom depersonalizes instruction. Media-assisted instruction provides materials adapted for individual needs. Media specialists are good judges of the types of equipment needed in most classrooms. Media specialists tend to promote media without really under- standing the needs of the teachers. The use of the systems approach to self-instruction has tremen- dous possibilities. Programed materials could be of value for almost every area of instruction. I think the use of media in the classroom should be greatly ex- panded. The personal relationship between teacher and student is lost when media are used. Exposure to audiovisual materials should inspire students to greater curiosity and learning. Almost every teacher could use a tape recorder for useful educational purposes. Educational TV, by taking the place of the teacher, reduces the personal relationship between the students and their own teacher. Instructional media specialists should not receive as high a salary as teachers do. The use of media makes any subject matter more interesting. The teaching of formgn languages in the elementary school lends itself particularly well to the use of AV aids. Instructional media have the capability of greatly improving instruction. The newer media tend to undermine the teacher's relationship with students. At least Io percent of every school's budget should be spent for AV materials and services. The creative student is apt to be stifled by the extensive use of AV media. Instructional media are important enough to be included with salaries in negotiations with the school board. AV materials are absolutely necessary to provide for individual &fferences in children. Audiovisual materials may be important, but I feel they have been a httle overemphasized. Instructional media specialists get paid too much for what they contribute. Instructional media show great possibilities for stimulating teacher creativity. All teachers should take a course in AV aids as part of their professional training. Audiovisual materials often make learning too superficial. Programed materials can teach simple facts even better than a teacher can. Teacher organizations should encourage teachers to negotiate for teaching aids.

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FIGURE 1 (Continued)

[] z 9. Most media specialists are educators, not gimmick salesmen. [] 3 o. Most schools are adequately equipped with media at present. [] 3 z. Teacher organizations should be informing the public about

teachers' needs for media. [] 32. Computers reduce the number of jobs available in any field, in-

cluding teaching. [] 33. Teachers work harder than necessary because of the lack of equip-

ment and materials in most classrooms. [] 34- Videotape recorders should hold an important place in the schools

of the future. [] 35. Teachers feel that the purchasing of media diverts a lot of money

from salaries. [] 36. Most schools need at least one audiovisual coordinator. [] 37. Mass production methods invariably result in a loss of quality. [] 38. . Media specialists actively help teachers achieve their educational

objectives. [] 39. I think most concepts can be taught better through certain types

of audiovisual materials than by a teacher's explanation. [] 4 o. Media specialists are trying to build their own little empires. [] 42. Wider use of existing AV aids is needed. [] 42. Teachers, when using media, lose some of their importance in the

classroom setting. [] 43. Teacher organizations should take partial responsibility for edu-

cating teachers about instructional media. [] 44. Media specialists know their own field, but not much about the

different fields of teaching. [] 45. There are no frontiers in new educational media--just new

gadgets. [] 46. The possible uses of AV equipment are limited primarily by the

imagination of the person applying them. [] 47. Compared to other ways of teaching, the use of AV materials re-

quires too much extra work. [] 48. I feel that AV aids are often used as a crutch by poor teachers. [] 49. Computers do not yet have a proven value in the classroom. [] 50. Teacher organizations should negotiate with school boards for

more and better media. [] 5x. To me, the term "instructional media" has bad connotations. [] 52. The use of media in the classroom gives the teacher more time to

work with in&vidual problems. [] 53. The development of even more new AV aids is a waste of time

and money. [] 54. Recent technological advances will enhance the teacher's role in

the classroom. [] 55. Most teachers seem to be doubtful about the value of the newer

media. [] 56. Teachers perceive media as an infringement upon their teaching. [] 57. The use of media requires excess planning nine on the part of the

teachers.

TEACHER MILITANCY AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA : I89

to a test "subscale." These subscale areas include: ~) attitudes toward the relationship between media and teachers, indicated by the T-scale; 2) attitudes toward the relationship between media and students, as measured by the S-scale; 3) attitudes toward the increased future use of media in schools, the F-scale; 4) attitudes toward media specialists, on the MS-scale; and 5) attitudes toward the involvement of professional teacher organizations in the area of instructional media, indicated by the TO-scale.

In addition to the above five scale values, three other MAP scores may be derived through an analysis of test data. These are: an overall (G) score, representing a pooling of all items in the test except those in the MS- and TO-scales; a Th-scale, representing a subset of items from the T-scale; and a Dp-scale, con- sisting of a subset of items from the S-scale. The G-score from the MAP is perhaps the most important since it is regarded as an overall measure of attitudes toward instructional media. The Th-scale was designed to measure attitudes toward the possible "threat" which instructional media might pose for teachers. Items in the Dp-scale are considered to reflect attitudes toward the potential "depersonalizing" or dehumanizing effect of media on students. Higher scores on each of these test scales are interpreted to reflect more favorable or positive attitudes, while lower scores would indicate less favorable attitudes. Test scale results are interpreted in the light of reference group data rather than in terms of "absolute" or arbitrary scale values.

