teach yourself

ancient greek

ancient greek gavin betts and alan henry

For over 60 years, more than 40 million people have learnt over 750 subjects the teach yourself way, with impressive results.

be where you want to be with teach yourself

The authors wish to acknowledge the help of George Gellie and

Deane Blackman.

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In US·. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of Contemporary Books. Typeset by Transet Limited, Coventry, England. Printed in Great Britain for Hodder & Stoughton Educational, a division of Hodder Headline Ltd., 338 Euston Road, London NW1 3BH by Cox & Wyman Ltd., Reading, Berkshire. Impression number 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Year 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003

introduction xi how to use this book xi abbreviations xiii map of ancient Greece xv 01 1.1/1 the Greek alphabet and its

pronunciation /2 accents .2 exercise .3 excursus - the different forms of Greek 1

02 2.1/1 nouns in Greek /2 first declension (feminine nouns) and the feminine definite article /3 basic uses of cases /4 verbs in Greek /5 present and future indicative active of -ω verbs (and corresponding infinitives) /6 word order and elision .2 Greek reading /1 vocabulary 9

03 3.1/1 second declension and the masculine and neuter definite article /2 first declension (masculine nouns) /3 first and second declension adjectives /4 adverbs /5 prepositions /6 present indicative and infinitive of ειμί, I am .2 Greek reading /1 vocabulary 19

04 4.1/1 imperfect indicative active and weak aorist indicative active and infinitive active of -ω verbs 12 first and second person pronouns, and αυτόν, -ην, -ό /3 connecting particles .2 Greek reading /1 vocabulary 28

^ Γ Ί 05 5.1/1 third declension - consonant stem nouns (1) 12 contracted verbs

§ 13 further uses of the definite article | .2 Greek reading /1 vocabulary 38

06 6.1/1 third declension - consonant stem nouns (2) 12 second declension contracted nouns and first and second declension contracted adjectives /3 compound verbs formed with prepositional prefixes /4 -ω verbs with stems in palatals, labials, dentals .2 Greek reading /1 vocabulary 48

07 7.1/1 strong aorist indicative and infinitive active of -ω verbs 12 φημί say 13 indirect speech /4 indirect command /5 numerals /6 negatives Π phrases expressing time and space .2 Greek reading /1 vocabulary 58

08 8.1/1 middle and passive voices 12 deponent verbs /3 indirect statement /4 third declension nouns - stems in ι and υ .2 Greek reading /1 vocabulary 69

09 9.1/1 demonstrative pronouns 12 the relative pronoun oc and adjectival clauses /3 αυτός and its uses /4 reflexive and reciprocal pronouns /5 possessive adjectives and pronouns .2 Greek reading /1 vocabulary 81

10 10.1/1 interrogative τίο and indefinite t ic 12 questions, direct and indirect 13 first and third declension adjectives /4 third declension adjectives .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading - the wisdom of Socrates 93

11 11.1/1 root aorist, aorist passive and future passive 12 agent and instrument 13 -ω verbs with stems in λ, μ, ν, ρ /4 third declension nouns - stems in ευ, αυ, ου /5 crasis .2 Greek reading 102

12 12.1/1 participles 12 uses of participles .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading -epigrams 111

13 13.1/1 oddities of declension /2 verbs used with the genitive or dative /3 further particles .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading -Plato 121

14 14.1/1 moods of the Greek verb /2 subjunctive mood /3 optative mood /4 uses of the subjunctive and optative .2 Greek reading 133

15 15.1/1 perfect indicative active /2 verbs used with participles .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading - Prometheus bound (1) 144

16 16.1/1 phrases and clauses of result 12 pluperfect indicative active /3 perfect and pluperfect indicative middle/passive /4 other parts of the perfect tense .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading -Heracles 154

17 17.1/1 imperative mood: commands and prohibitions 12 comparison of adjectives and adverbs /3 meaning of the comparative and superlative /4 constructions involving the comparative and superlative /5 active verbs used in a passive sense .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading - Prometheus bound (2) 165

18 18.1/1 -μι verbs 12 δίδωμι give, τίΟημι put, place /3 είμι I shall come/go /4 other verbs with principal parts from different roots /5 conditional sentences /6 aicpoc, μεοοο, έοχατοο .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading - the sea, the sea! 178

1 9 19.1/1 ϊοτημι and its compounds 12 potential clauses 13 oddities in verbs .2 Greek reading 189

vii ο ο I I

20 20.1/1 verbs in -νομι 12 ΐημι and its compounds /3 genitive of price or value /4 genitive of separation /5 accusative of respect or specification .2 Greek reading 199

21 21.1/1 wishes 12 further temporal conjunctions (έως, μέχρι, πρίν) /3 further demonstrative and relative adjectives/pronouns /4 further impersonal verbs /5 accusative absolute .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading -love poetry 207

22 22.1/1 summary of the uses of roc 12 uses of cases (1) - accusative .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading -Anacreontea 220

23 23.1/1 uses of cases (2) - genitive 12 uses of cases (3) - dative .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading - further elegiac poetry 231

24 24.1/1 yes and no 12 summary of uses of ού and μή /3 diminutives /4 dual number /5 verbal adjectives in -xoc/-x0c and -reoc /6 verbs of precaution and striving Π verbs of hindering, preventing, forbidding, denying .2 Greek reading .3 extra reading - the think tank 245

25 25.1/1 Homeric Greek 12 differences in phonology and morphology /3 differences in syntax .2 readings from Homer 258

appendices 265 1 conjugation of λύω loosen 265 2 conjugation of contracted verbs (present and imperfect) 268

3 conjugation of ειμί be, έρχομαι (and είμι) come/go, φημί say, οίδα know 271 4 rootaorists 273 5 conjugation of δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, place, ΐημι let go, senc/ forth, ίοτημι make/stand 274 6 conjugation of δείκνϋμι (present and imperfect) 279 7 numerals 280 8 accentuation 281 9 Greek verse 286

key to Greek reading exercises 289 principal parts of verbs 321 vocabulary 327 index 375

IX ο ο 3 Φ

I

How to use this book αρχή ήμιου παντός a [good] beginning is half the whole

On one occasion when giving a speech, Hiero, a Greek ruler in ancient Sicily, was interrupted by complaints about his bad breath. This revelation of what must have been a chronic problem distressed him considerably, and on returning home he reproached his wife for not having told him of it. She indignantly justified herself by saying that she had thought that all adult males smelt as he did. To depend on a virtuous spouse to correct such faults has obvious dangers. If you are relying solely on this book to begin the study of ancient Greek, there are similar pitfalls. Apart from the key, you will have few checks on your progress, and it will be essential to follow up any doubt, however small, about meanings of words and points of grammar. To be able to do this you must make yourself completely familiar with the arrangement of the book's contents. We assume that you are acquainted with the basics of traditional English grammar, as this is the framework we use to explain the structure of Greek. You should be familiar with the parts of speech (adjective, adverb, article, conjunction, interjection, noun, preposition, pronoun, verb) and with the meaning of such terms as finite, transitive/intransitive, clause, phrase, subject, object, etc. If these are new to you, you should consult the Glossary of grammatical terms on the website http://tyancientgreek.org, or one of the many elementary books on the subject. The main part of the book consists of twenty-five units. Each consists of either two or three sections. The first is taken up with grammar, the second contains sentences and passages of

Greek for reading, while the third section (except in the first unit) is a longer Greek passage for additional reading. The grammatical sections, which are headed .1, are carefully graded over the course of the book in order to set out the basic features of Greek grammar in a systematic and easily digestible way. Each should be mastered before tackling the next. Very often a particular section cannot be understood without a knowledge of what has gone before. Grammar as a whole can be divided into two parts, one involving the forms which a word can take (e.g. those of a first declension feminine noun, 2.1/2), the other dealing with the ways in which these forms are used to make up phrases and sentences (e.g. the uses of the dative case, 2.1/3e). The former we must learn by heart. The latter we can only fully understand when, after learning a general rule, we see, and are able to understand, examples of it in use. Because of the importance of such examples the sentences given to illustrate grammatical rules are nearly always original Greek, and every effort should be made to understand them fully. By reading them carefully every time you revise a unit you will not only come to understand the grammatical point involved but also extend your vocabulary. To work through the reading exercises with one finger in the corresponding page of the key is not recommended, although you should make full use of any help provided by the notes. It is only by analyzing the forms of words and patiently working out the construction of clauses and sentences that you will make progress. A full translation of an exercise should be written out and then compared with the key. When you discover you have made a mistake, you must meticulously hunt out the point of grammar concerned and see how you came to be wrong. To help you do this many cross-references have been supplied in all parts of the book (a reference of the form 22.1/2 is for the grammatical section (.1) of a unit, but one such as 22.2.2 is to the reading section (.2)). Your final step should be to read through the Greek aloud until you are able to translate it without reference to your own version or the key. This will familiarize you with the construction employed and any new vocabulary. Some rote learning of new words is, of course, inevitable. If, however^ you go to the trouble of actually memorizing some of the many famous phrases and verse passages contained in the reading you will find your grasp on the language extending itself in an enjoyable and rewarding fashion.

Appendices 1 -7 give grammatical tables and other information to supplement particular units. Appendix 8 is on accentuation and should be consulted regularly and mastered over the course of the whole book. Appendix 9 is added to show how Greek verse was constructed; a knowledge of metre is not necessary for understanding Greek verse but obviously adds to our enjoyment of it. The section Principal parts of verbs complements the vocabulary with information about verbs whose present stem is either not used, or not used in a regular way, to provide the stems of other tenses. For ease of reference to grammatical points an index is provided. Extra reading, revision exercises, and other material will be on the website http://tyancientgreek.org .

Abbreviations a. or acc. absol. act. adj. adv. aor. c. cap. cf. compar. conj. dat. ex. f. or f f. fut. gen. imp. impers. impf. ind.

accusative indecl. indeclinable absolute indef. indefinite active indir. indirect adjective inf. infinitive adverb interrog. interrogative aorist intr. intransitive about, approximately /. line capital lit. literally compare 11 lines comparative m. or m masculine conjunction mid. middle dative n. or η neuter example η. or nom. nominative feminine opt. optative following pass. passive future pers. person genitive perf. perfect imperative pi. plural impersonal plpf. pluperfect imperfect poet. poetical indicative poss. possessive

xiv 3 Ρ* 3 α c S ο 3

pi. plural rel. relative plpf. pluperfect s. singular poet. poetical sc. namely poss. possessive subj. subjunctive pple. participle supl. superlative prep. preposition tr. transitive pres. present trans. translate pron. pronoun v. or voc. vocative refl. reflexive viz that is to say

Round brackets ( ) contain explanatory material or a literal translation; in the vocabulary round brackets are also used to indicate alternative forms. Square brackets [ ] are used in translations for words which are required by English idiom but have no equivalent in the Greek original; not all such words are marked in this way. Square brackets are also used to supply missing words. + means in conjunction with, compounded with, or followed

by. < means is derived from. > means produce(s). * marks a word which cannot stand first in a clause or phrase. # indicates that the following sentence or passage is verse; in

the vocabulary this sign indicates that the word to which it is attached is poetical.

t is explained in the introductory note to the vocabulary.

uojionpoau; >S

1.1 Grammar

1.1/1 The Greek alphabet and its pronunciation The Greek alphabet consists of twenty-four letters, each with its traditional name. Today it is used in both upper and lower case but in antiquity it existed only in different varieties of capitals. The pronunciation given below does not in every case reflect what we know of the language of fourth-century Athens (the type of Greek described here - see 1.3); because we learn ancient Greek for the purpose of reading, not of communication, we do not need to be as careful about its pronunciation as we would be with a modern language.

Name Pronunciation alpha (άλφα) a (see below) beta (βήτα) b gamma (γάμμα) g (as in game, never as in gesture, but

as η in ink before κ, ξ, χ or another γ; see below) d short e (as in met) sd (as in wisdom, but represented in English as z) long e (like at in fairy) th (as in thing; see below) i (see below) k (but represented in English as c) I

A a Ββ Γ γ

Δδ Ε ε Ζ ζ

delta (δέλτα) epsllon (έ ψϋλον) zeta (ζήτα)

Ηη Θ θ Ι ι Κκ Λλ Μμ Νν Ξξ

eta (ήτα) theta (&ήτα) iota (ιώτα) kappa(κάππα) lambda (λάμβδα) mu (μύ) nu (νυ) » (ξει)

m

χ (as in axe)

Ο ο omicron (δ μικρόν) short ο (as in lot) Π π ρ! (πει) ρ Ρ ρ rho (ρώ) τ C c sigma (α,γμα) s (as in sign) Τ τ tau (ταυ) t Τ υ upsllon (ύ ψΓλόν) u (represented in English as y, see

below) Φ φ phi (φεΐ) ph (see below) Χ χ chl (χει) ch (see below) Ψ ψ psl (ψεΐ) ps (as in maps) Ω ω 5mega (ώ μέγα) long ο (like oa in broad)

In Greek words taken into English and in transcriptions of Greek proper names Greek letters are normally represented by their phonetic equivalent except where indicated above (and in some diphthongs - see note 2). Consonants The normal English pronunciation is recommended where no example is given. To distinguish between κ and χ the latter is pronounced as the ch in the Scottish pronunciation of loch. The letters ζ, ξ, ψ are double consonants and the equivalents of c8, KC, nc respectively, for which they must always be used: e.g. when c is added to the stem γυπ- we must write γύψ, never γύπο (5.1/1). The letters θ, φ, χ are not double consonants; the pronunciation given above is that normally used today but in the Greek of our period they were pronounced as t, p, k with an accompanying emission of breath (i.e. something like these consonants in English when initial. Compare the difference between the English and French pronunciation of the Ρ in Paris).

Examples of the second pronunciation of γ are: οπόγγοο (spongos) sponge, Οφίγξ (Sphinx) Sphinx, έλεγχοΰ (elenchos) scrutiny.

The form of sigma given above (which dates from the Roman period) is, for reasons of convenience, the one increasingly used in modern editions. The traditional forms of lower case sigma, which date from the Middle Ages, are σ when initial or medial, ς when final, e.g σύστασις (ciiciacic) composition. The traditional upper case version is Σ. All three forms occur in Σωσιγένης (Οωοιγένηο) Sosigenes. Vowels All Greek vowels have a long and short pronunciation. These pronunciations have separate symbols in the case of ε/η and ο/ω.

The other vowels have both values but only one symbol. In works of reference, but not in normal printed texts, the two values of these vowels are distinguished by marking the long form with a bar above (macron), σ, I, ϋ. They are pronounced:

a as in father α (i.e. short a) as in a shortened version of δ, like u in but,

never as in sat (this sound did not exist in Greek). I as ee in need ι as i in sit (or; more accurately, as in French petit). ϋ as in French sur υ as in French tu

Diphthongs Greek had two types of diphthongs:

(i) where both elements are written normally and pronounced as follows: αι as at in aisle 01 as oi in oil αυ as ow in cow ου as oo in cool ει as ei in rein υι as we ευ/ηυ as eu in feud When any of these combinations is not to be taken as a diphthong, the second element is marked with a diaeresis ("): βοΐ (bo-ί), Aat'c (La-is).

(ii) where the long vowels S, η, ω are combined with an iota. This iota is placed below the vowel (iota subscript), not after

Tl> Φ·1 For convenience these diphthongs are always pronounced as simple δ, η, ω.

Breathings Every word beginning with a vowel or diphthong has a rough 0 or smooth 0 breathing. A rough breathing denotes an initial h, a smooth breathing (which is something of a superfluity) the absence of initial h: ήμερα (hemera) day, ayaOoc (agathos) good. A breathing is placed over the second element of a category (i) diphthong: αίνιγμα (ainigma) riddle; Αιοχύλοο (Aischiilos) Aeschylus; but when an initial vowel which does not form part of a diphthong is in upper case the breathing is placed in front: Όμηροΰ (Homeros) Homer. Words beginning with υ always have a rough breathing vc (hus) pig; O\|/oc (hupsos) height. Initial ρ is also always given a rough breathing because it was pronounced rh: ρυθμόΰ (rhuthmos) rhythm. 1 Th ' rmi„e 1 0 t a is> however, placed after the long vowel when the latter is in upper case. The only common example is "Ai^c Hades.

Notes 1 In the grammar and reference sections long α, ι, υ are marked

S, I, ϋ, except in the case of g, ά, ΐ, ύ, because iota subscript appears only under long vowels and in the other three cases the circumflex accent (see next subsection) shows that the vowel must be long.

2 The traditional spelling and pronunciation of Greek proper names, and also the form taken by Greek derivatives in English, almost always reflect the Roman system of transliteration: Αχοχνλοο (Aischiilos) Aeschylus; Οΐδίποικ; (Oidipous) Oedipus; καταΰτροφή (katastrophe) catastrophe.

3 For marks of punctuation Greek uses the full stop and comma as in English but for colon and semicolon there is only one sign, which is a dot at the top of the line ( ). Our semicolon is used as a question mark in Greek (;). Inverted commas and the exclamation mark are not normally used. A capital letter is used at the beginning of a paragraph but not with each new sentence.

1.1/2 Accents We owe the idea of visually indicating word accent to Aristophanes of Byzantium (not to be confused with the Athenian comic poet), an altruistic scholar of around 200 BC who wished to help foreigners to pronounce Greek correctly. Since the Renaissance, accents have always been employed in printed texts. While not of crucial importance in reading Greek, they are useful in distinguishing certain words and present little difficulty if correctly approached.

Accent in classical Greek was one of pitch, not of stress as in English. An English-speaker, when told that avOpotmoc human being is accented on its first syllable, would naturally pronounce that syllable with a heavier emphasis. A Greek, however, instead of emphasizing the a, would have pronounced it at a higher pitch and so given the word what we should consider a somewhat sing-song effect. We do, of course, use pitch in spoken English, but in a totally different way. In the question you're going to Athens? the last word has a rising pitch, but in the statement you're going to Athens it has a falling pitch.

Classical Greek has three accents:

' acute, indicating rising pitch grave, indicating falling pitch

~ circumflex, indicating a combined rising and falling pitch (the sign, originally Λ, is a combination of an acute and a grave). Because the time taken by this operation was necessarily longer than that indicated by an acute or a grave, it can occur only with long vowels and diphthongs, and only on these do we find a circumflex.

The basic features of Greek accentuation are:

(a) nearly every word has an accent, which can be on the final syllable (ποταμόΰ river), or the second syllable from the end (ϊπτκκ horse), or on the third syllable from the end (ίπποπόταμοΰ hippopotamus). In forms of verbs the position of the accent is nearly always determined by the length of the final syllable (see Appendix 8, b); with other words whose form can change the accent is generally fixed.

(b) an acute or grave accent can stand on a diphthong or long or short vowel, but a circumflex only on a long vowel or diphthong.

(c) an acute can stand on the end syllable of a word (πειρδτηΰ pirate), on the second from the end (μοναρχία monarchy), or on the third from the end (ακρόπολη acropolis).

(d) a grave can stand only on a final syllable, where it automatically replaces an acute when another word follows (ό πειρβτηο απάγει τον ίπποπόταμον the pirate is leading away the hippopotamus). A final acute is retained, however, before a mark of punctuation (ώ ποιητά, ή πΐθι ή άπιθι Ο poet, either drink or go away) or when a word so accented is quoted. (For the effect of enclitics see Appendix 8, d).

(e) a circumflex can stand on a final syllable (των ποταμών of the rivers) and, within certain limitations, on the second from the end (Μυκήναι Mycenae).

The rules for accents are given in Appendix 8. These should be referred to and gradually mastered in the course of studying this book. For purposes of pronouncing Greek words, each of the three accents should be treated alike and given a simple stress accent as in English. The old British (and Dutch) habit of imposing the Latin system of accentuation on Greek is to be avoided. This system has prevailed in our pronunciation of nearly all Greek proper names in English. We say Euripides (Ευριπίδη^, Socrates (Οωκράτηΰ), Epidaurus (Επίδαυρο^ because the Romans, not unreasonably, adapted them in this way to their own language (cf. second note to last subsection).

A Roman, however^ who did the same in actually speaking Greek (as every educated Roman could), would have been disowned by his friends as an embarrassing ignoramus.

1.2 Exercise 1 Read aloud and transliterate the following names of famous

writers: Άριοτοτέληο, 'Αριοτοφάνηο, Δημοοθένηο, Ήρόδοτοο, Θεόκριτοο, Καλλίμαχος Πίνδαροο, Πλάτων.

2 Read aloud and transliterate the following words and then look up their meaning in the vocabulary:

άκμή, ανάθεμα, άνάλϋοιο, άντίθεαο, άοβεοτοο, αύτόματον, άφαοίσ, βάθοο, γένεαο, διάγνωαο, δόγμα, δράμα, ζώνη, ήθοο, ηχώ, ιδέα, κίνημα, κλΐμαξ, κόομοο, Kpicic, κώλον, μέτρον, μίαομα, νέκταρ, νέμεαο, όρχήοτρσ, πάθοο, οκηνη, ςτίγμα, ύβριο, ύπόθεοιο, χάοο, χαρακτηρ, ψΐ5χή.

3 For practice with capitals read aloud and identify the following proper names (accents are not used when a word is put in upper case):

(α) ΑΓΑΜΕΜΝΩΝ, 'AXIAAEYC, ΕΚΤΩΡ, ΈΛΕΝΗ, 'OAYCCEYC, ΠΑΤΡΟΚΛΟΣ ΠΗΝΕΛΟΠΕΙΑ.

(b) 'ΑΘΗΝΑΙ, 'APrOC, ΘΗΒΑΙ, KOPIN0OC, CIIAPTH, ΚΡΗΤΗ, TOAOC, CAMOC.

1.3 Excursus - the different forms of Greek Greek is a member of the Indo-European family of languages, as are English, French, German and most European languages. The original Indo-European speakers lived in what is now western Russia but migration began at an early date, possibly soon after 3000 BC. The groups which we would now call Greek originally came to Greece at different times during the period 2000-1000 BC. They have lived there ever since and preserved their identity despite invasions and long periods of foreign domination. Greek settlements also existed, in some cases for over 2,500 years, in other Mediterranean countries and in Asia Minor.

The earliest records in Greek date from about 1300 BC and are written on clay tablets in a syllabic script called Linear B, which is totally different from the Greek alphabet familiar to us. The

latter was taken over, with some modifications, from the Phoenicians at some time before 750-700 BC, the period to which the oldest surviving examples can be assigned.

It is possible that Greek had already split into dialects early in the second millennium BC. Certainly there is unmistakable evidence of different dialects in the oldest works of Greek literature, the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer (25.1/1), which must have been composed before 700 BC (their exact date and manner of composition are matters of dispute). From then up to the time of Alexander the Great (died 323 BC) a large quantity of Greek texts survives and proves the existence of five major dialect groups, which show, in some cases, considerable differences from each other. By no means all dialects served as vehicles of literature and we need only concern ourselves with those which were so used. From an early stage Greek literature was clearly divided into different genres (epic, elegiac poetry, choral lyric, etc.), and often a particular dialect became so intimately associated with a literary genre that a tradition was established which sometimes lasted long after the dialect had ceased to be spoken. Some of these associations are mentioned in the following list: Ionic - the language of the Aegean islands (except those on the southern fringe and Lesbos to the north) and the central area of the west coast of Asia Minor. The latter contained the most important Ionic settlements and it was there that Greek cultural and intellectual life began with Homer and the earliest philosophers. Poets of the seventh and sixth centuries BC established Ionic as the dialect of elegiac and iambic poetry. It was also the original dialect for literary prose and was used by Herodotus (a Dorian by birth) for his Histories (4.2.9).

Aeolic - the language of Lesbos and the adjoining Asia Minor coast. It was used by the most famous poetess of antiquity, Sappho (early sixth century BC), and her male contemporary, Alcaeus, for personal lyric poetry. Their initiative was not continued.

Homeric dialect - the language of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. 1 his was an artificial dialect which was never the language of a particular area or group, but had been developed over a long period by generations of poets. It was basically an older form of jonic but with elements from other dialects, chiefly Aeolic. Homer's position as the greatest Greek poet was never disputed jn antiquity, and epics which reproduced his language were still BEING written in the fifth century AD. The Ionic of Elegy, which survived even longer, generally had a Homeric flavour.

Doric - the language of the Peloponnesus (except the central and north-west area), Crete, and other parts of the Greek world. Choral poetry, which was sung by dancing choirs, was originally the creation of Dorians and even when written by non-Doric speakers was always given at least a Doric flavour.

Attic - the language of Athens (historically an offshoot of Ionic). With the rapid political expansion and cultural development of Athens after the final defeat of the Persians by the Greeks (479 BC) Attic became firmly established as a literary dialect despite its late start when compared with Ionic and Aeolic. By the beginning of the fourth century BC Athens had become the main cultural centre of Greece. This was in no small part brought about by the literary masterpieces that had been written and were still being written by Athenians in their own dialect. The Attic of the early and middle period of the fourth century BC, as exemplified in Plato's dialogues and Demosthenes' speeches, has always been taken as the most satisfactory form of Greek for beginners and is the type described in this book. Attic is the language of Tragedy and Comedy (except for their choral odes, which have a tinge of Doric). By the end of the fifth century BC it had superseded Ionic as the language of prose.

The conquests of Alexander had important political and linguistic consequences for the Greek world, which he enlarged considerably. Greek culture and civilization were extended over all lands bordering on the eastern Mediterranean and a lingua franca emerged which, with a few exceptions, gradually replaced the older dialects even in Greece itself. This new language was basically a development of Attic and was called ή κοινή διάλεκτοΰ the common dialect (in English the koine). It was the language of the Greek man in the street and for that reason was used by the writers of the New Testament, who wanted to reach as wide an audience as possible. Educated classes, imbued with the prestige of Classical Attic, regarded it as a debased form of Greek, but the koine, apart from the few survivors of the older dialects, had, by the first century of our era, become the living form of the language and is the ancestor of Modern Greek. The latter cannot, of course, be understood simply with a knowledge of fourth-century Attic or the koine, but, because of the conservative nature of Greek, which we see at all periods, the changes that have occurred over a period of 2400 years are fewer than those which distinguish Modern English from Anglo-Saxon.

• c 3

Ο For this and all subsequent units extra reading will be found at ^ ^ ^ the Internet website http://tyancientgreek.org

2.1 Grammar

2.1/1 Nouns in Greek In English the gender of a noun is determined by its meaning; man is masculine, woman is feminine, car is neuter and when referring to these we would say he, she, it respectively. In Greek, however; the gender of a noun is often arbitrary and does not necessarily indicate anything about what it denotes. While, for example, γυνη woman is feminine and άνηρ man is masculine, χώροι land is feminine, and λόγοο speech is masculine, though δώρον gift is, understandably, neuter. More often than not we cannot see why a particular noun has a particular gender. It is, · however; generally possible to tell the gender of a noun by its ending in the nominative and genitive singular; and it is also according to these endings that Greek nouns are grouped into three classes, which are called declensions. Each declension has a distinctive set of endings which indicate both case and number; just as in English we have child, child's, children, children's, though Greek distinguishes more cases. To go through the list of all possible forms of a noun is to decline it.

2.1/2 First declension (feminine nouns) and the feminine definite article Most first declension nouns are feminine (the few masculines are declined slightly differently - 3.1/2). The feminines end in -η

or -α. Those in -α change alpha to eta in the genitive and dative singular unless the alpha is preceded by a vowel or p. All first declension nouns have the same endings in the plural. The feminine form of the definite article is declined in the same way as the feminines in -η. SINGULAR Nominative ή Ήμ^η χώρ-σ θάλαττ-α

the honour country sea Vocative ιΓμ^η χώρ-α θάλαττ-α Accusative την τΤμ ην χώρ-αν θάλαττ-αν Genitive τηο ιΧμ^ης χώρ-tfc θαλάττ-ηο Dative τη τίμ-η χώρ-ςι θαλάττ-η PLURAL Nominative αί τΤμ-αί χώρ-αι θάλαττ-αι Vocative ιΤμ-αί χώρ-αι θάλαττ-αι Accusative τάο τΤμ-άο χώρ-Gc Θαλάττ-Gc Genitive των τΤμ-ων χωρ-ων θαλαττ-ων Dative ταιο τΤμ-aic χώρ-aic θαλάττ-αιο

Notes 1 The definite article must agree with the noun it qualifies in

number, gender; and case: των ιΤμών of the honours, τάβ χώρβο the countries (accusative). Contexts where it is used in Greek but not in English are: (i) with abstract nouns, ή αλήθεια truth (ii) with nouns (usually plural) indicating a general class, αί

κόραι girls (as a class) (iii) optionally with proper nouns, with no differences in

sense: ή Ο,κελίσ or Ο,κελίσ Sicily, ή 'Αφροδίτη or 'Αφροδίτη Aphrodite. In translating a common noun in the singular without the definite article, a should be supplied in English: ή νίκη the victory, but νίκη a victory.

2 The final alpha of most nouns ending in -εα, - ία, -pa is long. 3 Here (and in the second declension) when the final syllable

bears an acute in the nominative, as in τΓμή, the accent becomes a circumflex in the genitive and dative (for the technical terms see Appendix 8).

4 In the genitive plural all first declension nouns have a circumflex on their final syllable.

2.1/3 Basic uses of cases In English the only case ending in nouns is that of the genitive (as in girl's, men's, etc.). Elsewhere, the function of a noun is shown by its position (the difference in meaning between the

depends solely on the word order) or by a preposition: the traffic warden was hit by a car (here the part played by the car is indicated by the preposition by). In Greek, however the function of a noun is indicated by its case ending: (a) The subject of a clause must be put in the nominative. (b) When we address a person the vocative is used; this is

normally preceded by ώ Ο and followed by a mark of punctuation. For the sake of completeness the vocative is given for such nouns as τΤμή but these forms rarely occur.

(c) The direct object of a verb must be put in the accusative. (d) The genitive can express possession: Cleon's horse (in English

we can also say the horse of Cleon). Another common use of the genitive in Greek is to express separation (20.1/4).

(e) With nouns denoting living things the dative expresses the indirect object after verbs of saying, giving and the like (24.1/2^). In Socrates gave a drachma to Xanthippe the direct object is drachma (answering the question gave what?), which would be put into the accusative δραχμήν; the indirect object is Xanthippe (gave to whom?), which would be τη Ξανθίππη with no preposition (we may also say in English Socrates gave Xanthippe a drachma). The dative has other uses with nouns denoting living things and can nearly always be translated by to or for. With inanimate nouns (Athens, arrow, boat) different uses are possible and will be treated separately.

The accusative, genitive, and dative, are, for convenience of reference, called the oblique cases. They are the cases used after prepositions, which perform the same function in Greek as in English, i.e. they define the relation between the word they govern and the rest of the clause in which they are used. In ' Greek the word governed is always a noun (or noun-equivalent, see 5.1/3) or pronoun (Greek does not say before now because now is an adverb). With prepositions indicating motion and rest a pattern can be seen in the case required: ( f ) Prepositions indicating motion towards govern the

accusative, e.g. eic την χώρΟν into the country, npoc την οίκίαν towards the house.

\g) Prepositions indicating motion away from govern the genitive, e.g. από της μάχηο from the battle, έκ Ο,κελίδο out

(h\ lfSicil?\ Prepositions indicating rest or fixed position govern the dative, e.g. έν τη θαλάττη in the sea.

AU the above prepositions, except προς (3.1/5), take only the case shown.

11 c 3

2.1/4 Verbs in Greek A finite form of a Greek verb (i.e. one that can function as the verb of a clause) is defined in terms of person, number; tense, mood, and voice. Person and number are determined by the subject of the verb: a finite verb must agree with its subject in person and number (just as in English we cannot say we is). First person is the person(s) speaking, i.e. I or we; second person is the person(s) spoken to, i.e. you; third person is the person(s) or thing(s) spoken about, which can be a pronoun (be, she, it, they) or a noun. The concept of number is the same as with nouns. Tense indicates the time in which the action of the verb takes place. Mood tells us something about the nature of the verb's action in a particular context; at the moment we are only concerned with the indicative mood, which is used to express facts. Voice shows the relation of the subject to the verb. We shall first deal with the active, which is the voice used when the subject is the doer of the action. Auxiliary verbs (shall/will, have, be etc.) are used to form most tenses of an English verb (I shall teach, he has taught, we will be taught), but in Greek are found only in certain passive forms. Elsewhere, the person, number, tense and voice (and also mood - 14.1/1) are shown by the stem and ending. For example, we can tell by the stem and ending that λύοουοι is third person plural future indicative active of the verb λύω I loosen, and therefore means they will loosen. It is superfluous to add the Greek for they (unless for emphasis), as this is part of the information conveyed by the ending. Verbs in Greek belong to one of two groups (called conjugations). These are distinguished by the ending of the first person singular present indicative active, the form in which Greek verbs are customarily cited1 (contrast the convention in English of referring to a verb by its present infinitive active). Those in -ω (e.g. λύω) are by far the larger class; the other consists of verbs in -μι, e.g. ειμί I am (3.1/6), δίδωμι give (18.1/2).

2.1/5 Present and future indicative active of -ω verbs (and corresponding infinitives) The present indicative active is formed by taking the present stem (λϋ- i.e. λύω minus ω) and adding the endings given below. For the future indicative active we make up the future stem by

1 A sub-category called deponents is slightly different - 8.1/2.

adding sigma to that of the present (i.e. λϋ + c > Xtfc-) and we then apply the same endings. These stems are also used for the infinitives.

PRESENT FUTURE SINGULAR 1 λύ-ω I loosen λύο-ω

2 λό-eic you (s.) loosen λύο-ειο

3 λύ-ει he, she, it loosens λύο-ει

PLURAL 1 λϋ-ομεν 2 λύ-ετε

we loosen you (pi.) loosen

INFINITIVE

Notes

3 λύ-κ)υοι(ν) they loosen λύ-ειν to loosen

I shall loosen you (s.) will

loosen he, she, it will

loosen we shall loosen you (pi.) will

loosen λύο-ουοι(ν) they will loosen λύο-ειν to be going to

loosen

λϋο-ομεν λύο-ετε

1 In English we have different forms of the present tense, I loosen, I am loosening, I do loosen and so on. There are distinctions in usage between these forms, but as Greek has only one we must decide from the context which English form we should use to translate a Greek verb in the present tense. In one context λύουα might mean they loosen, in another they are loosening or do they loosen. Likewise, λύοω can also mean I shall be loosening.

2 The Greek second person singular is always used when addressing one person, the plural when addressing more than one person. Greek has a distinction here which we no longer have in English. Greek does not, however, have familiar and polite forms of the second person as in French, German, and other languages. A slave and master would have addressed each other in the second person singular.

3 It will be noticed that in each form the stem is followed by an o- or e- sound. This indicates the presence of the so-called thematic vowel (o or ε), which is most clearly seen in the first and second persons plural. The same pattern, which marks these tenses as thematic, is repeated in the imperfect (4.1/1).

4 The final ν shown in brackets in the ending of the third person plural is called the movable v. In prose it is used (without brackets) only when a word with this ending is followed by a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong or stands at the end of a clause (its use in verse is freer). It occurs here and in a few other endings. To form the future of πέμπω send, the final π of the present stem is combined with c to give πέμψ-ω I will send. Other final consonants in present stems will be treated at 6.1/4 and 11.1/3.

2.1/6 Word order and elision (a) Although the order of words within a Greek sentence may

often be similar to that of English, Greek word order is generally much less predictable. As mentioned in 2.1/3, there is a close link in English between the order in which words occur and their function. In Greek, however, where the grammatical function of a word is determined by its form, not by its position, word order can be varied much more than in English. This is mainly done to emphasise a particular word or phrase. If in the English sentence Aphrodite is beautiful we wished to emphasize beautiful we would, in speech, articulate it with greater weight (in writing we could underline it or put it in italics). In Greek the emphasis would be conveyed by a change in the word order; ή Αφροδίτη ecu καλή would become καλή έςτιν ή 'Αφροδίτη. These differences will be indicated as they occur. Emphasis apart, two further points regarding word order should be noted here: (i) Adverbs nearly always precede the word they modify,

ταχέως τρέχει he runs (τρέχει) quickly (ταχέως). This particularly applies to the negative ού(κ) not, ουκ έχω... I do not have... (ουκ is the form used before vowels and diphthongs with a smooth breathing; it becomes ούχ if the following vowel or diphthong has a rough breathing, e.g. ούχ ϋει it is not raining).

(ii) Just as in English we can say the land of Aphrodite or Aphrodite's land, so in Greek we have ή χώρδ της 'Αφροδίτης and ή της 'Αφροδίτης χώρα (note that the article of χώρσ must be retained in the latter).

(b) The Greeks disliked the juxtaposition of a final vowel and an initial vowel (e.g. από 'Αθηνών from Athens). Although tolerated in prose, this is almost totally absent from most forms of verse. In the case of final short vowels (except υ) it is avoided by eliding (i.e. dropping and not pronouncing) a, ε, ι, ο before a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong, e.g. άπ' OIKIGC (= από oiKiCtc) from a house; παρ' Άφροδίτην (= παρά Ά.) to Aphrodite. When the vowel following κ, π, or τ is elided before a word beginning with a rough breathing, these consonants become χ, φ, θ, respectively, e.g. ύφ' Ελένης (= υπό Έ.) by Helen. Elision is marked by an apostrophe as shown. It is not always applied in prose texts.1

1 The final αι of verbal endings can be elided in poetry, and occasionally even in prose (example at 21.2.2(xi)).

2.2 Greek reading The Odyssey describes the return of the Greek hero Odysseus (in English we sometimes use the Latin form of his name Ulysses) to his homeland, Ithaca, after the sack of Troy. At a later stage we shall read some of the original, but now we shall start with a simplified version of Odysseus's landing at Scheria, probably to be identified with the modern Corfu. The scene occurs in the sixth book of the Odyssey. In reading Greek the following steps should be followed: (a) Look up each word in the vocabulary and parse it (i.e.

define it grammatically; this is particularly necessary with words which vary in form).

(b) Mark all finite verbs as this will indicate the number of clauses.

(c) By observing punctuation and conjunctions used to join clauses, work out where each clause begins and ends.

(d) Take each clause separately and see how each word relates to the finite verb of its clause (subject, object, part of an adverbial phrase, etc.).

(e) See from the conjunctions how the clauses are related to each other and work out the overall meaning of the sentence.

An analysis of sentence 13 will be found in the key. 1 ό Όδυοοεύο άπό τηο Tpoiac ήκει, άλλα ό Ποοειδών έν τη

Οχερίρ την ναΰν (ship) διαφθείρει. 2 ό Όδυοοεύο έκ τηο θαλάττηο φεύγει και υπό έλάρ έαυτόν

(himself acc.) κρύπτει πρόο τη άκτη. 3 δναρ ή 'Αθηνά τη βαοιλείρ Ναυοικάρ λέγει ότι δει (it is

necessary) την οτολήν έν τη άκτη πλύνειν. 4 άμα τη ήμέρρ ή Ναυακάα την οτολήν έκ τηο οίκίαο έν άμάξη

πρόο την θάλατταν φέρει. 5 έν τη άμάξη έοτί (there is) καί (also) έδωδή τη Ναυακάρ καί

ταΐο έταίραιο. 6 αί κόραι τάχα πλύνουα την οτολήν πρόο τη έλάρ ού ό

Όδυοοεύο καθεύδει. 7 έπειτα αί κόραι την οτολήν έπί την άκτην έπιβάλλουοιν. 8 λούουοιν έαυτάο (themselves) καί την έδωδήν έοθίουοιν ην

(which) έν τη άμάξη έχουοιν. 9 εωο (while) έν τη άκτη παίζουοιν, ή Ναυοικάα οφαΐραν ρίπτει

άλλ' ή οφαίρα είο δίνην πίπτει. 10 αι των κορών βοαι τον Όδυοοεα (acc.) εγειρουοι και

έκπλήττουοιν. 11 ο Όδυοοεύο θαυμαζει ποΐ τηο γήο ήκει, και απο τηο ελααο

έξαίφνηο έρπει.

14 c 3

s

2.1/6 Word order and elision (a) Although the order of words within a Greek sentence may

often be similar to that of English, Greek word order is generally much less predictable. As mentioned in 2.1/3, there is a close link in English between the order in which words occur and their function. In Greek, however, where the grammatical function of a word is determined by its form, not by its position, word order can be varied much more than in English. This is mainly done to emphasise a particular word or phrase. If in the English sentence Aphrodite is beautiful we wished to emphasize beautiful we would, in speech, articulate it with greater weight (in writing we could underline it or put it in italics). In Greek the emphasis would be conveyed by a change in the word order; ή 'Αφροδίτη ecu καλή would become καλή έςτιν ή 'Αφροδίτη. These differences will be indicated as they occur. Emphasis apart, two further points regarding word order should be noted here: (i) Adverbs nearly always precede the word they modify,

ταχέως τρέχει he runs (τρέχει) quickly (ταχέως). This particularly applies to the negative ού(κ) not, ουκ έχω... I do not have... (ουκ is the form used before vowels and diphthongs with a smooth breathing; it becomes ούχ if the following vowel or diphthong has a rough breathing, e.g. ούχ ϋει it is not raining).

(ii) Just as in English we can say the land of Aphrodite or Aphrodite's land, so in Greek we have ή χώρα της 'Αφροδίτης and ή της 'Αφροδίτης χώρα (note that the article of χώρα must be retained in the latter).

(b) The Greeks disliked the juxtaposition of a final vowel and an initial vowel (e.g. από 'Αθηνών from Athens). Although tolerated in prose, this is almost totally absent from most forms of verse. In the case of final short vowels (except υ) it is avoided by eliding (i.e. dropping and not pronouncing) a, ε, ι, ο before a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong, e.g. άπ' οικίας (= από οικίας) from a house; παρ' Άφροδίτην (= παρά Ά.) to Aphrodite. When the vowel following κ, π, or τ is elided before a word beginning with a rough breathing, these consonants become χ, φ, θ, respectively, e.g. ύφ' Ελένης (= ύπό Έ.) by Helen. Elision is marked by an apostrophe as shown. It is not always applied in prose texts.1

1 The final αι of verbal endings can be elided in poetry, and occasionally even in prose (example at 21.2.2(xi)).

2.2 Greek reading The Odyssey describes the return of the Greek hero Odysseus (in English we sometimes use the Latin form of his name Ulysses) to his homeland, Ithaca, after the sack of Troy. At a later stage we shall read some of the original, but now we shall start with a simplified version of Odysseus's landing at Scheria, probably to be identified with the modern Corfu. The scene occurs in the sixth book of the Odyssey. In reading Greek the following steps should be followed: (a) Look up each word in the vocabulary and parse it (i.e.

define it grammatically; this is particularly necessary with words which vary in form).

(b) Mark all finite verbs as this will indicate the number of clauses.

(c) By observing punctuation and conjunctions used to join clauses, work out where each clause begins and ends.

(d) Take each clause separately and see how each word relates to the finite verb of its clause (subject, object, part of an adverbial phrase, etc.).

(e) See from the conjunctions how the clauses are related to each other and work out the overall meaning of the sentence.

An analysis of sentence 13 will be found in the key. 1 ό Όδυοοεύο από τηο Τροίαο ήκει, άλλα ό Ποοειδών έν τη

(Γχερίρ τήν ναΰν (ship) διαφθείρει. 2 ό Όδυοοεύο έκ τηο θαλάττηο φεύγει καί ύπό έλάρ έαυτόν

(himself acc.) κρύπτει πρόο τη άκτη. 3 δναρ ή 'Αθηνά τη βαοιλείρ Ναυοικάρ λέγει ότι δει (it is

necessary) τήν οτολήν έν τη άκτη πλύνειν. 4 άμα τη ήμέρρ ή Ναυοικάα τήν οτολήν έκ τηο οίκίαο έν άμάξη'

πρόο τήν θάλατταν φέρει. 5 έν τη άμάξη έοτί (there is) καί (also) έδωδή τη Ναυοικάρ καί

ταΐο έταίραιο. 6 αί κόραι τάχα πλύνουοι τήν οτολήν πρόο τη έλάρ ου ό

Όδυοοεύο καθεύδει. 7 έπειτα αί κόραι τήν οτολήν έπί τήν άκτήν έπιβάλλουοιν. 8 λούουοιν έαυτάο (themselves) καί τήν έδωδήν έοθίουοιν ην

(which) έν τη άμάξη έχουοιν. 9 έωο (while) έν τη άκτη παίζουοιν, ή Ναυοικάα οφαΐραν ρίπτει

άλλ' ή οφαΐρα είο δίνην πίπτει. 10 αί τών κορών βοαί τον Όδυοοέα (acc.) έγείρουοι καί

έκπλήττουοιν. 1 1 ό Όδυοοεύο θαυμάζει ποι τηο γήο ήκει, καί άπό τηο έλάαο

έξαίφνηο έρπει.

15 C 3 » s

12 την Ναυακάαν και xac έταίραο έκπλήττει. 13 αλλ' ή Ναυακάα έν τη άκτη αναμένει διότι ή 'Αθηνά την

άνδρείαν eic την καρδίαν εισβάλλει. 14 ό Όδυοοεύο τη Ναυακάα λέγει δτι άπό τηο Ώγυγίαο ήκει. 15 ή Ναυακάα ταιο έταίραιο λέγει δτι δει τω 'Οδυοοεΐ (dat.)

έδωδήν και οτολήν παρέχειν. 16 τον Όδυοοεα πρόο την του πατρόο (of her father) οίκίαν άγει ν

έθέλει αλλά την των πολιτών (of the citizens) αιτίαν δειμαίνει ει βλεπουαν αυτήν (her) μετά του Όδυοοέωε (gen.).

17 ώοτε ή Ναυακάα και αί κόραι την οτολήν πάλιν έν τη άμάξη πρόο την οίκίαν φέρουαν, άλλ' ό Όδυοοεύο έκτόο άναμένει.

Notes 1 ό nom. s. m. of the definite article (3.1/1); Όδυοοεύο 3rd

declension (11.1/4); ήκει has come (the subject is ό Obvccevc) the present tense of this verb is to be translated by the perfect tense in English; την ναΰν lit. the ship, but we would translate his ship; Greek normally does not indicate possession if this is obvious from the context (9.1/5; cf. sentences 4, 5, 12, 13, 15, 16).

2 υπό έλάρ beneath an olive-tree; as Greek does not have an indefinite article (a, an in English) this must be supplied in our translation; cf. below έν άμάξη (4) and οφαΐραν (9).

5 The datives τη Ναυακάα and τ α ^ έταίραΐΰ are to be translated for...

7 έπί ... έπιβάλλουαν the repetition of έπί as a verbal prefix cannot be reproduced in English and we would simply say they throw ...onto the shore.

9 άλλ' = άλλά (2.1/6&). 10 τόν acc. s. m. of the definite article; έκπλήττουαν sc. him

(Odysseus; because the object of the second verb is the same as that of the first, no pronoun is needed in Greek).

13 eic ... εισβάλλει for the repetition of eic cf. note on 7. 15 τω dat. s. m. of the definite article. 16 του gen. s. m. of the definite article.

2.2/1 Vocabulary Individual vocabularies are provided for Units 2-9. Personal names whose English form is a simple transliteration of the Greek, or close to it (e.g. Οωκράτηΰ Socrates), are not included, but will be found in the main vocabulary. The meaning given to each word is that appropriate to its use in the preceding reading; for a fuller range of meanings the main vocabulary should be

consulted. Words already given in a grammatical table (or earlier vocabulary) are not repeated, except where a different meaning is involved. It is normal practice in Greek dictionaries and lists of Greek words to give the nominative singular of a noun, its genitive (usually in abbreviated form) and the appropriate nominative singular form of the article; this information establishes both its declension and gender, e.g. θάλαττα, -ηο, ή (note that the accent in the genitive - here θαλάττηο - is not always on the same syllable as in the nominative; see Appendix 8, a). Verbs are cited in the first person singular present indicative, e.g. κρύπτω.