Table ~ represents a summary of sample test reliability information, both in terms of subtest correlations with overall (G) test scores and for test-retest reliability coefficients for a small group of college students. An overall estimate of the MAP's internal reliability, using a split half technique on odd- even items (corrected) with data from a combined sample of 945 subjects, yielded a Pearson product moment coefficient of .89. Subtest correlations with overall test scores ranged from .3 ~ for the TO-scale to highs of .85 and .86 for the T-, S-, and F-scales.

The relatively low correlations for the Th- and Dp-scores may, in part, be due to the small number of items in these subscales. The lower values for the MS- and TO-scale correlations are at- tributable to the fact that these appeared to be somewhat "in- dependent" scales, so that items from these scales were not included in computations of overall test scores, or G. Finally, an

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TABLE ~. Test

Reliability Data Scales on the Media

No. Correlation Correlation Items with G a Test-Retest b

Attitude Profile for Subtest

and Overall Test Scores

G 42 1.00 .80 T 15 .85 .58

(Th) (4) .54 .58 S 14 .86 .51

(Dp) (5) .69 .52 F 13 .85 .63 MS 10 .45 .64 TO 5 .30 .56

" N = sample size of 945 subjects b N = sample size of zzz subjects

ATTITUDE T E S T RESULTS

overall test-retest reliability of .8o was obtained on data from a sample of i x i undergraduates in Oregon, based on a ten-day interval between test administrations. Test-retest reliability coefficients for individual subscales were moderately high, ranging from .Sx to .64 for the same sample of college student

scores. The Media Attitude Profile results suggest that AFT leaders are much less favorable in their overall attitudes toward instructional media (G-scale scores) than are their counterparts in the NEA.

It is interesting to note that the AFT leaders were found to be most similar to a reference group of prospective teachers, while the NEA leaders appeared to be most like media program trainees in terms of their overall MAP scores. Test results also indicate that school administrators, at least in Oregon, are generally less favorable in their attitudes toward media than NEA representatives, although they are somewhat more favorable than the AFT leaders.

Table 2 presents a summary of overall test scores (G), as well

as the results of individual t-tests for selected group means. These data reflect a range in means on G of l a points from the highest to the lowest group, with significant differences occurring between NEA and AFT and between NEA and school administrators. No significant differences were observed in G

means between either AFT and prospective teachers or between NEA and media program trainees. Similarly, AFT leaders and school administrators were not found to differ significantly in terms of overall attitudes toward instructional media, as measured by obtained G-scale values.

TEACHER MILITANCY AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA : 19I

TABLE 2 Reference Group Means a S.D. t-test Results b

Comparisons Between

Group Means on Overall (G) Media

Attitude Profile Scores

(A) Prospective 154.20 15.71 A vs. B: t = 0.30 Teachers df = 183; p = .70 (Oregon)

(B) AFT Leaders 155.11 16.30 B vs. C: t = 0.94 (National) df = 153; p = .50

(C) School 158.13 17.56 C vs. D: t = 2.71 Administrators df = 293; p = .01 (Oregon)

(D) NEA Leaders 164.19 16.93 B vs. D: t = 2.96 (National) df = 188; p = .01

(E) Media Program 166.20 14.54 D vs. E: t = 0.77 Trainees df = 196; p = .46 (New York)

a Higher scores indicate more favorable attitudes. b Reported p values are for two-sided t-tests.

While considered to be representative for the AFT and NEA

populations, these findings may in part reflect peculiarities in

sampling, particularly with respect to the prospective teachers and the media program trainee groups. To the extent that Ore-

gon school administrators may be considered representative of

those in other states, the test results obtained for this group

might be generalized to the nation as a whole. However, it

would be interesting to obtain further field results in order to

cross-validate the findings presented in this article. With this caution in mind, further comparisons will be reported for se-

lected subscale scores on the Media Attitude Profile. Table 3 includes a composite set of test scores for each of the

five groups in terms of the eight possible MAP subscales. It is apparent that the AFT leaders and prospective teachers scored consistently lower on all but the MS- and TO-scales, which ac- counts for the fact that these two groups obtained significantly

lower overall test scores.