άγω lead, bring Αθηνά, -0c,1 ή (the goddess)

Athena αίτίδ, -Gc, ή blame, censure άκτη, -f\c , ή shore, coast άλλά (conj.) but άμα see ήμέρδ άμαξα, -ηο, ή wagon άναμένω wait, stay άνδρείδ, -ffc, ή courage βαοίλεια, -flc, ή princess βλέπω see βοή, -f\c, ή shout γη, -ήο, ή land, earth, world δειμαίνω (+acc.) be afraid of,

fear διαφθείρω destroy δίνη, -ης, ή whirlpool διότι (conj.) because εγείρω awaken, arouse έδωδή, -ήο, ή food εθελω be willing, wish ει (conj.) if ειο (prep.+acc.) into ειοβαλλω throw into, put

into (prep.+gen.) out of

εκπλήττω strike with panic, , frighten εκτόο (adv.) outside ελαδ, -cfo, ή olive-tree ε ν (prep.+dat.) in, on

έξαίφνηο (adv.) suddenly έπειτα (adv.) then, next επί (prep.+acc.) on to έπιβαλλω throw upon έρπω creep, crawl έοθίω eat έταίρδ, -Gc, ή companion

(female) έχω have ήκω have come ήμέρδ, -ffc, ή day

άμα τη ήμέρςι at day-break or dawn

θαυμάζω wonder καθεύδω sleep καί (conj.) and καρδίσ, -Gc, ή heart κόρη, -ηο, ή girl κρύπτω hide λεγω say, speak λούω wash (the body) μετά (prep.+gen.) along with,

(in company) with oikiG, -tfc, ή house όναρ (adv.) in a dream ότι (conj.) that ου (conj.) where παίζω play πάλιν (adv.) back παρέχω provide (something

to somebody) πίπτω fall

Αθηνά, originally Άθηνάσ, has its genitive in -ac, -φ (not -ήο, -fj); cf. έλάα, -ac below.

18 c 3. H>

S

πλύνω wash (clothes) ποΐ (interrog. adv.) (to)

wheref ποΐ τηο γήο where in the world

npoc (prep.) (+acc.) towards, to (+dat.) near, beside

ρίπτω throw ΰτολή, -fjc, ή clothes ΰφαΐρα, -tfc, ή ball

Οχερίσ, -flc, ή Scheria, the land of the Phaeacians

τάχα (adv.) quickly Τροίδ, -Qc, ή Troy υπό (prep.+dat.) beneath φέρω carry, bring, take φεύγω flee, run away Ώγυγία, -Gc, ή Ogygia, the

island of Calypso ώοτε (conj.) consequently, so

3.1 Grammar

3.1/1 Second declension and the masculine and neuter definite article The second declension is divided into two groups: nouns whose nominative singular ends in -oc, which, with a few exceptions, are masculine, and those whose nominative singular ends in -ov, which are all neuter. Both groups have identical endings except for the nominative, vocative, and accusative. For these cases second declension neuter nouns observe the rule which holds for all neuter nouns in Greek: The vocative and accusative of all neuter nouns are the same as the nominative, both in the singular and in the plural. In the plural the nominative, vocative, and accusative of all neuter nouns end in - a (for an apparent exception see 6.1/lc).

ό ίππος the horse τό δώρον the gift SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL

Now. ό ϊ π π - o c ο ί ϊ π π - ο ι τό δώρ-ον τά δώρ-α Voc. — ί π π - ε — ί π π - ο ι — δώρ-ον — δώρ-α Acc. τον ί π π - ο ν τούο ϊ π π - ο υ ο τό δώρ-ον τά δώρ-α Gen. του ί π π - ο υ των ϊ π π - ω ν τ ο υ δ ώ ρ - ο υ των δώρ-ων Dat. τω ίππ-ω TOIC ί π π - o i c τω δώρ-ω τοιο δώρ-o i c

Notes 1 Feminine nouns of the second declension are declined in

exactly the same way as masculines but they require the feminine form of the definite article (and of adjectives; see below 3.1/3): ή vf\coc the island, τηο vocov of the disease. Only rarely can they be recognized as feminine by their meaning, e.g. ή παρθενοο the girl.

2 A finite verb which has a plural neuter noun as its subject is almost always singular: τά δώρα έοτιν έν τη οικία the gifts are in the house (ecu is the 3rd s. pres. ind. of ειμί I am - see below 3.1/6). This curious idiom, which has not been satisfactorily explained, even applies when the neuter noun denotes human beings: τά άνδράποδα ουκ £CTIV έν τη άγορα the captives are not in the market place.

3 In poetry an expanded form of the dative plural of both first and second declensions, -aici(v) -oici(v), often occurs, e.g. τΐμαια(ν), ίπποια(ν) (on the movable ν see 2.1/5 note 4).

3.1/2 First declension (masculine nouns) These nouns have borrowed the -c of the nominative singular and the -ου ending of the genitive singular from second declension masculines. They are subdivided into those ending in -fxc (always preceded by ε, ι or p) and those in -r\c.

νεδνίδο young man κριτής judge SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. νεδνί-Gc νεδνί-αι κριτ-^c κριτ-αί Voc. νεδνί-G νεσνί-αι κριτ-ά κριτ-αί Acc. νεδνί-δν νεδνί-Gc κριτ-ην κριτ-άο Gen. νεδνί-ου νεδνι-ων κριτ-ού κριτ-ων Dat. νεδνί-α νεδνί-aic κριτ- η κριτ-aic

Notes 1 Most nouns in this class involve male occupations; cf. also

ναύτηο sailor, οτρατιώτηο soldier. 2 When used with these nouns the definite article (and

adjectives) must be masculine. 3 Nouns in -τηο (as well as compounds and names of peoples)

have a vocative singular in - a (not -a). All other nouns in -ηο of this declension have a vocative in -η, e.g. ω Έρμη Ο Hermes! Contrast third declension proper names such as CcoKpa'nic (6.1/lc).

4 The patronymic suffixes -ίδηο, -ιάδηο are added to the stem of proper names to mean son of (Κρονίδηο son of Kpovoc). In many names these suffixes have lost their original force: Θουκυδίδηο Thucydides, 'Αλκιβιάδης Alcibiades.

3.1/3 First and second declension adjectives Adjectives in English, apart from this (pi. these) and that (pi. those), are invariable in form. In Greek, however, adjectives must agree with the nouns they qualify (i.e. go with and

describe) in case, number and gender, and consequently they are declined in the same way as nouns, e.g. ό κακός νόμος the wicked law, την καλήν νίκην the fine victory (acc.), λόγων δεινών of clever speeches. The majority of Greek adjectives have their feminine form declined according to the first declension but their masculine and neuter according to the second or third. This latter feature allows us to classify them into first and second declension adjectives and first and third declension adjectives (10.1/3). First and second declension adjectives have, therefore, a feminine in -η (or -G, when preceded by ε, ι or p), a masculine in -oc and a neuter in -ov. καλός handsome, beautiful, fine is declined:

Now. Voc. Acc. Gen. Dat.

SINGULAR

M . καλ-oc καλ-ε καλ-όν καλ-ού καλ-ώ

F.

καλ-ή καλ-η καλ- ην καλ-ης καλ-η

Ν . καλ-όν καλ-όν καλ-όν καλ-ού καλ-ώ

PLURAL

Μ . καλ-οί καλ-οί καλ-ούς καλ-ών καλ-oic

F.

καλ-αί καλ-αί καλ-άο καλ-ών καλ-αΐς

Ν . καλ-ά καλ-ά καλ-α καλ-ών καλ-oic

Now. Voc. Acc. Gen. Dat.

Μ . δίκαι-oc δίκαι-ε δίκαι-ον

F.

δικαί-σ δικαί-G δικαί-<3ν

δικαί-ου δικαί-Gc δικαί-ω δικαί-α

Μ. F.

αίςχρ-ός αίςχρ-ά αίςχρ-έ αίοχρ-ά αίοχρ-όν αίςχρ-άν αίςχρ-ού αίςχρ-ας αίςχρ-ώ αΐοχρ-α

Ν . αίςχρ-όν αίοχρ-όν αίςχρ-όν αίοχρ-ού αίοχρ-ώ

δίκαιος just and αίςχρός ugly, disgraceful are declined as follows in the singular:

N . δίκαι-ον δίκαι-ον δίκαι-ον δικαί-ου δικαί-ω

The plural is the same as for καλός.1

The way in which these adjectives are given in the vocabulary (and in dictionaries) is καλός, -ή, -όν; δίκαιος, -G, -ον; αίςχρός, -fl, -όν. Some adjectives, however, have no separate feminine (the so-called two termination adjectives) but employ the -oc forms for masculine and feminine alike. These are nearly all compounds, e-g. εύλογος reasonable (εύ + λόγος reason), έμπειρος experienced (έν + πείρα experience). Many have the negative ά -(or αν- before a vowel; cf. English inun-) e.g. άλογος irrational

+ λογος reason); ανάξιος unworthy (<xv + άξιος worthy). ( a These adjectives are cited in the form εύλογος, -ov; έμπειρος, "^v. Examples of them in agreement with feminine nouns are: ή «οίκος νίκη the unjust victory, αί έμπειροι Μοΰςαι the experienced Muses. 1 The δικακ note 4), SiKai~aCCeiu· ΐ 8 e n ' ^ v e p l u r a l feminine follows that of the masculine: δικαίων, not

ων which we would have expected on the analogy of first declension nouns (2.1/2

2 A finite verb which has a plural neuter noun as its subject is almost always singular: τά δώρα έςτιν έν τη οικία the gifts are in the house (έςτί is the 3rd s. pres. ind. of ειμί I am - see below 3.1/6). This curious idiom, which has not been satisfactorily explained, even applies when the neuter noun denotes human beings: τά άνδράποδα ουκ έςτιν έν τη άγορα the captives are not in the market place.

3 In poetry an expanded form of the dative plural of both first and second declensions, -aici(v) -oici(v), often occurs, e.g. τϊμαΐςι(ν), ϊπποια(ν) (on the movable ν see 2.1/5 note 4).

3.1/2 First declension (masculine nouns) These nouns have borrowed the -c of the nominative singular and the -ου ending of the genitive singular from second declension masculines. They are subdivided into those ending in

(always preceded by ε, ι or p) and those in -ης. νεδνίδς young man κριτής judge SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL

Nom. νεδνί-tfc νεδνί-αι κριτ-ης κριτ-αί Voc. νεδνί-<ϊ νεδνί-αι κριτ-ά κριτ-αί Acc. νεδνί-δν νεδνί-δς κριτ-ην κριτ-άς Gen. νεδνί-ου νεδνι-ων κριτ-ού κριτ-ων Dat. νεδνί-α νεδνί-aic κριτ-η κριτ-aic

Notes 1 Most nouns in this class involve male occupations; cf. also

ναύτης sailor, ςτρατιώτης soldier. 2 When used with these nouns the definite article (and

adjectives) must be masculine. 3 Nouns in -της (as well as compounds and names of peoples)

have a vocative singular in - a (not -a). All other nouns in -ηο of this declension have a vocative in -η, e.g. ώ Έρμη Ο Hermes! Contrast third declension proper names such as €ωκράτης (6.1/lc).

4 The patronymic suffixes -ίδηο, -ιάδηο are added to the stem of proper names to mean son of (Κρονίδηο son of Kpovoc). In many names these suffixes have lost their original force: Θουκυδίδης Thucydides, 'Αλκιβιάδης Alcibiades.

3.1/3 First and second declension adjectives Adjectives in English, apart from this (pi. these) and that (pi. those), are invariable in form. In Greek, however, adjectives must agree with the nouns they qualify (i.e. go with and

describe) in case, number and gender, and consequently they are declined in the same way as nouns, e.g. Ό KCIKOC νόμος the wicked law; την καλήν νίκην the ftne victory (acc.), λόγων δεινών of clever speeches. The majority of Greek adjectives have their feminine form declined according to the first declension but their masculine and neuter according to the second or third. This latter feature allows us to classify them into first and second declension adjectives and first and third declension adjectives (10.1/3). First and second declension adjectives have, therefore, a feminine in -η (or -fl, when preceded by ε, ι or p), a masculine in -oc and a neuter in -ov. K C ^ O C handsome, beautiful, fine is declined:

SINGULAR

M. F. N .

Nom. καλ-oc καλ- η καλ-όν Voc. καλ-έ καλ-ή καλ-όν Acc. καλ-όν καλ- ην καλ-όν Gen. καλ-ού καλ-ηο καλ-ού Dat. καλ-ώ καλ-ή καλ-ώ

PLURAL

Μ . F. Ν .

καλ-οί καλ-αί καλ-ά καλ-οί καλ-αί καλ-ά καλ-ούο καλΗϊο καλ-ά καλ-ών καλ-ών καλ-ών καλ-oic καλ-αις καλ-oic

αιςχρ-ου aic/p-ac αίςχρ-ώ αίςχρ-α

Ν . αίςχρ-όν αίοχρ-όν αίςχρ-όν αίςχρ-ού αίςχρ-ώ

δίκαιοΰ just and aic%poc ugly, disgraceful are declined as follows in the singular:

M. F. Ν . M. F.

Nom. δίκαι-oc δικαί-G δίκαι-ον aicxp-oc αίςχρ-ά Voc. δίκαι-ε δικαί-G δίκαι-ον αίςχρ-έ αίςχρ-ά Acc. δίκαι-ον δικαί-Gv δίκαι-ον αίοχρ-όν αίςχρ-άν Gen. δικαί-ου δικαί-Cc δικαί-ου Dat. δικαί-ω δικαί-α δικαί-ω The plural is the same as for καλόα1

The way in which these adjectives are given in the vocabulary' (and in dictionaries) is καA0c, -ή, -όν; δίκαιος -S, -ov; aic%poc, -8, -όν. Some adjectives, however, have no separate feminine (the so-called two termination adjectives) but employ the -oc forms for masculine and feminine alike. These are nearly all compounds, e-g. εύλογοΰ reasonable (εύ + Xoyoc reason), έμπειροΰ experienced (έν + πείρα experience). Many have the negative ά-(or αν- before a vowel; cf. English in-, un-) e.g. άλογοο irrational t u + reason); άνάξιοΰ unworthy (άν + άξιοΰ worthy). Ahese adjectives are cited in the form εύλογος -ov; έμπειρος "^v. Examples of them in agreement with feminine nouns are: ή GOIKOC νίκη the unjust victory, αί έμπειροι MoOcai the experienced Muses. T-pT ; § e . a c c e n t in the genitive plural feminine follows that of the masculine: δικαίων, not n o

1®V which we would have expected on the analogy of first declension nouns (2.1/2

21 c 3 h!

s

22 c 3 S δ

Two important adjectives, πολύς much (pi. many), and μέγας great, big, show irregularities in the masculine and neuter nominative and accusative singular. Otherwise they are declined exactly as if their nominative singular masculine were πολλ-ός and μεγάλ-ος. So in the singular we find:

M. Nom. πολύς Voc. — Acc. πολύν Gen. Dat.

F.

πολλ-ή

πολλ-ην

Ν. πολύ

πολύ πολλ-ού πολλ-ω

The plural is entirely regular.

πολλ-οϋ πολλ- ής πολλ-ω πολλ-η

Μ. μέγας μεγάλ-ε μέγαν μεγάλ-ου μεγάλ-ω

μεγάλ-η μεγάλ-η μεγάλ-ην μεγάλ-ης μεγάλ-η

Ν. μέγα μέγα μέγα μεγάλ-ου μεγάλ-ω

Position of adjectives (a) Where the definite article is absent, the adjective may appear

either before or after its noun: εις οίκίδν καλήν into a beautiful house, περί δεινού λόγου concerning a clever speech.

(b) When a noun is used with the definite article we have several possibilities. An adjective used as a simple attribute may occupy the same position as in English: ό δίκαιος νεδνίδς the just young man. But note that Greek may achieve exactly the same effect by writing ό νεσνίας ό δίκαιος with the article repeated. Both these positions are called attributive. Totally different, however; is the case where the adjective appears outside of the article-noun complex, ό νεδνίδς δίκαιος or δίκαιος ό νεδνίσς. In both these positions the adjective is considered as functioning as a predicate, and the meaning is the young man is just (on the omission of έςτί see below 3.1/6). Greek makes great use of this predicative position and can have a simple sentence where English would require a complex one. So whereas οίκίσν έχει καλήν means he has a beautiful house, την οίκίδν έχει καλήν or καλήν έχει τήν οίκίδν means the house which he has is beautiful, it is a beautiful house which he has (lit. beautiful the house he has).

3.1/4 Adverbs Most adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding -ως to the stem. In effect this means changing the final ν of the gen. pi. m. of the adjective to c, e.g. δίκαιος (gen. pi. m. δικαίων) just, adv. δικαίως justly; άδικος (gen. pi. m. άδικων) unjust, adv. άδίκωο unjustly.

Unlike in English, adverbs are nearly always placed immediately before the word they modify (l.U6a(i)); KCXKGDC καθεύδουαν they sleep badly. This is frequently a valuable clue in reading Greek.

3.1/5 Prepositions We have already seen some prepositions which indicate motion or rest (2.1/3f, g, h). Many prepositions govern both the accusative and genitive, some the accusative, genitive and dative. There are always differences of meaning involved, e.g. παρά +acc. = to (wards); +gen. = from; +dat. = at, beside (παρά is used for persons, not places, e.g. παρά έμοί lit. beside me, i.e. at my house, cf. Fr. chez mot). The following are particularly common: (a) with accusative: διά on account of

μετά after περί around (time, place, or number)

(b) with genitive: άντί instead of διά through, by means of μετά (in company) with υπέρ on behalf of περί concerning

Common idiomatic phrases involving παρά and another preposition κατά are: κατά γήν καί κατά θάλατταν by land and sea; κατά/παρά τούο νόμουο according to/contrary to the laws.

3.1/6 Present indicative and infinitive of ειμί I am This verb is irregular in Greek as is its equivalent in other languages. It has little in common with other -μι verbs (18.1/1). SINGULAR 1 ειμί lam PLURAL εομεν we are

2 ει you (s.) are εοτε you (pi.) are 3 έοτί(ν) he, she, it is είςί(ν) they are

INFINITIVE είναι to be

^ above forms are enclitic (see Appendix 8, d) except εί and είναι. ε ι μ ι never governs an accusative because it does not express an action inflicted by a subject on an object. What is said about the subject in clauses such as I am Aphrodite, wisdom is a skill, the &rls are beautiful is put into the nominative: ειμί 'Αφροδίτη, ή ^οφια τέχνη έΰτίν, αί κόραι εί^ι καλαί. In clauses of this nature

e appropriate form of ειμί (usually ecxi or εία.) is often

omitted (cf. above 3.1/36): αθάνατος ή ψϋχή the soul [is] immortal; άνθρωπος μέτρον άπάντων a man [is] the measure of all things. Sometimes the ςοηίβχί requires that έςτί and είςί should be translated by there is and there are respectively; κόραι έν τη άγορα ε ίαν there are girls in the agora (we would not normally say in English girls are in the agora).

3.2 Greek reading An analysis of sentence 10 will be found in the key.

Proverbs and short quotations By the end of antiquity the Greeks had accumulated an enormous number of proverbs and pithy sayings. Some have no identifiable origin, others are quotations, generally from poets. The following, and those included in future exercises, are nearly always in their original form.

1 ουκ ειςίν οί παμπλούςιοι (the very rich) άγαθοί. 2 έρημία μεγάλη έςτίν ή μεγάλη πόλις [city). 3 ή πενία τάς τέχνας έγείρει. 4 νεκρός ου δάκνει. 5 In these shorter sayings supply είςί in (*), έςτί in the rest:

(*) πολλοί τραπέζης, ουκ άληθείας, φίλοι, (it) ή ευτυχία πολύφιλος. (iii) ό άνθρωπος πολιτικόν ζώον. (iv) άθάνατος ό θάνατος, (ν) ου ςχολή δούλοις. (νϊ) χωρίς ύγιείας άβιος βίος. (vii) νόςος φιλίας ή κολακεία, (viii) κακός άνήρ (man) μακρόβιος.

6# τά μεγάλα δώρα της Τύχης έχει φόβον. 7# κακόν φέρουςι καρπόν οί κακοί φίλοι. 8# αύθαίρετος λύπη έςτίν ή τέκνων ςπορά. 9 δώρα θεούς πείθει.

10 ούτε ςυμπόςιον χωρίς ομιλίας ούτε πλούτος χωρίς άρετης ήδονήν έχει.

11 ό άνεξέταςτος βίος ού βιωτός άνθρώπω. 12 A fable of Aesop

Aesop was a slave on the island of Samos in the early sixth century BC who composed animal fables. These were at first transmitted orally and became widely known. The collection that survives under Aesop's name seems to have been put into its present form early in the Christian era. The following is an adaptation. (/) πολλοί βάτραχοι άγγέλους πέμπουςι προς τον

Κρονίδην διότι μονάρχου χρήζουςιν.

(ii) οί άγγελοι τω Κρονίδη υπέρ των βατράχων λέγουαν· ω δίκαιε Κρονίδη, δεοπότηο ει των θεών. άρα έθέλειο τοιο βατράχοιο δεοπότην παρέχει ν;

(iii) ό Κρονίδηο οφόδρα θαυμάζει καί μέγα ξύλον είο την των βατράχων λίμνην ρίπτει.

(iv) τό ξύλον έκπλήττει τούο βατράχους καί ταχέωο άποτρέχουαν, άλλά ύποπτεύειν άρχουαν έπεί τό ξύλον έοτί ν άκίνητον.

(ν) ϋοτερον τω ξύλω άνευ φόβου έπιβαίνουα καί λέγουαν ω ξένε, αρα θεόο ει ή άνθρωποο ή ζωον;

(vi) έπεί ού λέγει ούδέν, νομίζουαν άνάξιον είναι εί τοιούτον δεοπότην έχουα καί άγγέλουο πάλιν πρόο τον Κρονίδην πέμπουαν περί νέου μονάρχου.

(vii) οί άγγελοι τω Κρονίδη λέγουαν ω δέοποτα, δει άλλον μόναρχον τοΐο βατράχοιο πέμπειν έπεί ό πρώτόο έοτιν άκίνητοο καί άργόο.

(viii) ό των θεών δεοπότηο έν οργή έχει τούο βατράχουο καί μεγάλην ύδραν πέμπει.

(ix) ή ύδρα έοτί ν άπαραίτητοο καί τούο βατράχους έοθίει. (χ) ό μΰθοο οαφηνίζει ότι δει τούο άργούο δεοπόταο

φέρειν έπεί οί δραστήριοι δεοπόται ταλαιπωρίαο πολλάκις φέρουαν.

Notes 2 ή μεγάλη πόλιο the article indicates a general class (2.1/2

note 1); in English we would say a large city. 3 With neither noun would we use an article in English (2.1/2

note 1). The same applies in 5 (ii), (iii), (iv), and 7. 6 # indicates that the sentence (or passage) is in verse. Poets

often vary normal prose usage (but not in 6, 7, 8). Here (and in 9) a neuter plural subject is followed by a singular verb (3.1/1 note 2).

(H) A question which does not involve an interrogative word (who? how?, etc.) may be introduced by άρα (10.1/2), which has no English equivalent; in such cases, we normally reverse subject and verb (are you a sailor? άρα ναύτηο ει;).

(w) άρχουαν here begin. (v) τω ξύλω ... έπιβαίνουα they step on to the log,

έπιβαίνω here takes the dative (cf. 13.1/26). (w) Certain compound negatives (here ούδέν) reinforce a

preceding simple negative (ού) and the meaning here is it says nothing at all (see 7.1/6); άνάξιον (neuter) είναι ει ... lit. [ii] to be unworthy if ..., i.e. that it is despicable that...

(viii) εν οργή εχει lit. has in anger; i.e. is angry with. (x) Note the pun on the two meanings of φέρω, endure

and bring.

3.2/1 Vocabulary άβιοο, -ov unlivable,

intolerable αγαθός, -ή, -όν good άγγελος, -ου, ό messenger άθάνατος, -ov immortal άκίνητος, -ov motionless άλήθεια, -δς, ή truth άλλος, -η, -ov offor, another άνάξιος, -ov unworthy άνεξέταςτος, -ov without

enquiry άνευ (prep.+gen.) without άνθρωπος, -ου, ό man, human

being άπαραιτητος, -ov unmoved

by prayer, pitiless άποτρέχω run away άρα (interrog. particle) see note

to 12 (ii) άργός, -όν lazy, idle άρετή, -ής, ή excellence, virtue άρχω begin αυθαίρετος, -ov self-chosen,

self-inflicted βάτραχος, -ου, ό frog βίος, -ου, ό life βιωτός, -όν worth living δάκνω bite δεςπότης, -ου, ό master δούλος, -ου, ό slave δραςτήριος, -ov active δώρον, -ου, τό gift έπεί (conj.) since έπιβαίνω (+dat.) step on to έρημία, -ας, ή desert,

wilderness εύτυχίδ, -Cfc, ή good fortune ζώον, -ου, τό living being,

animal ή (conj.) or

ήδονή, -ής, ή pleasure θάνατος, -ου, ό death θεός, -ού, ό god κακός, -ή, -όν bad, evil καρπός, -ού, ό fruit κολακείσ, -Cte, ή flattery Κρονίδης, -ου, ό son of

Cronos (i.e. Zeus) λίμνη, -ης, ή pool, marsh λύπη, -ης, ή grief μακρόβιος, -ov long-lived μόναρχος, -ου, ό monarch μύθος, -ου, ό story, fable νεκρός, -ού, ό corpse νέος, -σ, -ov new νομίζω think, consider νόςος, -ου, ή disease ξένος, -ου, ό stranger ξύλον, -ου, τό log όμΤλίσ, -Cfc, ή company οργή, -ής, ή anger

έν όργή έχειν (+acc.) be angry with

ού (ούκ, ούχ) no(t) (see 2.1 /6α)

ούδέν (neuter pron.) nothing ούτε ... ούτε neither ... nor παμπλούςιος, -ov very rich πείθω persuade πέμπω send πενίδ, H5c, ή poverty πλούτος, -ου, ό wealth πολιτικός, -ή, -όν political πολλάκις (adv.) often πολύφιλος, -ov having many

friends πρώτος, -η, -ov first ςαφηνίζω make clear ςπορά, -ας, ή sowing,

begetting

ςυμπόαον, -ου, τό drinking party

οφόδρα (adv.) very much, exceedingly

ςχολή, -ης, ή leisure, res£ ταλαιπωρία, -3ς, ή hardship,

distress ταχέως (adv.) quickly τέκνον, -ου, τό cfei'W τέχνη, -ης, ή λ rf, cra/ί, skill τοιούτος (adj. 21.1/3) of such

a kind, such τράπεζα, -ης, ή table Τύχη, -ης, ή Fortune, Chance ύγίεια, -Gc, ή health

ύδρδ, -σο,ή hydra, water-serpent

ύποπτεύω suspect, be suspicious

ύςτερον (adv.) later, afterwards

φέρω bear, bring φιλίδ, -Qc, ή friendship φίλος, -η, -ov dear, friendly;

as a noun friend φόβος, -ου, ό fear χρήζω (+gen.) be in need of,

desire χωρίο (prep.+gen.) without,

apart from

27 c 3 H>' δ

For this and every third subsequent unit a revision exercise will be found at the Internet website http://tyancientgreek.org

4.1 Grammar

4.1/1 Imperfect indicative active and weak aorist indicative active and infinitive active of -ω verbs Both the imperfect and the aorist (in the indicative) have reference to the past. The aorist has other moods, which we shall treat later, but the imperfect exists only in the indicative. The term weak aorist is used to distinguish the formation of this tense in λύω (and most other -ω verbs) from that in a minority of -ω verbs which have a strong aorist (7.1/1). There is no difference in meaning. The weak aorist is so named because its stem requires a suffix (c added to the present stem), whereas the stem of the strong aorist resembles that of the imperfect in having no suffix. The concept of verbal strength as shown in the presence (weak) or absence (strong) of suffixes is a somewhat whimsical notion of nineteenth-century grammarians. The aorist stem of λύω is λϋο- (the same as for the future), while the imperfect simply uses that of the present, λΐΗ The augment is prefixed to the stem in the indicative of both. This, in λύω and other verbs beginning with a consonant, consists of the vowel έ, giving us ελΌ- (imperfect), ελϋο- (aorist). The two sets of endings have similarities but the vowel immediately following the stem in the aorist is α in five of the six forms, whereas in this position in the imperfect we have the same pattern of o- and e-sounds as in the present (cf. 2.1/5 note 3):

IMPERFECT AORIST

SINGULAR 1 έλϋ-ον I was loosening, ελϋο-σ I loosened used to loosen

2 ελϋ-εο 3 έλϋ-ε(ν)

ελϋο-ac έλϋο-ε(ν)

PLURAL 1 έλϋ-ομεν έλύο-αμεν 2 έλύ-ετε 3 έλΰ-ον

έλύο-ατε έλϋο-αν λύο-αι INFINITIVE

The imperfect and the aorist indicative both represent actions which occurred in the past, but, whereas the aorist simply tells us that an action took place, e.g. xovc νεδνίδο έπαιδεύοαμεν we educated the young men, the imperfect tells us that an action was continuous or repeated, e.g. τούο νείχνίίχο έπαιδεύομεν we were educating/used to educate the young men (the choice between continuous action were educating and habitual action used to educate will depend on the context).1 In other words, while the aorist indicative views a past action as a simple event, the imperfect indicative views it as a process, either continuous or interrupted (repeated or habitual). The difference between the two usually depends on our perception of the nature of the action or event described. We may, in a particular context, see it simply as something that happened in the past (it rained last summer). In another context we may see the same event as something continuous (it was raining last summer when Socrates visited us) or repeated (last summer it used to rain every time I went to the Acropolis). Naturally, many past actions and events are not normally viewed in more than one way (Pericles died during the plague). The term covering distinctions of this sort is aspect. We say that, although both these tenses of the indicative describe something that happened m the past, the aorist indicative expresses a momentary aspect, the imperfect a continuous or habitual aspect. This distinction in the indicative between the imperfect and the aorist also applies in the infinitive between the present and aorist, although there is no specific time reference (but see 8-1/3* and 21.1/1 note). The present infinitive is used for an action which is seen as going on, in the process of happening or being repeated. The aorist infinitive is used for an action which ^ seen simply as an event. Often both are to be translated in English simply by a present infinitive: ό Ιππόλυτοο τον Γλαΰκον εκελευοεν αίέν άριοτεύειν Hippolytus ordered Glaucus to be always best (αριστεύει ν to be best present infinitive, because the

J he imperfect has two other meanings, which are less common: began to (I began to ncate etc. inceptive imperfect) and tried to (I tried to educate etc. conative imperfect).

action is seen as one which is going on and continuing); ή Ξανθίππη τον δούλον έκέλευοε κρούοαι την θύραν Xanthippe ordered the slave to knock [on] the door (KpoOcai aorist infinitive, because Xanthippe envisages a simple (single) act; the present infinitive κρούειν would imply a continual action and require the translation to keep knocking). The imperfect has no infinitive because the present infinitive covers the meaning it would have had (i.e. to be loosening in a past context). For similar reasons the imperfect has no moods other than the indicative.

1 The augment is prefixed to the indicative forms of the three historic tenses (the tenses whose indicative describes something in the past, viz imperfect, aorist, pluperfect (16.1/2)); it does not occur in the three primary tenses (the tenses whose indicative describes something in the present or future, viz present, future, perfect (15.1/1), and future perfect (16.1/4 note 2)). There is also a formal difference between the two categories in the 3rd pi. ind. act. ending. In historic tenses this has a final -v (e.£. έλϋον, ελϋοαν), but in primary tenses ends in -ci(v) (e.g. λϋουα(ν), λύςουα(ν)).

2 There are two types of augment: (i) the syllabic augment, as described above, where a verb

begins with a consonant. An initial ρ is doubled: ρίπτω throw, impf. έρρίπτον. This augment is so called because it adds a syllable to the forms where it is used.

(ii) the temporal augment. This variety of the augment is called temporal (Latin tempus time) because it increases the time taken to pronounce (i.e. it lengthens) an initial vowel according to the following table. Note that α is lengthened to η and that i, when the second element of a diphthong, becomes subscript. As ι and υ (unlike ε/η and ο/ω) can represent both long and short vowels the temporal augment does not affect the spelling of verbs beginning with them.

η and ω remain unchanged Examples are: ακούω hear, aor. ήκουςα; έλπίζω hope, impf. ήλπιζον; οικτίρω pity, impf. ωκτΓρον; ώδίνω be in labour,

Notes

α > η ε > η ι >Τ ο > ω υ > ϋ

αι > η αυ > ηυ ει > η ευ > ηυ οι > ω

impf. ωδϊνον (for other examples see Principal parts of verbs). A few verbs with initial ε take ει not η, e.g. έχω has impf. ειχον. ει and ευ are often not changed, e.g. ευρίσκω find, impf. εύριςκον or ηύριοκον.

3 The endings of the 1st s. and 3rd pi. of the imperfect indicative active are the same. The context of a particular form will always make clear which person is meant.

4 Like its present, the imperfect of ειμί is irregular: ή or fjv, ήοθα, ήν, ήμεν, ήτε, ήοαν. This is the only past tense of ειμί because the act of being was regarded as necessarily extending over a period of time. For all forms of ειμί see Appendix 3.

4.1/2 First and second person pronouns, and αίιτό, -ην, -ό As in English, so in Greek we have pronouns of the first and second persons. These are declined as follows:

First Person Second Person SINGULAR

Nom. έγώ I ού (a l so v o c . ) you (s.) Acc. έ μ έ , μ ε me c e , ce you Gen. έμοΰ , μ ο υ of me COO, cov of you Dat. έ μ ο ί , μο ι to/for me c o i , c o i to/for you

PLURAL Nom. ήμειο we ύ μ ε ι ο (a l so v o c . ) you (pi.) Acc. ήμάο us ύμάο you Gen. ημών of us ϋμών of you Dat. ήμιν to/for us ϋ μ ΐ ν to/for you The unaccented forms με, μου, μοι, οε, οου, coi are unemphatic and enclitic Appendix 8, d): διώκει με ή Άοπαοίσ Aspasia is chasing me. The other forms are emphatic: ού οέ, άλλα έμέ διώκει ή Άςπαάδ it's me, not you, that Aspasia is chasing (lit. Aspasia is chasing not you but me). With prepositions the emphatic forms are used, e.g. μετά cov with you, except for π Ρ ο ο : προς με towards me. Since the endings of verbs indicate the person involved, the nominative forms will occur only where eniphasis is required. Likewise, in the third person there is no need in Greek for an ^emphat ic form of the pronoun in the nominative since this

is supplied by the personal endings of the verb: λέγει "e/she/it speaks (the gender of the subject will be clear from the context). The oblique cases (2.1/3), however; are supplied by αυτόν, -ην, -ό him, her, it (the nominative has another meaning

32 c 3

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see 9.1/3), which is declined exactly like the corresponding forms of καλόο (3.1/3) except that the neuter accusative singular is αυτό: ή 'AcnaciG, έχθέο έδίωκεν αυτόν Aspasia was chasing him yesterday. In the plural, whereas English has only one form (them), Greek distinguishes between the genders: m. αύτούΰ, f. αντάο, n. αυτά etc. (for the emphatic third person pronouns, see 9.1/1).

Note The possessive genitive of the unemphatic personal pronoun is placed after the noun which it qualifies, etc την οίκίσν μου into my house (lit. into the house of me); έκ τηο OIKIGC αυτών from their house (lit. from the house of them). For the position of the genitive of the emphatic personal pronouns see 9.1/5.

4.1/3 Connecting particles A fundamental feature of Greek is the ubiquitous occurrence of particles. These are short, indeclinable words, many of which are postpositive, i.e. they cannot occur as first word in the phrase or sentence where they are used (these we shall mark here and in the vocabulary with an asterisk). Those such as καί and and άλλά but, which are not postpositive, are also called conjunctions. Particles have two basic functions: (a) to act as connectives linking grammatical elements of equal

weight (words with words, phrases with phrases, sentences with sentences)

(b) to add shades of tone, colour, or emphasis to individual words, phrases, or sentences, which in English would simply be conveyed by a variation in the tone or emphasis of the voice.

Here we will concentrate mainly on connectives. Other particles will be explained as they occur in the reading and at 13.1/3. With very few well-defined exceptions, every sentence in Greek is connected to the preceding sentence by a connecting particle. The commonest of these is δέ* and, which is regularly used to connect a string of sentences where in English we would avoid any connecting word at all. In English it would be considered very bad style to begin sentence after sentence with and, but in Greek it is totally natural and acceptable, δέ* is also translatable as but, but when so used it denotes only a slight contrast: ό Άχιλλεύο ην έν τη οκηντγ ό δέ Πάτροκλοο έφερεν οννον Achilles was in the tent but (or and) Patroclus was bringing wine. A

strongly contrasting but is expressed by άλλα, e.g. ού βραδέακ; αλλά ταχέωο oi βαρβαροι ήμάο έδίωκον the barbarians were chasing us not slowly but quickly. Note also γάρ* for, as, which introduces the reason for what goes before, ού μένομεν oi γάρ βάρβαροι rpac διώκουοιν we are not staying as the barbarians are chasing us. Similarly ούν* therefore, so, introduces the result of what goes before, οί βάρβαροι ήμάο διώκουαν ταχέακ: ούν τρέχομεν the barbarians are chasing us; therefore we are running quickly. καί and is frequently used as a simple conjunction connecting words, clauses or sentences, ήμεΐο καί ϋμεΐο you and we (Greek gives precedence to the 1st person, English is more polite). καί ... καί is used to express both ... and και ή 'Αφροδίτη και ό Aiovtfcoc both Aphrodite and Dionysos, and the same sense can also be conveyed by τε* ... καί, but since τε* is postpositive (and enclitic; see Appendix 8, d), the above phrase would become ή τε 'Αφροδίτη καί ό AiovtJcoc. Less commonly τε* is used by itself as the equivalent of δέ or καί to connect a sentence to a preceding sentence. καί may also be used adverbially in the sense also, even, actually, καί συ, τέκνον even you (or you too), [my] child; τον βάρβαρον και έδιώκομεν we were actually chasing the barbarian. In this usage καί stands immediately before the word it modifies. The negative of adverbial καί is ούδέ, not even, e.g. ουδέ ό oivoc άγαθόο not even the wine [is] good. (As a conjunction ούδέ also means nor, and ... not). One of the most important combinations of particles is that of μεν* followed at a distance by δέ*. μέν*, however^ does not connect its own word group with anything preceding. For convenience, it is normally translated in dictionaries by on the one hand, which is somewhat too emphatic since μέν* simply introduces the first of a parallel pair of balanced or contrasted items. When we see μέν* we know to look ahead to find the corresponding δέ*. This tendency to place words in a formally balanced structure is fundamental to Greek. Any page of a week author will contain at least one μέν* ... δέ*. ^ may think of the pair as meaning on the one hand... and/but Oft the other hand, but in most cases such a translation would be heavy or clumsy. Thus Οωκράτηο μέν λέγει έν τη άγορρ, έγώ

ε βαδίζω μετά xf\c 'Araaciffc should not be translated by °frates on the one hand is speaking in the agora, but I on the

0 ber hand am walking with Aspasia but by Socrates is speaking ut I am walking ... or whereas Socrates is speaking ... I am

w<*lking ...

The two elements balanced by μεν* ... δε* must always bt structurally parallel and the words they follow must be of equa grammatical weight. These can be nouns and pronouns (a< above), or adverbs, e.g. εύ μεν λέγει, κακώς δέ πράττει he speak well but acts badly, or verbs e.g. λέγει μέν εύ, πράττει δέ κακακ he speaks well but acts badly; here the change in the elements contrasted has meant that the adverbs εύ and κακώς have beer, placed after the words they qualify (cf. 2.1/6). Other parts or speech can also be contrasted in this way.

4.2 Greek reading An analysis of sentence 5 will be found in the key. 1 αί μέν ήδοναί θνηταί, αί δ' άρεταί άθάνατοι. 2 άρτον ούκ ειχεν ό πτωχός καί τυρόν ήγόραζεν. 3 μιςθός άρετης έπαινος, κακίας δέ ψόγος. 4# δεινοί πλέκει ν τοι μηχανάς Αιγύπτιοι. 5 τοις μέν δούλοις ή άνάγκη νόμος, τοις δέ έλευθέροιο

άνθρώποις ό νόμος άνάγκη. 6 πάλαι ποτ' ήςαν άλκιμοι Μιλήςιοι. 7 άετός μυίας ού θηρεύει. 8 Futility

(i) eic ούρανόν πτύεις, (ii) έξ άμμου ςχοινίον πλέκεις, (iii) θάλατταν ςπείρεις. (iv) ϊππον εις πεδίον διδάςκεις τρέχειν. (ν) κατόπιν έορτης ήκεις. (vi) νεκρόν μαςτίζεις. (vii) όνον κείρεις. (viii) προ της νίκης τό έγκώμιον φδεις. (ix) πρόο κέντρα λακτίζεις. (χ) τάς μηχανάς μετα τον πόλεμον κομίζεις.

9 The fall of Croesus Herodotus (fifth century BC) is the earliest surviving Greek historian and has been called the father of history. The subject of his work is the rise of the Persian empire and its fateful clash with the Greek world which culminated in the unsuccessful invasion of Greece in 480-479 BC. The following passage is based on Herodotus' description of the subjugation of Lydia (see map on p. xiv), which brought the Persians into contact with the Greeks of the Asia Minor coast. ό δέ Κροΐςος ό τών Λυδών βαςιλεύς (king) την τών Περςών άρχήν διαφθείρειν ήθελεν κατά γάρ τό έν Δελφοΐς χρηςτηριον άρχήν μεγάλην έμελλε παΰςαι. άλλά τέλος την μέν έαυτοΰ (his own) άρχήν έπαυςεν, την δέ τών Περςών ού. μετά δέ την τών Περςών νίκην ό Κύρος ό τών Περςών βαςιλεύς 5 τον Κροίςον έπί πυράν μεγάλην άνεβίβαςεν (made ... go up). ό δέ Κροΐςος τούς λόγους τούς του Οόλωνος (of Solon) του 'Αθηναίου έφρόντιζεν ούδείς (no-one) τών άνθρο)πων όλβιος

jtpo του θανάτου, ήουχοο ούν έμενε την τελευτην άλλα ό Κύροο, διότι ό Kpoicoc καί ocioc ην καί άγαθόο, έκέλευοε 10 μέν τούο οτρατιώταο άπό τηο πυράο αύτόν καταβιβάοαι (to bring down), έλεξε (spoke) δέ ώδε* ώ Κροΐοε, τίο (who?) οε ανθρώπων έπειοε (persuaded) πολέμιον άντι φίλου έπί την γήν μου ςτρατεΰοαι; ό δέ Kpoicoc, ώ Κΰρε, έφη (said), έγώ μέν έπί οε έοτράτευοα, ό δέ θεόο ό έν Δελφοΐο επειοε με 15 οτρατεΰοαι. ού γάρ είμι άνόητοο ούδέ έθέλω τον πόλεμον έχειν άντί τηο είρηνηο. έν μέν γάρ τή ειρήνη οί νεανίαι τούο γεραιούο (the old) θάπτουοιν, έν δε τω πολέμω οί γεραιοί τούο νεανίαο. άλλά τοΰτο (lit. this thing) φίλον ην τοΐο θεοιο. ό ούν Κϋροο αύτόν έλυοε καί έγγύο καθειοεν (made ... sit), ό 20 δέ Kpoicoc αύθιο έλεξεν ώ Κΰρε, τί (what?) πράττουαν οί οτρατιώταί cov; την πόλιν (city) οου, έφη ό KOpoc, άρπάζουοι καί τον πλοΰτόν cov έκφέρουοιν. ούχ άρπάζουοι την πόλιν μου, έφη ό Kpoicoc, ούδέ τον πλοΰτον ούδέν (nothing) γάρ έμοί έοτιν. άλλά οε άγονοι τε καί φέρουοιν. μετά δέ τοΰτο 25 φίλοο ην αύτω. την γάρ οοφίαν αύτοΰ έν τιμή είχεν ό KOpoc.

Notes 1 The appropriate part of ειμί is to be supplied (also in 3, 4,

5). 2 Cheese (τϋρόο) would have been a luxury to the poor. 3 Take μιοθόο with the genitives άρετηο and κακίαο; normal

prose usage would require ό μιοθόο but the definite article is often omitted in proverbs and in verse.

4 τοι is a particle conveying emphasis, commonly employed in proverbs; it is not to be translated, since in English we would convey the emphasis by tone of voice; μηχανάο here used metaphorically devices, ways and means (in S(x) below the word is used concretely).

6 Miletus, the city of the Μιλήοιοι, flourished in the seventh and sixth centuries BC; in later times it became symbolic of past greatness; Μιλήαοι does not have an article as this is optional with proper nouns (2.1/2,l(iii)).

® Μ μηχαναί are here engines of war (siege weapons and the like).

9 /.I δέ connects this passage with what precedes in the original and need not be translated. 1.2 Δελφοί is a plural place name. There are many such names in Greek ('Αθήναι Athens, Θήβαι Thebes). 1.3 έμελλε was destined to, was going to. 11.7f Solon was an Athenian statesman who had visited Croesus and, in conversation with him, had enunciated the very Greek sentiment Call no man happy before he dies (only then can a true and full judgement be made); έφρόντιζεν began to ponder inceptive imperfect

36 c 3

s

(4.1/1 footnote); ούδείο ... θανάτου are Solon's actual words (inverted commas are not normally used in printing Greek -1.1/1 note 3)./.8 ήσυχος translate by an adverb quietly (Greek often uses an adjective where English would have an adverb). /. 12 Take TIC ... άνθρώπων together; take πολέμιο\ with ςε, [as an] enemy (Greek does not here need an equivalent to the English as). /.18 τούτο refers to what has happened to Croesus; φίλον +dat. dear to, pleasing to. 1.22 ούχ 2.1/6<z(i). II.23-4 άγουςί τε καί φέρουαν lit. are both driving and carrying, i.e. are plundering and carrying off (a set expression; the τε need not be translated) but here translate simply by plunder.

4.2/1 Vocabulary άγοράζω buy άγω καί φέρω plunder ςίδω sing άετός, -ού, ό eagle 'Αθηναίος, -S, -ov Athenian Αιγύπτιος, -α, -ov Egyptian άλκιμος, -ov brave άμμος, -ου, ή sand άνάγκη, -ης, ή necessity άνόητος -ov foolish άντί (prep.+gen.) instead of άπό (prep.+gen.) from, away

from άρπάζω seize, plunder, snatch άρτος, -ου, ό bread άρχή, -ήο, ή empire αύθις (adv.) again γάρ* (connecting particle)

for, as δεινός, -ή, -όν clever at

(+inf.) Δελφοί, -ων, οί Delphi διδάςκω teach έγγύς (adv.) near, nearby έγκώμιον, -ου, τό victory-

song έθέλω am willing, wish ειρήνη, -ης, ή peace

έκφερω carry out έλεύθερος, -ix, -ov free έξ = έκ έορτή, -ής, ή feast έπαινος, -ου, ό praise έπί (prep.+acc.) on to, to,

against ήςυχος, -η, -ov quiet,

peaceful9 θάπτω bury θηρεύω hunt θνητός, -ή, -όν mortal ίππος, -ου, ό horse κακία, -ας, ή wickedness κατά (prep.+acc.) according

to κατόπιν (+gen.) after κείρω cut (the hair), shear κελεύω order κέντρον, -ου, τό goad κομίζω bring λακτίζω kick λόγος, -ου, ό word Λΰδός, -ού, ό Lydian μαςτίζω whip, flog μέλλω be destined to μένω wait (for) μετά (prep.+acc.) after

μηχανή, -ήο, ή engine of war; device

ΜΓλήοιοο, -ff, -ov of Miletus, Milesian

μιςθός, -ού, ό /wy, reward μυια, -cte, η fly νίκη, -T]c, ή victory νόμος, -ου, ό law όλβιος, /wppy ovoc, -ου, ό/ή tfss ocioc, -fl, -ov pious, devout ουδέ (conj.) tfwd «οί, «or ούν* (particle) therefore, so,

then ουρανός, -ού, ό s&y πάλαι (adv.) long ago παύω (tr.) stop, put an end to πεδίον, -ου, τό plain Πέρςης, -ου, ό Persian πλέκω plait; devise, contrive πολέμιος, -G, -ov hostile,

enemy πόλεμος, -ου, ό war ποτέ* once

πράττω do πρό (prep.+gen.) before πτύω spit πτωχός, -ού, ό beggar πυρά, -ας, ή funeral pyre ςοφίδ, -Gfc, ή wisdom ςπείρω sow (with seed) ςτρατεύω make an

expedition ςτρατιώτης, -ου, ό soldier ςχοινίον, -ου, τό little rope τε* ... καί/τε* both ... and τελευτη, -ής, ή end, death τέλος (adv.) in the end,

finally τιμή, -ής, ή respect τοι* see note on 4 τρέχω run τϋρόο, -ού, ό cheese φροντίζω think about,

ponder χρηςτήριον, -ου, τό oracle ψόγος, -ου, ό blame ώδε (adv.) thus, as follows

36 C D TV s

(4.1/1 footnote); ουδείς ... θανάτου are Solon's actual worc (inverted commas are not normally used in printing Greek. 1.1/1 note 3)./.8 ήσυχοο translate by an adverb quietl (Greek often uses an adjective where English would have ar adverb). /. 12 Take TIC ... άνθρώπων together; take πολέμιο with ce, [as an] enemy (Greek does not here need & equivalent to the English as). I.18 τούτο refers to what ha happened to Croesus; φίλον +dat. dear to, pleasing to. l.ll ούχ 2.1/6tf(i). //.23-4 άγουοί τε καί φέρουαν lit. are botl. driving and carrying, i.e. are plundering and carrying off (a set expression; the τε need not be translated) but here translate simply by plunder.

4.2/1 Vocabulary άγοράζω buy άγω καί φέρω plunder ςίδω sing άετόο, -ου, ό eagle Άθηναΐοο, -α, -ov Athenian Αίγύπτιοο, -Q, -ov Egyptian άλκιμοο, -ov brave άμμοο, -ου, ή sand άνάγκη, -ηο, ή necessity άνόητοο -ov foolish άντί (prep.+gen.) instead of άπό (prep.+gen.) from, away

from άρπάζω seize, plunder, snatch άρτοο, -ου, ό bread άρχή, -r\c, ή empire αύθιο (adv.) again γάρ* (connecting particle)

for, as δει voc, -ή, -όν clever at

(+inf.) Δελφοί, -ων, oi Delphi διδάοκω teach έγγύο (adv.) near, nearby έγκώμιον, -ου, τό victory-

song έθέλω am willing, wish ειρήνη, ^ηο, ή peace

εκφερω carry out έλεύθεροο, -Q, -ov free έξ = έκ έορτή, -ήο, ή feast έπαινοο, -ου, ό praise έπί (prep.+acc.) on to, to,

against ήουχοο, -η, -ov quiet,

peaceful9 θάπτω bury θηρεύω hunt θνητόο, -ή, -όν mortal ϊπποο, -ου, ό horse κακία, -ac, ή wickedness κατά (prep.+acc.) according

to κατόπιν (+gen.) after κείρω cut (the hair), shear κελεύω order κέντρον, -ου, τό goad κομίζω bring λακτίζω kick λόγοο, -ου, ό word Λΰδόο, -ού, ό Lydian μαστίζω whip, flog μέλλω be destined to μένω wait (for) μετά (prep.+acc.) after

μηχανη,-ήο, ή engine of war; device Μαήαοο,-β,-ον of Miletus, Milesian

μιοθόο,-ου,ό pay, reward μυια, -cfo, ή fly ν ί κ η , - T i c , η , v i c t o r y νόμος, -ου, ό law όλβιοο, haPPy όνος, -ου, ό/ή ass ocioc, -δ, -ov p/'ows, devout ουδέ (conj.) and not, nor ούν* (particle) therefore, so,

then ουρανός, -ου, ό sky πάλαι (adv.) long ago παύω (tr.) stop, put an end to πεδίον, -ου, τό plain Πέρςης, -ου, ό Persian πλέκω plait; devise, contrive πολέμιος, -Q, -ov hostile,

enemy πόλεμος, -ου, ό war ποτέ* once

πράττω do προ (prep.+gen.) before πτύω spit πτωχός, -ου, ό beggar πυρά, -ας, ή funeral pyre ςοφίδ, -fifc, ή wisdom ςπείρω sow (with seed) ςτρατεύω make an

expedition ςτρατιώτης, -ου, ό soldier ςχοινίον, -ου, τό little rope τε* ... καί/τε* both ... and τελευτη, -ής, ή end, death τέλος (adv.) in the end,

finally τΓμή, -ής, ή respect τοι* see note on 4 τρέχω run τϋρός, -ου, ό cheese φροντίζω think about,

ponder χρηςτηριον, -ου, τό oracle ψόγος, -ου, ό blame ώδε (adv.) thus, as follows

5.1 Grammar

5.1/1 Third declension - consonant stem nouns (1) The third declension contains nouns of all three genders. They are divided into two classes, those with stems ending in a consonant and those with stems ending in a vowel or diphthong. Within the various sub-groups of each class masculine and feminine nouns have the same case endings but neuters always follow the rule previously given (3.1/1) for the nominative, vocative and accusative (not every sub-group has each gender). The gender of a third declension noun is only sometimes predictable from its ending. With all consonant stem nouns we discover the stem by subtracting -oc from the genitive singular (e.g. γύψ vulture, gen. Ytfrcoc, stem γϋπ-) and the other case endings are added to this. As the stem is modified, occasionally beyond recognition, in the nominative singular, both nominative and genitive singular must be learnt. (a) Stems in κ, γ, χ (palatals), π, β, φ (labials), and τ, δ, θ

(dentals) The declension of regular masculine and feminine noun> with stems ending in these consonants is given belo^· Masculine and feminine nouns in these sub-groups have a nominative singular in c, which combines with, or replaces· the final consonant of the stem as follows:

κ/γ/χ + c > ξ; π/β/φ + c > ψ; τ/δ/θ + c > c The same changes occur before the dative plural ending (which can take a movable v; cf. 2.1/5 note 4); they al*0

occur in verbs with similar stems (6.1/4).

φύλαξ (m) guard

stem φυλακ-S I N G U L A R

N.V. φυλαξ Acc. φύλακ-α Gen. φύλακ-oc Dat. φύλακ-ι P L U R A L

N.V φύλακ-ες Acc. φύλακ-ας Gen. φυλάκ-ων Dat. φύλαξι(ν)

γύψ (m) έρως(m) πατρίς (f) vulture love native land γϋπ- έρωτ- πατριδ-

γύψ έρως πατρίς (ν. πατρί) γύπ-α έρωτ-α πατρίδ-α γϋπ-oc έρωτ-oc πατρίδ-ος γϋπ-ί έρωτ-ι πατρίδ-ι

γύπ-ες έρωτ-ες πατρίδ-ες γύπ-ac έρωτ-ας πατρίδ-ας γϋπ-ων έρώτ-ων πατρίδ-ων γϋψί(ν) έρω-ςι(ν) πατρί-ςι(ν)

Within these sub-groups the only neuters are those with a τ stem. The vast majority of these have a nominative singular in -μα and a genitive in -ματος. Of the others some have a sigma in the nominative singular (as κέρας), some do not (e.g. ήπαρ, ήπατος liver).

stem

N.V. Acc. Gen. Dat.

ςώμα (n) body ςωματ-SINGULAR

ςώμα ςώμα ςώματ-ος οώματ-ι

PLURAL

ςώματ-α ςώματ-α ςωμάτ-ων ςώμα-ςι(ν)

κέρας (n) horn κερδτ-SINGULAR

κέρας κέρας κέρατ-ος κέρατ-ι

PLURAL

κέρδτ-α κέρδτ-α κεράτ-ων κέρδ-ςι(ν)

(b) Stems in ντ (all masculine) These have a nominative singular in -de or -ων. Unlike nouns of the preeeding sub-groups (except πατρίς), they have a separate voeative singular, which is formed by dropping τ from the stem. I heir dative plural has the change ντ + c > ς, with lengthening or the preceding α and ο to δ and ου (not ω) respectively. This engthening occurs to compensate for the reduction of three

consonants to one.

stem

Nom. Voc. Acc.

Sat.

yWc (m) giant γιγαντ-SINGULAR

γίγσς γίγαν "/ίγαντ-α ϊίγαντ-oc ϊίγαντ-ι

PLURAL

γίγαντ-ες γίγαντ-ες γίγαντ-ας γιγάντ-ων γίγσςι(ν)

λέων (m) lion λεοντ-SINGULAR

λέων λέον λέοντ-α λέοντ-ος λέοντ-ι

PURAL

λέοντ-ες λέοντ-ες λέοντ-ας λεόντ-ων λέουςι(ν)

Notes 1 Some nouns with these stems are slightly irregular, mostly in

the nominative singular. The most common are: γόνυ γόνατοο (η) knee γυνή γυναικόο (f) woman (voc. s. γύναι) θρίξ τριχός (f) hair (dat. pi. θριξί(ν) νύξ νυκτός (f) night (dat. pi. νυξί(ν)) οδούς οδόντος (m) tooth 0\)C ώτός (η) ear παις παιδός (m or f) child (voc. sing, παι) πους ποδός (m) foot ύδωρ ύδατος (η) water

2 Stems in ιδ which are not accented on the t have -iv, not -ιδα, in the acc. s., e.g. epic, έριδοΰ (f) strife, acc. έριν. This also applies to xapic, χάριτοΰ (f) favour; acc. χάριν and opvlc, opvlGoc (m. or f.) bird, acc. δρνιν.

3 Third declension monosyllables are accented on their ending in the genitive and dative, both singular and plural (see γύψ above).

5.1/2 Contracted verbs Unlike verbs with stems ending in ι and υ (έΰθίω eat, λύω loosen), verbs whose stems end in α, ε and ο contract their stem vowel with the initial vowel of the endings in the present and imperfect. A consonantal suffix is used to form the stem of the other tenses (e.g. c in the future and aorist - see note 2). Examples of contracted verbs are: τΐμά-ω honour, ποιέ-ω do, make, δηλό-ω make clear, show. Since all three types contract their stem vowels and the -ω of the 1st s. pres. ind. act. to -ώ (τιμώ, ποιώ, δηλώ), these verbs are always cited in vocabulary lists in their uncontracted form to make identification immediately obvious. For the rules governing the accentuation of contracted verbs see Appendix 8, b(i). Paradigms for the three types are given in Appendix 2. As the endings involved are the same as for λύω, it is the rules for contraction which are our principal concern here: (a) Stems in a (model τ ιμάω)

α + an e-sound (ε, η) > α: έτΓμα (έτίμα-ε) α + an o-sound (ο, ου, ω) > ω: τιμάει (τϊμά-ουα); τϊμώμεν

(τΐμά-ομεν) α + an ι- diphthong (ει, η, οι) obeys the above rules but

retains the iota as a subscript in the contracted form: τίμα (τΐμά-ει)

The combinations of α + η/η/οι occur in forms not yet treated.

φ) Stems in ε (model πονέω) ε + ε > ει: ποιείτε (ποιέ-ετε) ε + ο > ου: έποίουν (έποίε-ον) ε disappears before a long vowel or diphthong: ποιώ

(ποιέ-ω); ποιοΰοι (ποιέ-ουα). (c) Stems in ο (model δηλόω)

ο + ε/ο/ου > ου: έδήλου (έδήλο-ε); δηλούμεν (δηλό-ομεν); δηλοΰα (δηλό-ουα)

ο + η/ω > ω: δηλώ (δηλό-ω) ο + an i-diphthong (ει, οι, η) > οι: δηλοΐ (δηλό-ει) The combinations ο + η/οι/η occur in forms not yet treated.

The above contractions, which cover all forms of contracted verbs, also occur in other parts of speech, e.g. the noun voOc (< vooc; 6.1/2). Contraction was a regular feature of Attic Greek but was not as rigorously applied in other dialects. Notes 1 The present infinitives of a - and o-stems contract to -αν and

-ουν respectively, not -Qv and -oiv. This is because the -ειν of the pres. inf. act. of uncontracted -ω verbs (e.g. λό-ειν) is itself a contraction of ε + εν. With -αω and -οω verbs we therefore have the double contractions α + ε + ε ν > δ + εν> αν; ο + ε + εν > ου + εν > ουν, which give us τΐμάν, δηλοΰν.

2 All tenses other than the present and imperfect are formed by lengthening the stem vowel and proceeding exactly as with uncontracted verbs (α > η (except after ε, ι, ρ where we have α > α); ε > η; ο > ω). The fut. ind. act. of the model verbs is τΐμήΰω, ποιήΰω, δηλώΰω and the aor. ind. act. έτίμηΰα, έποίηΰα, έδήλωΰα. However, γελάω laugh does not lengthen its a: fut. γελάα>μαι (8.1/1 note 1) aor. eyeXaca. Likewise, καλέω call and τελέω complete do not lengthen their ε in the aorist: έκάλεΰα, έτέλεΰα; their future is, rather confusingly, the same as their present, καλώ, τελώ, because the expected καλέΰω, τελέΰω lost the intervocalic c and contraction resulted (cf. 6.1/lc).

3 A contracted future also occurs in most verbs in -ίζω (6.1/4&) and all verbs with stems in λ, μ, ν, ρ (11.1/3). Nearly all such futures have a stem in ε (i.e. the contraction is -ώ, -εις, e t c< ) exactly as the present of ποιέω). A few have a stem in a, as έλαύνω drive, fut. stem έλα- giving έλώ, έλόκ;, ελα, etc., exactly as the present of τιμάω. ζαω be alive contracts to η where other -άω verbs have S: Pres. ind. act. ζώ, ζήΰ, ζή, ζώμεν, ζήτε, ζακ:ι(ν), inf. ζην; impf. !nd. act. έζων, έζηΰ, έζη, έζώμεν, έζήτε, έζων. So also πεινάω be hungry and διψάω be thirsty.

5 Most disyllabic verbs in -εω (as δέω need, πλέω sail, πνέο breathe, ρέω flow) contract only when ε is followed by 8, The pres. ind. act. of πλέω is πλέω, πλεΐο, πλεΐ, πλέομεν. πλεΐτε, πλέουα(ν); impf. έπλεον, έπλειο, έπλει, έπλέομεν, έπλεΐτε, έπλεον. The 3rd s. act. of δέω need, pres. δει, impf. έδει, is used impersonally in the sense of it is/was necessary (examples have already occurred in the reading exercises). It is construed with the accusative of the person involved and an infinitive: δει με έν τη οικία μένει ν, it is necessary for me to remain in the house, i.e. I must remain ...

6 There is no movable ν in the 3rd s. of the impf. ind. act. of contracted verbs.

5.1/3 Further uses of the definite article In English we can, to a limited degree, use the definite article with an adjective to form a noun-equivalent: only the good die young; only the brave deserve the fair. In Greek, however, the definite article can be used to create a noun-equivalent out of virtually any part of speech (adjective, adverb, prepositional phrase, infinitive) to which it is prefixed: ό οοφόο the wise [man]; ή οοφή the wise [woman]; οί τότε the then [men], i.e. the men of that time; οί νυν the now [men], i.e. the men of today; οί έν ττ\ οικία the [men] in the house (the last three examples can also mean the [people] ..., as Greek uses the masculine article to refer to mixed groups). The neuter singular article is used with adjectives to express abstractions: τό καλόν beauty, τό αίοχρόν ugliness. When prefixed to an infinitive (articular infinitive, i.e.

! article + infinitive) it forms an equivalent of verbal nouns in English: τό λέγειν the [act of] speaking, speech; τό φεύγειν the [act of] fleeing, flight. Each of these noun-equivalents functions exactly like any normal noun, and the case of the article (and of an accompanying adjective) varies according to a particular context: φερω τον κακόν I am carrying the cowardly [man]; περί του παιδεύειν έλεγεν he was speaking about the [act of] educating, i.e. about education; έδιώκομεν τούο έν τη νηοω we were chasing the [men] in the island. Another very common type of noun-phrase consists of the neuter plural of the definite article followed by a genitive. Here the article may be translated in a wide variety of ways. Thus τά τών Αθηναίων (lit. the [things] of the Athenians) can mean the property/situation/condition/fortunes/interests, etc., of the Athenians; τά έν τη ΤΡώμη the things!events!circumstances, etc. in Rome. The context must determine the most appropriate rendering.

The article can also be used as a third person pronoun when combined with the particles μέν* ... δέ; ό μέν ... ό δέ the one ... the other (one man ... another); oi μέν ... oi δέ some ... others: ό

διώκει την δόξαν, ό δέ τό άργύριον one man chases fame, another money; οί μέν άπέθντ^κον, οί δέ έφευγον some were jying, others running away, ό δέ but/and he (and οί δέ, etc.) when used by itself refers to someone mentioned in the preceding sentence other than its subject: ό CiOKpdmic έκέλεικε την Ξανθίππην κροΰΰαι την μυΐαν ή δέ ουκ ήθελεν Socrates ordered Xanthippe to swat the fly but she refused (lit. was not willing). This use of the article is a survival from an earlier stage in Greek when it was employed solely as a third person pronoun (cf. 25.1/3*)

We have already met three usages of the article in Greek where there is no corresponding article in English (2.1/2 note 1). There is also one important instance where the reverse holds true, viz where the noun or adjective is predicative. Thus, when Thucydides (6.2.11) is telling us that originally the Athenians called the Acropolis simply 'the polis', he writes καλείται (3rd s. pres. ind. passive) ή Άκρόπολιο έτι πόλιο the Acropolis is still called 'the polis', but there is no article with πόλια In such sentences, therefore, there should be no doubt as to which word is the subject and which is the complement. Notes 1 Adjectives without the definite article can also be used as

nouns but they then have an indefinite sense: έν τφ πολέμω πολλοί κακά έφερον in the war many [people] were suffering hardships (lit. bad things). When used indefinitely in the singular an adjective is normally accompanied by the indefinite pronoun TIC (10.1/1).

2 In expressions such as 'Αλκιβιάδηΰ ό Κλεινίου Alcibiades, [son] of Cleinias the article is followed by the genitive and the word for son or daughter is omitted (cf. 24.1/1*). As Greeks, both male and female, had only one name, the name of a person's father is often given in this way to achieve greater precision.

5.2 Greek reading 1 O xpovoc παιδεύει τονο ΰοφούο. 2 πόλλ* έχει αωπη καλά.

πόλλ' έ ^ ι ν άνθρώποιαν, ώ ξένοι, κακά. ού δει φέρειν τά πρόΰθεν έν μνημη κακά.

5 Supply έοτί in the following: (i) καλόν ήςυχία. (it) χαλεπά τά καλά. (Hi) μέτρον άριςτον. (iv) μέγα βιβλίον μέγα κακόν. (ν) κοινά τά τών φίλων, (νϊ) κοινός Έρμης. (vii) μικρόν κακόν μέγα άγαθόν. (viii) άλλα άλλοις καλά. (ix) ή γλώττα πολλών αιτία κακών, (χ) χαλεπόν τό ποιεΐν, τό δέ κελεύςαι ράδιον. (*/)# κακόν τό μεθύειν πημονης λυτηριον. (χη) παθήματα μαθήματα, (xiii) κακοΰ κόρακος κακόν ωόν. (xiv) πιςτόν γή, άπιςτον θάλαττα. (χν) κάν μύρμηκι χολη.

6 (ϊ) δει γαμεΐν έκ τών όμοιων. (Μ) μώρος μώρα λεγει. (iii) έξω πηλού τον πόδα έχεις. (iv) ζει χύτρα, ζη φιλία, (ν) λέοντα ξυρεΐς. (νϊ) προς ςήμα μητρυιάς κλαίεις.

7# φευ φευ, τά μεγάλα μεγάλα καί πάςχει κακά. 8# όνου χρείαν έλέγχει τραχύτηο όδοΰ. 9# άνθρωπόο έοτι πνεύμα καί οκιά μόνον.

10# τύχη τέχνην ωρθωοεν, ού τέχνη τύχην. 11# πολλών τά χρήματ' αίτί' άνθρώποιο κακών. 12# γύναι, γυναιξί κόομον ή οιγή φέρει. 13# καλόν δέ καί γέροντι μανθάνειν οοφά. 14 οί Αθηναίοι Θουκυδίδην τον Όλόρου έπεμψαν πρόο τον

οτρατηγόν τών έν Θράκη. 15 ούτε παρά νεκρού όμιλιαν ούτε παρά φιλαργύρου χάριν δει

ζητειν. 16# ίκανόν τό νικάν έοτι τοΐο έλευθεροΐο. 17# κάν τοιο άγροίκοιο έοτί παιδείαο έρωο. 18 ό λύκοο την τρίχα, ού την γνώμην, άλλάττει. 19# τά χρήματ' άνθρώποιςιν εύρίςκει φίλους. 20 φαύλος κριτής καλού πράγματος όχλος. 21 The Egyptians and their crocodiles (from Herodotus)

τοις μέν ούν τών Αιγυπτίων ίεροί είοιν οί κροκόδιλοι, τοις δ' ού, άλλ' άτε πολεμίους περιέπουςιν. οί δέ περί τε Θήβας καί την Μοίρεως (of Moeris) λίμνην ςφόδρα νομίζουςιν αύτούς είναι ιερούς, ένα (one) δέ έκάτεροι τρέφουςι κροκόδιλον καί διδάςκουςιν, άρτηματα δέ λίθινα χυτά εις 5 τά ώτα έμβάλλουςι καί άμφιδέας περί τούς έμπροςθίους πόδας καί ςιτία άπότακτα παρέχουςι καί ίερεΐα. έως μέν ούν ζώςιν οί κροκόδιλοι μάλ' εύ πάςχουςιν, μετά δέ τον θάνατον ταριχεύουςιν αύτούς οί Αιγύπτιοι καί θάπτουςιν έν ίεραΐς θηκαις. άλλ' οί περί Έλεφαντίνην πόλιν (city) καί 1C έςθίουςιν αύτούς· ού γάρ νομίζουςιν ιερούς είναι.

Notes 2 πόλλ' = πολλά (also in 3) 2.1 /6b. 3 άνθρώποιςιν dat. pi.; -οιςιν is the longer form of the ending

(3.1/1 note 3).

4 Take τά πρόοθεν ... κακά together and έν μνήμη with φέρει ν; dislocations of this sort are common in verse.

5 (/) καλόν is neuter because the meaning is a fair [thing]; we would have expected the definite article with ήΰυχία (2.1/1 note 1) - see note on 4.2.3. (iv) here, and in some of the following proverbs, it is necessary to decide which is subject and which is predicate, i.e. is a big book a big evil? or is a big evil a big book? Obviously the former is what is meant. (vi) An appeal to share in the luck that another is enjoying (e.g. in finding a coin in the street); Hermes, as god of luck, shares, or should share, his blessings equally, (viii) άλλα άλλοΐΰ ... lit. other [things] ... to other [people], i.e. different [things] ... to different people, (xiv) 7CICTOV, άπιοτον cf. καλόν in (/). (xv) κάν = καί έν (crasis 11.1/5); καί here means even (4.1/3).

6 (iv) ζει < ζέω boil, ζη < ζάω live (the latter is irregular - 5.1/2 note 4).

7 Prose order would be τά μεγάλα καί πάοχει μεγάλα κακά; καί is here adverbial also (4.1/3); take the second μεγάλα with κακά.

10 Translate ώρθακεν by a present; the aorist is often used to express general truths, particularly in proverbs (so-called gnomic aorist; cf. faint heart never won fair lady).

11 Supply έοτί (and also in 13 and 20); χρήματ' αίτί' both have an elided a; the plural of χρήμα thing here means money (a very common use).

13 δέ cf. note on 4.2.9 (there are many examples of such connectives at the beginning of verse and prose extracts in subsequent reading exercises); καί even 4.1/3.

14 τον Όλόρου 5.1/3 note 2. 17 κάν see above on 5 (xv). 19 χρήματ(α) see on 11; άνθρώποιαν see note on 3. 20 Only the sense can indicate which noun is subject and which

predicate (cf. note on 5(iv)). 21 11.If. TOIC μέν ... TOIC δέ for some ... for others (5.1/3); ούν

connects this passage with what goes before in the original context (cf. 13 above); άτε πολεμίου as enemies; Θηβαι Thebes not to be confused with the city of the same name in Greece. /.4 Take ένα (m. acc. of elc (7.1/5)) with κροκόδιλον; έκάτεροι each of the two (i.e. those around Thebes and those around the swamp of Moeris). 1.8 ούν therefore, so shows that what follows is a consequence of what was said in the previous sentence, while μέν functions with the δέ of the next line to contrast έακ: ζώα ν... with μετά τον θάνατον ...

46 C 3 S 8

5.2/1 Vocabulary άγροικος, -ov from the

country, rustic, boorish αίτίδ, -&c, ή cause άλλάττω change (tr.) άμφιδέβ, -Ctc, ή bracelet,

anklet άπιςτος, -ov untrustworthy άπότακτος, -ov set apart for

special use aptcxoc, -η, -ov best άρτημα, -ατος, τό ear-ring άτε (particle) as i f , as βιβλίον, -ου, τό book γαμέω marry γέρων, -οντος, ό old man γλώττα, -ης, ή tongue γνώμη, -ης, ή mind γυνή, -αικός, ή woman διδάςκω teach, train έκάτερος, -G -ov each (of

two) έλέγχω test Έλεφαντίνη, -ης, ή

Elephantine (city in Egypt) έμβάλλω put in έμπρόςθιος, -ov (in) front έξω (+gen.) outside εύ (adv.) well εύρίςκω find; get έως (conj.) while ζάω be alive, live, pass one's

life ζέω boil ζητέω look for, seek (+acc.) ήςυχίσ, -Gc, ή peace, quiet Θηβαι, -ων, αί Thebes (city in

Egypt) θηκη, -ηο, ή tomb Θράκη, -ης, ή Thrace θρίξ, τριχός, ή hair ίερεΐα, -ων, τά offerings ίερόο, -ά, -όν sacred, holy

IKOVOC, -Ή, -ΌΝ sufficient κλαίω weep κοι voc, -ή, -όν common,

shared κόραξ, -ακοο, ό crow κόςμοο, -ου, ό decoration κροκόδΓλοο, -ου, ό crocodile λίθινος, -η, -ον (χυτόο) made

of glass λύκοο, -ου, ό wolf λυτηριον, -ου, τό remedy μάθημα, -ατος, τό lesson μάλα (adv.) very μανθάνω learn μεθύω be drunk μέτρον, -ου, τό measure, due

measure, moderation μητρυιά, -άς, ή step-mother μικρός, -ά, -όν small μνημη, -ης, ή memory μόνον (adv.) only, merely μύρμηξ, -ηκος, ό ant μώρος, -3, -ov stupid, foolish νικάω win ξυρέω shave οδός, -ου, ή road όμοιος, -α, -ov like όρθόω guide ούς, ώτός, τό ear όχλος, -ου, ό crowd, mob πάθημα -ατος, τό suffering,

misfortune παιδεία, -Gfc, ή education,

culture παιδεύω teach, educate παρά (prep.) (+gen.) from πάςχω suffer

εύ πάςχω be well treated περί (prep.) (+acc.) around περιέπω treat πηλόΰ, -ού, ό mud πημονη, -ής, ή woe, misery

TUCTOC, - Ή , - Ό Ν trustworthy πνεύμα, -axoc, τό breath ποιέω make, do πολεμιοο, -a , -ov hostile,

enemy πούο, ποδόο, ό foot πράγμα, -axoc, τό thing,

matter πρόο (prep.) (+ace.) ίο,

towards; on, at πρόοθεν (adv.) previously ράδιοο, -G, -ov e<zs;y ςημα, -axoc, χό iorafc αγη, -ήο, ή silence clxia, -ων, τά provisions,

food ςιωιρί, -^c, ή silence ςκιά, -ac, ή shadow ςοφόο, -η, -όν wise, clever ςτρατηγόο, -ού, ό general,

commander χαριχεύω embalm, mummify

τραχύτηο, -ητος, ή roughness τρέφω , rear φαύλος, -ov (also -η, -ov)

poor, inadequate φευ (interjection) alas! φιλάργυρος, -ov avaricious,

miserly χαλεπόο, -ή, -όν difficult,

hard χάριο, -ixoc (acc. χάριν), ή

favour χολη, -^c, ή bile; anger χρείδ, -<Xc, ή use,

serviceability χρήμα, -axoc, χό thing; (pi.)

money χρόνοc, -ου, ό time χυτός, -ή, -όν melted (with

λίθινος, made of glass ) χύτρα, -Ctc, ή pot φόν, -ου, τό egg

6.1 Grammar

6.1/1 Third declension - consonant stem nouns (2) (a) Stems in ν (masculine and, rarely, feminine)

These stems nearly all have a nominative singular in -ην or -ων with a genitive -£voc/-r|voc or -ovoc/-ovoc. There is no rule to determine whether a particular word has a long or short vowel in its stem. Those with a short vowel do not lengthen it in the dative plural because here we have ν + c > c, not ντ + c > c (cf. 5.1/1 b).

λιμήν (m) μήν (m) δαίμων (m or f) άγων (m) harbour month divine being contest

stem λιμεν- μην- δαιμον- άγων-SINGULAR Nom. λιμήν μήν δαίμων άγών Voc. λιμήν μήν δαΐμον άγων Acc. λιμέν-α μήν-α δαίμον-α άγών-α Gen. λιμεν-oc μην-oc δαίμον-οο άγών-oc Dat. λιμεν-ι μην-ί δαίμον-ι άγών-ι PLURAL N.V. λιμέν-ec μήν-εο δαίμον-εο άγών-εο Acc. λιμεν-ac μήν-ac δαίμον-αο άγών-ac Gen. λιμέν-ων μην-ων δαιμόν-ων άγών-ων Dat. λιμέ-οι(ν) μη-ςί(ν) δαίμο-οιίν) άγώ-οι(ν)

Notes 1 There are a few such nouns in -Tc, -ivoc, e.g. pic, pTvoc (f)

nose; δελφΐο, -ivoc (m) dolphin.

2 The vocative singular of v-stems is the same as the nominative when the nominative is accented on the final syllable (so λιμήν, but δαΐμον).

3 κύων, κυνός (m or f) dog has an irregular stem κυν-(b) Stems in ρ (mainly masculine)

The majority have a nom. s. -ηρ, gen. -ηρος or nom. s. -ωρ, gen. -opoc. Four nouns with a nom. s. in -ηρ form a special sub-group and are declined alike: πατήρ father; μήτηρ mother; θυγάτηρ daughter, γαςτηρ (f) stomach. Also given below is the slightly irregular άνήρ man, male. Of these nouns only those in -^ηρ, -ηρος do not have a distinct vocative singular (ςώτερ from ςωτηρ, -ήρος (m) saviour is an exception).

θηρ Μ ρήτωρ (m) πατήρ (m) άνηρ (m) wild beast speaker father man

stem θηρ- ρητορ- πατ(ε)ρ- άνδρ-SINGULAR Nom. θηρ ρήτωρ πατηρ άνηρ Voc. θηρ ρήτορ πάτερ άνερ Acc. θηρ-α ρήτορ-α πατέρ-α άνδρ-α Gen. θηρ-ός ρήτορ-ος πατρ-ός άνδρ-ός Dat. Οηρ-ί ρήτορ-ι πατρ-ί άνδρ-ί PLURAL N.V. θήρες ρήτορ-ες πατέρ-ες άνδρ-ες Acc. θηρ-ας ρήτορ-ας πατέρ-ας άνδρ-ας Gen. θηρ-ων ρητόρ-ων πατέρ-ων άνδρ-ών Dat. θηρ-ςί(ν) ρήτορ-ςι(ν) πατρά-ςι(ν) άνδράςι(ν)

A few nouns with stems in ρ do not have a nom. s. in -ηρ/-ωρ. Of these, χειρ, χειρός (f) hand (stem χειρ-) can also have a stem χερ-, which is the more usual in the dat. pi., viz χερςί(ν); έαρ (n) (the season of) spring has gen. ήρος, dat. ήρι; πυρ (n) fire has gen. πυρός, dat. πυρί (see also 13.1/1 c). (c) Stems in ec (neuters in -oc, masculine proper names in -^c) Neuters in -oc, as γένος, γένους race, clan (stem γενεο-), form a large class. They appear to be irregular because they were affected by a sound change at an earlier stage of Greek whereby intervocal sigma was lost and in Attic the two previously separated vowels were contracted (in Homeric Greek and other dialects the uncontracted forms survived).

49 c 3 S 8

SINGULAR Ν. γένος Acc. γένος Gen. γένους Dat. γένει

J<yeve(c)-oc) (<γένε(ς)-ι)

PLURAL γένη γένη γενών γένεςι(ν)

(<γένε(ς)-α)

(<γενέ(ς)-ων) (<γένε(ς)-ςι)

Many masculine proper names are compounds with a stem in ες because their second element is a neuter noun of this type, e.g. Διογένης (γένοο), Οωκράτηο (κράτοο), Άριοτοτέληο (τέλος). These must be distinguished from first declension masculine proper names in -^c (see 3.1/2 notes 3 and 4). A complication arises with proper names containing the neuter κλέοο fame as their second element (e.g. Περικλήο, Ήρακλήο, Θεμιστοκλής) since a further contraction is required in the nom. voc. and dat. because of the additional ε in the stem (κλεεο-). Compare the declensions of Οωκράτηο and Περικλήο: Nom. Voc. Acc. Gen. Dat.

Οωκράτης Οωκρατεο Οωκράτη Οωκράτους Οωκράτει

(<-ε(ς)α) (<-ε(ς)ος) (<-ε(ς)ι)

Περικλής Περίκλεις Περικλέσ Περικλέους Περικλει

(<κλέης) (<κλεες) (<κλέε(ς)α) (<-κλέε(ς)ος) (<-κλέε(ς)ι)

The acc. Περικλέδ has a final G (not η as in γένη) because of the preceding ε (cf. αργυρά < -εδ , 6.1/2). One noun in ^ηο which belongs here but is not a masculine proper noun is τριήρηο (f) trireme. (singular as for Οωκράτηο, plural n.v.a. τριήρειο, gen. τριηρών, dat. τριήρεα(ν)).

6.1/2 Second declension contracted nouns and first and second declension contracted adjectives The few second declension masculine nouns in -ooc and neuters in -εον are contracted in Attic according to the rules given for contracted verbs (5.1/2; on ε + α, which does not occur in verbs, see below). The uncontracted forms, which are regular, occur in other dialects. Examples are:

vooc mind Contracted Uncontracted

όςτέον bone Contracted Uncontracted

(Attic) (non-Attic) Attic) (non-Attic) SINGULAR Nom. νους vo-oc όςτούν όςτέ-ον Voc. νου νό-ε όςτούν όςτέ-ον Acc. νουν νό-ον όςτούν όςτέ-ον Gen. νου νό-ου όςτού όςτέ-ου Dat. νω νό-ω όςτω όςτέ-ω

vol vovc νών voic

vo-oi νό-οι νό-ODC νό-ων νό-oic

octa ocxa octa όοτών ocxoic

rocxe-a *, / octe-a ocxe-a όοτέ-ων ocxe-oic

PLURAL

Horn, vol Voc. Acc. Gen. Dat. In the nom. voc. acc. pi. of neuters ε + α produces Q on the analogy of the α-ending of normal second declension neuters (cf. χρΰςά below). Like voOc are declined poOc stream, πλοΰο voyage, and compounds of the latter such as περίπλουο circumnavigation. Most first and second declension contracted adjectives are formed with -εοο, -εα, -εον, e.g. χρϋοοϋο (< χρύοεοο) golden, which is declined: SINGULAR M. F. N. N.V. χρϋοούο (-eoc) χρϋση (-εα) χρίουν (-εον) Acc. χρϋοούν (-εον) χρϋοήν (-έδν) χρϋοούν (-εον) Gen. χρϋοού (-έου) χρϋσηο (-eGc) χρϋοοΰ (-εου) Dat. χρϋοω (-έω) χρϋοη (-έα) χρϋοω (-έω) PLURAL N.V. χρϋοοι (-εοι) χρϋοαι (-εαι) χρϋοά Acc. χρϋοούο (-έους) χρϋοάο (-έδο) χρϋοά Gen. χρϋοών (-έων) χρϋοών (-έων) χρϋοών Dat. xptfcoic (-eoic) xpflcaic (-έαιο) xptJcoic

(-εα) (-εα) (-εων) (-έοιο)

In the feminine singular ε + δ > η, except where ε is preceded by ε, ι, or ρ, e.g. άργυροΰο (-εοο), -α (-έδ), -οΰν, (-εον) [made of] silver, whose feminine singular is: nom. αργυρά, acc. άργυράν, gen. άργυράο, dat. αργυρά (here ε + δ > δ), άπλοΰο, -ή, -οΰν simple is contracted from άπλόοο but follows XpficoOc completely, even in the feminine.

51 c 3 S·' s

6.1/3 Compound verbs formed with prepositional prefixes Many verbs form compounds by prefixing one, or sometimes more than one, preposition (e.g. έπιβαίνω, 3.2.12(f)). This involves important sound changes when certain vowels and consonants are juxtaposed: (a) With the exception of περί and προ, prepositions ending in

a vowel drop this vowel (by elision) when compounded with a verb which begins with a vowel or diphthong: απάγω (άπό+άγω) lead away, παρέχω (παρά+έχω) provide, but προάγω lead forward, περιάγω lead round.

(b) When, owing to the elision of the final vowel of the preposition, π, τ, or κ are brought into contact with an initial aspirated vowel or diphthong, these consonants must themselves adopt their aspirated forms, φ, θ and χ: άφαιρέω (άπό+αίρέω) take away; καθαιρέω (κατά+αίρέω) destroy.

(c) When compounded with a verb beginning with a vowel or diphthong, έκ becomes έξ: έξάγω (έκ+άγω) lead out; έξαιρέω (έκ+αίρέω) take out.

(d) When compounded with a verb beginning with a consonant, the ν of έν and ciiv is assimilated as follows: ν before π, β, φ, ψ and μ becomes μ: ουμβουλεύω (συν+βουλεύω) advise ν before γ, κ, χ, and ξ becomes nasal γ: έγγράφω (έν+γράφω) write in/on ν before λ becomes λ: ουλλαμβάνω (συν+λαμβάνω) gather together ν of cw is dropped before c: ουοτρατεύω (ουν+οτρατεύω) join in an expedition.

(e) When a verb compounded with a preposition is used in a tense which requires the augment, the augment comes between the preposition and the verb, not in front of the preposition: προο-έ-βαλλον (<προοβάλλω) I was attacking. If the insertion of the augment results in the clash of two vowels, e.g. κατα + έ-γίγνωοκον the same process as in (a) above will apply: so κατεγίγνωοκον (<καταγιγνώοκω) I was condemning. In these circumstances προ normally contracts with the augment προύβαλλον1 (<προβάλλω; the expected form would be προέβαλλον) I was putting forward; προύπεμπον (<προπέμπω) I was escorting (the contracted diphthong is generally indicated by a sign identical with a smooth breathing (11.1/5b)).

( f ) The assimilation of έν and ci>v described in (d) is blocked by the syllabic augment in the augmented tenses; thus ουμβουλεύω but ουνεβούλευον.

Notes 1 The meaning of a compound verb is not always predictable

from its constituent parts (cf. at a above παρέχω). Prepositions may retain their normal meanings (as απάγω, έγγράφω) but some have acquired a special sense, e.g. μεταγιγνώοκω change one's mind (from γιγνώοκω know) where μετα- conveys the idea of change.

2 In the augmented tenses of compound verbs the accent never goes further back than the augment, even when the last

syllable is short: παρεΐχον they were providing; παρήοαν they were present; cf. Appendix 8, b(vi).

3 Greek has a few compound verbs which ^contain no prepositional element: οίκοδομέω build a house (OIKOC

house); ναυμαχέω fight with ships (vaOc ship). These compounds are augmented at the beginning, not between the two elements (ωκοδόμηΰα, έναυμάχηΰα).

6.1/4 -ω verbs with stems in palatals, labials, dentals The sound changes shown by nouns with these stems (5.1/1) also occur in the corresponding verbs when c is added to form the future or weak aorist. Some resemble λύω in having a simple present stem to which this c can be attached. Others, far more numerous, have a suffix in their present stem which is not kept elsewhere. (a) Verbs of the above type with no suffix in the present stem

πλέκω plait fut. πλέξω aor. έπλεξα πέμπω send fut. πέμψω aor. έπεμψα πείθω persuade fut. πείοω aor. έπειςα

(b) Verbs with a suffix in the present stem At a very early stage in its development Greek possessed a consonant which was pronounced as the y in the English yes. This sound no longer existed in the form Greek had taken by the time of the introduction of the alphabet. It had occurred in words inherited from Indo-European (1.3) and had also served as a suffix to form the present stem of many -ω verbs whose' primitive or original stem ended in a consonant. In this function it combined with the preceding consonant. The combinations which concern us here are κ/γ/χ + y > ττ; π/β/φ > πτ; τ/δ/θ + y > ζ. As this suffix (and others - see below) was only used to form the present stem, the future and weak aorist are formed by applying c to the original stem. Examples are (the original stem is given in brackets): PALATALS

φυλάττω guard (φυλακ-) fut. φυλάξω aor. έφύλαξα αλλάτιω change (άλλαγ-) fut. αλλάξω aor. ήλλαξα LABIALS

κόπτω cut (κοπ-) fut. κόψω aor. έκοψα βλάπτω harm (βλαβ-) fut. βλάψω aor. έβλαψα κρύπτω hide (κρυφ-) fut. κρύψω aor. έκρυψα CENTALS

Φράζω tell (φραδ-) fut. φράοω aor. έφραοα

(b) When, owing to the elision of the final vowel of preposition, π, τ, or κ are brought into contact with a-initial aspirated vowel or diphthong, these consonants muv themselves adopt their aspirated forms, φ, θ and χ: αφαιρώ (άπό+αιρέω) take away; καθαιρέω (κατά+αιρέω) destroy.

(c) When compounded with a verb beginning with a vowel o* diphthong, έκ becomes έξ: έξάγω (έκ+άγω) lead ont: έξαιρέω (έκ+αιρέω) take out

(d) When compounded with a verb beginning with a consonant, the ν of έν and civ is assimilated as follows: ν before π, β, φ, ψ and μ becomes μ: ουμβουλευο (cw+βουλεύω) advise ν before γ, κ, χ, and ξ becomes nasal γ: έγγράφω (έν+γράφο· write in/on ν before λ becomes λ: ουλλαμβάνω (ουν+λαμβάνω) gathei together ν of civ is dropped before c: ουοτρατενω (ουν+οτρατεύω) join in an expedition.

(e) When a verb compounded with a preposition is used in a tense which requires the augment, the augment comes between the preposition and the verb, not in front of the preposition: προ^έ-βαλλον (<προοβάλλω) I was attacking. If the insertion of the augment results in the clash of two vowels, e.g. κατα + έ^γίγνωοκον the same process as in (a) above will apply: so κατεγίγνωςκον (<καταγιγνώοκω) I was condemning. In these circumstances πρό normally contracts with the augment προύβαλλον1 (<προβάλλω; the expected form would be προέβαλλον) I was putting forward: προύπεμπον (<προπέμπω) I was escorting (the contracted diphthong is generally indicated by a sign identical with a smooth breathing (11.1/5b)).

( f ) The assimilation of έν and c w described in (d) is blocked b\ the syllabic augment in the augmented tenses; thus ςυμβουλεύω but ουνεβούλευον.

Notes 1 The meaning of a compound verb is not always predictable

from its constituent parts (cf. at a above παρέχω) Prepositions may retain their normal meanings (as άπαγω. έγγράφω) but some have acquired a special sense, e.g μεταγιγνώοκω change one's mind (from γιγνώοκω knou']

where μετα- conveys the idea of change. 2 In the augmented tenses of compound verbs the accent n e v e r

goes further back than the augment, even when the las

syllable is short: παρεΐχον they were providing; παρήοαν they were present; cf. Appendix 8, b(vi).

^ Greek has a few compound verbs which /contain no ^ prepositional element: οίκοδομέω build a house (OIKOC

house); ναυμαχέω fight with ships (voOc ship). These compounds are augmented at the beginning, not between the two elements (ωκοδόμτ^α, έναυμάχηΰα).

6.1/4 -ω verbs with stems in palatals, labials, dentals The sound changes shown by nouns with these stems (5.1/1) also occur in the corresponding verbs when c is added to form the future or weak aorist. Some resemble λύω in having a simple present stem to which this c can be attached. Others, far more numerous, have a suffix in their present stem which is not kept elsewhere. (a) Verbs of the above type with no suffix in the present stem

πλέκω plait fut. πλέξω aor. έπλεξα πέμπω send fut. πέμψω aor. έπεμψα πείθω persuade fut. πείςω aor. έπειοα

(b) Verbs with a suffix in the present stem At a very early stage in its development Greek possessed a consonant which was pronounced as the y in the English yes. This sound no longer existed in the form Greek had taken by the tune of the introduction of the alphabet. It had occurred in words inherited from Indo-European (1.3) and had also served as a suffix to form the present stem of many -ω verbs whose primitive or original stem ended in a consonant. In this function !t combined with the preceding consonant. The combinations which concern us here are κ/γ/χ + y > ττ; π/β/φ +y > πτ; τ/δ/θ + y > ζ· As this suffix (and others - see below) was only used to

r m the present stem, the future and weak aorist are formed by applying c to the original stem. Examples are (the original stem ls given in brackets): R A T A L S

Φ^λάττω guard (φυλακ-) αλλαττω change (άλλαγ-) 1 ^BIALS

*°πτ(0 cut (κοπ-) ^απτω h a f m ( β λ α ( μ )

^Ρυπτω hide (κρυφ-) I)FNTALS

tell (φραδ-)

fut. φυλάξω aor. έφύλαξα fut. άλλάξω aor. ήλλαξα

fut. κόψω aor. έκοψα fut. βλάψω aor. έβλαψα fut. κρύψω aor. έκρυψα

fut. φράοω aor. έφραοα

53 c 3

8

54 C 3 ϊϊ 8

The original stem can be seen in cognate words (e.g. φυλακή act of guarding, βλάβη damage). It need not be memorized as rhese verbs follow the above patterns. An exception is a few verbs in -ζω which are palatals, not dentals, as e.g. οφάζω slaughter (οφαγ-) fut. οφάξω, aor. έοφαξα (cf. ΰφαγή [act of] slaughtering). All dental-stem verbs in -ίζω of more than two syllables have a future in -ιέω (originally -ιέοω; cf. 5.1/2 note 3), which always contracts to -ιώ: νομίζω think, fut. νομιώ, νομιεΐο, νομιεΐ, etc., but κτίζω found, build, fut. κτίοω. A few verbs in -ίζω are palatals: μαοτίζω whip (stem μαοτιγ-), fut. μαοτίξω, aor. έμάοτιξα. Of the other present stem suffixes belonging here we may mention CK (as in διδάοκω (<διδαχ + CK-ω) teach, fut. διδάξω, etc.) and αν. The latter is often accompanied by a nasal infix (i.e. a nasal inserted before the final consonant of the root); neither αν nor the infix occur outside the present stem, e.g. λαμβάνω take, aor. stem λαβ- (in λα-μ-β-άν-ω the nasal infix takes the form of the labial nasal μ before the following labial; cf. μα-ν-θ-άν-ω learn, aor. stem μαθ; λα-γ-χ-άν-ω obtain, aor. stem λαχ-; see 7.1/1).