Further inspection of Table 3 reveals striking differences be-

tween teacher organization leaders, both AFT and NEA, and

school administrators with respect to TO-scale means. The rela-

tively low scores for the school administrators contrast sharply

with the high scores obtained by the NEA and AFT representa-

tives. These differences in attitudes indicate that while teacher

organization leaders are in favor of increased involvement by

A V C O M M U N I C A T I O N R E V I E W : :1:92

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NEA and AFT in affecting school policies and practices related to applications of instructional media, school administrators are much less favorable towards teacher organization involvement. The difference observed, applying a t-test to TO-scale means for the AFT and school administrator groups, was found to be significant beyond the .ooi level (t = I1.9o with I53 df). Given such wide differences in attitudes concerning the role of NEA and AFT in future applications of instructional media, it seems evident that the subject of instructional media could serve as a potentially important source of conflict between teacher organizers and school boards at the bargaining table.

The test data also point to the fact that AFT leaders, perhaps the more militant of teacher organization representatives, are less favorable than other groups in their attitudes toward media personnel. This is suggested by the relatively low MS-scale mean obtained by the AFT officials, particularly in relation to the mean score of the media program trainees. A t-test for the difference between these means was found to be significant beyond the .oi level, for a t-value of 3.92 with lo6 degrees of freedom. Using the media program trainees as the principal reference group, it appears that school administrators are most like these individuals in their attitudes toward media specialists, while prospective ,teachers (as with overall attitudes toward media) are more similar to AFT leaders in these attitudes. The differences between the AFT and prospective teachers, on the one hand, and media trainees and school administrators, on the other, were found to be significant beyond the .oi level in individual comparisons. These findings imply that media specialists should perhaps concern themselves with creating a more positive professional image.

In reviewing the T-scale and S-scale scores for the group data presented in Table 3, the AFT leaders are again relatively low compared to other reference groups. The T-scale scores, indicat- ing attitudes toward the effects of instructional media on teachers, and the S-scale scores, reflecting attitudes toward the effects of media on students, are both significantly higher for NEA than for AFT representatives. Again, school administrators appear to be midway between NEA and AFT leaders in their attitudes toward the effects of instructional media on teachers and students. T-scale means for NEA versus AFT were significantly different beyond the .02 level, with an obtained t-value of 2.83 and 188 degrees of freedom. Similarly, a t-value of 3.oo

A V C O M M U N I C A T I O N R E V I E W : I94

FURTHER SURVEY FINDINGS

was observed between NEA and AFT means on the S-scale, which is significant beyond the .oi level with 188 df.

Of further interest is the Th-scale, which indicates that AFT and prospective teachers both have less favorable attitudes than other groups concerning the potential threat to teachers posed by instructional media. That is, both groups apparently consid- er instructional media to be potentially more threatening to teachers than is the case for the other reference groups. While NEA leaders were observed to be similar in these attitudes to school administrators and media program trainees, a significant difference was observed between NEA and AFT means on the Th- (Threat) scale. With I88 df, the obtained t-value of 5.o6 was significant well beyond the .o~ level. This represents yet another point of difference between the two teacher organization groups, with the AFT leaders revealing the more critical and less favorable orientation.

On the Dp-scale, the items of which are a subset of the S- scale, the AFT and prospective teachers still tend to remain lower than the other groups. Although the differences appear slight, the mean difference between the prospective teachers and media trainees was found to be statistically significant beyond the .o 5 level, with a t-value of 2.21 and ~9 �9 degrees of freedom. In comparing AFT and NEA means, Dp-scale differences revealed a t-value of 3.o9, significant beyond the .o~ level with i88 df. The small quantitative differences in Dp-scale means is, in part, explained by the fact that only five test items contribute to this scale, thus permitting limited response variation compared to other subscales.

Finally, group comparisons on the F-scale of the Media At- titude Profile, designed to measure attitudes toward the increased future use of instructional media, reveal lowest scores for school administrators and highest scores for media program trainees. Comparatively low, also, were the group means of the AFT leaders and prospective teachers. Although the NEA mean was higher, no significant difference was observed between the AFT and NEA means on the F-scale. However, the difference between school administrators and media trainees was found to be significant, with p less than .o 5 (t = 4.~o and z6I df).

The results based on comparative group scores for the Media Attitude Profile were supplemented by data obtained from interviews with AFT and NEA leaders throughout the nation.

TEACHER MILITANCY AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA : I 9 5

One major finding from the interview data was the fact that the majority of both NEA and AFT respondents considered instructional media to be relatively low on the priority lists of teachers. Compared to salaries and general teacher welfare, this outcome is to be expected. However, the large majority of AFT and NEA leaders felt that instructional media would increase in relative importance in the very near future, and most leaders indicated that instructional media would increasingly be considered within the context of collective negotiations. While 44 percent of the NEA and 25 percent of the AFT respondents stated that instructional media were currently being included in negotiations by their organizations, 96 percent of the NEA and zoo percent of the AFT leaders felt that instructional media should be included in future negotiations agreements.