6.2 Greek reading 1 As well as translating the following give the 1st s. present

indicative of each verb: (i) οί φύλακεο τούο Πέρΰαο έφύλαξαν. (it) άρα έκρυψαο τον χρυοούν ϊππον; (iii) οί 'Αθηναίοι καί οί Λακεδαιμόνιοι ουνεοτράτευοαν. (iv) πολλά έν τη πέτρα ένέγραψεν. (ν) οί δαίμονεο πολλά καί μεγάλα πράξουαν. (νϊ) ο Οωκράτηΰ ήμάο έδίδαξεν. (vii) τήν οίκίαν του Περικλέουο έβλαψαν. (viii) έν τω λιμένι έναυμαχήοαμεν.

2# κάτοπτρον ε'ίδουο χαλκόο έοτ\ οι voc δέ νου. 3# χειρ χείρα νίπτει, δάκτυλοι δέ δακτύλουο. 4 ή μέν φωνή έοτιν άργυρά, ή δέ αγή χρυσή. 5# ώ δαΐμον, a>c ουκ έοτ' άποοτροφή βροτοΐο

τών έμφυτων τε καί θεηλάτων κακών. 6 Further futility

(i) είο ύδωρ γράφειο. (ii) είο ψάμμον οίκοδομεΐο. (iii) γλαΰκ' Άθήναζε (sc. φέρειο). (iv) κύματα μετρεΐο. (ν) opviGoc γάλα ζητεΐο. (νϊ) οίδηρον πλεΐν διδάοκειο. (vii) ήλίω φώc δανείζειο. (viii) βατράχοιο οίνοχοεΐο. (ix) τον άέρα τύπτεισ (χ) έλεφαντα έκ μυίαο ποιεί.

7 Other short proverbs and aphorisms (/) ψυχήο μεγαο χαλινόο έοτιν ό νους (ii) "Ελληνεο άεί παιδεο, γέρων δέ "Ελλην ουκ έοτιν. (iii)# είοί μητρί παίδεο άγκυραι βίου. (iv) οίκοι λέοντεο, έν μάχη δ' άλώπεκεο. (ν) νοΰο όρα καί νοΰο άκούει. (vi) μακραί τυράννων χειρεο. (vii) ψεύδεαν "Αρηο φίλοο. (viii) Έλλάο Έλλάδοο αί Αθήναι, (ix) τέττιγι μέλιτταν συγκρίνειο. (χ) χαλεπόν θυγάτηρ κτήμα.

8 τό μέν πυρ ό άνεμοο, τον δέ έρωτα ή ουνηθεια έκκαίει. 9 κατά τον Οωκράτη ούδείο έκουοίωο άμαρτάνει.

10 ού μετανοεί ν άλλά προνοεί ν χρή τον άνδρα τον οοφόν. 11 The siege of Melos

Thucydides, the other great historian of the fifth century BC, wrote a history of the Peloponnesian War, which was fought between Athens and Sparta (the major power in the Peloponnese) from 431 BC to 404 BC, when Athens fell. Melos was an island in the southern Aegean whose desire to stay neutral was brutally suppressed by the Athenians. καί οί μέν 'Αθηναίων πρέΰβεΐΰ (ambassadors) άνεχώρηΰαν eic τό ΰτράτευμα, οί δέ οτρατηγοί περιετείχιΰαν τονο Μηλίουα καί ύΰτερον φυλακή μέν όλίγη των ουμμάχων έκεΐ παρέμενε καί έπολιόρκει τό χωρίον, οί δέ άλλοι ^ρατιώται καί κατά γήν καί κατά θάλατταν άνεχώρηΰαν. έπειτα δέ οί 5 Μήλιοι τό περιτείχιομα άνέαιαοαν των 'Αθηναίων, έπειδή παρήΰαν ού πολλοί των φυλάκων, άλλά ^ρατιάν ϋΰτερον έκ των 'Αθηνών άλλην έξέπεμψαν οί 'Αθηναίοι, καί κατά κράτοΰ ήδη έπολιόρκουν. προδοάα δέ ην έν τοιο Μηλίοιΰ καί ΰυνεχώρηΰαν TOIC Άθηναίοιο. οί δέ έcφαξαv Μηλίων 10 τουο άνδραΰ, παΐδαΰ δέ καί γυναΐκαΰ ήνδραπόδιΰαν. καί ύστερον άποίκουΰ πoλλoύc έξέπεμψαν καί τό χωρίον <i)Kicav.

Notes 1 (ν) πολλά καί μεγάλα lit. many and great [things] but

translate many great [things]; when πολύΰ in the plural is combined with another adjective καί is regularly inserted between the two.

2 Greek mirrors were made of polished bronze or silver. 5 Take άποΰτροφή with the genitives in the next line. /.2 Take

κακών as a noun and έμφύτων and θεηλάτων as adjectives; καί can be translated here by and or or because the evils are not necessarily both innate and sent by the gods.

6 (iii) The Acropolis at Athens was notorious as a haunt of small brown owls, the bird which was adopted as the Athenian emblem.

55 c 3 g

11

(it) This remark of an Egyptian priest to the Athenian statesman Solon implicitly contrasts the age of Greek civilization with that of the Egyptians, (iv) A phrase of abuse, not a sentence; foxes were symbolic of a low cunning devoid of courage, (viii) The Athenians liked to regard themselves as the quintessence of Greekness. (x) The patriarchal nature of most Greek societies meant that sons were more highly valued than daughters. //.4f. Translate the imperfects παρεμενε and έπολιόρκει by stayed and besieged (Greek prefers to regard both events as extending over a period of time than as single actions -4.1/1). //.8f εξέπεμψαν < έκπέμπω (6.1/3); κατά κράτοο lit. in accordance with [their full] strength, i.e. energetically. II. 1 If. παίδαο καί γυναΐκαο the regular order in Greek for women and children; ήνδραπόδιοαν < άνδραποδίζω (4.1/1 note 2(ii)).

6.2/1 Vocabulary άγκϋρα, -(xc, ή anchor άεί (adv.) always άήρ, -έροο, ό air Άθήναζε (adv.) to Athens 'Αθήναι, -ων, αί Athens άκούω hear άλώπηξ, -εκοο, ή fox άμαρτάνω err; do wrong άναοπάω pull down άναχωρέω withdraw; retreat,

retire άνδραποδίζω enslave άνεμοο, -ου, ό wind άνήρ, άνδρόΰ, ό man άποικοο, -ου, ό settler,

colonist άποοτροφή, -ήο, ή turning

away from, escape άργυροΰο, -α, -οΰν made of

silver, silver "Αρηο, -ου, ό Ares (god of

war) βλάπτω damage βροτόο, -ού, ό mortal man γάλα, -ακτοο, τό milk

γλαύξ, -αυκόο, ή owl γράφω write δαίμων, -ovoc, ό god δάκτυλοο, -ου, ό finger δανείζω lend έγγράφω write in/on, inscribe είδοο, -ουο, τό appearance έκει (adv.) there έκκαίω kindle έκουοίωο (adv.) willingly έκπέμπω send out έλέφαο, -αντοο, ό elephant Έλλάο, -άδοο, ή Greece Έλλην, -ηνοο, ό a Greek έμφυτοο, -ov inborn, innate έπειδή (conj.) when ήδη (adv.) now ήλιοο, -ου, ό sun θεήλατοο, -ov sent by the gods θυγάτηρ, -τρόο, ή daughter κάτοπτρον, -ου, τό mirror κράτοΰ —OOC, τό strength,

power κτήμα, -ατοο, τό (α)

possession

κύμα, -ατο°· τ 0 wavf Λακεδαιμόνιος, -ου, ό

lacedaentonian, Spartan μακρόο,-ά,-όν /o«g μάχη, - ^ c , η battle, fight μέλιττα, -ηο, ή fcee μετανοέω afterwards,

change one's mind, repent μετρέω measure Μηλιοι, -ων, οί Melians μητηρ, -xpoc, ή mother ναυμαχέω fight a sea battle νίπτω M/tfsfe οίκίζω colonize οίκοδομέω ba/W Λ οίκοι (adv.) home οι voc, -ου, ό wine οίνοχοέω pour wine ολίγος, -η, -ov small όράω see opvlc, -iGoc, ό/ή bird ούδε^ no one (7Λ/5α) παις, παιδόc, ό/ή child παραμένω remain πάρειμι (παρά+είμί) be

present περιτειχίζω build a wall

round περιτείχ^μα, -aroc, τό

blockading wall πέτρα, -ac, ή rock πλέω sail πολιορκέω besiege προδοάα, -tfc, ή treachery προνοέω think beforehand πυρ, πυρό^ τό fire °ιδηροΰ, -ου, ό iron

ΰτρατευμα, -aroc, το army ΰτρατιά, -ac, ή army ΰυγκρίνω compare

(something with something, acc. and dat.)

συγχωρέω yield to (+dat.) σύμμαχος -ου, ό ally συνήθεια, -ffc, ή

acquaintance, intimacy ςυςτρατεύω join an

expedition, fight alongside ΰφάζω slaughter τέττιξ, -Ιγοο, ό cicada,

grasshopper τυπτω hit, beat rupawoc, -ου, ό absolute

ruler; tyrant ύδωρ, -aroc, τό water φυλακή, -f\c, ή guard,

garrison φύλαξ, -aKoc, ό guard φυλάττω guard φωνή, -ήο, ή voice, speech φώΰ, φωτός, τό light χαλινός -ου, ό bit (for a

horse's bridle) χαλκός -ου, ό bronze χείρ, χειρόΰ, ή hand χρή it is necessary χωρίον, -ου, τό place ψάμμοΰ, -ου, ή sand ψεύδος -ουΰ, τό falsehood,

lie Ψ^χή» "ή^, ή soul G>C (exclamatory adv.)

how.../

7.1 Grammar

7.1/1 Strong aorist indicative and infinitive active of -ω verbs We have seen at 4.1/1 that -ω verbs have either a weak or a strong aorist and that the distinction between the two is soleh one of form. The indicative of the strong aorist has the same endings as the imperfect; the infinitive has the same ending as the present (as do all other parts). As the strong aorist takes no suffix its stem must necessarily undergo some internal modification to differentiate it from that of the present. An\ suffix attached to the latter is dropped (cf. 6.1/4b), and ει is reduced to i, and ευ to υ. Some strong aorist stems are simpl) irregular and must be learnt. The following list of the most common verbs with a strong aorist shows examples of each type. The present infinitive and the imperfect indicative are included for comparison. PRESENT INDICATIVE άγω lead, bring αίρέω take, capture

βάλλω throw εύρίοκω find

έχω have λαγχάνω obtain λαμβάνω take λέγω say

IMPERFECT AORIST INDICATIVE INDICATIVE ηγον ηρουν

έβαλλον εύριοκον (or ηά>-) ειχον έλάγχανον έλάμβανον έλεγον

ηγαγον ειλον (stem έλ-) έβαλον εύρον (or ηύ-) έοχον έλαχον έλαβον ειπον (stem είπ-)

PRESENT AORIST INFINITIVE INFINITIVE άγειν άγαγειν αίρειν έλειν

βάλλειν βαλειν εύρίοκειν εύρειν

έχειν οχειν λαγχάνειν λαχειν λαμβάνειν λαβείν λέγειν ειπείν

έλειπον έλιπον λείπειν λιπειν έμάνθανον έμαθον μανθάνειν μαθειν έωρων είδον όράν ιδεΐν

(stem ιδ-) έπαοχον έπαθον πάοχειν παθεΐν έπίπτον έπεοον πίπτειν πεοειν έτυγχανον έτυχον τυγχάνειν τυχειν έφερον ήνεγκον φέρειν ένεγκειν έφευγον έφυγον φεύγειν φυγείν

λ£1ττω leave μ α ν θ ά ν ω learn ο ρ ά ω see

καοχω suffer πίπτω fall τυγχάνω happen φέρω carry φεύγω flee

Notes 1 The ending of the strong aorist infinitive active always has a

circumflex accent. 2 The aorists of αιρέω, λέγω, όράω, φέρω come from roots

entirely different from their presents (cf. English go/went). The unaugmented aorist stems of the first three (έλ-, είπ-, ίδ-) require particular attention, εΐπον and ήνεγκον quite irregularly take the weak aorist endings in the 2nd. s. and pi.: ειπαο, είπατε; ήνεγκαο, ήνέγκατε. We may sympathize with the Greeks who found είπον too complicated and gave λέγω a regular weak aorist έλεξα (good Attic but not as common). The strong aorist ήλθον I came/went likewise has a present tense from another root. This verb is peculiar in having an active aorist but a deponent present (έρχομαι 8.1/2).

3 By this stage you should be confident enough to consult the table of Principal parts of verbs, which sets out the principal parts of important verbs which have some irregularity. A normal transitive verb in Greek has six principal parts and from these all possible forms can be deduced (see next note for the only exceptions). These parts are:

(i) 1st s. present indicative active (λύω; 2.1/5) (ii) 1st s. future indicative active (λύοω; 2.1/5) (iii) 1st s. aorist indicative active (έλϋοα; 4.1/1; for strong

aorist see above) (iv) 1st s. perfect indicative active (λέλυκα; 15.1/1) (ν) 1st s. perfect indicative middle and passive (λέλυμαι;

16.1/3) (vi) 1st s. aorist indicative passive (έλύθην; 11.1/1). This list is not as formidable as it might seem at first sight as some verbs do not exist in every possible part, while many (such as λύω) are completely regular and all their principal parts can be deduced from their present stem. Do not, at this stage, try to digest the Principal parts of verbs (in

any case, we have not yet dealt with principal parts (u (vi)), but familiarize yourself with its arrangement and ^ into the habit of using it. When individual principal pa r u are wildly irregular (e.g. είπον), they are given separar entries in the Vocabulary.

4 A few verbs have an imperfect which cannot be predict^ from their present stem. Thus όράω > έώρων, with both syllabic and temporal augment; έχω > ειχον (the origma form of έχω was οέχω with an imperfect έΰεχον, which ICK; its intervocalic sigma (6.1/1 c) and then contracted ε+ε t< ει (5.1/26)).

7.1/2 φημί say (see also Appendix 3) This irregular -μι verb (2.1/4) is inflected as follows in the present and imperfect:

PRESENT IMPERFECT SINGULAR 1 φημί έφην

2 φT|C έφηοθα or έφηο 3 φηΰί(ν) έφη

PLURAL 1 φαμέν έφαμεν 2 φατέ έφατε 3 φαΰί (ν) έφαοαν

INFINITIVE φάναι

Notes 1 All the forms of the present indicative are enclitic (Appendix

8) except the second person singular (cf. ειμί, 3.1/6). 2 The imperfect regularly has an aorist meaning, I said. 3 φημί, not λέγω, is regularly used in the direct quotation oi

conversations (i.e. direct speech - see next subsection). When so used, φημί does not appear until after the beginning of the quotation: δοκεΐΰ, έφη, ώ CtDKporac, ευ λέγειν "You seem," he said, "to be speaking well, Socrates.

4 The φη/φα alternation in the forms of this verb is explained at 19.1/1.

7.1/3 Indirect speech When we wish to report what someone has said (or thought, etc.) we may do this in one of two ways. We may either give his exact words (cf. 7.1/2 note 3): "Justice is the advantage of the stronger," said Thrasymachus; or we may grammatically subordinate the speaker's words to a verb of saying (or thinking, etc.): Thrasymachus said that justice was the advantage of the

neer. The first form is called direct speech, the second indirect'(or reported) speech. Since speech may be conveniently divided into statement,

1 s t i o n a n j command, we therefore have three corresponding forms of indirect speech: (a) Indirect statement: He said that he was happy. (Direct I am

happy-) φ) Indirect question: We asked if he was happy. (Direct Are you

happy?) (c) Indirect command: I told him to cheer up. (Direct Cheer

up!) These examples show the adjustments in pronouns that are nearly always necessary in English. Greek does the same but does not, as we shall see, make the tense adjustments required by English in (a) and (b).

7.1/4 Indirect command For this construction Greek, like English, uses an infinitive after a verb of ordering: έκέλευΰε τον παΐδα τά γράμματα μαθεΐν he ordered the boy to learn [his] letters. If the infinitive is negated, the negative μή, not ού, is used: ό νόμοΰ ήμάΰ κελεύει μή αδικεί ν the law orders us not to do wrong. The two adverbs of negation, μή and ού, are always to be translated by no/not but have quite distinct uses (see 7.1/6). The rule here is that μή is always used to negate an infinitive except in indirect statement (8.1/3). The tense of the infinitive is a matter of aspect (4.1/1). In the above examples μαθεΐν simply conveys that the learning is to be done, whereas αδικεί ν indicates that we are not to do wrong on any occasion.

7.1/5 Numerals (see also Appendix 7) There are three types of numeral: (tf) Cardinals (in English one, two, three, four, etc.) In Greek, as in English, these function as adjectives. The numbers one to four are declined as follows:

εις one δύο two M. F. N. M.F.N.

Nom. eic μία έν δύο ^cc · ένα μίαν έν δύο Gen. evoc μιάο ένόο δυοΐν ^at. ένί μια ένί δυοιν

61 C 3

3

τρεΐο three Μ. & F. Ν .

τέτταρεο four Μ. & F. Ν .

Nom. τρειο τρία Acc. τρεΐο τρία Gen. τριών τριών

τέτταρεο τέτταρα τέτταραο τέτταρα τεττάρων τεττάρων

Dat. τριοί(ν) τριοί(ν) τέτταρα(ν) τέτταρα(ν) So, e.g. έκ μιάο νηοου out of one island, eic τέτταραο οικίας int<, four houses. The numbers five to one hundred are indeclinable (i.e. have no variable inflections), except when they contain any of the numbers one to four (e.g. ε'ίκοα τέτταρεο twenty-four; where τέτταρεο would alter its ending as required: ε'ίκοα τέτταρα έργα twenty-four tasks). The words for two hundred, three hundred, etc. follow the plural of καλόο (3.1/3): so διδκόαοι, -αι , -α, two hundred; τριοχΤλιοι, -αι , -α three thousand. (b) Ordinals (in English, first, second, third, etc.) These also are first and second declension adjectives (3.1/3), e.g. ή πρώτη γυνή the first woman. (<c) Numeral adverbs (in English, once, twice, three times, etc.) All except άπαξ once, 5ic twice, τρίο three times, end in -cnac (cf. πολλάκιο often, lit. many times).

1 Like eic is declined the pronoun ούδείο (< ουδέ + eic not even one), ουδεμία, ουδέν, gen. ούδενόο, ούδεμιάο, ούδεν(Χ no-one, nobody, none. The neuter ουδέν means nothing, but is often used adverbially in the sense in no respect, not at all (20.1/5). ούδείο can also be used as an adjective meaning no, e.g. ουδεμία γυνή no woman.

2 Compound numbers over twenty are expressed by putting the smaller number first with καί (δύο καί ε'ίκοα two and twenty), or the larger number first without καί (ε'ίκοα δυο twenty-two).

7.1/6 Negatives Unlike English, Greek has two negatives ού (ούκ, ούχ, 2Λ/6α(ι)ϊ and μή, and although we translate both by not their uses are quite distinct. These involve many constructions not yet described (for a summary see 24.1/2). We may, however, note: (α) ού is used to negate statements and so is the negative used

with a verb in the indicative in main clauses (examples at

Notes

3.2.1, 3.2.4 etc.)

μη is the negative used with infinitives except in indirect statement (see above 7.1/4 and 8.1/3<z).

ic) For every compound of ού (e.g. ούδέ, ούδείΰ) there is a corresponding compound of μή (e.g. μηδέ, μηδείχ). The latter are used, where appropriate, in constructions otherwise requiring μή.

We have already seen at 3.2.12(vi) (see note) that the compound negative ox&eic reinforces a simple preceding negative (ού λέγει ούδέν he says nothing). However when the order is reversed and a compound negative precedes a simple negative the two cancel each other to give a strong affirmative: ούδείΰ ούκ έπαθεν no-one did not suffer, i.e. everyone suffered.

7.1/7 Phrases expressing time and space Many temporal phrases in English contain a preposition, e.g. on Wednesday, for six days (but cf. I will see you next week). In three types of temporal phrase of this sort Greek simply uses a particular case, provided that the noun involved signifies some period, point, or division of time (dawn, day, winter, year, etc.): (a) Time how long is expressed by the accusative:

έννέα έτη οί 'Αχαιοί προ xr\c For nine years the Tpoiffc έΰτρατοπέδευον. Achaeans were

encamped before Troy. (b) Time when is expressed by the dative:

δεκάτω έτει ιερόν "Τλιον In the tenth year they έπόρθηΰαν. sacked holy Ilium (the

definite article is generally omitted before ordinal numerals in this construction).

(c) Time within which is expressed by the genitive: τριών ημερών έ π λ ε κ ε Within three days Menelaus

Μενέλδοΰ eic τήν 'Ελλάδα, sailed to Greece. ε'ίκοα έτών Όδυοοεύο τήν For (i.e. within the space

Ίθάκην ούκ ειδεν. of) twenty years Odysseus did not see Ithaca.

τέλοο eic τήν πατρίδα Finally he returned to [his] νυκτόο ένόοτηοεν. native land by night.

With nouns which do not indicate a period, point, or division of time (e.g. war as in during the war) a preposition is generally u s ed (e.g. διά + gen.).

63 c 3 3? Ο >1

(d) Spatial extent is expressed by the accusative (this use similar to (a) above):

απέχει if\c Tpoiac ή 'Ιθάκη Ithaca is many stades πολλούο οταδίουο. distant from Troy.

οι σφατιώται δια του The soldiers walked four πεδίου έβάδιοαν οταθμούο stages through the plamt τέτταραο.

7.2 Greek reading 1 ή παροιμία ήμάο κελεύει μή κινεΐν άκίνητα. 2# εύρείν τό δίκαιον πανταχώο ού ράδιον. 3 ό δέ Ίοχόμαχοο είπεν, ώ (ΪΙώκρατεο, χειμώνοο μέν την οίκία\

δει εύήλιον είναι, του δέ θέρουο εύοκιον. 4 ούκ έχομεν ούτε δπλα ούτε ϊππουο. 5# ούδέν έρπει ψεύδοο eic μήκοο χρόνου. 6 μίαν μέν ούν ήμέραν οί 'Αθηναίοι αύτοΰ έοτρατοπέδευοαν

τή δέ ύοτεραία 'Αλκιβιάδηο έκκληάαν έποίηοε καί έκέλευοεν αύτούο καί ναυμαχεΐν καί πεζομαχεΐν και τειχομαχεΐν. ού γαρ έοτιν, έφη, χρήματα ήμΐν, τοΐο δε πολεμίοιο άφθονα.

7 ούδείο άνθρώπων ούκ άποθνήοκει. 8 Proverbs

(/) μία χελιδών έαρ ού ποιεί, (ii) δίο παΐδεο οί γέροντες. (ui) έν δυοΐν τρία βλέπεις. (iv) ειο άνήρ ούδείο άνήρ. (ν) μία ήμέρα οοφόν ού ποιεί, (vi) ή γλώττα πολλούο eic δλεθρον ήγαγεν. (vii) έν πολέμω ούκ ένεοτι 6ic άμαρτεΐν. (viii) έξ ονύχων τον λέοντα ένεοτι μαθειν.

9 ό Κύρος ήλθε δια της Λυδίας ςταθμούς τρεις παραςάγγαο δύο καί ε'ίκοα έπί τον Μαίανδρον ποταμόν. τό δέ εύροο αύτου ήν δύο πλέθρα.

10 ό κόςμος ςκηνή, ό βίος πάροδος* ήλθες, είδες, άπήλθες. 11 είπέ τις (someone) τω Οωκράτει, κακώς ό Μεγακλής ce

λέγει* ό δέ, καλώς γάρ, έφη, λέγειν ούκ έμαθεν. 12 A sea battle

Thucydides did not finish his history of the Peloponnesian war but his account was taken up and completed by Xenophon, a versatile writer whose life straddled the fifth and fourth centuries BC. The battle described by him below took place in 406 BC. είχε δέ τό δεξιόν κέρας τών Πελοποννηάων Καλλικρατίδαο-"Ερμων δέ ό κυβερνήτης, καλόν έςτιν, έφη, άποπλεΰςαι* οα γάρ τριήρειο τών 'Αθηναίων μάλα ίςχυραί ε ίαν . άλλα Καλλικρατίδας, αίςχρόν έςτιν, έφη, τό φεύγειν.

έναυμάχηοαν δέ αί τριήρεις χρόνον πολύν, πρώτον μέν 5 άθρόαι, έπειτα δέ οποράδεο. έπεί δέ Καλλικρατίδαο τε απέπεοεν eic τήν θάλατταν καί απέθανε καί Πρωτόμαχοο ό Άθηναιοο καί οί μετ' αύτοΰ τω δεξιώ τό εύώνυμον ένίκηοαν, έντεύθεν φυγή ήν τών Πελοποννηοίων εϊο τε Χίον καί φώκαιαν οί δέ Αθηναίοι πάλιν είο τάο Άργινούοαο 10 κατέπλευοαν. τών μέν ούν 'Αθηναίων τριήρειο πέντε καί ε'ίκοα κατέδυοαν οί Λακεδαιμόνιοι, τών δέ Πελοποννηοίων Λακωνικάο μέν έννέα οί 'Αθηναίοι, τών δέ άλλων ουμμάχων cbc έξήκοντα. A troublesome visitor In Athenian courts litigants were obliged to conduct their own cases, but they could use speeches written for them by professional writers. The following comes from such a speech composed by Lysias some time after 394 BC for a middle-aged homosexual defending himself against a charge of assault brought against him by a fellow Athenian, Simon, who was his rival for the affection of a young slave. έπεί γάρ έπί τήν οίκίαν μου τήο νυκτόο ήλθεν ό Οίμων, έξέκοψε τάο θύραο καί είοήλθεν eic τήν γυναικωνΐτιν, ού ήοαν ή τ' άδελφή μου καί αί άδελφιδαΐ. πρώτον μέν ούν οί έν τί\ οικία έκέλευοαν αύτόν άπελθεΐν, ό δ' ούκ ήθελεν. έπειτα δε έξέωοαν βία. άλλ' έξηΰρεν ού έδειπνοΰμεν καί πράγμα 5 οφόδρα άτοπον καί άπιοτον έποίηοεν. έξεκάλεοε γάρ με ένδοθεν, καί έπειδή τάχιοτα έξήλθον, εύθύο με τύπτειν έπεχείρηοεν έπειδή δέ αύτόν άπέωοα, έβαλλέ με λίθοιο καί έμοΰ μέν άμαρτάνει, Άριοτόκριτον δέ έβαλε λίθω καί ουντρίβει τό μέτωπον. 10

Supply έοτί; τό δίκαιον (what is) right (5.1/3) χειμώνοο, του θέρουο the definite article can be omitted in such expressions; τήν οίκίδν indicates a general class (hence the definite article, 2.1/2 note 1) - trans, a house. ούδέν is here an adjective with ψεΰδοο; trans, no falsehood (cf. ούδείο in 8(iv)). 1.1 αύτοΰ adv. there, in that place (not the gen. sing. m. or n. of αύτόο). II.3-4 ού ... έοτιν ... ήμΐν lit. there is not to us, i.e. we do not have. (vi) The aorist is gnomic and should be translated by a present (see note on 5.2.10). παραοάγγαο δύο καί εϊκοοι (22 parasangs) is in apposition to οταθμούο τρεΐο (three days' march) and explains how far

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Cyrus marched in three days; αύτοΰ gen. sing. m. of α ΰ χ υ

(referring back to τον Μαίανδρον). 10 Gnomic aorists (see note on 8 above). 11 κακώο λέγω + acc. speak ill of, malign, abuse; ό δέ and ht

(i.e. Socrates) 5.1/3; γάρ Socrates' reply sarcasticall. explains M's action and in English would be introduced b\ yes, for he ... (see 24.1/1) or well, he ...; καλώο λέγω car mean either speak well of or speak properly (κακώο λέγο, by itself can also mean speak badly) - Socrates is punning on the two senses.

12 /.I είχε had i.e. commanded; the first δέ connects this sentence with the preceding one in the original context and need not be translated (cf. the beginning of 4.2.9); Καλλικρατίδδο (nom. s.; = Attic -ίδηο - 3.1/2 note 3) was a Spartan and his name has the non-Attic (and non-Ionic) form of the patronymic suffix. 1.3 τριήρειο 6.1/lc. 11.6 ff. οποράδεο nom. pi. f. (this is a third declension ad]., 10.1/4tf) scattered (agreeing with τριήρειο); Καλλικρατίδαο τε ... καί Πρωτόμαχοο ... lit. both Callicratidas ... and Protomachus ... Greek is fond of linking clauses w i t h particles such as τε ... καί (cf. 4.1/3 and άγουοί τε καί φέρουαν in /.23f. of 4.2.9) but in English we would not translate τε; notice that between this τε ... καί another καί occurs to join άπέπεοεν (< άποπίπτω) and απέθανε (< άποθνήοκω) but it is the second καί which picks up τε because the two elements, which must be parallel, are Callicratidas and Protomachus and those with him; τφ δεξιω with their right [wing] dat. of instrument (11.1/2). //.13f άλλων cannot here be translated other because the allies referred to are allies of the Spartans; the meaning is of their allies as well (cf. 'Αθήναι καί αί άλλαι νηοοι Athens and the islands as well not Athens and the other islands because Athens is not an island); o>c here about (22.1/Myii)).

13 1.2 xGc θυρδκ; i.e. the two leaves of the door at the h o u s e entrance; γυναικωνΐτιν in an Athenian house the women had separate quarters. //.3f ή τ'. . . καί the τε need not be translated (cf. 1.5 of previous passage); μέν is balanced by δέ after έπειτα, and ούν connects this sentence with the previous one (neither word would have an equivalent in idiomatic English). 1.5 έξέωοαν < έξωθέω (the temporal augment in the aorist of this verb is irregular, cf. 4.1/1 n o t e 2(ii). //.9ff. άπέωοα < άπωθέω; έβαλλε started to pelt inceptive use of the imperfect (4.1/1 footnote); λίθοιο with

stones (dat. of instrument, 11.1/2); /.9f άμαρτάνει ... ουντρίβει Greek often uses the present tense in narrative for vividness (vivid present); translate with the English simple past (missed ... gashed); take έμοΰ (/.9) with άμαρτάνει missed me (άμαρτάνω is followed by the gen., 13.1/2a(iv)).

7.2/1 Vocabulary αδελφή, -ήε, ή sister άδελφιδή, -ήο, ή niece άθρόοο, -ά, -ov all together,

all at once, in a body αίοχρόο, -ά, -όν shameful,

disgraceful άκίνητοο, -ov motionless,

immovable άμαρτάνω make a mistake;

(+gen.) miss άπεθανον aor. of άποθνηοκω

die, be killed άπήλθον aor. of απέρχομαι

go away, depart άποπίπτω (aor. άπέπεοον) fall

overboard cuticxoc, -ov incredible αποπλέω (aor. άπέπλευοα)

sail away απωθέω (aor. άπέωοα) push

away Άργινοΰοαι, -ων, αί e Arginousae (islands) ατοποο, -ov extraordinary αυτού (adv.) there, in that v place αφθονοο, -ov abundant,

plentiful βάλλω pelt

-ac, ή force, violence ftoc, -ου, ό life Υ^ναικωνιτιο, -ιδοο, ή

women's apartments δειπνέω dine δεξιός, -ά, —όν on the right

hand

διά (prep.+gen.) through, across

δίκαιοο, -fx, -ov just δίο (adv.) twice έαρ, ήροο, τό (the season of)

spring είδον aor. of όράω see, look

at εϊκοα(ν) (indecl. adj.) twenty εΐπον aor. of λέγω say είοήλθον aor. of είοέρχομαι

enter έκκαλέω call (someone) out έκκληάδ, -Qc, ή assembly έκκόπτω knock out ένδοθεν (adv.) from inside ένεστι (impers.) it is possible εννέα (indecl. adj.) nine έντεΰθεν (adv.) thereupon έξευρίοκω find out, discover έξήκοντα (indecl. adj.) sixty έξήλθον aor. of έξέρχομαι

come out έξωθέω (aor. έξέωοα) push

out έπεί (conj.) when έπειδή τάχιοτα as soon as επί (prep.+acc.) to έπιχειρεω attempt, take in

hand έρπω spread εύήλιοο, -ov sunny, with a

sunny aspect εύθυο (adv.) at once,

straightaway εύροο, -ODC, τό breadth

εύοκιοο, -ov well-shaded εύώνυμος, -ov left, on the left

hand ήγαγον aor. of άγω lead,

bring ήλθον aor. of έρχομαι go,

come θέρος, -ους, τό summer θύρδ, -ac, ή door ίοχϋρόο, -ά, -6v powerful,

strong κακώς/καλώς (+acc.) λέγω

speak ill/well (of) (see note on 11)

καταδύω make to sink, sink (tr.)

καταπλέω sail back κέρας, -ατος, τό wing of a

fleet κΐνέω move κόςμος, -ου, ό world κυβερνήτης, -ου, ό helmsman Λακωνικόο, -ή, -όν Laconian,

Spartan λίθος, -ου, ό stone Λϋδία, -ac, ή Lydia (territory

in west of Asia Minor) Μαίανδρος, -ου, ό Maeander

(river in Phrygia) μέτωπον, -ου, τό forehead μήκος, -ους, τό length νύξ, νυκτός, ή night όλεθρος, -ου, ό destruction δνυξ, -υχος, ό claw όπλα, -ων, τά weapons, arms ού (conj.) where

πανταχώο (adv.) in all ways altogether

παραοάγγης, -ου, ό parasan% (a Persian measure of distance of about 30 stadev [= c. 6 km.] )

πάροδοο, -ου, ό passage, entrance

παροιμία, -Sc, ή proverb πεζομαχέω fight on land Πελοποννηςιοι, -ων, οί

Peloponnesians πέντε (indecl. adj.) five πλέθρον, -ου, τό plethron (c.

30 metres) ποταμός, -ού, ό river οκηνη, -ής, ή stage (in

theatre) ςποράς, -άδος (adj.) scattered ςταθμός, -ου, ό day's march ςτρατοπεδεύω make camp,

encamp ςυντρίβω smash, gash τειχομαχέω fight against

walls/fortifications τριήρης, -ους, ή trireme ύςτεραιος, -α, -ov following,

next τή ύςτεραία on the following

day φυγή, -ής, ή flight Φώκαια, -ας, ή Phocaea (city

in Asia Minor) χειμών, -ωνος, ό winter χελΐδών, -όνος, ή swallow Χίος, -ου, ή Chios (island

and city in the Aegean Sea)

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f S ·

ο 8.1 Grammar 0 0

8.1/1 Middle and passive voices In a clause where the verb is active the subject is the doer (the man bit the dog; Alcibiades is running through the agora). There may or may not be an object, depending on whether the verb is transitive or intransitive. In a clause with a passive verb the subject is the sufferer (the dog was bitten by the man; the Athenians were defeated in Sicily). The agent or instrument (11.1/2) may or may not be specified. The active and passive voices are used in Greek in much the same way as in English. Greek, however, has a third voice, the middle. This has no English equivalent because the meanings it conveys are expressed in English in different ways. These meanings are: (a) to do something to oneself, e.g. λούομαι I wash myselfI

wash (intr.); παύομαι I stop myself, I cease, stop (intr.) (b) to do something for oneself, for one's own advantage, e.g.

κομίζω (act.) carry, convey, κομίζομαι (mid.) I convey for myself, recover.

έκατόν δραχμάο έκομίοατο. He recovered a hundred drachmas.

(c) to cause something to be done (one's own advantage is always involved):

διδάοκομαι τούο παιδαο την I am having [my] children τών Ελλήνων γλώτταν. taught the language of

the Greeks. Of these three uses (a) is restricted to verbs with an appropriate leaning, (b) is very common, (c) is somewhat rare. Very often a verb when used in the middle voice in sense (b) acquires a

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special meaning, e.g. λύω loosen, free, λύομαι (mid.) free (someone) for one's own advantage, ransom; αίρέω tofe^ seize, αίρέομαι take for oneself choose. As will be seen in Appendix 1, the forms of the middle and passive indicative are identical in the present and imperfect (and also in the perfect and pluperfect - 16.1/3). This does not create ambiguity as the context of a particular verb normally shows its voice. The future and aorist passive differ in form from the middle and will be treated separately in 11.1/1. With regard to the forms of the indicative of the present middle and passive, the imperfect middle and passive, the future middle and the aorist middle, which can now be learnt (see p.265f.), we should note that: (d) in each case the stem is the same as for the active, and the

link vowel between the stem and the ending proper (which is more easily distinguishable in these forms) is ο/ε in the present, imperfect (and strong aorist) and future, but α in the weak aorist (on -ω of the 2nd s., see below).

(e) in each tense the 2nd s. ending has undergone contraction. The present and future ending was originally -εοαι, the imperfect -εοο and the aorist -aco. With the loss of intervocal c (cf. 6.1/lc) these became r\ (or ει), ου, ω respectively (we have already met the second and third contractions with contracted verbs - 5.1/2).

( f ) when allowance has been made for the 2nd s., the endings, except for the 1st pi. and 2nd pi. which do not vary, fall into two classes. For the primary tenses they are -μαι, -cai, -ται, -νται and for the historic -μην, -co, -το, -ντο (cf. 4.1/1 note 1).

(g) the endings of the strong aorist indicative middle are the same as those of the imperfect: αίοθάνομαι perceive, impf. ήοθανόμην, aor. ήοθόμην; and the infinitive ending of the strong aorist is the same as that of the present: αίοθάνεοθαι (pres.), αίοθέοθαι (aor.).

Notes 1 Many common verbs have, for no perceptible reason, their

future in the middle voice, not the active, e.g. ακούω hear, άκούοομαι; βοάω shout, βοήοομαι; διώκω pursue, διώξομαι; μανθάνω learn, μαθηοομαι. These are verbs which would not otherwise have had reason to be used in the middle. For other examples see Principal parts of verbs.

2 ειμί be also has a future middle, which is formed with the stem ec-: έοομαι, έοει (-η), έοται, έοόμεθα, έοεοθε, έοονται.

The original form of the 3rd s., έοεται, occurs in dialects other than Attic.

3 Contracted verbs form their present and imperfect middle/passive according to the rules given at 5.1/2 (see Appendix 2).

4 In Indo-European (1.3) there were only active and middle voices. In Greek the passive use of the middle led to the development of separate forms in the future and aorist, but even in Attic we occasionally meet the future middle used in a passive sense.

8.1/2 Deponent verbs A linguistic peculiarity for which English offers no parallel is deponent verbs, which are middle or passive in form but active in meaning. They may be transitive (as κτάομαι acquire) or intransitive (as πορεύομαι march). In some cases the meaning of a deponent exemplifies one of the uses of the middle voice (κτάομαι originally meant procure for oneself), but elsewhere (as έπομαι follow) no explanation seems possible, although these verbs are among the most commonly used in Greek. As we have seen in the previous subsection, the forms of the middle and passive voices differ only in the future and aorist. This divergence allows a classification of deponents into two groups: (a) middle deponents, whose future and aorist are middle in

form, as αίνίττομαι speak in riddles, fut. αίνίξομαι, aor. ηνιξάμην. This is the larger group

(b) passive deponents, whose aorist is passive in form. Nearly , all passive deponents, however, have a middle, not passive, future. For the aorist passive and examples of passive deponents see 11.1/1.

Examples of deponents in use are: άπό τών 'Αθηνών έρχονται they are coming from Athens (έρχομαι come, go; for the aorist of this verb see 7.1/1 note 2); τό άθλον δέχομαι I accept the prize (δέχομαι accept, receive). A very common deponent is γίγνομαι, which has the basic meanings be born, become, happen. In many contexts, however, English requires a more specific word: άνήρ άγαθόο έγένετο he showed himself a brave man (lit. he became a brave man); νύξ έγένετο night fell.

8.1/3 Indirect statement In English we can say, with the same meaning, he considers that I am clever or he considers me to be clever. Both constructions a noun clause introduced by that or an infinitive phrase w i t h o u t that, have their equivalents in Greek, but, unlike English, Greek shows a distinct preference for the infinitive construction after most verbs of saying, thinking and the like (for verbs of knowing and perceiving, see \5.H2a): νομίζω, οϊομαι both think, consider; φάοκω state, declare; ήγέομαι consider. The first three are used almost exclusively with the i n f i n i t i v e construction.

(a) Infinitive construction In this form there is no introductory word (like δτι that in the other construction - see below (b)) and the finite verb of the original statement is changed to the infinitive of the same tense (the present infinitive represents both the present and the imperfect indicative of the direct form). If the subject of the finite verb of the original direct statement is the same as the subject of the verb of saying or thinking introducing the indirect statement, it remains in the nominative, as do any words agreeing with it (nominative and infinitive). Such sentences are of the type Xerxes said that he was master. Since in the original direct statement (δεΰπότηΰ ειμί I am master) there is no need to state the subject explicitly (except for emphasis: έγώ είμι δεοπότχγ: I am master), so too the subject of the infinitive is normally not expressed: Ξερξτ^ έφη becn6xr\c είναι. When the two subjects are not identical, the subject of the infinitive is put into the accusative (accusative and infinitive): ό caxpa^c έφη Ξέρξην είναι δεοπότην the satrap said that Xerxes was master (lit. Xerxes to be master; original Ξέpξηc ecu becn0xr\c Xerxes is master). If the direct statement was negated, the same negative, ού (see 7.1/6), will appear with the infinitive. Further examples are:

ή 'Acacia νομίζει καλή είναι. Aspasia thinks that she is

ό Περικλήΰ ένόμιζε τήν 'Acnaciav καλήν είναι.

beautiful (original καλή είμι I am beautiful).

Pericles used to think that Aspasia was beautiful (original ή 'Acnacia ecu καλή Aspasia is beautiful).

I consider that Aspasia is not ugly (original ή 'Aauacis ούκ έοτιν αίοχρδ. Aspasia is not ugly).

Socrates said [his] wife would get a chiton (original ή γυνη χιτώνα κτηοεται lit. the wife will get a chiton).

I suspect that Xanthippe got five chitons yesterday (original ή Ξανθίππη πέντε χιτώναο έχθέο έκτηοατο Xanthippe got five chitons yesterday).

Notes 1 It is only in this construction that the distinction between

the present and aorist infinitives is one of time, not aspect (cf. 4.1/1). In the last example κτηοαοθαι means literally to have got. If we were to substitute the present infinitive κτάοθαι to be getting (and eliminate έχθέο) the meaning would be I suspect that Xanthippe is getting... (original ή Ξανθίππη κτάται...).

2 Since, in the accusative and infinitive construction, the infinitive of a transitive verb has both its subject and its object in the accusative, there is obviously a possibility of ambiguity. When confronted with ce φημι 'Ρωμαίουο νΐκήοειν (the reply of the Delphic priestess to Pyrrhus of Epirus) one might well wonder whether the meaning was I say that you will conquer the Romans or I say that the Romans will conquer you. Normal Greeks left such equivocation to oracles.

3 φημί tends to occupy an unemphatic position and so, unlike in English, does not precede the indirect statement which it reports: Πέροηο έφη είναι he said he was a Persian (cf. 7.1/2 note 3).

4 ού φημι means I say that ... not, I deny: ούκ έφη Πέρσηο είναι he denied he was a Persian; it never means I do not say that..., which would require a different verb, e.g. ού λέγω δτι ... (on δτι see (b) below).

5 Verbs of hoping (έλπίζω), promising (ύπιοχνέομαι), swearing (δμνϋμι 20.1/1), threatening (άπειλέω) and the like

ηγούμαι την 'Αοπααδν ούκ είναι αίςχράν.

6 Οωκράτηο έφη την γυναίκα χιτώνα κτηοεοθαι.

ύποπτεύω την Ξανθίππην πέντε χιτώναο έχθέο κτηοαοθαι.

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74 regularly take the infinitive construction. When these verb have a future reference, as they generally do, they can h construed with the future infinitive (a present or aons>

ο infinitive is also possible): έλπίζω νΤκήΰειν έν τη μάχη / hopl to conquer in the battle. For a negative hope of this sort th negative μή, not ού, is used because the original is really nor a statement but a wish (wishes are always negated by μη ^ 21.1/1): έλπίζω xovc Λακεδαιμονίου μή καύΰειν τον έμο\ άγρόν I hope the Spartans won't burn my farm (original may the Spartans not burn my farm!). This use of μή ls extended to verbs of promising, swearing and threatening.

(b) Construction with finite verb Indirect statements in Greek may also be expressed by a noun-clause introduced by ότι or roc, that. Insofar as these two conjunctions can be differentiated, ότι is used to introduce a fact, whereas roc tends to convey the suggestion that the reporter considers the statement as a mere opinion, an allegation, or as untrue. As in the infinitive construction, the tense of the direct speech is retained in the indirect form even after a main verb which is in the past; in such cases we make a tense adjustment in English (see the second, third and fourth examples below). This is the regular construction after λέγω say (but see note 1) and certain other verbs. Examples are:

λέγει roc ύβριστήΰ είμι. He claims that I am insolent.

είπον ότι ό Κύροο διώκει. They said that Cyrus was pursuing (original Cyrus is pursuing).

άπεκρίναντο ότι cxpaxov They replied that they πεμψουοιν. would send an army

(original we will send an army).

εϊπομεν ότι ό Περικλής ταύτα We said that Pericles ού ποιήςει. would not do this

(original Pericles will not do this).

Notes 1 For the impersonal English construction it is said that ...

Greek uses a personal construction with the infinitive: ό C©Kp0^c λέγεται τούΰ νέοι^ βλάψαι it is said that Socrates harmed the young (lit. Socrates is said to have harmed ...).

2 Occasionally even a direct quote is introduced by ότι: ειπον ότι έτοιμοι έομεν they said, 'We are ready'.

For the change of mood which may occur after a historic main verb see 14.1/4d.

31/4 Third declension nouns - stems in ι and υ These stems differ from those in consonants (5.1/1, 6.1/1) in having v, not a, as the acc. s. ending for masculine and feminine nouns. Stems in ι consist of a large number of feminines (including many abstract nouns, mostly in -cic, e.g. φύας nature), a few masculines, but no neuters in normal use. All are declined alike, with the odd anomaly that the original ι of the stem has been lost in most forms. The -εως of the gen. s. was originally -x\oc (as occurs in Homer); the quantity of the two vowels was interchanged but the original accent was retained, i.e. πόληος > πόλεως. This accent was extended by analogy to the genitive plural. Masculine and feminine υ stems are divided into two sub-groups, both very small. The declension of the first (πηχυς) is very close to πόλις, of the second (ιχθύς) to consonantal stems, aero, the only neuter^ follows πήχυς in the genitive and dative.

πόλις (f) πηχυς (m) άστυ (η) ίχθύο (m) city forearm city fish

SINGULAR Nom. πόλις πηχυς acru ιχθύς Voc. πόλι πηχυ άοτυ ίχθύ Acc. πόλιν πηχυν άοτυ ίχθύν Gen. πόλεως πηχεωο acxecoc ιχθύος Dat. πόλει πηχει άοτει ίχθύϊ PLURAL N.V. πόλεις πηχειο άοτη (<εα) ίχθύες Acc. πόλεις πηχειο άστη (<εα) ιχθύς Gen. πόλεων πήχεων άοτεων Ιχθύων Dat. πόλεα(ν) πηχεα(ν) άοτεα(ν) ίχθυςι(ν) The normal word for city is πόλις. άστυ means city, town as opposed to the country.

Note πρεςβυς, which follows πηχυς, is a poetical word for old man iprose uses γέρων or πρεςβύτης). Its plural πρέςβεις, however, is the normal prose word for ambassadors (the singular ambassador is supplied by πρεςβευτης).

75 c 3 H? s

8.2 Greek reading 1 ό θεόο καί ή φύαο ούδέν μάτην ποιούοιν. 2# φύαν πονηράν μεταβαλεΐν ού ράδιον. 3# πόλειο δλαο ήφάνιοε διαβολή κακή. 4 Ίηοοΰο Χριοτόο Θεού Tioc Οωτήρ (the name of an earl·,

Christian symbol is concealed in the initial letters of this formula).

5 ό χρυοόο ού μιαίνεται. 6 οϊεοθε άλλους τήν Ελλάδα οώοειν, ύμεΐο δ' άποδράοεοθαι; 7 έκ του έοοράν γίγνεται άνθρώποιε έράν. 8# άρετήο βέβαιαί ε ίαν αί κτήοειο μόνηο. 9# φευ φευ, παλαιόο aivoc G>C καλώο έχει*

γέροντεο ούδέν έςμεν άλλο πλήν ψόφος καί ςχήμ', ονείρων δ' έρπομεν μιμήματα, νους δ' ούκ ένεςτιν, οίόμεςθα δ' εύ φρονεΐν.

10 έλέφας μύν ού δάκνει. 11 άταλαίπωρος τοις πολλοίς ή ζήτηςις τής άληθείac καί έπί τά

έτοιμα μάλλον τρέπονται. 12 οί Λακεδαιμόνιοι κήρυκα έπεμψαν καί τούς νεκρούς

διεκομίςαντο. 13 διά τό θαυμάζειν οί άνθρωποι καί νυν καί τό πρώτον

ήρξαντο φιλοςοφειν. 14 ώδινεν όρος, είτα μΰν έτεκεν. 15# πολλών ό λιμός γίγνεται διδάςκαλος. 16 οί (Γκύθαι ού λούονται ύδατι. 17 A Greek translation of the Old Testament was prepared at

Alexandria in the third century BC. Legend tells us that the version acquired its name of Septuagint (Latin septuaginta seventy) from the number of those involved, of whom thirty knew Greek but not Hebrew, thirty Hebrew but not Greek, while the remaining ten were administrators w i t h no knowledge of either. This calumny probably arose from the colloquial nature of its language. The following are well-known passages.

(i) έν άρχή έποίηςεν ό θεός τον ούρανόν καί τήν γήν. ή δέ γή Λν άόρατος καί άκαταςκεύαςτος, καί ςκότος έπάνω τηο άβύςςου, καί πνεύμα του θεού έπεφέρετο έπάνω του ύ δ α τ ο ς , καί είπεν ό θεός, γεννηθήτω (lit. let ... be born) φώς. και έγένετο φώς. καί ειδεν ό θεός τό φώς ότι καλόν, και-διεχώριςεν ό θεός άνά μέςον του φωτός καί άνά μέςον του ςκότους. καί έκάλεcεv ό θεός τό φώς ήμέραν καί τό CKOXOC έκάλεςεν νύκτα.

(ti) έπέοτρεψα καί ειδον υπό τον ήλιον δτι ού τοΐο κούφοιο ό δρόμοο, καί ού τοΐο δυνατοιο ό πόλεμοο, καί ού τοιο οοφοιο άρτοο, καί ού τοΐο ουνετοΐο πλούτοο.

18 Crime does not pay Hegestratus, a rascally owner-captain, had hired his ship to an Athenian who wished to import grain from Syracuse. After the grain had been loaded, Hegestratus, with Zenothemis, an accomplice in crime, went round Syracuse borrowing money against the cargo as though it were his. This type of loan (bottomry) was made to enable merchants to cover costs of transportation by sea, and was not recoverable if the ship sank. Ζηνόθεμιο δ' αδίκημα κακόν μεθ' Ήγεοτράτου ουνεοκευάοατο. χρήματα γάρ έν ταϊο Ουρακούοαιο έδανείζοντο. ώο δέ έλάμβανον τά χρήματα, ο'ίκαδε άπέοτελλον eic την Μαοοαλίαν, καί ούδέν eic τό πλοΐον είοέφερον. έπειδή δέ ήοαν αί ουγγραφαί άποδοΰναι (to 5 repay) τά χρήματα μετά τον του πλοίου κατάπλουν, καταδΰοαι έβουλεύοαντο τό πλοιον έβούλοντο γάρ τούο δανειοτάο άποοτερήοαι. ό μέν ούν Ήγέοτρατοο, ώο άπό τηο γήο άπήραν δυοΐν ή τριών ημερών πλουν, τηο νυκτόο διέκοπτε του πλοίου τό έδαφοο, ό δέ Ζηνόθεμιο άνω μετά 10 τών άλλων έπι βατών διέτριβεν. άλλά έπεί ψόφοο έγένετο, αίοθάνονται οί έν τω πλοίω δτι κακόν τι (some mischief) κάτω γίγνεται, καί βοηθούοιν. ώο δ' ήλίοκετο ό Ήγέοτρατοο καί κακώο πείοεοθαι ύπελάμβανε, φεύγει καί πηδά eic την θάλατταν. ούτωο ούν, ωοπερ άξιοο ην, κακόο κακώοΐδ άπέθανεν.

Notes 2 ράδιον (sc. έοτί) it is easy - when impersonal expressions

involve an adjective the neuter singular form is used. 3 ήφάνιοε < άφανίζω (4.1/1 note 2(ii)), the aorist is gnomic (see

note on 5.2.10). 6 άλλουο ... οώοειν acc. and inf., ύμεΐο ... άποδράοεοθαι nom.

and inf.; άποδράοεοθαι < άποδιδράοκω, which has a middle future (8.1/1 note 1).

7 έράν is the subject of γίγνεται. 8 κτήοειο should be translated by a singular. 9 1.1 how right the old saying is (ώο is exclamatory,

22.1/l<z(ii)); Greek uses έχω + an adverb (here καλώο) to express a state where English has the verb to be + an adjective. /.3 μιμήματα is in apposition to the understood subject of έρπομεν we crawl [along] [as] copies ... /.4 -μεοθα

(in οίόμεοθα) is an alternative ending used in verse for -μεθ0 (1st pi.) of the middle and passive; εύ φρονεΐν think rigktl· i.e. be sane, be of right mind.

11 xoic πολλοίς lit. for the many, i.e. for the majority, for most people; τρέπονται lit. they turn themselves (use (a) of tlx middle in 8.1/1). Whereas the English verb turn can bt either transitive (I turned my car towards him) or intransitive (I turned towards him), τρέπω in the active is transitive only (i.e. must be always followed by an object), and the middle (τρέπομαι lit. I turn myself, i.e. I turn) is employed for the intransitive use of the English turn. Here we would translate they turn.

12 διεκομίχαντο could represent use (b) or (c) as given in 8.1/1. 14 ώδΐνεν impf. (or aor.) of ώδίνω (4.1/1 note 2(ii)). 16 λούονται wash; just as with τρέπω and turn (above 11), λούω

is transitive only, whereas wash in English can be transitive (I washed the baby five times) or intransitive (I washed five times).

17 (i) /.I έν αρχή the absence of the article gives the phrase a poetical ring. ll.Si. ειδεν... τό φώο ότι καλόν lit. saw the light that [it was] beautiful, i.e. saw that the light was ...; άνά μέΰον (+ gen. between) need only be translated once. (ii) έπέοτρεψα I turned (unlike τρέπω this verb can be either transitive or intransitive in the active mood) - the author, who was of a rather pessimistic nature, turned from one depressing observation to another; ύπό τον ήλιον i.e. here on earth.

18 1.2 cm^c^mcaTO < οικ;κευάζομαι (6.1/3). O f f . roc when, as as also in 11.8 and 13 below (22.1/lfc(iv)); έλάμβανον ... άπέοτελλον ... είΰέφερον the imperfect indicates that they did these things on several occasions. 1.5 αί συγγραφαί the contracts - the infinitive phrase beginning with άποδούναι defines them. 11.9f. άπήραν < άπαίρω sail away; πλουν acc. of extent (7.1 /6d); διέκοπτε began to cut through; (inceptive imperfect, 4.1/1 footnote). //.12ff. αίοθάνονται... γίγνεται ... βοηθοΰαν vivid presents (cf. note on 7.2.13 /.9f); ήλίοκετο ... ύπελάμβανε imperfect because these two actions were going on when Hegestratus escaped; the two following verbs are in the vivid present, which is more commonly used in main clauses than in subordinate clauses.

g 2/1 V o c a b u l a r y

άβυοοοο, -ου, ή abyss αδίκημα, -ατος, το crime,

aivoc, -ου, ο tale, story αίςθάνομαι perceive, notice,

realize άκαταοκεύαοτοο, -ov

unformed άλίςκομαι fee awg/tf ανά μέοον see note on 17(ι) άνω (adv.) above, up above άξιος, -ά, -ov deserving αόρατος, -ov unseen,

invisible άπαίρω (aor. άπήρα) sail

away, depart άποδιδράοκω (fut. -δράοομαι)

run away, escape άποοτέλλω send, send away άποοτερέω rob, defraud άρχομαι (mid.) begin (of

something continued by oneself)

άταλαίπωρος, -ov without taking pains, not painstaking

αφανίζω make unseen, wipe put, destroy

βέβαιος, -ff, -ov secure βοηθέω (run to) help βουλεύω plan, resolve;

(mid.) plot βούλομαι wish, want γιγνομαι become, be,

happen, take place δανείζω lend; (mid.) borrow δανειςτής, -ου, ό creditor διά (prep.+acc.) because of,

on account of διαβολή, -ης, ή slander διακομίζομαι (mid.) carry

across

διακόπτω cut through διατρίβω pass (time) διαχωρίζω separate, divide διδάςκαλος, -ου, ό teacher δρόμοο, -ου, ό race δυνατός, -η, -όν strong έδαφος, -ους, τό bottom είςφέρω bring/carry into είτα (adv.) then, next ένειμι be in έπάνω (+gen.) upon έπιβάτης, -ου, ό passenger έπιςτρέφω turn about επιφέρομαι move (intr.) έράω love, desire

passionately έςοράω (= είοοράω) behold,

look at έτοιμοο, -η, -ov ready, ready

to hand ζήτηςις, -εως, ή search,

inquiry Ίηςοΰς, -ου, ό Jesus καλέω call, name καλώο έχω be right κατάπλους, -ου, ό arrival in

port κατω (adv.) below, down κήρυξ, -υκος, ό herald κούφος, -η, -ov light, nimble κτηςις, -εως, ή possession λαμβάνω take, get λΤμός, -ου, ό hunger, famine λούω wash (the body); (mid.)

wash oneself μάλλον rather Μαςςαλίδ, HSc, ή Marseilles μάτην (adv.) in vain; without

reason μεταβάλλω change, alter (tr.

and intr.) μιαίνω stain, pollute

μίμημα, -axoc, τό imitation μόνοο, -η, -ov alone, only μΰο, μυόο, ό mouse νυν (adv.) now οϊκαδε (adv.) homewards ο'ίομαι (also οιμαι) think oAoc, -η, -ov whole, complete oveipoc, -ου, ό dream opoc, -ovc9 τό mountain oikroc (adv.) thus, in this

way παλαιός -ά, -όν ancient, (of)

old πάοχω (fut. neicecQat)

experience, be treated πηδάω leap, jump πλην (adv.) but, except πλοΐον, -ου, τό vessel, ship πλοΰο, -ου, ό sailing, voyage πόλic, -εωο, ή city, city-state πονηρόο, -ά, -όν wicked, bad CKOTOC, -ovc, τό darkness (Γκύθη^ -ου, ό Scythian συγγραφαί, -ων, αί contract,

bond

ουνετόο, -ή, -όν intelligent ΟυρΒκοΰοαι, -ων, αί Syracuu ουΰκευάζομαι contrive,

concoct οχήμα, -ατοο, τό form, shap,

appearance οωζω save, keep safe croup, -ήροΰ, ό saviour τίκτω (aor. έτεκον) give birth

to τρέπομαι see note on 11 uioc, -ου, ό son υπό (prep.+acc.) under ύπολαμβάνω assume φιλοοοφέω pursue/study

philosophy φρονέω think

ευ φρονέω be sane φύαο, -εωο, ή nature/Nature Xptfcoc, -ου, ό gold ψόφοο, -ου, ό noise ώδΐνω be in labour (of

childbirth) roc see notes to 9 and 18 ωοπερ (conj.) as

9.1 Grammar

9.1/1 Demonstrative pronouns Demonstratives in Greek draw our attention to persons and things and are used not only as pronouns but also as adjectives. The English this and that have similar functions although their use as pronouns is restricted; this in this temple is an adjective, that in I do not like that is a pronoun. Greek has three demonstratives, each with a special shade of meaning. The basic differences between them when used as adjectives are:

όδε this near me (the speaker); normally to be translated this;

owoc this or that near you (the person spoken to); normally to be translated this or that;

έκεΐνοΰ that over there (i.e. away from both speaker and person spoken to); normally to be translated that.

When used as pronouns όδε will literally mean this man near me, oitoc this or that man near you, έκεΐνοο that man over there, but the first can generally be translated by this man, the third by that man, while the translation of oxnoc by this man or that man will depend on the context. °δε is simply a compound of the definite article and -δε. In this combination even the unaccented forms of the article bear an accent: όδε, ήδε, οϊδε, αίδε (cf. 2.1/2; 3.1/1). έκεΐνοΰ is declined as a first and second declension adjective (3.1/3), except that the neuter nom. and acc. s. is εκείνο (for other words with this ending -o see 9.1/3). oxnoc is similarly declined but the first syllable undergoes changes according to the following rules: (tf) an initial vowel with a rough breathing occurs in the same

forms as in the definite article (2.1/2, 3.1/1)

(b) an initial τ occurs in the same forms as in the definite article (c) where the ending contains α or η the diphthong of the first

syllable changes from ου to αυ. SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. Ν. Μ. F. Ν.

Nom. ούτος αύτη τούτο ούτοι αύται ταύτα Acc. τούτον ταύτην τούτο τούτουο ταύτας ταύτα Gen. τούτου ταύτηο τούτου τούτων τούτων τούτων Dat. τούτω ταύτη τούτω τούτοις ταύταις τούτοις In prose, when a demonstrative is used as an adjective, the n o u n which it qualifies must retain the definite article and the demonstrative must appear in the predicative position (3.1/36): έκεΐνος ό veGvitfc that young man; ή γυνη ήδε this woman. Notes 1 In certain contexts ούτος refers to what precedes, όδε to

what follows: ταΰτα έλεξεν he said this (as already reported), but τάδε έλεξεν he spoke as follows.

2 έκεΐνος ... ούτος can mean the former ...the latter.

9.1/2 The relative pronoun oc and adjectival clauses Adjectival clauses qualify nouns or pronouns, and so perform the same function as adjectives. They are introduced by a relative pronoun, which in English is who, which etc.

I am the man who dedicated a bronze tripod at Delphi. The tripod which you dedicated is inferior.

An adjectival clause normally has an antecedent, i.e. a noun or pronoun to which the clause refers and which it qualifies (in the above examples man and tripod). In English the forms of the relative pronoun are not interchangeable but are influenced by the antecedent (the man which or the tripod who are clearly impossible). Further we cannot say I know the man whom visited Delos because, although man, the antecedent of the adjectival clause, is the object of know (and so would be in the accusative in Greek), the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause it introduces and must take the nominative form who, not the accusative form whom. The same holds for Greek, where the rule is a relative pronoun takes its number and gender from its antecedent but its case from the function it performs in its own clause (but see note 2 below). Greek cannot, moreover, omit the relative pronoun as we so often do in English (the man

M. F. Ν.

Hom. oc ή ό Acc. ov ήν ό Gen. ού r\c ού Dat. ώ f\ Φ

4polio cursed cannot come into my house; Greek must say the man whom). The n o r m a l relative pronoun in Greek is oc, which is declined as a first and second declension adjective (3.1/3) except that the neuter s. nom. and acc. is δ without ν (for other words with this e n d i n g see 9.1/3):

SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. N. οί αί ά ovc He ά ών ών ών oic aic oic

Unlike who, which etc. in English, which can also be used as interrogatives (which is your tripod?), the Greek relative pronoun has no other functions in prose. Examples of adjectival clauses are:

Θάνατον είοορώ oc "Αλκηοτιν I see Death who is going eic "Αιδου δόμον μέλλει to (μέλλει) take Alcestis κατάξειν. down tothe house of

Hades. opac τον μόρον του Άκταίωνοο You know (lit. see) the fate

ov oi κύνεο ovc έθρέψατο of Actaeon whom the διεοπάοαντο. dogs whom he [had]

reared tore apart. οί οτρατιώται oic ταύτα είπε The soldiers to whom

Ξενοφών έπανήλθον πρόο Xenophon said this (lit. τούο TlepcGic. these things) returned to

the Persians. Notes 1 The antecedent of an adjectival clause, if a pronoun, is often

omitted: δν οί θεοί φιλοΰοιν άποθνηοκει veoc [he] whom the gods love dies young.

2 Contrary to the rule given above, the Greek relative pronoun is often put into the same case as its antecedent. This quite illogical attraction is most frequent when a relative pronoun in the accusative case has an antecedent in the genitive or dative: ήγαγεν οτρατόν από τών πόλεων ών (for Sc) έπειοεν he led an army from the cities which he [had] persuaded. Sometimes the antecedent, if a pronoun, is omitted (cf. note 1); έπαινώ ce έφ' oic (for έπί τούτοιο ά) λέγειο I praise you for what you are saying.

3 Sometimes when both the relative and its antecedent are in the accusative the latter is put into the adjectival clause: ούκ

84 C 3 Η·' s

άπεκρύπτετο ήν ε ίχε γνώμην he did not conceal the opinu which he had (= την γνώμην ήν είχε); here the relative is uSe(J as an adjective.

9.1/3 Q U T O C and its uses For the terms attributive position and predicative position see 3.1/3b. aixoc is a pronoun which, like demonstratives (9.1/1), is also used as an adjective, αύτόο is declined like καλόο (3.1/3) except that in the neuter its nom. and acc. s. is αυτό (the expected αυτόν only occurs in ταύτόν - see below). The -o ending for the nom. and acc. neuter singular also occurs in the definite article (τό), the relative pronoun (δ), τοΰτο, έκεΐνο (9.1/1), and άλλο other. αύτόο is used in three ways: (a) as an emphasizing adjective meaning self. Greek has no

separate words corresponding to the English emphatic myself, yourself etc. (as opposed to the reflexive myself\ yourself etc., see 9.1/4) and instead uses αύτόο for all persons. When used with a noun it stands in the predicative position: αύτόο ό άνήρ the man himself, περί τηο γυναικόο αύτηο concerning the woman herself, αύτόο can also be used by itself in the nominative and agree with the understood subject: αύτόο ήκειο you yourself have come. Two idioms involving this use of αύτόο are:

(i) with ordinal numbers: πρεοβευτήο ήλθε δέκατοο αύτόο he came as ambassador with nine others (lit. himself the tenth).

(ii) with a dative to express the idea of accompaniment (23.1/2&), especially in connection with the loss or destruction of something; τών τριήρων μίδν κατέδΰοαν αύτοΐο άνδράαν they sank one of the triremes crew and all (lit. [with] men themselves).

(b) ό αύτόο means the same. In the attributive position (i.e. between the article and the noun) αύτόο always has this meaning: τούο αύτούο δεοπότac εϊχομεν, we had the same masters; έγώ μέν ό αύτόο είμι, ύμεΐο δέ μεταβάλλετε, / am the same, [it is] you [who] change. The same as is e x p r e s s e d either by ό amoc καί or, more commonly, by ό aircoc and the dative: τά αυτά φρονεί έμοί he thinks the same as I do; τά αυτά και ό 'Αλκιβιάδης πείθουαν, they give the same advice as Alcibiades (lit. they persuade the same [things] ...).

In this use arnoc may coalesce with those parts of the article ending in a vowel (crasis - 11.1/5), and where this is possible both contracted and uncontracted forms are found in normal use. The following table shows all possible variations.

SINGULAR

M. F. N .

Horn, ο αΰτόο, αύτόο ή αύτη, αύτη τό αύτό, ταύτό, ταύτόν Acc. τον αύτόν την αύτην τό αύτό, ταύτό, ταύτόν Gen. του αύτού, ταύτού τηο αύτήο του αύτοΰ, ταύτοΰ Dat. τω αύτω, ταύτω τη αύτη, ταύτη τω αύτω, ταύτω

PLURAL

Now. οί αυτοί, αύτοί αί αύται, αύταί τά αύτό, ταύτα Acc. τούο αύτούο τόο αύτάο τά αύτά, ταύτα Gen. τών αυτών τών αυτών τών αυτών Dat. xoic αύτοιο ταΐο αύταιc τοιο αύτοΐο

The alternative neuter in -ov occurs only in the contracted form. The shorter forms bear a confusing resemblance to the corresponding parts of ούτοο, e.g. αύτη the same woman, αύτη this/that woman; ταύτα the same things, ταύτα these/those things. The accent will always show which word is involved.

(c) The oblique cases (2.1/3) of αύτόο are used to express the personal pronoun of the third person, him, her, it, them (4.1/2). In this use αύτόν, αύτην etc. are unemphatic and postpositive (just as are με, οε, etc., cf. 4.1/2): έκέλευοαν αύτην μένει ν they ordered her to remain. As an emphatic third person pronoun, Greek uses the demonstratives ούτοο or έκεΐνοο:

ούτοο μεν τούο Άθηναίουο He likes the Athenians, but φιλεΐ, αύτη δέ τούο she likes the Spartans. Λακεδαιμονίου^

έκεΐνον φιλοΰμεν. We like him. Greek has no word which functions as an unemphatic third person pronoun in the nominative since the verbal inflections themselves already indicate the person involved.

To illustrate all three principal uses of αύτόο learn the following sentence:

ό οτρατηγόο αύτόο τω αύτω The general himself killed ξίφει αύτούο έοφαξεν. them with the same

sword.

9.1/4 Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns (a) A reflexive pronoun is one which refers back to the subjec*

of a sentence or clause, as in the sentence he killed himseI* In English all reflexive pronouns end in -self (myself yourself, himself, themselves, etc.) and are to be carefulK distinguished from the emphatic adjectives of the same form, e.g. he himself killed the soldier. In the singular the reflexives of the first and second persons are formed by joining the stems of the personal pronouns (4.1/2) to the appropriate parts of αxnoc; in the plural the two components are written and declined separately. The normal third person reflexive is formed from the stem of the indirect third person reflexive έ (see below) and αύτόο Reflexive pronouns can occur only in the oblique cases and the possibility of a neuter exists only in the direct third person forms.

First Person Second Person M. F. Μ. F. SINGULAR

Acc. έμαυτόν έμαυτην ςεαυτόν, οαυτόν οεαυτην, ςαυτην Gen. έμαυτού έμαυτης οεαυτού, οαυτού ςεαυτης, ςαυτηο Dat. έμαυτώ έμαυτη ςεαυτώ, ςαυτώ ςεαυτη, ςαυτη

PLURAL Acc. ημάς αυτούς ημάς αυτός ύμάς αυτούς ύμάς αυτός Gen. ημών αύτών ημών αύτών ϋμών αύτών ύμών αύτών Dat. ήμΐν αύτοιο ήμιν αύταις ύμιν αύτοιο ύμίν αύταΐς

Acc. Gen. Dat.

Acc. Gen. Dat.

M. SINGULAR εαυτόν, αύτόν έαυτού, αυτού έαυτω, αύτω PLURAL έαυτούς, αυτούς έαυτών, αύτών έαυτοΐς, αύτοις

Third Person Direct F.

έαυτην, αύτην έαυτης, αύτης έαυτη, αύτη

έαυτάς, αυτός έαυτών, αύτών έαυταις, αύταις

Ν.

έαυτό, αύτό έαυτού, αυτού έαυτω, αύτω

έαυτά, αύτό έαυτών, αύτών έαυτοιο, αύτοιο

Indirect Μ . & F.

έ ού οί

ςφάς ςφών ςφίςι(ν) person The contracted forms of the second and third

reflexives are more common than the uncontracted ones; ε, ού and οί are usually enclitic.

Examples of these pronouns in use are: βούλομαι έμαυτόν μέν I want to kill myself, not

άποκτείνειν, ύμάο δ' ού. you. έαυτούο μέν φιλοΰαν οί Wicked people love

κακοί, τούο δ' άλλουο οί themselves, good people αγαθοί. [love] others.

opac οαυτόν έν τω κατόπτρω. You see yourself in the mirror.

The third person direct reflexive is used as above. The third person indirect reflexive is used only in subordinate constructions referring back to the subject of the main clause: κελεύουαν ήμάο κοινή μετά οφών πολεμεΐν they urge us to make war in common with them (ήμάο is the subject of the infinitive πολεμεΐν but οφών refers back to the subject of the main verb, κελεύουοιν). Direct reflexive forms are, however, often substituted, Όρέοτηο έπειοεν τούο Άθηναίουο έαυτόν κατάγειν Orestes persuaded the Athenians to restore him(self).

(b) For reciprocal action the reflexive pronoun can be used: ήμΐν αύτοΐο διαλεξόμεθα we shall converse with ourselves, i.e. each other. Greek does, however, have a special reciprocal pronoun which was formed by doubling the stem of άλλοο other: άλλήλουο, άλλήλδο, άλληλα one another, each other. It is declined like καλόο (3.1/3) except that its meaning excludes a nominative case and a singular number. With άλλήλουο no ambiguity is possible: άλλήλουο οφάζουοιν they are killing each other. It is used for all three persons.

87 c 3 TV s

9.1/5 Possessive adjectives and pronouns Possessive adjectives are of two types in English, attributive (my, your, his, her, its; our, your, their, which occur in phrases such as my house) and predicative (mine, yours, his, hers; ours, yours, theirs, which occur in clauses such as the house is mine). Greek has similar possessive adjectives for the first and second persons only, and these may be used either attributively or predicatively.

the third person it uses the genitive of the personal and demonstrative pronouns. Significantly, however, where the context leaves no doubt as to who the possessor is and there is flo need for emphasis, the definite article alone suffices in Greek: ^φεληοα τόν πατέρα I helped my father; εύ έποίηοε την πάλιν he benefited his city (cf. note on 2.1.1). In these cases no personal Pronoun or possessive adjective is employed. In cases where it is

88 C 3 Η·' s

desirable to clarify the reference, Greek proceeds as follows: (a) Where no emphasis is intended the genitive of th

unemphatic personal pronouns (μου, cou, αυτού, αυτή ημών, ύμών, αύτών) is employed in the predicative position φιλει την μητέρα μου he loves my mother (lit. the mother me); eic την οίκίαν αύτοΰ είοήλθομεν we entered his houSi (the house of him); θαυμάζω τό κάλλοο αύτηο I admire be beauty (the beauty of her).

(b) Where some degree of emphasis is desired: (i) For the first and second persons Greek uses the

adjectives έμοο, -η, -ov (my, mine); coc, οη, cov {you when referring to one person); ήμέτεροο, -G, -ov (our)\ ύμέτεροο, -G, -ov (your when referring to more than one person), in the attributive position: eic xhc ύμετέραο OIKISC ήλθον they went into your houses; ο coc, Αίοχίνη, κοινωνόο, ούχ ό έμόο your partner, Aeschines, not mine. Note carefully that Greek requires both the d e f i n i t e article and the possessive adjective.1

(ii) For the third person Greek uses the genitive of a demonstrative pronoun, e.g. τούτου of this/that man\ έκείνηο of that woman, again in the attributive position: περί τών τούτου λόγων concerning his words; άφικνούνται παρ' Άριαιον καί την έκείνου σιρατιάν they come up to Ariaeus and his army.

(c) When a reflexive sense is involved (i.e. when the reference is to the subject of the clause to which the noun-group containing the possessive belongs), the genitive of the reflexive pronouns is used, again in the attributive position: τον έμαυτού άδελφόν έπεμψα I sent my own brother; την έαυτού γυναίκα ύβρίζει he misuses his own wife; άγαπώα τούο έαυτών ίππουο they love their own horses.

In less emphatic contexts, however, the ordinary first and second person possessives, έμόο, coc, ήμέτεροο, ύμέτεροο ( a b o v e

b(i)), may also be used: τούο ύμετέρουο παΐδαο αγαπάτε you love your children.

1 But contrast ό έμόο δούλος my slave and έμόο ό δούλος (or ό δούλος έμός) the slave mine (predicative). The latter has no article immediately before the possessive.

12 Greek reading 1# καλόν τό θνηοκειν oic ύβριν τό ζην φέρει. 2 ό cotyoc έν αύτω περιφέρει την ούάαν. 3# καρτερόο έν πολέμοιο Τιμόκριτοο ού τόδε οήμα*

"Αρηο δ' ούκ αγαθών φείδεται, άλλά κακών. 4 ό Κλέων ούκ έφη αύτόο άλλ' έκεΐνον οτρατηγεΐν. 5 οί αύτοί περί τών αύτών τοιο αύτοιο τά αύτά (sc. λέγουαν). 6 τό έμόν έμοί λέγειο δναρ. 7 έπειτα έκεινοο ό άνηρ εΐπεν, άλλ' εί άλλου δει πρόο τούτοιο

οίο λέγει Ξενοφών, αύτίκα έξεοτι ποιειν. μετά δέ ταύτα Ξενοφών είπε τάδε* δήλον ότι πορεύεοθαι ήμάο δει όπου έξομεν τά έπιτήδεια* άκούω δέ κώμαο είναι καλάο αί ε'ίκοοι οτάδια άπέχουοιν.

8 ό φίλοο έοτίν άλλοο αύτόο. 9 φιλοοοφίαν πρώτοο ώνόμαοε Πυθαγόραο καί έαυτόν

φιλόοοφον. 0 παραβαλεΐν δει αύτούο παρ' άλλήλουο* ούτω γάρ οκεψόμεθα

εί διοίοουοιν άλλήλων. 1 άπίοτωο έχουοι πρόο αύτούο οί Έλληνεο. 2 The Persian empire was founded in the sixth century BC by

Cyrus the Great (died 530 BC). His achievements were such that in the following century Xenophon (7.2.6) wrote an account of his life (the earliest surviving biography). The following is an extract. μετά δέ δειπνον έπήρετο ό Κύροο, ώ Τιγράνη, πού δη έκεΐνόο έοτιν ό άνηρ oc ουνεθήρα ήμΐν; ού γάρ μοι μάλα έδόκειο θαυμάζειν αύτόν. έφόνευοεν αύτόν, έφη, ούτοο ό έμόο πατήρ, διαφθείρειν γάρ αύτόν έφη έμέ. καίτοι, ω Κύρε, καλόο κάγαθόο έκεΐνοο η ν ότε γάρ άποθνηοκειν έμελλε 5 προοεκάλεοέ με καί ειπε, ού δει οέ, ώ Τιγράνη, χαλεπαίνειν ότι ό coc πατήρ άποκτείνει με* ού γάρ διά κακόνοιαν τοΰτο ποιεί, άλλά δι' άγνοιαν ά δέ δι' άγνοιαν οί άνθρωποι έξαμαρτάνουαν, άκούαα ταύτ' έγωγε νομίζω. Δημοοθένηο δέ, oc έώρα τούο Λακεδαιμονίουο μέλλειν προοβάλλειν πλοίοιο τε άμα καί πεζώ, παρεοκευάζετο καί αύτόο, καί τάο τριήρειο αί'περιήοαν αύτω άνέοπαοε ύπό τό τείχιομα, καί τούο ναύταο έξ αύτών ώπλιοεν acnicι φαύλαιο καί oicui'vaic ταΐο πολλαΐο· ού γάρ ην όπλα έν χωρίω έρήμω 5 πορίοαοθαι, άλλά καί ταύτα έκ ληοτρικήο Μεοοηνίών τριακοντέρου καί κέλητοο έλαβον, οί παρεγίγνοντο. όπλΐταί τε τών Μεοοηνίων τούτων a>c τετταράκοντα έγένοντο. τούο μέν ούν πολλούο τών οτρατιωτών έπί τά έχυρά του χωρίου πρόο τήν ήπειρον έταξε, αύτόο δ έ ΐ ο

άπελέξατο έξήκοντα όπλίταο καί τοξόταο ολίγους Kr< έχώρει έξω του τείχουο έπί την θάλατταν, ή μάλιο^. έκείνουο προοεδέχετο πειράοεοθαι αποβαίνει ν. κατά τον ούν προο αύτήν την θάλατταν έταξε τούο όπλίταο.

Notes 1 τό θνηοκειν (supply έοτί) and τό ζην are both articular

infinitives (5.1/3); understand τούτοιο as the antecedent o; oic.

3 /.I translate πολέμοιο by a singular; supply ήν with Τϊμόκριτοο and έοτί with σημα. 1.2 φείδεται is sparing of; spares takes the genitive (cf. 13.1/2).

4 ούκ έφη 8.1/3a note 4; after έφη we have a combination of a nominative (αύτόο) + infinitive and accusative (έκεΐνον) + infinitive (8.1/3λ).

7 /.I δει + gen. there is need of (21.1/4b and note 3); both άλλου (another thing) and τούτοιο (those things) are neuter. 1.2 oic (= a) has been attracted into the case of its antecedent (τούτοιο) - 9.1/2 note 2; έξεοτι an impersonal verb (cf. δει, χρή) meaning it is possible (21.1/4a). 1.3 δήλον supply έοτί, [if is] clear, 1.4 έξομεν (note rough breathing) fut. of έχω.

10 As this sentence comes from a conversation we can supply ήμάο (us, i.e. the speaker and his audience) with δει.

11 άπίοτωο έχουα = άπιοτοί ε ί α (cf. note on 8.2.9). 12 /.I έπήρετο < έπερωτάω. //.3f. ούτοο ό έμόο πατήρ my father

here; we must tell from the context that αύτόν is the subjec t of διαφθείρειν and έμέ its object. 1.5 καλόο κάγαθόο (= καί άγαθόο) a set expression meaning fine fellow; gentleman (cf. 13.3(ii) /.15). 1.6 ού δει ce ... i.e. you must not... //.8f. The relative clause ά ... precedes its antecedent ταΰτ'(α); νομίζω here has the acc. and inf. construction (8.1/3a) but the inf. είναι is understood.

13 1.2 πλοίοιο ... πεζω dat. of instrument (11.1/2) lit. with both ships and infantry at the same time (άμα, which is here an adverb). 1.3 αύτω (to/for him) is dative with περιήοαν (< περίειμι). //.4f. αοπία ... πολλαΐο lit. with shields (dat. of instrument - see above) inferior and the many made of wickerwork, i.e inferior shields mostly made ofwickerwork (οί πολλοί can mean the majority as it does in 1.9); ήν = έξήν it was possible (ecu used in the sense of the impersonal έξεοτι (21.1/4a) is common). 11.6f. Μεοοηνίων, which is to be taken with both τριακοντέρου and κέλητοο in the sense belonging to [some] Messenians, is the antecedent of οϊ. IM-τά έχυρά the strong [points]; πρόο towards, i.e. facing. ΙΛ2

ή is here the relative adverb where, not the relative pronoun. //. I3f. έκείνουο i.e. the enemy; κατά τοΰτο at this [point] (κατά is used here of place where); πρόο ... την θάλατταν Greek regularly uses prepositions appropriate to motion towards (πρόο + acc., eic, etc.) with verbs logically requiring a preposition indicating position at, when some previous motion is to be understood (Demosthenes must have moved his troops to the seaside before drawing them up there). Consequently πρόο... την θάλατταν must be translated by the sea. This pregnant use of prepositions is so termed because the idea of motion towards is implied by (i.e. contained within) the preposition.

9.2/1 Vocabulary άγαθόο, -η, -όν brave άγνοια, -Gc, ή ignorance SKOUCIOC, -OV against the

will, involuntary άλλήλουο, -flc, - a (reciprocal

pron.) each other, one another (9.1/4&)

αμα (adv.) at the same time άναοπάω (aor. -έοπαοα) haul

up απέχω be distant απίοτωο έχω be mistrustful αποβαίνω land αποκτείνω kill άπολέγομαι pick out άοπίο, -ίδοο, ή shield αύτίκα (adv.) at once,

immediately δει (impers.) it is necessary

(+ acc. and infin.); there is a need of (+ gen.)

δείπνο ν, -ου, τό dinner δη* (particle) indeed,

certainly δήλοο, -η, -ov clear, obvious διαφέρω (fut. διοίοω) differ

from (+gen.) διαφθείρω corrupt δοκέω seem

έγωγε (= έγώ + γε, 13.1/3b) I at least; I for my part

εϊκοα(ν) (indecl. adj.) twenty

έλαβον aor. of λαμβάνω take έξαμαρτάνω do wrong έξεοτι (impers.) it is possible έξήκοντα (indecl. adj.) sixty έπερωτάω (aor. έπηρόμην)

ask (a question) έπιτηδεια, -ων, τά necessities

of life, provisions έρημοο, -ov empty, deserted έχυρόο, -ά, -όν strong, secure έώρα 3rd s. impf. of όράω

see TJ (adv.) where ήπειροο, -ου, ή mainland θν^οκω die καίτοι (particle) and yet,

however κακόνοια, -Gc, ή malice κακόο, -ή, -όν cowardly καλόο κάγαθόο see note on 12 καρτερόο, -ά, -όν strong,

mighty κέληο, -ητοο, ό fast-sailing

ship, pinnace κώμη, -ηο, ή village

ληστρικός, -ή, -όν belonging to pirates

μάλιοτα especially μέλλω be about to Μεοοήνιοο, -fl, -ov

Messenian ναύτηο, -ου, ό sailor oicmvoc, -η, -ov made of

osier/wickerwork όναρ, τό (nom. and acc. only)

dream ονομάζω call, name οπλίζω equip, arm όπλίτηο, -ου, ό hoplite όπου (relative adv.) where ότε (conj.) when ούοίσ, -Gc, ή property,

substance ούτω another form of ούτωο παραβάλλω compare παραγίγνομαι be present παραοκευάζω prepare, equip;

(mid.) make one's preparations

πεζόο, -ή, -όν on foot πεζοί infantry

πειράομαι try περίειμι survive, remain περιφέρω carry round πορεύομαι march, journey πορίζομαι procure

πρόο (prep.+dat.) in additUjn

προοβάλλω attack προοδέχομαι expect προοκαλέω summon πού; (adv.) wherei οκέπτομαι examine, consider οτάδιον, -ου, τό stade (c. 200

metres) οτρατηγέω be general συνθηράω hunt with (+ dat.) τάττω station, draw up, post τείχιομα, -aroc, τό fort τεΐχοο, -ουο, τό wall τετταράκοντα (indecl. numeral)

forty τοξότηο, -ου, ό archer τρισκόντεροο, -ου, ή thirty-

oared ship ύβριο, -εωο, ή insult,

humiliation φαΰλοο, -ov (also -η, -ον)

cheap, of poor quality φείδομαι spare (+ gen.) φιλοοοφίσ, -Gc, ή philosophy φιλόοοφοο, -ου, ό

philosopher φονεύω murder; slay χαλεπαίνω be angry χωρέω go (he (adv.+numerals) about,

nearly

10.1 Grammar

10.1/1 Interrogative TIC and indefinite TIC The interrogative and indefinite pronouns belong to the third declension and have identical forms except for the accent. The interrogative pronoun xic who?, u what? is easily identifiable, since it always retains an acute accent on the first syllable (see Appendix 8, note 2). The indefinite pronoun TIC someone, anyone, τι something, anything, is enclitic and postpositive.

Interrogative Indefinite M. & F. Ν. M. & F. N.

SINGULAR Nom. x i c τ ί TIC τ ι

Acc. τίνα τί τινά τι Gen. τίνοο, του τίνοο, του τινόο, του τι voc, του Dat. τίνι, τω τίνι, τω τινί, τω τινί, τω

PLURAL Nom. τίνεο τίνα τινέο τινά Acc. τίναο τίνα τινάο τινά Gen. τίνων τίνων τινών τινών Dat. τία(ν) τίοι(ν) Tici(v) τιοί(ν)

In the genitive and dative singular the shorter forms coincide with the corresponding masculine and neuter forms of the definite article (3.1/1; the indefinite forms have no accent). Both the interrogative and the indefinite pronouns may also be used as adjectives: TIC (TIC άνηρ) τούτο έποίηοεν; who (what man) did this? λέγει TIC τούτο someone says this; κλέπτηο xic τούτο εποιηοεν some thief did this. Used in this way, indefinite uc is °ften little more than the equivalent of the English indefinite article.

Notes 1 The acc. sing, neuter τί (or, more fully, δια τί, lit. on acconnt

of what?) means why (cf. 20.1/5). 2 άττα, which is not enclitic, sometimes replaces the indefinitt

neuter pi. τινά.

10.1/2 Questions, direct and indirect (a) Direct questions Direct questions are those which are directly asked of someone else. In Greek, as in English, they are, where appropriate, introduced by an interrogative pronoun or adjective (10.1/1) or adverb (e.g. πότε when?). Where there is no interrogative word and English uses inversion (are you sick?) Greek, as we have seen (e.g. 3.2.12(ii)), uses the interrogative particle άρα (άρα νοοεΐο;), which has no English equivalent. However, a question of this sort may simply be indicated by a different tone of voice without άρα: ταΰτα εΐπαο; you said this? (lit. these things). This latter type of direct question may also be framed in such a way as to invite (but not necessarily receive) a negative answer: you didn't say this, did you? or surely you didn't say this? In Greek such a question is prefixed with μών (<μή ούν) or μή: μών (or μή) ταύτα είπαο; We may also invite a positive answer by saying you did say this, didn't you? or surely you said this? In Greek we begin with άρα ού (άρ' ού) or ού: άρα ού ταύτα ειπαο; For alternative questions Greek uses as an introductory word for which English has no equivalent, πότερον or πότερα (there is no distinction between the two1): πότερον ταύτα ειπαο ή έκεινα did you say this or that? (lit. these things or those things). As with άρα, the introductory word can be omitted.

(b) Indirect questions Indirect questions are another form of indirect speech (7.1/3) and are expressed in Greek by a subordinate clause, just as in English: έρωτα εί Περικλήο πρόο τον Πειραιά ήλθεν he is asking if Pericles went to Piraeus (direct question: άρα Περικλήο itpoc τον Πειραιά ήλθεν; did Pericles go to Piraeus?). The Greek interrogative pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which, where appropriate, introduce questions, can have a direct form (TIC, πότε, πού, etc.) or an indirect form:

1 They are respectively the n. acc. s. and n. acc. pi. of noxepoc which (of two)? The accusative is here used adverbially (20.1/5).

PIRECT _

nC· wboh whichf ,oioc; of what kind? ,ococ; how high how

much? pi. how many? πότεροο; M/W A (of two)? The forms ending in

οποι οπόθεν οπότε όπωο

INDIRECT DIRECT INDIRECT

όοτιο πού; (at) where? όπου όποΐοο ποΐ; (to) where? όπόοοο πόθεν; from where?

πότε; when? όπότεροο πώο; fcow? -oc are declined as first and second

declension adjectives (3.1/3); for the declension of ocxic see note 1. The difference between direct and indirect forms is one of use, not meaning. The indirect are used in indirect questions only, as έρωτα oeuc ει he is asking who you are (but see also note 2). The direct forms can be used in direct questions (TIC εΐ; who are you?) or in indirect ones (έρωτφ TIC εΐ he is asking who you are). When used in the latter context they give a touch of immediacy and vividness. Where the original question begins with άρα (άρα εύωχεΐ; are you holding a party?) or has no interrogative word at all (εύωχεΐ;) the indirect version is introduced by ει if/whether: έρωτα εί εύωχεΐ he is asking if (or whether) you are holding a party). As in indirect statements (8.1/3), the tense of the original direct question is retained in the indirect form.1 As will be seen in the third example below, an indirect question is not always preceded by a verb of asking.

τούτων έκαοτον ήρόμην εί τι νέο ε ία μάρτυρεο.

ό κήρυξ ήρώτσ TIC (or octic) άγορεύειν βούλεται.

ου δει οε ειπείν πόοουο (or όπόοουο) πόνουο έχειο.

Notes

I asked each of them if there were any witnesses (direct: άρα μάρτυρέο τι νέο ε ί α ν; Are there any witnesses?)

The herald used to ask who wanted to speak (direct: τίο άγορεύειν βούλεται;).

You don't have to say how many troubles you have (implying a direct question πόοουο πόνουο έχω; in the mind of the person addressed).

όοτιο is a combination of the relative pronoun oc (9.1/2) and the indefinite TIC (10.1/1). There are some alternative forms:

1 For the change of mood which may occur after an introduaory historic verb, see 14.1/4d.

Μ. F.

SINGULAR Nom. ocxic ήτις Acc. δντινα ήντινα Gen. ούτινος, ότου rjcxivoc Dat. ωτινι, δτω ήτινι

PLURAL Nom. οϊτινεο αϊτινεο Acc. ούοτιναο Scxivac Gen. ώντινων, ότων ώντινων, δτων

Ν. δτι δτι ούτινος, δτου ωτινι, δτω άτι να, άττα άτινα, άττα ώντινων, δτων oictici(v), ότοις Dat. OICTICI(V), δτοιο aiccici(v)

The neuter singular δτι is sometimes printed ό τι in modern texts to avoid confusion with the conjunction δτι that, because. This distinction is not employed in this book; the context should show which is being used. The indirect interrogative OCTIC is also used as an indefinite relative with the meaning whoever; OCTIC γαμεΐ πονηράν, μώρόο έοτιν whoever marries an evil woman is stupid. The other indirect interrogatives are similarly used (όπου wherever; etc). For όπωο, which has additional meanings, see the Vocabulary. Just as the interrogative uc becomes, with a change in accentuation, the indefinite xic (10.1/1), so some other direct interrogatives can be converted to indefinite pronouns and adverbs. Very common are που somewhere, ποτέ at some time, once, πωο somehow (all enclitic).

10.1/3 First and third declension adjectives The masculine and neuter of adjectives in this category belong to the third declension, but their feminine to the first. There are two types: (a) Stems in υ In this large class the nom. s. ends in -ύο, -εϊα, -ύ (always so accented), ήδύο sweet is declined:

SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. Ν. Μ. F. Ν.

Nom. ήδύο ήδεια ηδύ ήδεΐο ήδειαι ηδέα Voc. ηδύ ηδεία ηδύ ήδεις ήδειαι ηδέα Acc. ήδύν ήδειαν ηδύ ήδειο ήδείαο ηδέα Gen. ήδέοο ήδείσο ήδέοο ήδέων ηδειών ήδέων Dat. ήδεΐ ηδεία ήδεΐ ήδέοι(ν) ήδείαιο ηδέα (ν) (b) Stems in ντ This class contains only a few adjectives but very many participles (12.1/1). The ντ of the stem is lost in all feminine

SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. Ν. Μ. F. Ν. nac πάοα πάν πάντεο πάοαι πάντα πάντα πάοαν πάν πάνταο πόοσο πάντα παντόο πάοηο παντόο πάντων πσοών πάντων παντί πάοη παντί πάοι(ν) πάοαιο πάοι(ν)

forms and in the masculine and neuter dat. pi. (cf. yiy&c 5.1/1 b). nac all is declined:

N.V. Acc. Gen. Dat. Like nac are declined its emphatic forms anQc and ουμπΰε (which we must also translate by all). The only other adjectives in this group end in -eic (gen. -evioc), -ecca, -εν, e.g. χαρίειο, χαρίεοοα, χαρίεν graceful, gen. s. χαρίεντοο, χαριέοοηο, χαρίεντοο, dat. pi. χαρίεα(ν), χαριέοοαιο, χαρίεα(ν). Notes 1 In the predicative position nac means all: περί navxac τούο

θεούο άοεβοΰαν they commit impiety with respect to all the gods. In the attributive position it means whole: ή naca Ο,κελία the whole of Sicily. Without the article it means every in the singular, but all in the plural: naca πόλιο every city; πάντεο πολΐται all citizens.