Sixty-one percent of the NEA and 5 z percent of the AFT representatives interviewed believed that they were moderately well-informed in the area of instructional media relative to other groups of educators. The greatest proportion of those interviewed obtained information on instructional media primarily from advertisements and brochures by commercial groups, or through personal experiences with media in previous classroom teaching. A smaller percentage attended workshops, while less than ~o percent indicated college coursework as a meaningful information source on media. Journal articles, particularly those published by the teacher organizations, were also listed as an important information source by more than 2o percent of the respondents. These journal articles and direct personal experi- ence were rated by the majority of leaders as the most val- uable sources available to them.

More than 7 z percent of the NEA and 86 percent of the AFT leaders believed that teachers are relatively uninformed in the area of instructional media. Most respondents (94 percent NEA and 93 percent AFT) considered that their organizations had a definite responsibility to inform teachers about instructional media, either through workshops or in publications by the organization. The greatest need was seen for information on the most recent forms of media in education since the newer forms are less familiar to the teacher.

Instructional media, per se, were not regarded by the majority of AFT and NEA leaders as "threatening" to teachers. However, many leaders were concerned about teacher voice in decision

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D I S C U S S I O N A N D

C O N C L U S I O N S

making and the possible loss of classroom autonomy for the teacher if media were to be used extensively in the schools. A related problem perceived by some respondents was the "fear of replacement" by such systems as computers, televised instruction, and programed instruction courses, although these were regarded more as potential rather than real and immediate sources of "fear" to teachers. Lack of familiarity was considered to be an important factor which could contribute to teacher anx- ieties in the area of instructional media, and a large proportion of leaders felt that instruction on media should represent an integral part of teacher education programs and inservice programs in the schools.

To some observers--for example, the school administrators sampled in our survey--the possibility of increased involvement by professional teacher organizations in the area of instructional media and technology represents an unwelcome prospect. For others, including this writer, increased participa- tion by teacher groups is considered as a favorable development which could provide impetus for more effective and appropriate utilization of instructional media and technology in the nation's schools. The movement toward teacher militancy reflects a continuing need on the part of teachers to achieve a stronger voice in decision making which affects their professional lives. Since the application of instructional media has decided impli- cations for teacher welfare and working conditions, it is quite natural that professional teacher groups would be favorable to more active involvement in this area.

The survey results obtained suggest that attitudes toward instructional media may be related to teacher militancy insofar as the more favorable attitudes of the NEA leaders (relative to those of the AFT respondents) could be considered a function of differences in organization militancy. Such a conclusion may be quite erroneous, although it represents an interesting hypoth- esis for further investigation. The observed differences in NEA and AFT leaders' attitudes are difficult to explain on the basis of research evidence from the survey data.

Both from the interview data and the attitude scale results, it is clear that professional teacher organizations will be assuming a more active role in the field of instructional media and technology. At the national level the NEA has been relatively ac-

T E A C H E R M I L I T A N C Y A N D I N S T R U C T I O N A L M E D I A : :~97

REFERENCES

tive in this area for many years, as has the AFT to a much lesser extent, but the emphasis appears now to be changing to more active involvement at the local level. This trend will soon be more highly visible, particularly within the context of collective negotiations.

Indications of this shift in emphasis are seen in the new Uni-Serve program, initiated at the x97 o NEA convention, and in the AFT QUEST program, which has been active for some time now. Although the AFT has evidenced its greatest strength at the local level and has traditionally been the more militant of the two major teacher organizations, the NEA's new program appears to represent a movement in the direction of greater local autonomy and increased militancy. The NEA Uni- Serve program is designed to increase local membership and to enhance the effectiveness of local chapters in collective negotiations. Within the AFT the power still seems to reside in the large metropolitan areas with aggressive local chapters. How- ever, the AFT QUEST program, designed to identify problems at the local level and to improve teaching standards, reflects a broader perspective for this organization and a desire on the part of its leaders to become more actively involved in a wider variety of educational issues.

Bhearman, R. Occasional papers: AFT quest program. New York: American Federation of Teachers, 5969-70.

Dawson, P. A final report on the teacher leader project: Phase I. Monmouth, Ore.: Teaching Research Division, Oregon State Sys- tem of Higher Education, December ~969.

Hays, M. L. Teacher power: Key to a better tomorrow. Illustrated School & Society, January 5969, 97, 4o-4I.

Tobias, S. Lack of knowledge and fear of automation as factors in teachers' attitudes toward programed instruction and other media. AV Communication Review, ~966, 14 (i), 99-509.

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