2 μελδο, μέλαινα, μέλαν black has a stem in ν (not ντ); gen. s. μέλανοο, μελαίνηο, μέλανοο; dat. pi. μέλαα(ν), μελαίναιο, μέλαοι(ν). Exactly similar is τάλδο miserable.

10.1/4 Third declension adjectives These adjectives are declined wholly within the third declension and fall into two groups. In both, the masculine and feminine have the same form. (Λ) Stems in ov These are declined like δαίμων (6.1/1<ζ), except that the nom. voc. and acc. neuter ends in -ov in the singular and -ova in the Plural. An example is άφρων senseless:

Nom. Voc. Acc. Gen. Oat.

SINGULAR M. & F. άφρων άφρον άφρον-α άφρον-oc αφρον-ι

Ν. άφρον άφρον άφρον άφρον-οο άφρον-ι

PLURAL Μ. & F. άφρον-εο άφρον-εο άφρον-αο άφρόν-ων άφρο-οι(ν)

Ν. άφρον-α άφρον-α άφρον-α άφρόν-ων άφρο-οι(ν)

Comparative adjectives in -ων (17.1/2b) are similarly declined.

(b) Stems in sc These belong to the same type as neuter nouns in ec (6.1/] This is most obvious in the genitive and dative, where we flr similar endings, άληθηο true (stem άληθεο-) is declined:

SINGULAR PLURAL

M . & F. Ν . M . & F. N .

Nom. άληθης αληθές αληθείς αληθή Voc. άληθέο αληθές αληθείς αληθή Acc. άληθη αληθές αληθείς άληθη Gen. αληθούς αληθούς αληθών αληθών Dat. άληθει άληθει άληθέςι(ν) άληθέα(ν)

άληθη, άληθεΐο are contractions of άληθέ(ο)α, άληθέ(φο άληθεΐο as acc. pi. (m. and f.) is irregular; we would have expected άληθηο (< -ε(ο)αο). The n. pi. nom. voc. and acc. αληθή are only an apparent exception to the rule given at 3.1/1 (cf, γένοο: pi. γένη < γένεο-α, 6.1/lc). The few adjectives with other stems are mostly compounds whose second element is a third declension noun, e.g. εύχαρκ (εύ + χάριο) ch arming, stem εύχαριτ-; εύελπιο (εύ + έλπίχ) hopeful, stem εύελπιδ-.

10.2 Greek reading 1# παχεΐα γαοτηρ λεπτόν ού τίκτει νόον. 2# coc ηδύ την θάλατταν άπό τηο γήο όράν. 3# ό χρόνοο άπαντα τοΐαν ύοτερον φράοει. 4 ή εύδαιμονία έοτίν ένέργειά TIC τηο ψυχήο. 5 ώ Μένανδρε καί βίε, πότεροο άρ' ύμών πότερον

άπεμιμήοατο; 6# τίο δ' οιδεν (knows) εί τό ζην μέν έοτι κατθανεΐν,

τό κατθανεΐν δέ ζην κάτω νομίζεται; 7 ό βίοο βραχύο, ή δέ τέχνη μακρή, ό δέ καιρόο όξύο, ή δε

πείρα οφαλερή, ή δέ Kpicic χαλεπή. 8 ούντομοο ή πονηρία, βραδεία ή άρετη. 9 όπου εύ πράττει TIC, ένταύθα πάτριο.

10# OCTIC δέ θνητών βούλεται δυοώνυμον eic γήραο έλθεΐν, ού λογίζεται καλωσ μακρόο γάρ αιών μυρίουο τίκτει πόνουσ

11# coc ηδύ δούλοιο δεοπόταο χρηοτούο λαβείν καί δεοπόταιοι δούλον εύμενη δόμοιο.

12# άπαντ' έπαχθη πλην θεοΐοι κοιρανεΐν έλεύθεροο γάρ ούτιο έοτί πλην Aioc.

13 οί αμαθείς ώοπερ έν πελάγει καί νυκτί φέρονται έν τω β1 Φ'

4 ή ΥυνΠ έφη ότι αυτάρκης κόομοο μοι ή του άνδρόο άρετη. |5# όπου TIC άλγεϊ, κεΐοε καί τον νουν έχει. 16 Other proverbs

(i) μιοώ μνήμονα ουμπότην. (ii) δυομενηο ό τών γειτόνων όφθαλμόο. (iii) τον άτυχη καί πρόβατον δάκνει. (iv) άνηρ άτεχνοο TOIC πάοίν έοτι δούλοο. (ν) γλυκύο άπείρω πόλεμοο. (νϊ) χρόνω τά πάντα κρίνεται, (vii) έν νυκτί λαμπρόο, έν φάει δ' άνωφελήο. (viii) άλλήλαο νίπτουα χεΐρεο. (ix) υπό παντί λίθω οκόρπιοο καθεύδει. (χ) ράδια πάντα θεώ. (xi) anac έχινοο τραχύο. (χii) όν ή τύχη μέλανα γράψει τούτον ό nac xpovoc ού δύναται λευκάναι.

17 Stories about Diogenes The Greeks were fond of short, pithy anecdotes ending in a bon mot. Diogenes, the philosopher of the fourth century BC whose eccentric lifestyle made him a tourist attraction in the Athens of his day, is the subject of a large collection.

(i) ό Διογένης ήτει ποτέ άνδρίαντα* έρωτηθείο (having been asked) δέ διά τί τούτο ποιεί, μελετώ, είπεν, άποτυγχάνειν.

(«) έρωτηθείο ποιον οινον ήδέωο πίνει, έφη, τον άλλότριον.

(iii) φιλάργυρον ήτεν ότε δέ έβράδυνεν, ό Διογένης, άνθρωπε, ειπεν, eic τροφήν ce αιτώ, ούκ είο ταφήν.

(iv) έρωτηθείο πόθεν έοτί ν, κοομοπολίτηο, έφη. (ν) ότε ειπέ TIC κακόν είναι τό ζην, ού τό ζην, έφη, άλλά

τό κακώο ζην. Notes 1 The uncontracted νόον (= νουν, 6.1/2) shows that this is

Ionic Greek (1.3). 3 TOICIV = TOIC (3.1/1 note 3). 5 Menander was famous for his faithful representation of

everyday life; πότεροο άρ' lit. which of you two then (άρ' = άρα an inferential particle which must be distinguished from άρα, 10.1/2a).

^ κατθανεΐν shortened form of καταθανειν (aor. inf. act. of καταθνηοκειν). 1.2 δέ is postponed for metrical reasons (prose order would be τό δέ κατθανεΐν); κάτω below i.e. in Hades.

' The well-known aphorism of Hippocrates, the famous doctor of the fifth century BC. He wrote in Ionic Greek and the η of μακρή and οφαλερή would be a in Attic. By τέχνη Hippocrates meant the art of medicine, όπου here (and in 15 below) is the relative adverb where, not the indirect interrogative.

100 c 3

10 Take δυοώνυμον with γήραο old age (acc. s., 13.1/1 11 /.l λαβείν is to be understood. 1.2 δεοπόταια has the long

form of the dat. pi. ending (3.1/1 note 3; cf. θεοια m ^ next sentence); δομοιο dat. without preposition to expre,c

place where (23.1/2n) - translate by a singular. 12 κοιρανεΐν here takes the dative, not the genitive as is norm-

after verbs of ruling (13.1/2<z); Axoc gen. of Zevc (11.1/4/ 14 For δτι introducing a direct statement see 8.1/36 note 2. 16 (iv) xolc πάαν the article is added for emphasis (as also ir.

(vi)). (vi) χρόνω by time dat. of instrument (11.1/2); τά πάντα cf. (iv) above, (vii) A phrase of abuse, not a sentence (ct. 6.2.7 (iv)). (xii) Although ov comes first, its antecedent is τούτον; δύναται is able from δύναμαι (on verbs with -αμαι instead οί-ομαι see 19.1/3b).

17 (/) ήτει (< αίτέω) was begging [alms from] + acc.; ποιεί on the tense see 10.1/2& (this also applies to πίνει (it) and έοτί\ (iv)). (it) with τον άλλότριον supply ήδέωο πίνω. («ϊ) ήτει see (/); eic with regard to, i.e. for.

10.3 Extra reading From this point extra reading will be included with certain units. Because it will consist of longer passages it will necessarih be somewhat harder than the other exercises. If you do not feel confident enough to tackle it when working your way through the book for the first time, it may conveniently be left until later.

The wisdom of Socrates Socrates (469-399 BC) was to philosophy what Herodotus was to history. Previous thinkers had speculated on the p h y s i c a l nature of the world, but Socrates was the first to c o n c e r n himself with moral and ethical problems. His u n c o m p r o m i s i n g pursuit of truth made him so unpopular with his fellow c i t izen^ at Athens that, when he was brought to trial on a t r u m p e d - u p charge of corrupting the young, he was convicted and e x e c u t e d . The following is from his defence in court, as reported by hlS

pupil Plato; here Socrates explains the origin of his r e p u t a t i o n (όνομα) for exceptional wisdom, which, he claims, is u n j u s t i f i e d -

έγώ γάρ, ώ άνδρεο 'Αθηναίοι, δι' ούδέν άλλ' ή διά οοφίαν τ ι να τούτο τό όνομα έχω. ποίαν δή οοφίαν ταύτην; ήπερ έοτιν ica)c άνθρωπίνη οοφία* τω όντι γάρ κινδυνεύω ταύτην είναι co0oc

ούτοι δέ, ovc άρτι έλεγον, δαιμονίαν τινά οοφίαν οοφοί είαν, W ^ ούκ έχω διηγεΐοθαν ού γάρ δή έγωγε αύτην έπίοταμαι, άλλ' octic -

c l ψέυδεταί τε και έπί διαβολή τη έμη λέγει, καί έλπίζω ύμάο, /^ν'δρεο 'Αθηναίοι, μή θορυβήοειν μοι, μηδ' εί δοκώ τι ύμΐν μέγα λέγειν ού γαρ έμον έρώ τον λόγον δν λέγω, άλλ' είο άξιόπιοτόν

άνοίοω. τηο γάρ έμήο, εί δη τίο έοτι οοφία καί οία, μάρτυρα • ί ν παρέξομαι τον θεόν τον έν Δελφοΐο. γνώριμοο γάρ που ύμΐν 10 ην Χαιρεφών, ούτοο έμόο τε έταΐροο ην έκ νέου καί ύμών τω κληθεί, καί εύγνωοτον ύμΐν έοτιν oioc ην Χαιρεφών, ώο παντάπαοι οφοδρόο. καί δη ποτε καί είο Δελφούο ήλθε καί έτόλμηοε μαντευεοθαι, εί τίο έοτι οοφώτεροο ή (wiser than) εγώ. άνεΐλεν ούν ή Πυθία ούδένα οοφώτερον είναι. 15

Notes 11 άλλ'= άλλο; ή than. 1.2 ποίσν etc. supply λέγω; ήπερ [the one] which, the suffix περ is added to the relative pronoun for emphasis. 1.3 τω δντι in reality, really (12.1/1 note 1); ταύτην (sc. την οοφίδν) accusative of respect (20.1/5) with οοφόο, lit. wise in respect of this [wisdom], i.e. possessed of this wisdom - the same construction occurs with οοφοί (1.4). ll.Si ούκ έχω I am not able; έγωγε cf. 9.2.12 1.9; έπίοιαμαι has -αμαι instead of -ομαι (19.1/3fe); φηοί sc. that this is so; έπί with a view ίο, i.e to arouse; διαβολή τη έμη not my prejudice but prejudice against me; this use of the possessive adjective is the same as that of the objective genitive (23.1/lc). 1.7 μή is used after έλπίζω (8.1/3a note 5) and consequently we also have μηδ'(έ) (7.1 /6c), which here means not even, but, as we would not normally repeat the negative in such a construction in English, simply translate by even; θορυβήοειν μοι lit. to be going to make a noise for me, i.e. to be going to interrupt me. 1.8 έμόν predicative with τον λόγον, lit. not [as] mine shall I tell the story which I am telling. ll.9i. avoicG) < άναφέρω; τηο ... έμήο (sc. οοφίδο) with μάρτυρα a witness of my [wisdom]; εί ... ο'ίδ two indirect questions to be taken with μάρτυρα [as to] whether it is some sort of (nc) wisdom and what sort of [wisdom it is] (the indefinite TIC has an acute accent because of the following έοτιν (see Appendix 8, ^(ix)); it is not the interrogative τίο); τον θεόν, i.e. Apollo. U· 10ff. που I suppose, think, the original meaning, which is also common, is somewhere (10.1/2b note 3); τε ... καί (both ... and but trans, simply by and) joins έμόο and ϋμών; έκ νέου lit. from [being] young, i.e. from youth; ύμών τω πλήθει lit. to the people ?/" you, i.e. to the [Athenian] democracy (to be taken with εταΐροο, which may be here translated by one word and by another word with έμόο); coc ... οφοδρόο how [he was] completely impetuous Chaerephon had died before the trial (hence ήν in the previous clause). /.13 καί δή and indeed, and as a matter of fact; ποτε καί ... once even/actually (he actually went to Delphi once). 1.15 άνεΐλεν < άναιρέω.

102

11.1 Grammar

11.1/1 Root aorist, aorist passive and future passive A few -ω verbs form their aorist active by adding endings directly to their basic stem or root without a suffix (such as c in the weak aorist - 4.1/1) or a link vowel (such as ο/ε of the strong aorist endings - 7.1/1). The roots of all such verbs end in the long vowels δ, η, ϋ or ω, and the endings applied to form the root aorist are -v, -c, - , -μεν, -τε, -cav. As an example we may take the aorist of βαίνω go (root βη-).

SINGULAR PLURAL

1 έβην I went έβημεν 2 έβης έβητε 3 έβη έβηοαν

INFINITIVE βήναί Some other common verbs with root aorists are given below. Note that the form of the root cannot be predicted from the present stem.

PRESENT STEM ROOT ROOT AORIST (άπο) διδράοκω1 run away διδραΰκ- δρα- -έδρδν φύω cause to grow; produce φυ- φϋ- έφϋν γιγνωοκω get to know γιγνωοκ- γνω- έγνων βιόω live βιο- βιω- έβίων φύω also has a regularly formed weak aorist active: έφϋοα. In

such cases where a verb has two sets of aorist active forms, the root aorist is intransitive: έφΰν (I grew intr.); and the weak aorist transitive: έφϋοα (I caused to grow, I produced); cf. καταδύω

1 This verb occurs only in compounds.

cause to sink; κατεδϋοα I caused to sink, κατέδϋν I sank} Examples are:

αί τρίχεο έρρεον Sc πριν The hairs fell out which the έφϋοε τό φάρμακον. drug previously made

grow. έλάδ έντόο τηο αύλήο έφϋ An olive tree grew inside

the courtyard. Another important verb with two aorists and a similar distinction between them is ίοτημι (19.1/1). Only a few verbs, however, have a root aorist with an active meaning. Elsewhere the root aorist has developed a passive meaning and is normally classified as an aorist passive. An example is πνίγω strangle, choke (tr.), which, like φύω, has a weak aorist έπνΤξα I strangled, choked (tr., e.g. έχθέο έπνΙξα τον του γείτονοο κύνα yesterday I choked the neighbour's dog) and what is really a root aorist έπνίγην I choked (intr., e.g. ό coc κύων, έφην, έπνίγη έν τω του πυρόο καπνω "Your dog," I said, "choked in the smoke of the fire"). The original contrast between the transitive and intransitive aorists in verbs of this sort developed into one of active/passive, and forms such as έπνίγην were used in contexts where they must be interpreted as passive (ό έμόο κύων, έφη, ούκ έπνίγη καπνω "My dog," he said, "was not choked by smoke" - on this use of the dative see 11.1/2 below). Consequently, most root aorists in -ην, (but not in -fxv, tfv, or, with one exception, -ων) which could be interpreted as passive came to be so regarded and classified. This could not happen with intransitive verbs, such as βαίνω, whose meaning precludes any passive sense. The total number of aorist passives in -ην is also small, but they formed the model for the vast majority of transitive verbs, where a special aorist passive stem was created by attaching the suffix θη to the root.2 To this were added the same endings as for the root aorist. For this reason all aorist passive endings are of the active type; the aorist passive never has the passive endings of the other historic tenses (-μην, -co, -το etc. 4.1/1 note 1). The aorist passive indicative (and corresponding infinitive) of λϋω will be found in Appendix 1. This tense is included in the Principal parts of verbs which show some irregularity (7.1/1 n°te 3) as the form it takes is not always predictable. We may, however, note:

. in these verbs the 3rd plural of the root aorist and of the weak aorist active are identical: ^OtJcav (from έφΐϊ-cav or έφΰο-αν).

The η of the suffix undergoes change in some forms other than the indicative, e.g. the aor. Pas*· pple. λυθείο (12.1/1).

(a) Most verbs whose present stem ends in a vowel , . diphthong form their aorist passive stem regularly. In a f< , cases the suffix is enlarged to οθη on the analogy of dent stems (see below), e.g. ήκούοθην I was heard (άκουο· έκελεύοθην I was ordered (κελεύω). In regular contract^ verbs the final vowel of the present stem is lengthened in t^ same way as in the aorist active (5.1/2 note 2), e.g. έτΙμήοΓ, (τιμάω); έποιήθην (ποιέω); έδηλώθην (δηλόω).

(b) In palatal and labial stems (6.1/4) final κ and γ become χ final π and β become φ (i.e. they are assimilated to thi following θ by becoming aspirates), e.g. έφυλάχθην I was guarded (φυλάττω, stem φυλακ-); έπεμφθην I was sent (πέμπω, stem πεμπ-). In dental stems the final consonant becomes c, e.g. έπείοθην I was persuaded (πείθω, stem πειθ-).

Occasionally (and unpredictably) a verb has a root aorist passive, e.g. έπνίγην (see above); έκόπην I was cut (κόπτω), sometimes both, e.g. έβλάβην, έβλάφθην I was hurt (βλάπτω; there is no difference in meaning). The stem of the future passive is that of the aorist passive with an added c (λυθηο-, τϊμηθηο-, κοπηο-). The endings are those or the present middle and passive: λυθηοομαι I shall be loosened; τϊμηθηοομαι I shall be honoured; κοπήοομαι I shall be cut. Foi the full future passive of λύω see Appendix 1.

Note As mentioned in 8.1/2 some deponents are classified as passive because their aorist is passive, not middle, in form (most, however, have a middle future). Among the most c o m m o n

passive deponents are: βούλομαι wish; fut. βουλήοομαι; aor. έβουλήθην δύναμαι be able; fut. δυνηοομαι; aor. έδυνηθην πορεύομαι march; fut. πορεύοομαι; aor. έπορεύθην

In the future and aorist of the first two η is inserted, δύναμαι h:--αμαι, -acai , -αται etc., not -ομαι -η, -εται etc. in the p r e s e n t (sc 19.1/36). The difference between middle and passive deponents is simp1' one of form; both are active in meaning.

11.1/2 Agent and instrument In English we can say the policeman was hit by a demonstrate and the policeman was hit by a placard but Greek make? · distinction between agent (demonstrator) and i n s t r u m ^ 1

placard). An agent is a living being and agency is normally e x p r e s s e d by υπό with the genitive. An instrument is nearly a l w a y s inanimate and the construction used for it is the dative w i t h o u t a preposition (examples have already occurred at 7 2.13 /.8, 9.2.13 /.3,10.2.16(vi); in English we use either by or with: Άοπαοια με τύπτει μήλοιο Aspasia is hitting me with apples (instrument); ή Τροίδ υπό τών Ελλήνων έπορθήβη Troy was sacked by the Greeks (agent).

11.1/3 -ω verbs with stems in λ, μ, ν, ρ M o s t verbs with these stems originally formed their present with a y suffix (6.1/4b). This combined with a preceding λ to give λλ, but disappeared after μ, ν, ρ, although, by way of compensation, a preceding ε, ι, υ was lengthened and a preceding α became αι. The future of these verbs is of the contracted type (-ώ < -έω; 5.1/2 note 3); where a y suffix has been used in the present the future reverts to the original stem. In the weak aorist (which occurs in all common verbs of this group, except βάλλω throw) the sigma is dropped and the preceding vowel lengthened (note that here we have α > η except after vowels and p, where α becomes a; also, ε becomes ει). The following table shows the different possibilities: PRESENT FUTURE AORIST

βάλλω throw (< βάλ-y ω) βαλω έβαλον οτέλλω send (< οτέλ-y ω) οτελω έοτειλα νεμω apportion (no y suffix) νεμώ ένειμα μενω wait (no y suffix) μενώ έμεινα εημαινω indicate (< οημάν- y ω) οημανώ έοήμηνα μιαινω stain (< μιάν-y ω) μιανώ έμίσνα αιεχΤ)νω dishonour (< αίοχύν-y ω) αίοχυνώ ήοχϋνα αιΡω lift (< αρ-y ω) άρω ήρα °ικτΓρω pity (< οίκτίρ-y ω) οικτίρω ωκτΓρα For the principal parts of έλαύνω drive and φέρω carry, which a r e ^regular, see Principal parts of verbs. The aorist passive of verbs in -αίνω and -ύνω ends in -άν^ην and ^νθην, e.g. έοημάνθην (οημαίνω); ήοχύνθην (αίοχύνω). Likewise,

have ήρθην from αϊρω, but the other verbs listed above vhich have an aorist passive are irregular.

11-1/4 Third declension nouns -stems in ευ, αυ, ου Λ 'arge number of masculine nouns end in -eve (always so

Cented). Most common nouns of this type involve male

105 c 3 7V

106 c 3

occupations, e.g. ίερεύο priest, iππεύο horseman. The names some Homeric heroes are also of this type, as Όδιχχε^ Άχιλλεύο. The genitive and dative singular endings are the sanx as for stems in ι (8.1/4). The only examples of stems in αυ and ου are those given below

βααλεύο (m) va\jc (f) γραύο (f) βούο (m or king ship old woman οχ, cow

SINGULAR Nom. βααλεύ-c ναύ-c γραύ-c βού-c Voc. βααλεύ ναύ γραύ βού Acc. βααλέ-G ναύ-ν γραΰ-ν βοί>-ν Gen. βααλέ-ωο νε-coc γρδ-oc βο-oc Dat. βααλεΐ νη-ΐ γρδ-ΐ βο-ΐ PLURAL Ν. V. βαοιλήΰ (or -eic) νη-ec γρά-ec βόεΰ Acc. βααλέ-ac ναύο γραύο βούΰ Gen. βααλέ-ων νε-ων γρδ-ων βο-ών Dat. βαΰΐλεύ-οι(ν) vai>-ci(v) ypai>-ci(v) βου-οί(ν) Note also Ζεύο Zeus, which is irregular: voc. Ζεΰ, acc. Δία, gen, Aioc, dat. Διί (in poetry there is an alternative stem, Ζην-, for the oblique cases, giving Ζήνα, Ζηνόο, Ζηνί).

11.1/5 Crasis Crasis (Kpacic mixing, blending) is the contraction of a vowel or diphthong at the end of one word with a vowel or diphthong at the beginning of the following word. It is found chiefly in p o e t r y

but is not uncommon in the orators. Only a very small n u m b e r

of words occur as the first element of crasis, viz the r e l e v a n t

parts of the definite article, καί and a few others. Examples we have already met are κάν (= καί έν 5.2.17) and αύτόο (= ό α ύ τ ο Ο .

ταύτοΰ etc. (9.1/3fc). In all such cases elision (2.1/66), even it theoretically possible, is never used in preference to crasis. Thi rules for crasis are: (a) The first word loses its accent, if any. (b) A vowel (always long) or diphthong resulting from c r a s i s

marked with ' (technically called coronis but i d e n t i c a l π»

form with a smooth breathing), e.g. τούνομα (τό όνομα1

When the second word begins with a rough b r e a t h i n g * j

consonant preceding it in crasis (always κ or τ) is aspiratj^ e.g. θοίμάτιον (τό ίμάτιον). When, however, the first w o r d ^

simply an aspirated vowel or diphthong (ό, οί, etc»), r H

rough breathing is kept in crasis, e.g. ούν (ό έν).

c) The rules that apply for internal contraction in verbs (5.1/2) are generally followed, as in the above examples. There are, however^ some combinations which do not occur in verbs, a s well as some exceptions. We should note:

(i) When the definite article is combined with a word beginning with a, this a is always kept, e.g. δνθρωποο (ό άνθρωποο), αύτόο (ό αύτόο, 9.1/3fe).

(ii) The at of καί is dropped in certain combinations, e.g. κού (καί ού), χή (καί ή).

11.2 Greek reading 1 ή rupawic άδικίαο μήτηρ έφυ. 2 αεί εύ πίπτουαν οί Διόο κύβοι. 3# ecu τι κάν κακοΐαν ήδονηο μέτρον. 4# κούκ έμόο ό μύθοο, άλλ' έμήο μητρόο πάρα,

ώο ούρανόο τε γαΐά τ' ήν μορφή μία* έπεί δ' έχωρίοθηοαν αλλήλων δίχα τίκτουα πάντα κάνέδωκαν (sent up) είο φάοο δένδρη, πετεινό, θηραο, ovc θ' άλμη τρέφει 5 γένοο τε θνητών.

5# κακόν τό κεύθειν κού πρόο άνδρόο εύγενούο. 6 είπέ τιο τω Cωκpάτει, θάνατον cox> κατέγνωοαν οί

Αθηναίοι, ό δέ είπεν, κάκείνων ή φύαο (sc. θάνατον καταγιγνώοκει).

7 άμαξα τον βούν έλκει. 8 Advanced futility

(i) γραΰο χορεύει, (ii) τυφλώ κάτοπτρον χαρίζη. (iii) άνεμον δικτύφ θηρφο. (iv) λίθοιο τον ήλιον βαλλειο. (ν) καλεί χελωνη τούο βούο βραδύποδαο. (νϊ) οπόγγφ πάτταλον κρούειο. (vii) πάτταλον έξέκρουοαο παττάλω. (viii) τήν αμιδα οανδάλφ έπιφράττειο. (ix) οϊνω οΐνον έξελαύνειο. (χ) αυτόο την οαυτοΰ θύραν κρούειο λίθφ. πάοιν γάρ άνθρώποιαν, ούχ ήμΐν μόνον, η καί παραυτίκ' ή χρόνφ δαίμων βίον εοφηλε, κούδείο διά τέλουο εύδαιμονεΐ. Odysseus explains to Neoptolemus that they must obtain the bow of Philoctetes if Troy is to be captured, τούτων γάρ ούδέν άλγυνεΐ μ'· εί δ' έργάοη μη ταύτα, λύπην πάοιν 'Αργείοιο βαλειο. ε \ Υαρ τά τούδε τόξα μή ληφθήοεται,

Ι j ουκ έοτι (= έξεοτι) πέροαι coi τό Δαρδάνου πέδον. 525 BC Egypt was conquered and permanently occupied

by the Persians, whose power in the eastern Mediterranean

108 continued to increase until their unsuccessful invasion (J» Greece (480-479 BC). The subsequent rise of Athem encouraged the Athenians to invade Egypt (c. 461 u with disastrous results, as Thucydides tells us in the introduction to his history. ούτω μέν τά τών Ελλήνων πράγματα έφθάρη* καί ολίγοι άπο πολλών διά τηο Λιβύηο ec Κυρήνην έπορεύθηοαν και έοώθηοαν, οί δέ πλεΐοτοι άπέθανον. Αϊγυπτοο δέ πάλιν ύπο βαοιλεα έγένετο πλην Άμυρταίου του έν τοΐο έλεοι βααλέωο* τούτον δέ διά μέγεθόο τε του έλουο ούκ έδύναντο: έλειν καί άμα οφόδρα μάχιμοι ε ίαν οί έλειοι. Ινάρακ; δέ ο Λιβύων βααλεύο, oc τά πάντα έπραξε περί τηο Αιγύπτου, προδοοία ελήφθη καί άνεοταυρώθη. έκ δέ τών 'Αθηνών και rfjc άλληο ξυμμαχίδοο πεντήκοντα τριήρειο διάδοχοι έπλευοαν ec Αϊγυπτον καί έοχον κατά τό Μενδήοιον κέραο. ι; άλλ' αύτοΐο έκ τε γήο έπέπεοον πεζοί καί έκ θαλάοοης Φοινίκων ναυτικόν καί διέφθειραν τάο πολλάο τών νεών. τά ούν κατά την μεγάλην οτρατείαν 'Αθηναίων καί τών ξυμμάχων ec Αϊγυπτον ούτωο έτελεύτηοεν.

12 Euxitheos and Herodes were fellow passengers on a voyage to Thrace. In the process of changing ships at Lesbos, Herodes disappeared and Euxitheos was subsequently charged with his murder. His speech of defence was written by Antiphon. έπειδή δέ μετεξέβημεν eic τό έτερον πλοΐον, έπίνομεν. και φανερόν μέν έοτιν ότι ό Ήρώδηο έξέβη έκ του πλοίου και ούκ είοέβη πάλιν έγώ δέ τό παράπαν ούκ έξέβην έκ του πλοίου τηο νυκτόο έκείνηο. τη δέ ύοτεραία, έπειδή άφανηο ήν ό άνήρ, έζητειτο ούδέν τι μάλλον ύπό τών άλλων ή και υπ 5 έμού' καί ε'ί τω τών άλλων έδόκει δεινόν είναι, καί έμοι όμοίωο. καί eic τε τήν Μυτιλήνην έγώ α'ίτιοο ή πεμφθήναι άγγελον, καί έπεί άλλοο ούδείο ήθελε βαδίζειν, ούτε τών άπο του πλοίου ούτε τών αύτού του Ήρώδου έταίρων, εγω

τον άκόλουθον τον έμαυτού πέμπειν έτοιμοο ή. έπειδή δε ο άνήρ ούτε έν τί| Μυτιλήνη έφαίνετο ού^ άλλοθι ούδαμου. πλούο τε ήμΐν εγίγνετο, καί τάλλ' άνήγετο πλοία άπαντα, ωχόμην κάγώ.

Notes 1 έφϋ < φύω (11.1/1) the primary meaning of this root aorist is

was born but often, as here, it has the present sense is. 2 Aioc gen. of Zevc (11.1/4). 3 τι with μέτρον; κακοιαν = κακοΐο (3.1/1 note 1). 4 /.I κούκ = καί ούκ (11.1/5); πάρα some disyllab^

prepositions can, in verse, be placed after the noun the)

govern, cf. δίχα in 1.3; when they are normally accented on the final syllable (as with παρά, but not with δίχα), the accent is then thrown back on to the first syllable. 1.2 With a double subject (ούρανόο and γαία) the verb sometimes agrees only with the nearer; hence ήν; τε... τ(ε) lit. both ... and but simply trans, by and. 1.4 τίκτουα vivid present, trans, brought forth (τίκτω can be used of either parent); κάνέδωκαν = καί άνέδωκαν (έδωκαν is the 3rd pi. aor. ind. act. of δίδωμι give, 18.1/2 note 3). 1.5 δένδρη acc. pi. of δένδρον (13.1/lc); ovc an antecedent meaning creatures is to be understood; Θ' i.e. τε; after the ε is elided, τ' becomes Θ' because of the rough breathing of άλμη.

6 καταγιγνώοκω condemn takes the gen. of the person condemned and the accusative of what he is condemned to (23.1/lfe(i)); κάκείνων = καί έκείνων.

8 (iv) λίθοιο instrumental dat. (11.1/2); βάλλειο here pelt, (vii) έξέκρουοαο < έκκρούω.

9 1.1 The datives should be translated by for. 1.2 καί is here adverbial and emphasizes the following word but need not be translated; βίον English idiom requires the plural. 1.3 έοφηλε gnomic aorist (see note on 5.2.10); οφάλλω trip up, cause to fall (as in wrestling) is here (and often elsewhere) used metaphorically; κούδείο = καί ούδείο.

10 The future tense in εί clauses (/. 1 έργάοη and 1.3 ληφθήοεται) is to be translated into English by a present; μή (as in 11.2 and 3) is the negative used in εί clauses (18.1/4) but in 1.2 it is somewhat unusually placed after the verb it negates (cf. 2.1/6tf(i)). 1.3 Translate τά τόξα by a singular (the plural is often used for the singular in verse). 1.4 On έοτι = έξεοτι see 21.1/4 note 1.

11 Thucydides uses the non-Attic spelling cc for ττ (/ . l l θαλάοσηο), the old Attic form ξύν (ξυμ- etc. in compounds) for the normal c\>v (1.9 ξυμμαχίδοο, /.14 ξυμμάχων), and the old Attic ec for eic (ll.2, 10, 14). /.I έφθάρη < φθείρω. II.3f. υπό lit. under, i.e. under the control of; βαοιλέά at this period the Persian king was a figure of supreme importance and the Greeks referred to him simply as βααλεύο. //.5f. τε ... καί join the two reasons why Amyrtaeus could not be captured and in English we would supply because after άμα. ΙΙ.βί. τα παντα see note on 10.2.16(iV); εληφ&η < λαμβανω. 11.91 διάδοχοι lit. [as] relieving, i.e. as a relieving force; έοχον put in; τό Μενδήαον κέραο the north-east arm of the Nile delta, / / . l lff. Take αύτοιο with έπέπεοον (< έπιπίπτω), lit. fell upon them; τάο πολλάο the majority of, most of; τά ... κατά τήν ... cf. 5.1/3, lit. the [things] with respect to the ...

110 12 LI Translate μετεξέβημεν (< μετεκβαίνω) by a pluperfect had transferred (16.1/2); έπίνομεν we began to drink (inceptive imperfect 4.1/1). I.3 τό παράπαν ούκ not... at alU the adverb παράπαν is converted by τό to a noun equivalent (4.1/4), which functions here as an accusative of respect (20.1/5), lit. [with respect to] the altogether. 1.5 ούδέν n μάλλον ύπό ... ή ... ύπό, lit. nothing more by ... than by (ούδέν τι not at all is also an accusative of respect). //.6ff. ζφ = τι vi (indefinite, 10.1/1); the καί of καί eic τε joins this sentence to the preceding one; τε is to be taken with the καί before έπεί (/.8) and the two link έγώ αϊτιοο ή ... with έγώ ... έτοιμοο ή; τε ... καί literally mean both ... and but translate here not only ... but also to give the necessary emphasis; πεμφθηναι άγγελον accusative and infinitive (8.1/3a) after αϊτιοο ή. ll.Si ούτε ... ούτε continue the preceding negative ούδείο, lit. no-one ... neither from ... nor of but in English we would say either ... or (the rule given at 7.1/6 does not apply because ούτε ... ούτε do not negate the verb of this clause; cf. 10.3 ll.li.). //. 1 Off. έπειδή is followed by three clauses with the second joined to the first by τε (/.12) and the third to the second by καί (/. 12); πλους [the time for] sailing; έγίγνετο, lit. was coming into being, i.e was starting τάλλ' = τά άλλα; άνήγετο impf. of άνάγομαι; κάγώ = καί έγω (11.1/5)

12.1 Grammar

12.1/1 Participles Participles are those parts of verbs which function as adjectives. They have tense (killing is present, going to kill future) and voice (killing is active, being killed passive). In Greek there are participles for all three voices in the present, future, and aorist (and also the perfect, 16.1/4) and they use the same stem as the corresponding indicatives (but the augment is dropped in the aorist). For the sake of completeness the following table includes perfect participles, which can be ignored until we treat these in 16.1/4.

m. λύ-ων (gen. λύ-οντοο), f. λύ-ουοα, η. λν-ον loosening m. λύο-ων (gen. λύο-οντοο), f. λύο-ουοα, η. λύο-ον going to

loosen, about to loosen m. Xtc-Gc (gen. λύο-αντοο), f. λύο-αοα, η. λύο-αν having

loosened, after loosening m. λελυκ-ωο (gen. λελυκ-oxoc), f. λελυκ-Λ)ΐα, η. λελυκ-oc

(in a state of) having loosened

λϋ-όμενοο, -ομένη, -όμενον ransoming λϋο-όμενοο, -ομένη, -όμενον going to ransom, about to

ransom λϋο-άμενοο, -αμένη, -άμενον having ransomed, after

ransoming

λελυ-μένοο, -μένη, -μένον (in a state of) having ransomed

λΐΗ)μενοο, -ομένη, -όμενον being loosened

ACTIVE

Present future

Aorist

Perfect

MIDDLE

Present Puture

Aorist

Perfect PASSIVE

^resent

112 c 3

Future λυθης-όμενος, -ομένη, -όμενον going to be loosened, abou* to be loosened

Aorist m. λυθ-είο (gen. λυθ-έντοο), f. λυθειοα, n. λυθέν bavin·, been loosened, after being loosened

Perfect λελυ-μένοο, -μένη, -μένον (in a state of) having bee? loosened

All active participles, together with that of the aorist passive, are declined like first and third declension adjectives (10.1/3). The declension of the aorist active participle is identical with that ot πάο (10.1/3b). The present active and aorist passive are declined as follows: SINGULAR

M. F. Ν. Μ. F. Ν. N.V. λϋων λύουοα λύον λυθείο λυθεί ca λυθέν Acc. λύοντα λύουοαν λύον λυθέντα λυθείοαν λυθέν Gen. λύοντοο λϋούοηο λύοντοο λυθέντοο λυθείοηο λυθέντοο Dat. λύοντι λϋούσρ λύοντι λυθέντι λυθείση λυθέντι PLURAL N.V. λύοντεο λύουοαι λύοντα λυθέντεο λυθειοαι λυθέντα Acc. λϋονταο XVovcGc λύοντα λυθένταο λυθείΰδΰ λυθέντα Gen. λϋόντων λϋουοών λϋόντων λυθέντων λυθειοών λυθέντων Dat λύουοι(ν) λϋούοαιο λύουοι(ν) λυθειοι(ν) λυθείοαιο λυθεΐα(ν) The future active participle follows λύων. All middle participles and that of the future passive follow καλόο (3.1/3). The present (and perfect) participle passive has the same form as the middle. The meanings given above for the present and aorist participles simply reflect the temporal distinction between then corresponding indicatives: λύων loosening, Xtc&c having loosened. This difference of time occurs in a sentence such as έργαζόμενοι μέν ήρίοτων, έργαοάμενοι δέ έδείπνουν they used to have breakfast while they were working (lit. working), but used to dine after they finished work (lit. having worked), but the distinction is sometimes one of aspect (4.1/1), i.e. the present participle conveys the idea of continuation, the aorist of simple occurrence. An aorist participle so used can denote an action which happens at the same time as that of the finite verb of its clause (coincidental use), e.g. εύ έποίηοαο άναμνηοδο με you did well to remind me (lit. reminding, not having reminded^

ύπολαβών έφη he said in reply (lit. replying, not having replied>·

Notes 1 The present participle of ειμί (I am) is ων, ούοα, ov bew&%

gen. s. ovxoc, ούσηο, ovxoc; dat. pi. ούοι(ν), oucaic, ούα(ν )

Its future participle is έοόμενοο, -η, -ov (cf. 8.1/1 note 2);ιΓ

has no others. The idiomatic expression τό ov (lit. the [really] existing [thing]) has the meaning reality; τω δντι is used in the sense in reality, in truth (on this use of the dative see 23.1/2/).

2 In tenses where they differ from λύω, contracted verbs, verbs with a contracted future, and verbs with stems in λ, μ, ν, ρ form their participles according to the rules already given for those tenses, e.g. the future active and aorist active participles of οτέλλω are σίελων (<έ + ων), οτελοΰοα (< έ + ouca), οτελοΰν (< έ + ov) and cxeiX-Qc, -3ca, -αν.

3 Strong aorists take the participial endings of the present (cf. 7.1/1), e.g. active λαβών, -ούοα, -ov;1 middle λαβόμενοο (< λαμβάνω).

4 The participles of root aorists are similar to those of the weak aorist active or the aorist passive, as the following examples show:

(i) έγνων (γιγνώοκω): m. yvovc (gen. γνόντοο), f. γνοΰοα, η. γνόν.

(ii) έφϋν (φύω): m. φύο (gen. φύντοο), f. φΰοα, η. φύν. (Hi) -έδρδν (-διδράοκω, which occurs only in compounds):

m. -δράο (gen. -δράντοο), f. -δράοα, η. -δράν. (iv) έπνίγην (πνίγω): m. πνιγείο (gen. πνιγέντοο), f.

πνιγεΐοα, n. πνιγέν. (ν) έβην (βαίνω) follows -έδρδν: m. βάο (gen. βάντοο), f.

βάοα, η. βάν (cf. έστην 19.1/1).

12.1/2 Uses of participles Μ A participle in Greek can often be rendered by the same in English, but Greek regularly uses a participle and finite verb where English would more naturally have two verbs joined by and: τούτο ποιήοβο άπηλθεν he did this and went away (lit. having done this he went away). In many other cases a subordinate clause should be used to translate a participle. The negative, when required, varies as indicated. When used within a clause participles are used to express: (i) The temporal relation between two actions (negated by ού)

άφικόμενοι eic τάο Άθηνδο When they arrived (lit. έλεξαν τάδε. having arrived) at

Athens, they spoke as follows.

Sometimes the temporal relation is made more precise by qualifying the participle with adverbs such άμα together with, εύθύο immediately, μεταξύ in the middle of:

oiwll'k? present active participle, the strong aorist active participle is always accented n e first syllable of its ending, hence λαμβάνων (pres.) but λαβών (aor.).

114 c 3

μεταξύ θύων ληκύθιον άπώλεοεν;

άμα φευγοντεο τουο Έλληναο έτίτρωοκον.

Did he lose his little oil flask while (lit. in the middle of) sacrificing:f (on άπώλεοεν see 20.1/1 note 2).

While (lit. together with, -v the same time as) fleeing they kept wounding the Greeks.

άγων leading, έχων having, φέρων carrying are often to bi translated simply by with: ήλθεν έχων ξίφοο he came with ο sword (lit. having a sword).

(ii) Cause (negated by ου) A participle used in this sense is often preceded by άτε because for a reason the writer or speaker sees as valid, or by ώο as for a reason he does not vouch for. <i>c (which has many other uses - 22.1/1) here, and elsewhere, marks what follows as the subjective opinion of the person described and must often by translated by thinking that, on the grounds that, άτε is used only with phrases (with or without a participle):

ό Κύροο, άτε τον χρϋοόν έχων πάντα, έπικούρουο έμιοθώοατο.

ό βααλεύο τούο TlepcGc εΐρξεν ώο καταοκόπουο δνταο.

ούχ ήγεμόναο έχων πλανά άνά τά δρη.

Cyrus hired mercenaries because he had all the gold.

The king imprisoned the Persians on the ground that they were spies.

Because you have no guides you are wandering over the mountains.

(iii) Concession (negated by ου) The participle is often preceded by καίπερ although, which like άτε, is used only with phrases:

ταύτα φερειν αναγκη καίπερ όντα δύοφορα.

δόξω γυναίκα, καίπερ ούκ έχων, έχει ν.

It is necessary (lit. [there is\ necessity) to endure these things although they are (lit. although being) haru to bear.

I shall seem to have [myI wife, although I do not have [her] (lit. although not having).

καί and καί ταΰτα (and that [too]) are used as equivalents of καίπερ:

έν τη Ίλιάδι οί ήρωεο ίχθυο In the Iliad the heroes do ούκ έοθίουα καί ταΰτα not eat fish although έπί τη θαλάττη δντεο. they are (lit. and that

being) by the sea. (iv) Condition (negated by μή, as in conditional clauses, 18.1/5)

No introductory word is required: άμαρτήοη μή bp&c(xc τάδε you will make a mistake if you do not do this (lit. not having done these things).

(v) Purpose (negated by ού) With verbs of motion a future participle can be used by itself: ήκομεν τούο οούο άθλουο, Προμηθεΰ, όψόμενοι (< όράω) we have come to see your ordeals, Prometheus. Elsewhere the future participle is preceded by <i>c (cf. (ii) above; in both cases coc presents the attitude of the subject of the participle): ουλλαμβάνει Κύρον G>C άποκτενών he seizes Cyrus in order to kill [him]. In these examples English uses an infinitive phrase to express purpose (for clauses expressing purpose see 14.1/4c(i)).

(vi) Noun equivalent If preceded by the definite article, adjectives may function as nouns, as ό κακάο the evil man (5.1/3). Since participles are adjectives, they can be treated in the same way. οί μανθάνοντεο literally means the learning [ones] and, depending on the context, could be translated those who are learning or (the) learners (in English the article is dropped if a general class is meant - 2.1/2 note 1):

(be ήδύ λεύοοειν το φωο τοΐο How sweet [it is] both for τε καλωο πράττουα καί those who are faring well TOIC δυοτυχούαν. and for those who are

unfortunate to look upon the light (i.e. be alive).

This use is negated by μή if a general class meant, but by ού if the reference is to a specific person or group:

οι μή εύτυχούντεο lit. the [class of] people who are not fortunate, i.e. the unfortunate;

οι ούκ εύτυχούντεο those [particular] people . who are not fortunate.

? Genitive absolute TH

^ construction (absolute here means independent), in its Plest form, involves a noun or pronoun and a participle

116 c 3

which are both in the genitive case and which stand apart frorr (i.e. are grammatically independent of) the rest of the sentence there is, of course, a connection in sense as otherwise ther, would be no point in putting the two together. We have a absolute construction (the nominative absolute) in English Although it is a little clumsy, we can say the Persians havwo sailed away, Miltiades returned to Athens. In Greek this becomes τών Περοών άποπλευοάντων, ό Μιλτιάδη, έπανηλθεν eic zGc Άθήνδο. The genitive absolute is employed in uses (i) - (iv) as detailed above and can be accompanied by άτε. roc, καίπερ when appropriate. It is negated by ού except when it expresses a condition (above (iv)).

ταΰτ' έπράχθη Kovrovoc These things were done οτρατηγούντοο. when Conon was general

(lit. Conon being general) (temporal relation).

άτε πυκνού ovroc τού άλοουο Because the grove was ούκ ειδον οί έντόο xovc έκτόο. thick those inside did not

see those outside (lit. inasmuch as the grove being thick) (cause).

He sails home although it is midwinter (lit. although [it] being midwinter) (concession).

He went up on to the mountains as the enemy did not prevent [him] (lit. the enemy not preventing) (cause, hence ού).

How sweet [is] life if fortune is not jealous ('!Γ

fortune not being jealous) (condition, hence μή).

άποπλεΐ ο'ίκαδε καίπερ μέοου χειμώνοο όντοο.

άνέβη έπί τά όρη τών πολεμίων ού κωλυόντων.

roc ήδύ τό ζην μή φθονούσηο τηο τύχηο.

12.2 Greek reading 1# άνήρ ό φεύγων καί πάλιν μαχήοεται. 2 άρκτου παρούοηο ού δει ϊχνη ζητειν. 3# λίαν φιλών οεαυτόν ούχ έξειο φίλον.

4 έαυτόν ού τρέφων κύναο τρέφει. 5# ο μή γαμών άνθρωποο ούκ έχει κακά. 6 καπνόν φεύγων ειο τό πυρ ένέπεοεο. 7 άνήρ φεύγων ού μένει λύραο κτύπον. 8 οί κύνεο άπαξ δή καυθέντεο λέγονται φοβεΐοθαι τό πυρ. 9# θάψων γάρ ήκω Καίοαρ', ούκ έπαινέοων.

10 ούδείο πεινών καλά ςίδει. 11 άγροικόο είμι τήν οκάφην οκάφην λέγων; 12 ό δηχθείο ύπό δφεωο καί οχοινίον φοβείται. 13# ό γραμμάτων άπειροο ού βλεπει βλέπων. 14 χαλεπόν έοτι πρόο γαοτέρα λέγειν ώτα ούκ έχουοαν. 15# ΠΡΟΜΗΘΕΤΟ

δέρκη θέαμα, τόνδε τον Διόο φίλον, οϊαιο ύπ' αύτοΰ πημοναΐοι κάμπτομαι. QKEANOC ορώ, Προμηθεύ, καί παραινέοαι γέ οοι θέλω τά λωοτα καίπερ όντι ποικίλω.

16 ό Κύροο έντεύθεν έξελαύνει διά τηο Λυκαονίαο οταθμούο πέντε, παραοάγγαο τριάκοντα, ταύτην δέ τήν χώραν έπέτρεψε διαρπάοαι τοΐο "Ελληοιν ώο πολεμίαν ούοαν.

17# Ήοιοδου ποτέ βίβλον έμαΐο ύπό χεροίν έλίοοων Πύρρην έξαπίνηο ειδον έπερχομένην

βίβλον δέ ρίψαο έπί γήν χερί, τούτ' έβόηοα* έργα τί μοι παρέχειο, ώ γέρον Ήοίοδε;

18# In this fragment from a lost play of Euripides the leader of a band of mystics greets Minos, the king of Cnossus in Crete, whose wife, Pasiphae, after an unfortunate experience with a bull, will give birth to the Minotaur. Φοινικογενούο τέκνον Εύρώπηο καί του μεγάλου Ζηνόο, άνάοοων Κρήτηο έκατομπτολιέθρου, ηκω ζαθέουο ναούο προλιπών... αγνόν δέ βίον τείνομεν έξ ού Διόο Ίδαίου μύοτηο γενόμην (= έγεν-), καί νυκτιπόλου Ζαγρέωο βούτηο ταο ωμοφάγουο δαιταο τελέοαο μητρί τ' όρεία δαδαο άναοχών μετά Κουρήτων, βάκχοο έκλήθην όαωθείο.

10

Notes 2 3 5

άρκτου παρούοηο gen. absolute (12.1/2&). Φιλών < φιλέων (pres. pple. m. nom. s. of φιλέω).

because a general class is meant (12.1/2tf(vi)).

6 evenecec < έμπίπτω. 8 δή emphasizes άπαξ.

a 9 A translation of a line of Shakespeare, not a piece 0* "" original Greek; θάψων, έπαινέοων 12.1/2a(v).

10 καλά (n. pi.) trans, by an adverb. 13 βλέπων is used here concessively, [though] seeing. 14 ώτα < ovc 15 Ll τόνδε τον Aioc φίλον this friend of Zeus (i.e me.

Prometheus) is in appositon to θέίχμα (lit. spectacle). Ll o'iaic (with πημοναΐο) lit. with what sort of dat. or instrument (11.1/2). 1.3 παραινέω takes the dative (13.1/2fe(i)); γε (lit. at any rate (13.1/3b) need not be translated.

16 έξελαύνει vivid present (see note on 7.2.13 /.8); on the relation between οταθμούο and παραοάγγαο see note on 7.2.9.

17 Hesiod, an early poet, wrote the 'Έργα καί Ήμέρσι (traditionally translated Works and Days but the real meaning is Fields and Days [for ploughing them]), which is the book referred to here. /.I Books in antiquity were written on papyrus rolls and the reader kept his hands on top of a roll to manipulate it (hence έμαΐο υπό χεράν under my hands). 1.2 έπερχομένην coming (for this use of a participle see 15.1/2). 1.4 έργα here troubles, but trans, by a singular - the author is punning on the title of the book he is reading (and wilfully misinterpreting the sense of έργα).

18 Europa, the daughter of Agenoi; king of Tyre in Phoenicia (hence Φοινικογενηο) was carried off by Zeus to Crete after the latter had taken the form of a bull (not related to the bull loved by Pasiphae); she subsequently gave birth to Minos, ll.If. τέκνον vocative - with it we must take άνάοοων; the m. pple. (άνάοοων) is used because τεκνο\ although neuter^ refers to a male being, viz Minos - slight violations of strict grammatical agreement on this pattern are not rare (agreement according to the sense); Ζηνοο set 11.1/4; avaccco be king of9 rule over takes the geninu

(13.1/2tf(i)). 1.4 προλιπων < προλείπω. 1.5 τείνομεν lit. ^ lead but as έξ ού (from what [time], i.e. since) folloyj English idiom requires have led. 1.6 Aioc see 11 J^. νυκτιπόλου Ζαγρεωο βούτηο [as] a herdsman of roaming Zagreus. 1.8 ώμοφάγουο δαιταο meals of raw / were a regular feature of Dionysiac orgies (the beast ^ torn apart by the participants). 1.9 μητρί όρεία, i.e. L ^ ^ another divinity worshipped with nightly orgies έκλήθην < καλέω.

12.3 Extra reading Epigrams For the Greeks an epigram was a short poem of two to twelve lines (we have already met examples at 9.2.3 and 12.2.17). The genre formed a sub-division of elegiac poetry because it was written in the elegiac metre (see Appendix 9; particular metres had, from an early stage in Greek literature, become the hallmarks of most poetical genres). Authors of epigrams used, although not very consistently, forms of words from Ionic and Homeric Greek (examples in 1, 3, 4, 8, 9). There was virtually no restriction on subject matter.

1# χρυοόν άνήρ εύρων έλιπεν βρόχον αύτάρ ό χρυοόν δν λίπεν ούχ εύρων ήψεν δν εύρε βρόχον.

2# ή Κύπριο την Κύπριν ένί Κνίδω είπεν ίδούοα, φευ, φευ, πού γυμνήν ειδέ με Πραξιτέληο;

3# πάντεο μέν Κίλικεο κακοί άνέρεσ έν δέ Κίλιξιν eic άγαθόο Κινύρηο, καί Κινύρηο δέ Κίλιξ.

4# ε'ίαδεν Άντίοχοο την Λυοιμάχου ποτέ τύλην κούκέτι την τύλην εϊοιδε Λυοίμαχοο.

5# ε'ίκοα γεννήοαο ό ζωγράφοο Εύτυχοο υίούο ούδ' από τών τέκνων ούδέν όμοιον έχει.

6# ή τά ρόδα, ροδόεοοαν έχειο χάριν* άλλα τί πωλεϊο, οαυτήν, ή τά ρόδα, ήέ ουναμφότερα;

7# την ψυχήν, 'Αγάθωνα φιλών, έπί χείλεαν έοχον ήλθε γάρ ή τλήμων (oc διαβηοομένη.

8# ή οοβαρόν γελάοαοα καθ' Έλλάδοο, ή τον έραοτών έομόν έπί προθύροιο Aaic έχουοα νέων,

τη Παφίη τό κάτοπτρον έπεί τοίη μέν όράοθαι ούκ έθέλω, οϊη δ' ήν πάροο ού δύναμαι.

They told me, Heraclitus, they told me you were dead ... είπε TIC, Ηράκλειτε, τεόν μόρον, ec δέ με δάκρυ f> ήγαγεν, έμνήοθην δ' OCC0KIC άμφότεροι ηλιον έν λέοχη κατεδύοαμεν* άλλα cv μέν που,

ξεΐν' 'Αλικαρνηοεύ, τετράπαλαι οποδιή* αι δέ τεαι ζωουαν αηδονεο, ηαν ο πάντων 5

αρπακτήο Άίδηο ούκ έπί χείρα βαλεΐ. Notes

λιπεν = έλιπεν (aorist of λείπω) in Homer the augment is optional in the imperfect and aorist, and unaugmented °£ms of these tenses are often found in literary genres tuch use features of Homeric language, cf. below 4.

120 c 3

ro

2 Κύπριο another name for Aphrodite because of he-association with Cyprus (Κύπροο).

3 avepec (Homeric) = άνδρεο. 4 εϊαδεν = είοειδεν (< είοοράω) the augment is dropped as m

λίπεν (above 1); κούκέτι = καί ούκέτι (11.1/5). 5 Eutychus apparently was a bad painter with an unfaithful

wife; ούδ'(έ) not even, but trans, even (cf. 11.2.12 /.8). 6 ή τά ρόδα (sc. έχουοα) [you] the [woman having, i.e. with

(12.1/2a(i))] the roses a concise form of address towards someone whose name the speaker does not know.

7 /. 1 φιλών kissing (despite some restrictions, male homosexuality was common in Greek society, cf. 7.2.13). 1.2 As the future participle is used by itself to express purpose (12.1/2tf(v)) ώο διαβηοομένη means thinking that it was going to cross over (i.e. with the idea of... cf. 12.1/2tf(ii)).

8 Lais (fourth century BC), a beautiful courtesan now past her prime, dedicates her mirror to Aphrodite because she has no further use for it. The epigram consists of a single sentence and a main verb meaning I dedicate is to be supplied (the first two lines are in apposition to I, i.e. I, the one who.,.). 1.1 οοβαρόν the n. acc. s. of the adjective is used adverbially, trans, haughtily; καθ', i.e. κατά with elision and aspiration before the following initial aspirate; καθ' Έλλάδοο lit. (laughing) against Greece, i.e. at Greece. 1.2 Trans, προθύροιο as singular (the plural is often used for the singular in verse); take νέων (< veoc) with έραοτών in the previous line. 1.3 τη Παφίη i.e. to Aphrodite, whose temple at Paphos in Cyprus was famous; τοίη (= Attic τοιαύτη (21.1/3)) of such a sort [as I am now], translate simply by ifs I am now; όράοθαι middle voice see myself (S.i/la). ΙΑ οιη (= Attic οία)... ην πάροο lit. of what sort I was before, trans. as I was before; with δύναμαι (on deponents in -αμαι see 19.1/3b) supply όράοθαι from the previous line.

9 An epigram of Callimachus (third century BC), well known in its English translation (see Appendix 9). The person addressed is not the philosopher Heraclitus. /.I τεόο is ttu Homeric form of coc (cf. τεαί in 1.5). 1.2 έμνηοθην (aor. or μέμνημαι 19.1/3b) I remembered. 1.3 We sank the sun ^ conversation, i.e. we talked into the night. 15 ζωου^ι Homeric for ζώοιν (< ζάω); Heraclitus' nightingales were nis

poems, which, ironically, have not survived; fjciv = aiciy (lρ aic) - the dat. is governed by έπί ... βάλει, on to which··j·^ έπί χείρα βάλει = χείρα έπιβαλεΐ; in Homer when the r^; element of a compound verb (as έπιβάλλω) is a prepositi^1 ^ prefix (here έπί), it can be separated from the verbal elen^ (here βάλλω) by one or more words (tmesis lit. a cutting

13.1 Grammar

13.1/1 Oddities of declension As we have now covered all regular nouns and adjectives, a few remaining oddities can be conveniently listed here. Only a very small number of nouns exist in each group. {a) Attic declension This subdivision of the second declension contains nouns which in Attic (and sometimes Ionic) end in -coc, but which in other dialects preserve the original -oc. Hence Homeric vcfoc (m) temple became first vr\oc (in Attic δ >η except after a vowel or P) and then veoic (cf. the gen. s. of πόλιο, 8.1/4). vecic is declined:

SINGULAR PLURAL N.V. νεώο νεώ Acc. νεών νεώΰ Gen. νεώ νεών Dat. νεώ νεώο

Other nouns of this class are λεώο (m; Homeric Xaoc) people, ϊενέλεωο (Homeric Μενέλαοο) Menelaus, λαγώο (m) bare, ecoc J dawn (singular only; the accusative is έω). The adjective

^(oc propitious also belongs here (m.f. τλεωο, η. Ιλέων; η. pi. The masculine and neuter of πλέωο full follow Τλεωο but

ts feminine, πλέα, follows δικαία (3.1/3). | Third declension nouns in -ωc, -ω, and - ac

(l) ήρωο (m) hero is declined: SINGULAR PLURAL

W· V- ήρωο ήρω-ec Acc. ήρω-α or ήρω ήρω-ac ^en. ήρω-oc ήρώ-ων

ήρω-ι or ήρω ήρω-οι(ν)

Similarly declined are δμώο (m) slave and Τρώεο (m. ρ Trojans. αιδώο (f) shame is irregular: αιδώο; acc. αι<>

αιδοΰο; αιδοΐ (no plural). (ii) πειθώ (f) persuasion has affinities with αίδώο and

declined: η. πειθώ; v. πειθοι; acc. πειθώ; gen. πειθούς; πειθοΐ (no plural). So also ηχώ (f) echo and women's nan\-such as Οαπφώ and Καλυψώ.

(iii) In addition to neuter dental stems with a nominative in ^ (as κέραο horn, gen. κέρατοο, 5.1/la), there are a few neuu-nouns in -ac whose declension is parallel to neuters in -<j (6.1/1 c, i.e. contraction has taken place after the loss <, intervocalic sigma). γέραο (n) prize is declined:

Similarly declined are γήραο old age, κρέαο meat, and also κέραο when it means wing of an army (cf. 5.1/1Λ).

(c) Nouns declined in two ways In English brothers and brethren are both plural forms o\ brother, even though we attach a broader meaning to the second. In Greek, anomalies of this sort sometimes reflect dialectal differences (as, e.g., between Homeric and Attic Greek), but some examples exist entirely within Attic. These may involve alternative forms (as in υίόο), or an apparent irregularity (as in δένδρον). The main examples are:

δάκρυον, -ου (n) tear; alternative n.v.a. in the singular: δάκρυ (as in 12.3.9/ . l) .

δένδρον, -ου (n) tree has an irregular dat. pi. δένδρεα(\>· δένδρε(α) in 13.2.22 1.2 is the Homeric and old Ionic forir of the n.v.a. plural, which can be contracted to δενδρ" (11.2.41.5).

πυρ, πυρόο (n) fire (6.1/1 b); the plural πυρά is second-declension (πυρών, πυροΐο) and means watch-fires.

cixoc, -ου (m) grain (i.e. wheat or barley); the plural neuter: cixa.

υίόο, -ού (m) son can be declined in the second declensi^ throughout but also has the following third d e c l e n s ^

forms from an original nom. s. vivc (declined like ηο^ 10.1/3): gen. s. υίέοο; dat. s. υΐεΐ; nom. and acc. pi· υ ι Γ ι" gen. pi. υίέων; dat. pi. υίέα(ν).

SINGULAR PLURAL

N.V. γέραο Acc. γέραο Gen. γέρωο (<a(c)-oc) Dat. γέραι (<a(c)-i)

γέρσ (<a(c)-a) γέρα γερών (<ά(ο)-ων) γέραοι(ν) (<a(c)-ci)

13.1/2 Verbs used with the genitive or dative \ transitive verb is defined as one that can be followed by the ccusative case. Both the Greek πέμπω and the English send are

transitive, and in the sentences Περικλήο δώρον έπεμψεν and Pericles sent a gift: both δώρον and gift are direct objects and therefore accusative. We might at first assume that if a verb is transitive in English its Greek equivalent will be the same. However, although this is true for the greater number of verbs, there are some which are transitive in one language but intransitive in the other. The verb δειπνέω (dine) is transitive in Greek and so we can say άρτον δειπνώ I am dining [on] bread, but we cannot say in English I dine bread because dine is an intransitive verb and must be followed by a preposition, not a direct object (in I am dining on bread, bread is accusative after the preposition on). Similarly, there are verbs which are transitive in English but not in Greek, but, whereas in English the logical object of an intransitive verb is preceded by a preposition (dine on bread), in Greek it is put into the genitive or dative. Greek verbs of this type can, to a large extent, be classified according to their meaning. The following are the main groups: (a) Verbs followed by the genitive (see also 23.1/1&)

(i) Verbs of ruling, e.g. άρχω rule; κρατέω lit. have power (κράτοο) over; βααλεύω lit. be king (βααλεύο) of (all three are normally translated by rule):

έν άμφιάλω 'Ιθάκη He will rule the Achaeans βααλεύοει 'Αχαιών. in sea-girt Ithaca.

(ii) Verbs of desiring, needing, caring for, e.g. έπιθϋμέω desire; έράω love, desire (sexually); δέομαι need; έπιμελέομαι care for: ουκ έρφ άδελφόο άδελφήο A brother does not desire

ούδέ πατήρ θυγατρόο. his sister, nor a father his daughter.

(iii) Verbs of perceiving, remembering, forgetting, e.g. αιοθάνομαι perceive (also + acc.); πυνθάνομαι ascertain (+ acc. of thing ascertained and gen. of informant); ακούω hear, listen to (+ acc. of thing heard, gen. of person heard); μέμνημαι (19.1/3tf) remember; επιλανθάνομαι forget (also + acc.):

ταύτα Κίρκηο ήκουοα I heard this from Circe (but Κίρκηο ήκουοα I heard (or listened to) Circe).

124 c 3

(iv) Verbs of reaching, obtaining, missing, e.g. τυγχάνο / . the mark, succeed, obtain; άμαρτάνω miss, fail / achieve:

τίνοο πότμου έτυχεν; What fate did he meet (lit. obtain)?

τών έλπίδων ήμάρτομεν We did not realize (lit. missed) our hopes.

(v) Verbs of sharing, e.g. μετέχω share, have a share in: πάντεο οί πολΐται All the citizens take part

μετέχουοι τηο έορτηο in (lit. share) the festival.

(b) Verbs followed by the dative (i) Verbs indicating that the subject is asserting himself in

some way over someone else, e.g. παραινέω advise: βοηθέω (run to) help, assist; οργίζομαι become angry with; άπειλέω threaten; φθονεω feel ill-will against, grudge:

φθονεΐν φαοι μητρυιάο They say that step-τέκνοιο. mothers feel ill-will

against their children. (ii) Verbs indicating that the subject is submitting himself in

some way to somebody else, e.g. πείθομαι (middle ot πείθω) obey; πιοτεύω trust; είκω yield:

πατρί πείθεοθαι χρή τέκνα. Children must obey their father.

(iii) Verbs indicating association of some sort, e.g. έπομαι follow; έντυγχάνω fall in with; άπαντάω meet; πληαα^: approach, associate with; μάχομαι fight; χραομαι associate with (people), use (things): ούδείο έτι ήμΐν μάχεται. No-one is fighting us an)

longer. τω δεοπότη έοπόμην I followed my master:

(< έπομαι) (iv) Verbs indicating likeness, e.g. όμοιόομαι, εοι^'

(19.1/3a) both be like, resemble: ov χρή ce όμοιοΰοθο κακοΐο you should not be like bad men.

Not all verbs which, by virtue of their meaning, we woul expect to belong to these groups do in fact take the genitne

dative, e.g. φιλέω love and ώφελέω help both take the a ccUsa r^U

(we would have expected the genitive and dative respects Some of the verbs listed above (e.g. έπιλανθάνομαι) also take ^ accusative with no difference in meaning. Full details wi found in the vocabulary.

13.1/3 Further particles The fundamental importance of particles (see 4.1/3) should now be clear. Their use, especially as connectives, has been widely jllustrated in the reading exercises, and we have now met αλλά but; άρα* then, so; γάρ* for, as; δέ* and, but; δήπου* I presume, I should hope, doubtless; καί and, even; ουδέ and not, nor, not even; ούν* therefore, so, then; τοι* in truth, be assured, you know; and που* perhaps, I suppose; as well as the combinations μέν*... δέ* on the one hand ... and/ but on the other hand, τε*... καί and καί... καί both ... and, and καί δή* and moreover. Some other particles of common occurrence are listed below:

(a) Particles with a connective function δήτα*: (i) in answers, particularly emphatic negative answers,

ού δήτα no indeed. (ii) in questions, πώο δήτα; how then?, τί δήτα; what (or why) thene.g. τί δήτά με ζήν δει; why then (or in that case) should I live?

μην* may be used (like δήτα) to enliven a question, often in combination with αλλά, e.g. άλλα τί μην δοκεΐο; but (or well) what then do you think? By itself, τί μην; has the meaning of course:

Α. μιοθωτω μάλλον A. Do they entrust the έπιτρέπουοιν ή col τούο horses to a hireling ϊππουο; rather than to you?

Β. αλλά τί μην; Β. But of course (lit. But what then sc. if not that?).

τοινυν*: the temporal adverb νυν (so accented) means now, at present. Unaccented νυν* is an inferential particle, now in the sense then, therefore, especially with imperatives (17.1/1): σπεύδε νυν hurry up then, τοινυν, a strengthened form of νυν, ukewise has a transitional or inferential force, now then, i^thermore, well now, e.g. έπειδή τοινυν έποιήοατο την είρήνην Ά πολιc ... well now, since the city made peace ...

Particles which do not connect but convey shades of tone, c°lour or emphasis

is an intensive and restrictive particle which affects the ^ceding word. Its literal meaning is at least, at any rate, Certainly} indeed, e.g. έγωγε1 I for my part (examples have already occurred at 9.2.12 1.9 and 10.3 1.5), but in English we

uld often simply use an emphatic tone of voice rather than an bivalent W O fd, e.g. ο'ίδε κρινούοί γε εί χρή ce μίμνειν they

a r e combined to form one word (with a different accent). Cf. below μεντοι + τ ο 0 , καίτοι (καί + τοι).

126 c 3

shall judge if you are to remain; συγχωρεΐο τούτο γε καί ού ei vy you admit this. It is also extremely common in replies r previous remarks, especially to questions, and is often to h rendered as yes:

Α. άρα στενάζει; A. Is he groaning? Β. κλαίει γε. Β. Yes, he is weeping. Α. κενόν τόδ' άγγοο ή οτέγει τι; Α. [Is] this vessel empty\ {)i

does it hold something: Β. οά γ' ενδυτα. Β. Yes, your garments.

Sometimes it re-enforces a negative and must be translated h\ no:

Α. έοτι TIC λόγοο; A. Is there some explanationf

Β. ούδείο γε. Β. No, none. (On ways of saying yes and no in Greek see 24.1/1). δή* emphasizes the preceding word. Indeed, certainly are onl\ approximate translations; the force of the particle would normally be conveyed to the hearer in English by the loudness of the voice or some accompanying emphatic gesture, δή is particularly common with adjectives or adverbs, e.g. άπαντεο δη absolutely everyone; μόνοο δή quite alone; πολλάκιο δή yen often. It may also convey irony or sarcasm, Οωκράτηο ό οοφόο δη Socrates the wise (the tone of voice in English will indicate whether wise is complimentary or ironical). (c) Frequent combinations of particles καί δή*: as well as being used as a lively connective, and moreover (e.g. καί δή τό μέγιοτον and moreover the principal point) καί δή is common in replies to a command:

Α. ούκουν έπείξει τωδε A. Hasten then to cast δεομά περιβαλειν; fetters round this fellow-

(lit. won't you hasten ...?)

Β. καί δή πρόχειρα ψάλια. Β. There you are (lit. actually indeed), the chains [are] ready to hand.

It is also used in making assumptions: καί δή πολέμιοι ειοιν tf'·-* suppose they are hostile. Note that καί δή καί means ^ especially, and in particular; in this combination the stress is 1 w

on the word following the second καί: καί δή καί τότε άμ' ήμέρα And on that particular

ουνελεγημεν. occasion (lit. and then . < particular) we gather <" at dawn.

Combinations with συν

(i)

(ii)

ούκουν is merely a synonym for ούν*, therefore, accordingly, well then:

ή τούο άμύνεοθαι κελεύονταο Or shall we say that πόλεμον ποιεΐν φήοομεν; ούκουν ύπόλοιπον δουλεύειν.

those who urge [us] to defend ourselves are making war? Then (or in that case) it remains [for us] to be slaves.

It is to be distinguished from ούκουν (so accented), in which the negative retains its full force:

ούκουν, Προμηθεύ, τούτο Do you not know this γιγνώοκειο, δτι όργήο then, Prometheus, that vocoύσηο εία,ν ιατροί when a temperament is λόγοι; sick (lit. a temperament

being sick gen. absolute, 12.1/2b) there are words [to act as] healers? (see also the example given in (c) above).

δ' ούν has a resumptive force, be that as it may, used in dismissing a subject:

εί δή δίκαια ποιήοω, ού γιγνώοκω* αίρήοομαι δ' ούν ύμάο.

(iii)

If indeed I shall do what is right (lit. just things) I do not know; however that may be, I shall choose you.

μεν ούν: this combination sometimes has no other force than the value of its two constituent parts (μεν looking forward to δέ, and ούν therefore), but it can also be used to correct a previous statement, with the sense no, on the contrary:

Α. ή ού ούδέν ήγή πράττει ν τον γραμματιοτήν;

Β. έγωγε ήγούμαι μέν ούν.

Qofnbinations with τοι*

Α. Or do you think that the schoolmaster does nothing?

B. On the contrary, I do think (sc. that he does something).

127

~*'«*nuns wtw τον" καίτοι means and yet, however: καίτοι τί φημι; and yet what am I saying?

(ii) μέντοι* is used either to emphasize, e.g. Α. εγώ; Β. c μέντοι. A. Me i (lit. I) B. Yes, you; or in an adversatiu sense, however, yet, often with an added γε: ού μεντοι οί γε (Γκύθαι ταύτη είοέβαλον yet the Scythians did not invade by this route.

Other uses of particles will be explained as they occur in the reading.

13.2 Greek reading 1# καλόν γε γασιρόο κάπιθυμίαο κρατεί v. 2# τω γήρα φιλεΐ

χω νούο όμαρτεΐν καί τό βουλεύειν ά δει. 3 τούτό τοι τάνδρεΐον, ή προμηθία. 4# πανταχού γε πάτριο ή βόοκουοα γή. 5# οοφόν γέ τοί τι πρόο τό βουλεύειν έχει

τό γήραο, (be δή πόλλ' ίδόν τε καί παθόν. 6# ώ τλήμον αρετή, λόγοο άρ' ήοθ'· έγώ δέ οε

(be έργον ήοκουν ού δ' άρ' έδούλευεο τύχη. 7# πατήρ μέν ήμΐν Οίδίπουο ό Λαΐου,

έτικτε δ' Ίοκάοτη με, παΐο Μενοικέωσ καλεί δέ Πολυνείκη με Θηβαΐοο λεώο.

8# ούκ έοτι Πειθούο ιερόν άλλο πλήν λόγοο, καί βωμόο αύτηο έοτ' έν άνθρωπου φύοει.

9 ό δύο λαγώο διώκων ούδέτερον καταλαμβάνει. 10 ό Κύροο άτε παΐο ων καί φιλόκαλοο καί φιλότιμοο ήδετο τη

οτολή. 11 άνάγκη ούδέ οί θεοί μάχονται. 12 κακόν άναγκαΐον τό πείθεοθαι γαοτρί. 13 τήν Χάρυβδιν έκφυγών τη (ϋκύλλη περιέπεοεο. 14 ovoc πεινών ού φροντίζει ροπάλου. 15# τοΰ ζην γάρ ούδείο (be ό γηράοκων έρα. 16# μόνοο θεών θάνατοο ού δώρων έρφ. 17# ό μηδέν άδικών ούδενόο δείται νομού. 18 τέτταραο δακτύλουο θανάτου οί πλέοντεο άπέχουαν. 19 ήροο χρήζειο έπειδή παλαιόν χιτώνα έχειο. 20 Γοργώ ή Λάκαινα, έρωτηθεΐοα ύπό τινοο Άττικήο, δια τ}

ύμειο άρχετε μόναι τών άνδρών αί Λάκαιναι; ότι, έφη, κ α ι

τίκτομεν μόναι άνδραο. 21 A noteworthy pun

Άντιοθένηο ό φιλόοοφοο, πρόο μειράκιόν τι μέλλον φοιτ°Χ

παρά αύτόν καί πυθόμενον τίνων αύτω δει, έφη, βιβλι0^ καινού καί γραφείου καινού καί πινακιδίου κ α ι ν ο ύ . τ ° Χ

νούν παρεμφαίνων.

->2# ή γή μέλαινα πίνει, πίνει δέ δένδρε' αύτην; πίνει θάλαοοα κρουνούο, ό δ' ήλιοο θάλαοοαν, τον δ' ήλιον οελήνη. 5 τί μοι μαχεοθ', έταΐροι, καύτω θέλοντι πίνειν;

Notes 1 κάπιθϋμίσο = καί έπιθ^μίσο (11.1/5). 2 φιλέω + infinitive be accustomed to; φιλεΐ is singular

because it agrees with the closer of the two subjects; χω = καί ο (11.1/5); ά δει is the object of βουλεύειν.

3 The subject τούτο (sc. ecxi) anticipates ή προμηθίδΓ; τάνδρεΐον = τό άνδρεΐον (11.1/5).

5 Take οοφόν... τι together as the object of έχει (the subject is τό γήραο); <bc + participle to give a supposed reason (12.1/2tf(ii)); πόλλ' i.e. πολλά; ίδόν < όράω; παθόν < πάοχω (both aorist participles are neuter nom. s. agreeing with γήραο).

6 άρετη virtue was the philosophical ideal of the Stoics. These lines, whose exact source is unknown, were the last words of the Roman Brutus before committing suicide; άρ' = άρα (distinguish from άρα); ήοθ= ήοθα; G>C as (22ΛΙ\α(\)).

7 1.1 ήμΐν trans, by a singular (royal plural - Polyneices in fact continues in the singular). 1.2 έτικτε trans, as though aorist, bore (τίκτω is used idiomatically to mean be parent of).

9 λαγώο acc. pi. (13.1/1*). 12 τό πείθεοθαι is the subject; κακόν is used as a noun an evil. 15 coc as (cf. 6 above).

μηδέν, not ούδέν, because a general class is meant (12.1/2a(vi)), lit. the [person] doing wrong not at all (adverbial acc., 20.1/5), i.e. those who do no wrong. τέτταραο δακτύλουο acc. of extent of space (7.1/7d); the width of four fingers was the normal thickness of the sides of an ancient ship.

J9 W < έαρ (6.1/1 b). ^ Spartan men prided themselves on manly virtues; they were

not, however, male chauvinists, as the story shows; δτι because.

1 μέλλον acc. n. s. of the pres. act. pple. of μέλλω (here intend), to be taken with μειράκιον; δει there is need of +

of thing needed and dat. of the person in need (cf. 21.1/46 and note 3); in Antisthenes' reply the genitives depend on an understood δει (i.e. you need ...).

22 A poem in imitation of Anacreon (22.3). It is written Ionic Greek as is shown by the forms θάλοκχα and θέλο\ -/.I The prose order would be ή μέλαινα γή. 1.2 πίνει / draws nourishment from; δένδρε' i.e. δένδρεα. 1.6 μάχε . i.e. μάχεοθε. 1.7 καύτω = καί αύτω.

13.3 Extra reading

Plato (c. 429-347 BC) All Plato's philosophical writings (except the Apology) are m the form of discussions and arguments which are supposed to have taken place on a particular occasion between various contemporaries. For this reason they are called dialogues, but we have no way of telling where factual reporting stops and Plato's imagination (or his desire to expound his own ideas) begins. Some dialogues are in simple dramatic form, whereas in others the conversation is reported by one of the characters (the second extract is an example of the former, the first of the latter). In all his dialogues (except the Laws) Plato introduces his master; Socrates (8.2.13), as a protagonist, but nowhere does he introduce himself. (i) CQKPATHC έπορευόμην μέν έξ Άκαδημείαο εύθύ Λυκείου την έξω τείχουο ύπ αύτό τό τειχοο* έπειδή δ' έγενόμην κατά την πυλίδα η ή Πάνοποο κρήνη, ένταύθα συνέτυχον Ίπποθάλει τε τφ Ιερωνύμου καί Κτηαππω τω Παιανιεΐ καί άλλοιο μετά τούτων νεανίοκοια καί με προαοντα (approaching) ό Ίπποθάληο ίδών, ώ Οόκρατεο, έφη, ποι δή πορευτι και: πόθεν; έξ Άκαδημείαο, ην δ' έγώ, πορεύομαι εύθύ Λυκείου. δεύρο δή, ή δ' oc, εύθύ ήμών. ού παραβάλλεις άξιον μέντοι. ποΐ, έφην έγώ, λέγειο, καί παρά τίναο τούο ύμάο; δεύρο, έφη, δείξαο (showing) μοι έν τω καταντικρύ τού τειχοικ περίβολόν τέ τινα καί θύραν. διατρίβομεν δέ, ή δ' oc, αυτόθι ήμειο τε αύτοί καί άλλοι πάνυ πολλοί καί καλοί. έοτιν δέ δή τί τούτο, καί τίο ή διατριβή; παλαίστρα, έφη, νέα* ή δέ διατριβή τά πολλά έν λόγοιο ων c£

μετέχειν έθέλομεν. καλωο γε, ην δ' έγώ, ποιούντεο* διδάοκει δέ τίο αύτόθι; coc έταιρόο γε, ή δ' oc, καί έπαινέτηο, M I K K O C .

μά Δία, ην δ' έγώ, ού φαύλόο γε άνήρ, άλλ' ίκανόο οοφιοτηο. βούλει ούν έπεοθαι, έφη, καί όράν τούο δνταο αύτόθι;

, ETKAEIAHC - ΤΕΡΨΙΩΝ ΕΪ. άρτι, ώ Τερψίων, ή πάλαι έξ άγρού; ΤΕΡ έπιεικώο πάλαι, και ce γε έζήτουν κατ' άγοράν καί εθοώμαζον οτι ούχ oioc τ' ή εύρεΐν. 0 ού γάρ ή κατά πόλιν. ΤΕΡ. πού μήν; , , , 5

είο λιμένα καταβαίνων Θεαιτητω ένετυχον φερομενω έκ Κορίνθου άπό τοΰ οτρατοπέδου Άθήναζε. ΧΕΡ. πότερον ζώντι ή ού; ΕΥ. ζώντι καί μάλα μόλιο* χαλεπώο μέν γάρ έχει καί ύπό τραυμάτων τινών, μάλλον μήν αύτόν αίρει τό νόοημα τό έν τω 10 αρατεύματι. ΤΕΡ. μών ή δυοεντερία; ΕΤ. ναι. ΤΕΡ. οίον άνδρα λέγειο έν κινδύνω είναι. ΕΤ. καλόν τε καί άγαθόν, ώ Τερψίων, έπεί τοι καί νΰν ήκουόν 15 τίνων μάλα έγκωμιαζόντων αύτόν περί τήν μάχην. ΤΕΡ. καί ούδέν γ' άτοπον, άτάρ πώο ούκ αύτοΰ Μεγαροΐ κατέλυεν; ΕΤ. ήπείγετο οίκαδε* έπεί έγωγ' έδεόμην καί ουνεβούλευον, άλλ' ούκ ήθελεν. καί δήτα προπέμψαο αύτόν, άνεμνήοθην καί 20 έθαύμαοα Cωκpάτoυc ώο μαντικώο άλλα τε δή είπε καί περί τούτου, δοκεΐ γάρ μοι ολίγον προ τού θανάτου έντυχεΐν αύτω μειρακίω δντι, καί ουγγενόμενόο τε καί διαλεχθείο πάνυ άγαοθηναι αύτού τήν φύοιν. Notes (ι)

The speaker is Socrates, who is going from the Academy, a park with sporting facilities (i.e. a γυμνάαον) lying north-west of ancient Athens, to the Lyceum, a similar establishment to the east. The road between the two skirted the north wall. 1.1 τήν εξω τείχουο sc. όδόν on/along the [road] outside the wall, this Use of the accusative without a preposition is classified as an acc. of spatial extent (7.1/7d). 1.2 ή where (sc. έοτί). ΙΑ Παιανιεΐ ^ Παιανεύο) an adjective meaning of the deme Paeania; as the Fenians had only one personal name (cf. 5.1/3 note 2) they Were officially distinguished by the deme (local administrative J?mt) to which they belonged. 1.7 ήν δ' έγώ said I a stereotyped °rmula? often used by Plato, which employs the nearly defunct yerb ήμί say (18.1/1 α) (δ' is part of the formula and should not

Jranslated). 1.8 δεύρο often used as an order [come] over here; ^ oc said he the same formula as above but in its third person Slngular version (the use of the relative oc as a demonstrative

131 c 3

132 c 3

W

pronoun is archaic). 1.9 λέγειο do you mean; παρά τίναο το ύμάο sc. ovxac to whom the [group of] you being [am / . come]? i.e. who are you to whom, etc. /. 10 δείξαο shoiviv coincidental use of aor. pple. (12.1/1). /.13 Supply έοτί with διατριβή. /. 14 τά πολλά lit. for the many [times], i.e. MS/ '' (adverbial acc. 20.1/5); ων has λόγοιο as its antecedent and governed by μετέχει v, which takes the genitive of what is shai . (13.1/2*(v)). 1.16 καλώο γε ... ποιούντεο (sc. έθέλετε, to κ supplied from έθέλομεν in the previous line) doing well at ate rate [you wish this], an expression of gratitude for then invitation.

(«) The speakers are Eucleides and Terpsion. /.I sc. ήλθεο the omission is typical of Plato's colloquial style. 1.3 oloc τ' ειμί an idiom meaning I am able (τ' is not to be translated; on oloc sec 21.1/3). 1.4 Terpsion has not been able to find Eucleides in the agora; in English the latter's reply would be No, you couldn't, for I was not in the city, but Greek omits the words No, you couldn't (which confirm the previous statement) and simph gives the reason for I was not, etc. (24.1/1). 1.8 πότερο\ introduces two alternative questions (10.1/2*) but is not to be translated; with ζώντι supply ένέτυχεο from ένέτυχον in /.6., έχω + adv. to express a state (cf. note on 8.2.9 /. 1). /. 10 μην has an adversative sense (but) and balances the preceding μέν; the combination gives a stronger contrast than μεν ... δέ. /.12 μω\ (10.1/2*) in his anxiety Terpsion is hoping for a negatiu answer. /.14 οίον ... exclamatory what a man ...! (21.1/3). /.H The Athenian male ideal was summed up in the phrase κσλο: κάγαθόο (here slightly varied), which can be translated gentleman (cf. 9.2.12 1.5). 1.19 έπεί since introduces proof to1

the fact that Theaetetus was hurrying home, and governs following three finite verbs; we would omit it in English· έδεόμην καί ουνεβούλευον i.e. him to stay. 1.20 καί δήτα in / ^ (lit. and indeed but more emphatic than καί δή); t r a n s i t προπέμψαο by a finite verb and supply and before the clause. /.21 Οωκράτουο is genitive with άvεμvήcθηv an·-· έθαύμαοα, lit. remembered and admired Socrates, prophetically he spoke ... but English idiom requires >H · prophetically Socrates spoke ... (where appropriate, Greek ott<-anticipates the subject of an indirect question in this way); a / L

τε ... καί περί τούτου lit. both other [things] and about in particular about him; άλλοο τε καί is often used in the s i particularly, especially 1.22 δοκεΐ the subject is he (i.e. Socrat* 1.23 διαλεχθείο < διαλέγομαι; άγαοθηναι < άγαμαι.

14.1 Grammar

14.1/1 Moods of the Greek verb Mood is a characteristic of all finite forms1 of the Greek verb (i.e. those that can stand alone in a clause). Up to now we have dealt only with the indicative, the mood used for facts. There are three other moods, the imperative, which expresses commands (17.1/1), and the subjunctive and optative. In a main clause the subjunctive can express the will of the subject, e.g. λύοωμεν (aor. subj. act.) xouc δούλουο let us free the slaves, while the optative can express the wish of the speaker, e.g. μή γένοιτο (aor. opt. mid.) may it not happen! These uses illustrate, in part, an original distinction between what is willed or expected (subjunctive) and what is desired or considered possible (optative), but the functions of both moods have been expanded to such a degree that neither can be brought under a single definition. In English we still possess some single-word subjunctive forms (be that as it may; if I were you) but the optative disappeared ln the Germanic branch of Indo-European (1.3) before the evolution of English. Apart from the few relics of the subjunctive, we use auxiliary verbs (let, may, would, etc.) for uses covered by these moods in Greek. The subjunctive and optative exist in the present and aorist (and perfect, 16.1/4 note 1). There is also a future optative, but n° fature subjunctive. The distinction between the present and a°rist forms of these moods is one of aspect (4.1/1) not time

0 r an exception see 14.1/4J). As with infinitives, the present

Mnrf non"finite forms of verbs (i.e. participles and infinitives) are not considered as l 0 n ^ng to any mood.

134 c 3

subjunctive or optative is used for an action which is seen />, going on, in the process of happening, or being repeated; tr aorist subjunctive or optative is used for an action which is sec as a single event (cf. 4.1/1).

14.1/2 Subjunctive mood For complete table ο/"λύω see Appendix 1. The subjunctive has only one set of endings, which are applied to the present and aorist stems (the latter without the augment). The endings are formed by lengthening all the initial short vowels (even when the first element of a diphthong) of the present indicative endings: Active: -ω, -βc, -η, -ωμεν, -ητε, -ωα(ν). Middle and passive: -ωμαι, - η, -ηται, -ωμεθα, -ηοθε, -ωνται. Note that ει becomes η but in ου > ω (3rd pi. act.) the second element of the diphthong disappears. As the aorist passive takes active endings (11.1/1), for the aorist passive subjunctive of λύω we have λυθώ,1 λυθηο etc. In the present subjunctive of contracted verbs the rules of contraction apply as for the indicative (5.1/2). Paradigms will be found in Appendix 2. The endings for the subjunctive are classified as primary (4.1/1 note 1 and 8.1/1/; we have -ci(v) in the 3rd pi. act., -μαι in the 1st s. mid./pass., etc.). This classification is relevant to the use of the subjunctive in certain subordinate clauses (14.1/4c).

Notes 1 The indicative and subjunctive coincide in a few forms, e.g.

λύω, τιμώ, τιμαο. 2 Strong aorists and root aorists have the normal s u b j u n c t i v e

endings (i.e. -ω, -^c, etc.), except for a few root aorists in -ων, which have -ω, -G>C, -φ, -ωμεν, -ωτε, - Ω Α ( Ν ) . An example is έγνων (γιγνώοκω), subj. γνώ, γνώο, γνώ, γνώμεν γνώτε, γνώα(ν); cf. the present and aorist subjunctive acti^ of δίδωμι (18.1/2 note 1).

3 The subjunctive of ειμί is identical with the endings of the present subjunctive of λύω, viz ώ, fjc, fj, ωμεν, ήτε, ωα(ν)

14.1/3 Optative mood For complete table of λύω see Appendix 1.

1 The aorist passive subjunctive is always accented with a circumflex on the first of the ending (the circumflex indicates contraction, λυθώ < λυθεω etc.).

The optative, like the subjunctive, uses the same stems as the ndicative, but its endings show some variety between tenses. For λϋω and other uncontracted -ω verbs we have: (a) Present and future active: -οιμι, -oic, -οι, -οιμεν, -οιτε,

-οιεν; e.g. λύοιμι, λύοιο etc. (present); λύοοιμι, λύοοιο, etc. (future).

φ) Present and future, middle and passive: -οιμην, -οιο, -οιτο, -οιμεθα, -οιοθε, -οιντο; e.g. λϋοίμην (pres. mid./pass.), λΰοοίμην (fut. mid.), λυ&ηοοίμην (fut. pass.).

(c) Weak aorist active: -αιμι, -ειαο (or -aic), -ειε(ν) (or -ai), -αιμεν, -αιτε, -ειαν (or -αιεν); e.g. λύοαιμι, λύοειαο, etc. The bracketed forms are less common.

(d) Weak aorist middle: -αιμην, -αιο, -αιτο, -αιμεθα, -αιοθε, -αιντο; e.g. λϋοαίμην, λύοαιο, etc.

(e) In the aorist passive the final η of the stem is dropped (λυθη > λυθ) and to this are added: -ειην, -ειηο, -ειη, -ειμεν, -ειτε, -ειεν; e.g. λυθείην, λυθείηο, etc.

Contracted -ω verbs have different endings for the singular of the present optative active: -οιην, -οιηο, -οιη. These, and the other present endings, contract according to the rules given at 5.1/2 (for paradigms see Appendix 2).

Present active Present middle/passive τΐμωην (τϊμα-οίην), τΓμωηο, etc. τΓμωμην (τΓμα-οιμην), τϊμωο, etc. ποιοίην (ποιε-οίην), ποιοίηο, etc. ποιοίμην (ποιε-οίμην, ποιοΐο, etc. δηλοίην (δηλο-οίην), δηλοίηο, etc. δηλοίμην (δηλο-οίμην), δηλοιο, etc.

In the future, aorist, and perfect of contracted verbs the optative is formed by taking the appropriate stem and adding the normal endings. The endings of the optative are classified as historic (4.1/1 note 1 and 8.1/1 f; we have -v in the 3rd pi. act., -μην in the 1st s. mid./pass., etc.). This classification is relevant to the use of the optative in certain subordinate clauses (14.1/4c).

Notes * The optative of the strong aorist has the same endings as the

present; e.g. the aorist optative active of μανθάνω is μάθοιμι, μαθοιο, μάθοι, μάθοιμεν, μάθοιτε, μάθοιεν. The root aorist έβην (βαίνω) has an optative βαίην, βαίηο, βαιη, βαΐμεν, βαΐτε, βαίεν (cf. the optative of -έδρδν which l s -δραίην, -δραίηο, etc.) but other root aorists in -ην have

optative in -ειην, -ειηο, etc., just as that of the aorist Passive. The optative of root aorists in -ων has the endings -° ιην, -οιηο, etc., and so from έγνων (γιγνώοκω) we have Υνοιην, γνοίηο, γνοίη, γνοιμεν, γνοΐτε, γνοιεν. The optative °f root aorists in -υν is extremely rare.

subjunctive or optative is used for an action which is sea-going on, in the process of happening, or being repeated aorist subjunctive or optative is used for an action which is as a single event (cf. 4.1/1).

14.1/2 Subjunctive mood For complete table ofXt® see Appendix 1. The subjunctive has only one set of endings, which are app^ to the present and aorist stems (the latter without the augrrkn* The endings are formed by lengthening all the initial sin. vowels (even when the first element of a diphthong) oi r present indicative endings: Active: -ω, -^c, -r|, -ωμεν, -ητε, -ωα(ν). Middle and passive: -ωμαι, ^η, -ηται, -ωμεθα, -ηοθε, -ωνται Note that ει becomes η but in ου > ω (3rd pi. act.) the secoiu element of the diphthong disappears. As the aorist passive tak^ active endings (11.1/1), for the aorist passive subjunctive of λϋο we have λυθώ,1 λυθηο etc. In the present subjunctive of contracted verbs the rules o* contraction apply as for the indicative (5.1/2). Paradigms will h found in Appendix 2. The endings for the subjunctive are classified as primary (4.1/i note 1 and 8.1/1/; we have -ci(v) in the 3rd pi. act., -μαι in thi 1st s. mid./pass., etc.). This classification is relevant to the use ο the subjunctive in certain subordinate clauses (14.1/4c).

Notes 1 The indicative and subjunctive coincide in a few forms, c.u

λύω, τιμώ, τιμρο. 2 Strong aorists and root aorists have the normal subjuncr^

endings (i.e. -ω, -^c, -η etc.), except for a few root aorist^ -ων, which have -ω, -<»c, -φ, -ωμεν, -ωτε, -oci(v) example is έγνων (γιγνώοκω), subj. γνώ, γνώο, γνώ, γνώτε, γνώα(ν); cf. the present and aorist subjunctive a of διδωμι (18.1/2 note 1). r K

3 The subjunctive of ειμί is identical with the endings ο 1

present subjunctive of λύω, viz ώ, fjc, fj, ωμεν, ήτε, cocil· 1

14.1/3 Optative mood For complete table of λύω see Appendix 1.

1 The aorist passive subjunctive is always accented with a circumflex on the ti> of the ending (the circumflex indicates contraction, λυθώ < λυθέω etc.).

ntative, like the subjunctive, uses the same stems as the ϊ-ative, but its endings show some variety between tenses,

/ΰο) and other uncontracted -ω verbs we have: Present and future active: -οιμι, -oic, κ>ι, -οιμεν, -οιτε, -οιεν; e.g. λύοιμι, λϋοιο etc. (present); λύοοιμι, Xtfcoic, etc. (future). Present and future, middle and passive: -οιμην, -οιο, -οιτο, -οιμεθα, -οιοθε, -οιντο; e.g. λϋοίμην (pres. mid./pass.), λυοοίμην (fut. mid.), λυ&ηοοίμην (fut. pass.).

u) Weak aorist active: -αιμι, -ειαο (or -aic), -ειε(ν) (or -ai), -αιμεν, -αιτε, -ειαν (or -αιεν); e.g. λύοαιμι, λύοειαο, etc. The bracketed forms are less common.

«/) Weak aorist middle: -αιμην, -αιο, -αιτο, -αιμεθα, -αιοθε, -αιντο; e.g. λϋοαίμην, λύοαιο, etc.

(e) In the aorist passive the final η of the stem is dropped (λυ&η > λυθ) and to this are added: -ειην, -ειηο, -ειη, -ειμεν, -ειτε, -ειεν; e.g. λυθείην, λυθείηο, etc.

Contracted -ω verbs have different endings for the singular of the present optative active: -οιην, -οιηο, -οιη. These, and the other present endings, contract according to the rules given at 5.1/2 (for paradigms see Appendix 2).

Present active Present middle/passive τΓμώην (τΐμα-οίην), τΓμωηο, etc. τΓμωμην (τΓμα-οιμην), τΓμωο, etc. ποιοίην (ποιε-οίην), ποιοίηο, etc. ποιοίμην (ποιε-οίμην, ποιοΐο, etc. δηλοίην (δηλο-οίην), δηλοίηο, etc. δηλοίμην (δηλο-οίμην), δηλοΐο, etc.

In the future, aorist, and perfect of contracted verbs the optative formed by taking the appropriate stem and adding the normal

endings. |he endings of the optative are classified as historic (4.1/1 note

^d 8.1/1 f; we have -v in the 3rd pi. act., -μην in the 1st s. mid./pass., etc.). This classification is relevant to the use of the °Ptative in certain subordinate clauses (14.1/4c).

Notes

The optative of the strong aorist has the same endings as the Present; e.g. the aorist optative active of μανθάνω is μάθοιμι,

2 μάθοι, μάθοιμεν, μάθοιτε, μάθοιεν. he root aorist έβην (βαίνω) has an optative βαίην, βαίηο,

^ βαιμεν, βαιτε, βαϊεν (cf. the optative of -έδρίχν which * ""δραιην, -δραίηο, etc.) but other root aorists in -ην have

optative in -ειην, -ειηο, etc., just as that of the aorist Passive. The optative of root aorists in -ων has the endings

-οιηο, etc., and so from έγνων (γιγνώοκω) we have ^οιην> γνοίηο, γνοίη, γνοΐμεν, γνοιτε, γνοιεν. The optative

r°ot aorists in -υν is extremely rare.

3 The present optative of ειμί is εϊην, ε'ίηο, ε'ίη, ειμεν, ει^ ειεν. The future optative is έοοίμην, έοοιο, έοοιτο, etc.

14.1/4 Uses of the subjunctive and optative The subjunctive and optative complement each other in several types of subordinate clauses, but in main clauses their uses aie quite distinct.

(a) Subjunctive in main clauses (i) The jussive subjunctive (negated by μή) is used for giving

orders but, because we also have the imperative (17.1/1), its use is limited. In the first person plural (the singular is possible but not as common) it expresses self-exhortation or self-encouragement: μή, npoc θεών, μαινώμεθα in the name of (πρόΰ) the gods, let us not be mad! The use of the second and third persons of the jussive subjunctive complements the imperative mood in the aorist. Both are treated at 17.1/1.

(ii) The deliberative subjunctive (negated by μή) is used exclusively in questions and indicates the uncertainty of the speaker about the future and what must be done (in English we use the verb to be followed by an infinitive):

ε'ίπωμεν ή οΤγώμεν; Are we to speak or keep silent?

ποΐ φύγω μητpόc χέροκ;; Where am I to escape my mother's hands?

(b) Optative in main clauses The two uses of the optative in main clauses, to express a future wish and to express a future potential, are complemented by the indicative, which is used for both constructions in the present and past. For this reason we shall treat all forms of wishes at 21.1/1, of conditions at 18.1/5 and of potentials at 19.1/2.

(c) Subordinate clauses where the subjunctive and optative complement each other In three types of subordinate clause the subjunctive is used after a main verb in a primary tense (4.1/1 note 1), the optative after a main verb in a historic tense. This reflects the fact that the subjunctive has primary endings (14.1/2) and the optative has historic endings (14.1/3). In uses (i) and (ii) both subjunctive and optative can be literal^ translated by may or might. In (iii) both are to be translated b an indicative in English:

(ι) Purpose clauses (negated by μή) These can be introduced by ίνα or δπακ: (both conjunctions meaning in order that, so that). The negative is μή, but a negated purpose clause can also be introduced by μή alone.

άποφεύγομεν ίνα (or όπαχ;) οί We are fleeing so that the βάρβαροι μή έλωοιν ήμάα barbarians may not

capture us. άπεφύγομεν ίνα (or δπωο) oi We fled so that the

βάρβαροι μή έλοιεν ήμάα barbarians might not capture us.

In both cases ίναίόκωο ... μή could be replaced by μή at the beginning of the purpose clause (μή oi βάρβαροι έλακ:ιν/ έλοιεν ήμάΰ). The subjunctive is often retained after a historic main verb, as this was regarded as producing a vivid effect (cf. vivid present, see note on 7.2.13 /.8). The second of the above examples would then become: άπεφύγομεν ίνα (or όπωο) οί βάρβαροι μή έλωαν ήμάα As English has no way of bringing out the force of the subjunctive here, we must translate as previously,

(ii) Noun clauses after verbs of fearing (negated by ού) The most common verb meaning to fear is φοβεομαι, which functions as a passive deponent with a middle future (11.1/1 note; it is not a true deponent as we also have an active φοβέω terrify), φοβεομαι and other verbs of fearing can be followed by a noun in the accusative: τον λέοντα φοβούμαι I fear (or am afraid of) the lion. They may also be followed by a clause which performs the same function as a noun (and hence is called a noun clause): I am afraid that the lion may eat me. Most (but not all) clauses of this sort have reference to a time subsequent to that of the main verb and in Greek are introduced by μή, which here, and elsewhere when used as a conjunction, can be literally translated by lest. The verb in the μή clause is put into the subjunctive after a main verb in a primary tense or into the optative after a main verb in a historic tense. As with purpose clauses, the subjunctive can be retained after a historic tense for a vivid effect.

φοβούμαι μή ό λέων με φάγη. I am afraid that (lit. lest) the lion may (or will) eat me.

έφοβήθην μή ό λέων με I was afraid that the lion φάγοι (or φάγη). might (or would) eat me.

If the μή clause is negated, the negative is ού: ό λέων φοβείται μή τροφήν The lion is afraid that be

ούχ εύρη. may not find food. The noun clause can also have reference to the same tin as, or a time anterior to, the verb of fearing. Here μη followed by the indicative because what is feared either Ν happening or has happened:

φοβούμαι μή ό λέων τον I am afraid that the lion is έμόν φίλον νυν έοθίει/τήν now eating my friend / έμήν γυναίκα έχθέο έφαγεν. ate my wife yesterday.

Where in English a verb of fearing is followed by an infinitive, Greek has the same construction:

αί ψύλλαι ού φοβούνται The fleas are not afraid to φάγει ν τον λέοντα. eat the lion (or of eating

the lion). (iii) Indefinite subordinate clauses (negated by μή)

Certain temporal conjunctions (e.g. έπεί , ότε) ma\ introduce a subordinate clause referring to the present or past and be followed by the indicative. Greek idiom here is very similar to that of English and we have already met examples (e.g. at 7.2.12). These clauses refer to single definite events. Another type of subordinate clause is that with an indefinite sense and is expressed in English by the addition of ever. In I dislike what he is doing the subordinate clause refers to a specific thing (viz the thing that he is doing), but in I dislike whatever he does the subordinate clause refers to a general class of thing (viz whatever thing he does), and so is called indefinite. Such clauses may be adjectival (as above), or adverbial, e.g. I ®η going wherever my sister goes (contrast I am going to where my sister lives where the adverbial clause refers to a definite place). In Greek the construction used for these clauses in priman sequence (i.e. when the main verb is in a primary tense) ^ similar. The particle αν, which here1 is the equivalent ο ever, is added to the subordinate clause but in addition verb is put into the subjunctive, αν coalesces with certain conjunctions, e.g. δταν whenever (= ότε + άν), έ π ε ι δ ά ν -έπειδή + άν) whenever. Examples of indefinite clauses i1

primary sequence are: δταν xic κλέπτη, ζημιούται. Whenever anyone steals /7(

is punished.

1 άν has an entirely different force when used in a main clause (18.1/5).

πράττουαν ά άν βούλωνται. They do whatever they want [to do].

Compare the above with the definite relative clause in: πράττουαν ά βούλονται. They are doing [the things]

which they want [to do]. Because we can never be completely certain of what is going to happen in the future, the construction of άν + subjunctive is very common in subordinate temporal clauses with a future reference (cf. 18.1/5). Often English idiom does not require us to translate άν:

ή Δίκη μάρψει τοΐχ; KOKOOC Justice will seize the δταν τύχη. wicked men when (lit.

whenever) she finds [them].

For indefinite subordinate clauses in historic sequence the optative without άν is used (we do not have the option of the primary construction as in (i) and (ii) above):

ό Kupoc έθήρευεν από ίππου Cyrus used to hunt from όποτε γυμνάΰαι βούλοιτο horseback whenever (or έαυτόν καί τοίκ: ϊππουα simply when) he wanted

to exercise himself and his horses.

The negative for all indefinite clauses is μή: ό μωροΰ γελφ καί δταν τι Fools laugh (lit. the fool

μή γέλοιον ή. laughs) even when something is not funny.

(d) Optative in indirect speech The optative has two further uses in subordinate clauses, one of which we shall deal with here (for the other see 18.1/5). In ^direct speech which is introduced by a verb in a historic tense \be said that...; he asked if... etc.) all finite verbs may be put l£to the optative. There is no change in sense, and optatives of

a s s o r t are translated as indicatives: 0 Κλεανδροΰ εΐπεν δτι Cleander said that he did

Δεξιππον ούκ έπαινοίη not commend Dexippus (or ind. έπαινεΐ). (original: Δεξιππον ούκ

έπαινώ I do not commend Dexippus).

He said that he had caught sight of an army (original: κατεΐδον οτρατευμα I caught sight of an army; on the use or the English pluperfect had caught see 16.1/2).

Xenophon did not ask what the misfortune was (original: τί ecu τό πάθοο; what is the misfortune?).

Finite verbs in indirect speech always retain the tense of the original direct speech (8.1/3&), and consequently the distinction between the present and aorist optative here involves time, not aspect, as the above examples show. A verb in a future tense in direct speech can be put into the future optative when reported in historic sequence: ειπον ότι τούτο ποιήοοιμι (or ποιήοω) I said that I would do this (original: τούτο ποιήοω I shall do this). The future optative has no other uses.

Notes 1 When an adverbial clause of reason (introduced by δτι

because, έπεί since, etc.) occurs after a historic tense its verb is put into the optative if the speaker or writer wishes to ascribe a reason or motive to the subject of the main verb but does not vouch for it himself. This type of expression is called virtual indirect speech as no verb of saying, thinking, etc. is actually used. The subordinating conjunction is to bi translated by on the grounds that, thinking/saying that:

οί Αθηναίοι τον Περικλέα The Athenians abused έκάκιζον δτι οτρατηγόο Pericles on the grounds ων ούκ έπεξάγοι. that, [though] being

general, he did not lead [them] out.

2 When a deliberative question (τί ποιώμεν; what are we do?) is reported after a verb in a historic tense its verb m& be put into the optative:

ήπορούμεν τί (or δτι) We were at a loss [as ^ ποιοΐμεν to] what we shoula do·

The subjunctive may, however, be retained.

ειπεν δτι κατιδοι (or κατεΐδε, < καθοράω) στράτευμα.

Ξενοφών ούκ ήρετο τί τό πάθοο εϊη (or έστιν).

14.2 Greek reading In addition to translating, define each use of the subjunctive and optative. 1# ένεοτι γάρ TIC καί λόγοιαν ήδονή,

λήθην όταν ποιώα τών δντων κακών. 2# πώο ούν μάχωμαι θνητόΰ ων θεία τύχη; 3# νουν χρή θεάΰθαι, νουν* τί τχ\ο εύμορφίαΰ

όφελος δταν TIC μή καλα,ο φρέναΰ έχη; 4 oc άν 5ic ναυαγήΰη, μάτην μέμφεται Ποΰειδώνα. 5 Οωκράτηΰ έφη τουο μέν πολλούΰ άνθρώπουΰ ζην ίνα

έΰθίακΣΐν, αύτδΰ δέ έΰθίειν ίνα ζη. 6 φάγωμεν καί πίωμεν* αύριον γάρ άποθνήΰκομεν. 7# Qsoc αίτίαν φύει βροτοΐΰ

δταν κακώΰαι δώμα παμπήδην θέλη. 8# (be χαρίεν έστ' άνθρωποΰ δταν άνθρωποΰ ή. 9# Α. TIC έσην ouroc; Β. ίατρόΰ. Α. a>c KOKGJC έχει

άπαc ιατρός έάν κακώΰ μηδε'^ έχη. 10# ΰφόδρ' έΰτίν ήμών ό βίοΰ ο'ίνω προΰφερήσ

δταν ή τό λοιπόν μικρόν, δξοΰ γίγνεται. 11 οί μέν φοβούμενοι μή φύγωα πατρίδα καί οί μέλλοντεΰ

μάχεΰθαι φοβούμενοι μή ήττηθώΰΐν ούτε ΰίτου ούτε ύπνου δύνανται λαγχάνειν διά τον φόβο ν οί δέ ήδη φυγάδες ήδη δέ ήττηθέντεο δύνανται καί μάλλον τών εύδαιμόνων έcθίειv καί καθεύδειν. 5

12 πίθηκοΰ ό πίθηκοΰ κάν (= καί έάν) χρυΰά έχη ΰάνδαλα. 13 έφοβήθηΰαν οί ,Έλληvεc μή προΰάγοιεν οί Πέρΰαι προο τό

κέραο καί περιπτύξαντεΰ άμφοτέρωθεν amove κατακόψειαν. 14 ό δέ άνήρ, δν ΰυνέλαβον, έpωτώμεvoc ποδαπόΰ ε'ίη, Πέρσηΰ

μέν έφη είναι, πορεύεΰθαι δ' άπό του Τιριβάζου ^τρατεύματοΰ οπωο έπιτήδεια λάβοι.

15 ό Διογένης ίδών τοξότην άφυή, παρά τον ΰκοπόν έκάθιΰεν ειπών, ίνα μή πληγώ.

του θανεΐν άπειρία nac TIC φοβείται φώΰ λιπεΐν τόδ' ήλίου.

γ έτρεχέ TIC μή βρεχθείη καί eic βόθρον άπεπνίγη. άμα δέ τη ήμέρα ΰυνελθόντεΰ οί ^ρατηγοί έθαύμαζον δτι Kypoc ούτε άλλον πέμποι ^μανοΰντα δτι χρή ποιεΐν, ούτε aircoc φαίνοιτο. έδοξεν ούν αύτοΐΰ cυcκευacaμέvoιc ά ειχον καί έξοπλίΰαμένοΐΰ ίέναι (to go) είc τό πpόcθεv. ήδη δε έν όρμή δντων, άμα ήλίω άνέχοντι ήλθε Πpoκλήc ό 5 Τευθρανίαΰ άρχων καί Γλοϋΰ ό Ταμώ. ούτοι δέ ειπον δτι Κύροΰ μέν άποθάνοι, 'Apiaioc δέ έν τω ΰταθμώ ε'ίη μετά τών

140 c 3

He said that he had caught sight of an army (original: κατεΐδον οτρατευμα I caught sight of an army; on the use of the English pluperfect had caught see 16.1/2).

Xenophon did not ask what the misfortune was (original: τί ecu τό 7KX6OC; what is the misfortune?).

Finite verbs in indirect speech always retain the tense of the original direct speech (8.1/36), and consequently the distinction between the present and aorist optative here involves time, not aspect, as the above examples show. A verb in a future tense in direct speech can be put into the future optative when reported in historic sequence: εΐπον δτι τοΰτο ποιήΰοιμι (or ποιτ^ω) I said that I would do this (original: τοΰτο ποιήΰω I shall do this). The future optative has no other uses.

Notes 1 When an adverbial clause of reason (introduced by δτι

because, έπεί since, etc.) occurs after a historic tense its verb is put into the optative if the speaker or writer wishes to ascribe a reason or motive to the subject of the main verb but does not vouch for it himself. This type of expression is called virtual indirect speech as no verb of saying, thinking, etc. is actually used. The subordinating conjunction is to be translated by on the grounds that, thinking!saying that:

οί 'Αθηναίοι τον Περικλέσ The Athenians abused έκάκιζον ότι ΰτρατηγόΰ Pericles on the grounds ων ούκ έπεξάγοι. that, [though] being

general, he did not lead [them] out.

2 When a deliberative question (τί ποιώμεν; what are we to do?) is reported after a verb in a historic tense its verb ma} be put into the optative:

ήποροΰμεν τί (or ότι) We were at a loss [as ποιοΐμεν to] what we should do.

The subjunctive may, however, be retained.

ειπεν ότι κατιδοι (or κατεΐδε, < καθοράω) στράτευμα.

Ξενοφών ούκ ήρετο τί τό πάθοΰ ε'ίη (or έστίν).

14.2 Greek reading In addition to translating, define each use of the subjunctive and optative. 1# ένεοτι γάρ TIC καί λόγοιοιν ήδονή,

λήθην δταν ποιώα τών δντων κακών. 2# πώο ούν μάχωμαι θνητόο ων θεία τύχη; 3# νουν χρή θεάοθαι, νουν τί τηο εύμορφίαο

όφελοο, δταν TIC μή καλάο φρέναο έχη; 4 oc άν δίο ναυαγήοη, μάτην μέμφεται Ποοειδώνα. 5 Οωκράτηο έφη τούο μέν πολλούο άνθρώπουο ζην ϊνα

έοθίωοιν, αύτόο δέ έοθίειν ϊνα ζή. 6 φάγωμεν καί πίωμεν* αύριον γάρ άποθνήοκομεν. 7# θεόο αίτίαν φύει βροτοΐο

δταν κακώοαι δώμα παμπήδην θέλη. 8# ώο χαρίεν έοτ' άνθρωποο δταν άνθρωποο ή. 9# Α. τίο έοτιν ούτοο; Β. ίατρόο. Α. ώο κακώο έχει

άπαο ίατρόο, έάν κακώο μηδείο έχη. 10# οφόδρ' έοτίν ήμών ό βίοο οϊνω προοφερήο*

όταν ή τό λοιπόν μικρόν, όξοο γίγνεται. 11 οί μέν φοβούμενοι μή φύγωοι πατρίδα καί οί μέλλοντεο

μάχεοθαι φοβούμενοι μή ήττηθώοιν ούτε οίτου ούτε ύπνου δύνανται λαγχάνειν διά τον φόβον οί δέ ήδη φυγάδεο, ήδη δέ ήττηθέντεο δύνανται καί μάλλον τών εύδαιμόνων έοθίειν καί καθεύδειν. 5

12 πίθηκοο ό πίθηκοο κάν (= καί έάν) χρυοά έχη οάνδαλα. 13 έφοβήθηοαν οί "Ελληνεο μή προοάγοιεν οί Πέροαι πρόο τό

κέραο καί περιπτύξαντεο άμφοτέρωθεν αύτούο κατακόψειαν. 14 ό δέ άνήρ, δν ουνέλαβον, έρωτώμενοο ποδαπόο εϊη, Πέροηο

μέν έφη είναι, πορεύεοθαι δ' άπο του Τιριβάζου οτρατεύματοο όπωο έπιτήδεια λάβοι.

15 ό Διογένηο, ίδών τοξότην άφυή, παρά τον οκοπόν έκάθιοεν ειπών, ϊνα μή πληγώ.

του θανεΐν άπειρία πάο τιο φοβείται φώο λιπεΐν τόδ' ήλιου, ετρεχέ τιο μή βρεχθείη καί είο βόθρον άπεπνίγη.

18 άμα δέ τη ήμέρα ουνελθόντεο οί οτρατηγοί έθαύμαζον ότι Κυροο ούτε άλλον πέμποι οημανούντα ότι χρή ποιεΐν, ούτε αύτόο φαίνοιτο. έδοξεν ούν αύτοιο ουοκευαοαμένοιο ά ειχον καί έξοπλιοαμένοιο ίέναι (to go) είο τό πρόοθεν. ήδη δέ έν ορμή όντων, άμα ήλίω άνέχοντι ήλθε Προκλήο ό 5 Τευθρανίαο άρχων καί Γλούο ό Ταμώ. ούτοι δέ ειπον ότι Κύροο μέν άποθάνοι, Άριαΐοο δέ έν τω οταθμώ εϊη μετά τών

άλλων βαρβάρων και λέγοι δτι ταύτην την ήμέραν περιμενοΐεν αύτούο.

19 ε'ί ποτε τούο οτρατιώταο εύτάκτωο βαδίζονταο ϊδοι, έπήνεοεν.

20# νόμον φοβηθείς ού ταραχθηοη νόμω. Notes

1 1.1 ένεοτι is in is followed by the dat. λόγοιοιν. Ll The first two words would be in reverse order in prose; δντων (< ων) lit. being, i.e. existing.

3 The pi. φρένεο is very often used with the meaning of the singular (here mind).

5 τους πολλούς άνθρώπουο most people, the majority of people (cf. note on TOIC πολλοΐο in 8.2.11 and on τά πολλά in 13.3(i) /.14)

7 φύει here plant; βροτοΐο in mortals (dat. to express place where, 23.1/2n); take παμπήδην with κακώοαι (ruin completely).

8 (be exclamatory how (also in 9, see 22.1/ltf(ii)); χαρίεν (n.) lit. charming thing; άνθρωπος (penultimate word) i.e. a [realJ human being.

9 A and Β hold this conversation on seeing a destitute doctor; A's second remark plays on two possible meanings of κακώς έχω (a) I am destitute, (b) I am sick (on έχω + adv. to express a state see note on 8.2.9 /.If.).

11 φεύγω + acc. here means go/be in exile from (17.1/5); λαγχάνειν (+ gen., lit. get) should be translated take (the men spoken of can obtain food and have time for sleep, but their fear prevents them from taking either); δύνανται on deponents in -αμαι see 19.1/36; μάλλον + gen. more than (genitive of comparison 17.1/4^).

13 προςάγω is here used intransitively, advance. 14 συνέλαβον (< συλλαμβάνω) take as 3rd pi., not as 1st s. 15 ειπών coincidental use of the aorist pple. (12.1/1); πληγώ 1st

s. aor. subj. pass, of πλήττω. 17 The pass, of βρέχω means to get wet; eic illustrates the

pregnant use of prepositions (see on 9.2.13 /.14) - the person must have fallen into the hole before drowning in it. Consequently eic βόθρον is to be translated by in a hole.

18 //.2f. πέμποι and φαίνοιτο opt. in indirect speech 14.1/4^; ςημανοΰντα fut. pple. to express purpose, 12.1/2tf(v); oti here the indirect interrogative pronoun (10.1/26 note 1)« trans, what; έδοξεν (< δοκέω) αύτοιο it seemed good t° them, i.e. they decided (21.1/4). //.4f. eic το πρόοθεν to t"e

in front [place], i.e. forward; δντων is the pple. of a genitive

absolute in which the subject (αυτών) is omitted, lit. [they] being already at the point of starting (ορμή); ήλθε is singular because it agrees with the nearer subject (Προκλήο) only. 1.6 ό Ταμώ the son of Tamos (Ταμώο, which is declined like νεώο 13.1/1 a), for this use of the definite article see 5.1/3 note 2. 1.9 περιμενοΐεν the fut. opt. represents a fut. ind. in direct speech (14.1/4d).

19 As the optative in itself makes the εί clause indefinite (14.1/4c(iii)), ποτέ is really superfluous.

20 ταραχθήοη 2nd s. fut. ind. pass, of ταράττω.

143 c 3

15.1 Grammar

15.1/1 Perfect indicative active The perfect tense in both Greek and English expresses a present state resulting from an action in the past, κέκλεικα την θύραν I have closed the door means that the door is now closed as a result of my past action of closing it. The aorist έκλειοα την θύραν I closed the door describes a single past action, but tells us nothing about the present state of the dooi; not even whether it is still in existence. Because the perfect tense describes a present state it is classified as a primary tense (4.1/1 note 1). The perfect is by no means as common as the aorist and does not exist in every Greek verb. There are two types of the perfect active, called weak and strong; only in the few verbs with both is there a difference m meaning (see note 2). There is a common set of endings (in the indicative -a, -ac, -εν, -αμεν, -ατε, -Gci(v)), but, whereas the strong perfect, like the strong aorist, has no suffix, the weak perfect has a suffixed κ which is attached in a way similar to that of the c of the weak aorist (see below). The stem of the perfect is normally modified by reduplication Thus if a verb begins with a single consonant (except p) or with two consonants of which the second is λ, μ, ν, or ρ, the initial consonant is doubled with the insertion of ε; hence weak λέλυκα (λύω) I have loosened; πεπίοτευκα (πιοτεύω) I kal'e

trusted; κέκλεικα (κλείω) I have closed; strong γέγραφα (γραΦίύ)

I have written. When, however, the initial consonant is a n

aspirate (θ, φ, χ), it is reduplicated in its unaspirated form· τεθηρακα (θηράω) I have hunted; πεφόνευκα (φονεύω) I haVi

murdered; κεχόρευκα (χορεύω) I have danced.

In other cases the perfect stem is not reduplicated but simply augmented by the temporal augment (4.1/1 note 2(ii)) for verbs with an initial vowel or diphthong: ήχα (άγω) I have led; ήρηκα (αίρέω) I have captured (see also note 3); or by the syllabic augment (4.1/1 note 2(i)) for verbs beginning with p, a double consonant (ζ, ξ, ψ), or two consonants (the second not being λ, μ, ν, ρ): έρρίφα (ρίπτω) I have thrown; έζήτηκα (ζητέω) I have sought; έκτικα (κτίζω) I have founded. The conjugation of λέλυκα (perf. ind. act. of λύω) will be found in Appendix 1. An example of a strong perfect is έρρίφα (ρίπτω throw), which is conjugated: έρρίφα, έρρΤφαϋ, έρρΤφε(ν), έρρίφαμεν, έρρίφατε, έρρίφffci(v). The weak perfect occurs mostly in: (a) stems ending in vowels or diphthongs. Here the κ suffix is

added to the present stem: κέκλεικα (κλείω). As in the aorist, the final vowel of most contracted verbs is lengthened: δεδήλωκα (δηλόω).

(b) stems ending in λ and p, where the κ suffix must be added to the original stem (i.e. the present stem stripped of any suffix, cf. 11.1/3): ήγγελκα (άγγέλλω, i.e. άγγέλ-^ω); ήρκα (αίρω, i.e. άρ-)/ω).

(c) dental stems (6.1/4), where the final dental is lost before the κ suffix: πέπεικα (πείθω); κεκόμικα (κομίζω, stem κομιδ-).

The strong perfect occurs in palatal and labial stems: πέφευγα (φεύγω); γέγραφα (γράφω). Often a final unaspirated consonant is aspirated (i.e. γ/κ > χ; β/π > φ): πέπρδχα (πράττω stem πραγ-); τετριφα (τρίβω rub stem τριβ-). In many strong perfects an ε in the present stem is changed to ο: λέλοιπα (λείπω); πέπομφα (πέμπω). A few verbs with stems in other consonants have a strong perfect, e.g. γέγονα (γίγνομαι - note change in voice; the verb has another perfect γεγένημαι, which has the same Cleaning as γέγονα). For other examples of all types see Principal parts of verbs.

Notes 1 The strong perfect of some otherwise transitive verbs has an

intransitive sense: έγείρω I wake (somebody) up (tr.), εγρήγορα (on this form see below note 3) I have woken up (intr.), i.e. I am awake.

^ πείθω and πράττω each have both a transitive and an intransitive perfect: transitive: πεπεικα I have persuaded; πέπρδχα I have done. intransitive: πέποιθα I have confidence in (+ dat.), i.e. I trust; πέπρδγα I have fared.

146 c 3

Note that πέποιθα can be translated by a present tense in English (I trust; cf. έγρήγορα above). A few other verbs 'e.g όλλϋμι, 20.1/1 note 2) follow πείθω and πράττω in having a transitive weak perfect and an intransitive strong perfect.

3 Some verbs which begin with α, ε, ο reduplicate their entire initial syllable in addition to lengthening their original initial vowel: άκήκοα (ακούω - the only common verb in a vowel stem which has a strong perfect) έγρήγορα (έγείρω - the reduplicated syllable έγρ- also contains the ρ of the stem).

4 Many perfects are slightly irregular, e.g. βέβληκα (βάλλω); κέκληκα (καλέω); πέπτωκα (πίπτω).

15.1/2 Verbs used with participles In the sentence Περικλέδ ειδον έν τη άγορα βαδίζοντα I saw Pericles walking in the agora the participle is not used in any of the ways mentioned in 12.1/2, where participles qualify either the finite verb of their clause or the clause itself. Here βαδίζοντα gives us further information (I not only saw Pericles -1 saw him walking; cf. ex. in 12.2.17 1.2) and is called a supplementary participle. Participles can only be used in this way with verbs whose meaning permits it (as όράω in Greek and see in English). Most can be classified according to their meaning. With some the accompanying participle may occur in a case other than the accusative. (a) Verbs of knowing and perceiving, e.g. έπίοταμαι (present

tense as for δύναμαι, 19.1/3b) know; γιγνώοκω recognise; όράω see; αίοθάνομαι perceive; πυνθάνομαι ascertain; άκουω hear; μανθάνω learn:

τών οτρατιωτών τιο είδε One of the soldiers saw Κλέαρχον διελαύνοντα. Clearchus riding through·

ήκουοαν αύτοΰ βοώντοο. They heard him shouting (genitive because ακούω is fo l l owed b y the genitive of the person heard -13.1/2a(iii)).

These verbs can also be followed by a noun clause introduced by δτι (8.1/3b):

ο Δωριεύο εύ ήπίοτατο ότι Dorieus knew well that he (αύτόο) οχήοει τήν (himself) would obtain βααλείδν. the kingship.

All such δτι clauses can, however, be converted to a participial phrase. When the subject of the participle is the same as the subject of the finite verb (as in the converted form of this example), the participle is put into the nominative; the subject itself will only be expressed if emphasis is required (normally some form of avxoc; cf. nominative and infinitive, 8.1/3λ): ό Δωριεύο εύ ήπίσυατο (avxoc) οχήοων την βααλείσν (the meaning is the same as above). When the subject of the participle is not the same as that of the finite verb both the participle and its subject are put into the accusative:

έμαθε την Χερρόνηοον He learnt that the πόλειο ένδεκα ή δώδεκα Chersonese had eleven or έχουοαν. twelve cities (= δτι ή

Χερρόνηοοο έχει...). Verbs of knowing and learning can also be followed by an infinitive, but in the sense of know/learn how to ...: έπίοταμαι νειν I know how to swim.

(b) Verbs of beginning, stopping, continuing, e.g. άρχομαι (mid.) begin (doing something; the middle is more common than the active in this use); παύω stop (someone doing something); παύομαι (mid.) stop (doing something oneself); διατελέω continue. With such verbs in English we have sometimes a participle, sometimes an infinitive.

ο άνεμοο έπαύοατο θύων. The wind stopped raging. μόνοι Θρακών διατελούαν Alone of the Thracians they

ovxec έλεύθεροι. continue to be free. γελώνταο έχθρούο παύοομεν With our present journey

τη νυν όδώ. we will stop our enemies laughing.

αΡχομαι regularly takes a participle: άρξομαι διδάοκων I shall begin teaching. However, as with the English begin, an infinitive is also found: ήρξαντο οίκοδομεΐν they began to build.

(c) Verbs of emotion, e.g. ήδομαι, χαίρω both be pleased, take pleasure; άχθομαι be vexed; αίοχύνομαι be ashamed:

ηδομαι άκούων cov φρονίμουο I am pleased to hear wise λογουο. words from you.

ουκ αίοχύνη eic τοιαύτα Aren't you ashamed at αγων τούο λόγουο; bringing the argument to

such a point? (lit. to such things).

148 c 3

αιοχύνομαι may also be followed by an infinitive in the sense be ashamed to do something (and therefore not do it):

αίοχύνομαί ce προοβλέπειν I am ashamed to look at έναντίον. you straight in the face.

Verbs of emotion may be followed by ότι and a finite verb with the same sense as their use with a participle. The first example above could be ήδομαι ότι ακούω ... (lit. I am pleased that I hear ...). They are followed by the dative in clauses such as Πηνελοπεία άχθομαι I am annoyed with Penelope.

(d) φαίνομαι seem, be seen, be obvious. Although φαίνομαι with an infinitive has the expected meaning seem (to be doing something), with a participle it means the same as δήλόο/φανερόο είμι + participle, viz I am obviously (doing something).

φαίνονται ούδέν λέγειν. They seem to be speaking nonsense (lit. saying nothing).

φαίνονται ούδέν λέγοντεο. They are obviously speaking nonsense (lit. they, saying nothing, are obvious).

(e) τυγχάνω chance, happen (to be doing something, i.e. by chance I am [doing something]; there is an etymological connection with τυχη chance, fortune), τυγχάνω is often used with a participle to express the idea that something has occurred fortuitously.1

έτυχε τότε έλθών. He happened to have come then (lit. he chanced having come then).

δηλώοω τό πάν ό παρά τούδε I shall reveal the whole τυγχάνω μαθών. [matter] which I happen

to have learnt from this man.

( f ) λανθάνω escape the notice of (+ acc.) and φθάνω anticipate, be beforehand can also be accompanied by a participle agreeing with their subject (in this construction they generally, but not always, have an object). As the main idea is contained in the participle, this will become the finite verb of the clause in an idiomatic translation:

1 This verb must be distinguished from γίγνομαι, which means happen in the sense o f t J

place (for its range of meanings see 8.1/2).

He sheds tears without anyone knowing (lit. he [in] shedding tears escapes the notice of all).

Menelaus was present without us knowing (lit. Menelaus [in] being present escaped the notice of us).

They hauled up their ships before winter (lit. they [in] hauling up their ships anticipated the winter).

The Scythians arrived at the bridge before the Persians (lit. the Scythians [in] arriving at the bridge anticipated the Persians).

The difference here between the present and aorist participle is one of aspect, not of time. A present participle indicates a condition or process (first and second examples), an aorist participle indicates an event (third and fourth examples). Cf. 12.1/1 and, for a similar distinction between the present and aorist infinitive, 4.1/1. In sentences of this type it is, in fact, immaterial whether λανθάνω/φθάνω appear as the finite verb with an accom-panying participle (as above), or as the participle (always aorist; the participle here has no temporal force) with an · accompanying finite verb. Thus in the first and third examples we could have, with identical meanings: πάντας λαθών δάκρυα λείβει (lit. escaping the notice of all, he sheds tears); φθάςαντες oi Οκύθαι τους Περςδς έπί την γέφϋραν άφίκοντο (lit. the Scythians, anticipating the Persians, arrived at the bridge).

Ί5.2 Greek reading 1 οποδόν φεύγων εις πυρ έμπέπτωκα. ~ ουδείς λανθάνει θεούς πονηρά ποιών. 2 καρκίνος ορθά βαδίζειν ού μεμάθηκεν.

^ απαντέο έςμεν εις τό νουθετεΐν ςοφοί, αυτοί δ' άμαρτάνοντες ού γιγνώςκομεν.

πάντας λανθάνει δακρυα λείβων.

Μενέλεως ημάς έλαθε παρών.

έφθαςαν τον χειμώνα άναςπάςαντες τάς ναΰς.

έφθαςαν οί Οίύθαι τούς Περςδς έπί την γέφϋραν άφικόμενοι.

150 c 3

ΟΙ

5 εϊληφεν ή παγίο τον μΰν. 6# άνήρ γάρ δοτιο ήδεται λέγων άεί,

έλαθεν έαυτόν τοιο ουνοΰοιν ων βαρύο. 7 οκορπίουο βέβρωκεν. 8# δοτιο καθ' έτέρου δόλια μηχανεύεται,

αύτόο καθ' αύτού λανθάνει ποιών. 9 έτυχον έν τη άγορφ οί όπλιται καθεύδοντεο.

10 Μένων δήλοο ήν έπιθυμών πλουτεΐν ίοχυρώο. 11 The crucifixion of Jesus

παρέλαβον ούν τον Ίηοούν καί βαοτάζων έαυτώ τον σταυρόν έξήλθεν eic τον λεγόμενον Κρανίου Τόπον, ό λέγεται έβραϊσυί Γολγοθά, όπου αύτόν έοταύρωοαν, καί μετ' αύτού άλλουο δύο έντεύθεν καί έντεύθεν, μέοον δέ τον Ίηοούν. έγραψεν δέ καί τίτλον ό Πιλάτοο καί έθηκεν (placed [it]) 5 έπί του οταυροΰ, 'IHCOTC Ό NAZQPAIOC Ό BACIAETC ΤΩΝ ΙΟΥΔΑΙΩΝ, τούτον ούν τον τίτλον πολλοί άνέγνα^αν τών 'Ιουδαίων, ότι έγγύο ό τόποο τηο πόλεωο όπου έοταυρώθη ό Ίηοούο. έλεγον ούν τφ Πιλάτω οί άρχιερεΐο τών 'Ιουδαίων, μή γράφε (do not write), ό βααλεύο τών 'Ιουδαίων, άλλ' ότι 10 έκεΐνοο ειπεν, βαοιλεύο είμι τών Ιουδαίων, άπεκρίθη ό Πιλατοο, ό γέγραφα γέγραφα.

12 έπτά ήμέραο, ac έπορεύοντο διά τών Καρδούχων, nacac μαχόμενοι διετέλεοαν.

13 Κλεάρετοο, παρακαλέοαο τούο στρατί ώταο, ήγεν έπί τό χωρίον πορευόμενον δ' αύτόν έφθαοεν ήμέρα γενομένη.

14 According to Plutarch intellectual pleasures are much superior to those of the body and therefore our reactions to the former are much more enthusiastic. ό Άρχιμήδηο λουόμενοο, <»c φααν, έκ τηο ύπερχύοεακ έννοήοαο τήν του οτεφάνου μέτρηαν, οίον έκ τι voc κατοχήο ή έπιπνοίαο, έξήλατο βοών, εύρηκα, καί τούτο πολλάκιχ φθεγγόμενοο έβάδιζεν. ούδενόο δ' άκηκόαμεν ούτε γαοτριμάργου ούτωο περιπαθώο βοώντοο, βέβρωκα, ουτε 5 έρωτικού, πεφίληκα, μυρίων άκολάοτων γενομένων και όντων.

15# Α. γεγάμηκε δήπου. Β. τί ού λέγειο; άληθινώο γεγάμηκεν, όν έγώ ζώντα περιπατούντά τε κατέλιπον;

16 τό δέ μέγα τειχοο έπαύοαντο οίκοδομούντεο φοβούμενοι μη ούχ ίκανόν εϊη άντέχειν.

17# όρώ δέ τοΐο πολλοΐα,ν άνθρώποιο έγώ τικτουοαν ύβριν τήν πάροιθ' εύπραξίαν.

Notes 3 ορθά acc. η. pi. used adverbially (= όρθώο, cf. 20.1/5). 4 eic with respect to. 6 άνηρ ... ocxic lit. whatever man (ocxic is here the indefinite

relative - 10.1/2b note 2) but translate the man who; έλαθεν gnomic aor.; translate by present; CDVOOCI dat. pi. m. of the pres. pple of συνειμι.

9 As the subject is plural έτυχον must be 3rd pi. 10 δήλοο ην έπιθϋμών lit. was obvious desiring, i.e. it was

obvious/clear that M. desired. 11 1.3 Γολγοθά has no accent because it is not a Greek word.

1.4 εντεύθεν και έντεΰθεν lit. from here and from there, i.e. on each side. ll. 7f. Take πολλοί with τών Ιουδαίων and έγγύc with τηο πόλεως. 1.9 έλεγον said the imperfect is used because the subject is an unspecified number of individuals.

13 ήγεν inceptive imperfect began to lead. 14 The famous story of Archimedes' discovery of the principle

of displacement (when two bodies of the same weight are submerged they will displace the same amount of liquid only if they are of identical composition). Using this he was able to establish that his patron, Hiero of Syracuse, had been cheated by a jeweller who had been commissioned to make a crown of pure gold (the crown did not displace the same volume of water as an amount of gold of exactly equal weight). //.4f. έβάδιζεν impf. to express repeated action went about; ούδενόΰ ... ούτε ... ούτε lit. of no-one ... neither... nor but translate neither of any ... nor of any ...; άκηκόαμεν royal (or author's) plural. 1.6 άκολάΰτων the adj. (unrestrained, licentious) is here used as a noun (sensualist).

16 φοβούμενοι μή ούχ ... see 14.1/4c(ii). 1 7 TOIC πολλοΐΰ for the majority (cf. 8 . 2 . 1 1 ) ; ύβριν is governed

by τίκτουΰαν, which agrees with εύπρδξίδν; πάροιθ'(ε) is an adv. but translate by an adj. former.

15.3 Extra reading

Prometheus Bound (1) This is the first of two passages from the Prometheus Bound, a play which has come down under the name of the first great Attic tragedian, Aeschylus (525-456 BC). Its plot, like that of nearly all tragedies, is taken from mythology.

152 Prometheus, who belonged to an older but minor order of divinities called Titans, had helped Zeus wrestle supieme control of heaven from his father Cronos. At this stage mankind lived in primitive squalor, but Prometheus took pity on them and gave them fire. This he was obliged to steal from heaven as it had been the exclusive possession of the gods. Zeus, incensed by the theft, ordered that Prometheus be fastened to a rock at the ends of the earth. In the following scene, with which the play opens, Zeus' henchman Kpcxxoc (Might), who with his fellow lackey Βία (Violence) has escorted Prometheus to the rock, tells Hephaestus, the divine blacksmith, to execute Zeus' command.

KPATOC χθονόΰ μεν ε ^ τηλουρόν ήκομεν πέδον, άκύθην ec οΐμον, άβροτον eic έρημίαν.

'Ηφαΐΰτε, coi δέ χρή μέλει ν έπιΰτολάΰ ac coi πατήρ έφεΐτο (enjoined on), τόνδε πρόΰ πέτραΐΰ ύψηλοκρήμνοΐΰ τον λεωργόν όχμάΰαι 5 άδαμαντίνων ^ μ ώ ν έν αρρήκτου πέδαια τό cov γάρ 0v0oc, παντέχνου πυρόΰ ceXac, θνητοΐΰΐ κλέψαΰ ώπαΰεν. τοιάΰδέ τοι άμαρτίαΰ ΰφε δει θεοΐΰ δούναι (to give i.e. to pay) δίκην, G>C άν διδαχθη τήν Aioc τυραννίδα 10 ΰτέργειν, φιλάνθρωπου δέ παύεΰθαι τρόπου.

ΉΦΑΐσΐΌΟ Κράτοΰ Βία τε, cφωv μέν έντολή Aioc έχει xekoc δή κούδέν έμποδών έτι, έγώ δ' άτολμος είμι ουγγενη θεόν δήcat βία φάραγγι πρόο δυοχειμέρω. 15

πάντωο δ' άνάγκη τώνδέ μοι τόλμαν οχεθειν εύωριάζειν γάρ πaτpόc λόγουο βαρύ. τηο όρθοβούλου Θέμιδοο αίπυμήτα παι, άκοντα c' άκων δυολύτοιο χαλκεύμαα προοπαοοαλεύοω τωδ' άπανθρώπω πάγω, 20

ϊν' ούτε φωνήν ούτε του μορφήν βροτών όψη, οταθευτόο δ' ήλιου φοίβη φλογί χροιάο άμείψειο άνθοσ άομένω δέ coi ή ποικιλείμων νύξ άποκρύψει φάοο πάχνην θ' έώαν ήλιοο οκεδα (will scatter) πάλιν* 25

άεί δέ του πaρόvτoc άχθηδών κακού τρύοει c\ ό λωφήοων γάρ ού πέφυκέ πω.

Notes ll.If. In poetry the demonstrative adjective, as well as the definite article, can be omitted, and in English we would supply

this with πέδον, οιμον and έρημίαν; take (ϋκύθην with οιμον and άβροτον with έρημίδν. I.3 δέ is here used idiomatically in a c lause following a vocative and should not be translated; enιοτολάο is the subject of μέλειν (which governs the dative coi). 1.4 πατήρ i.e. Zeus, whom Homer calls father of gods and men. / 5 όχμάοαι aor. inf., to be taken after έπιοτολάο which it e x p l a i n s . 1.7 avGoc flower but here metaphorically glory, pride; παντέχνου lit. [required] for all arts because fire was seen as n e c e s s a r y for any technological progress. II. 8f. θνητοΐα = Ovrycoic (3.1/1 note 3); κλέψδο ώπαοεν lit. having stolen ... he gave [it]; τοιάοδέ ... άμαρτίδο gen. with δίκην (penalty for such a wrong); οφε = αύτόν, i.e. Prometheus. /. 10 g>C άν + subj. e x p r e s s e s purpose (= ϊνα + subj. 14.1/4c(i)). / .II παύεοθαι i s followed by a gen. (φιλάνθρωπου ... τρόπου). 1.12 οφων for you two (24.1/4). /.13 κούδέν = καί ούδέν (11.1/5). /.15 δήοαι aor. inf. act. of δέω bind. U.16i. Supply ecu with both άνάγκη and βαρύ. 1.19 c' = ce (also in 1.27); δυολύτοιο χαλκεύμαα dat. of instrument (11.1/2). 1.20 τωδ'(ε) άπανθρώπω πάγω to this ... the dat. is governed by the προϋ- of προοπαοοαλεύοω. /.21 ϊν'(α) (+ ind.) where; του = τινόο (10.1/1). 1.22 όψη (< όράω) lit. you will see is appropriate to μορφήν but not to φωνην although it governs both - trans, you will perceive. 1.23 χροιάο άμειψειο avGoc you will alter (i.e. lose) the bloom (lit. flower) of [your] skin (through constant exposure to the sun Prometheus' skin will become tanned and rough); άομένω ... coi for you [being] glad dat. of reference (24.1/2e). 1.25 ff i.e. τε. 1.27 ό λωφήοων lit. the [one] going to relieve; γάρ can be placed after the first phrase rather than the first word; πέφϋκε (perf. of φύω is always intransitive) has been born.

16.1 Grammar

16.1/1 Phrases and clauses of result Result in English is usually expressed by a subordinate clause of the type (he was so poor) that he couldn't buy food, although we may omit that and say he was so poor he couldn't buy food. In Greek the corresponding conjunction, ωοτε that, so that, is always expressed. As in English, there is usually an anticipatory word in the main clause such as ούτωο so, to such an extent; τοιοΰτοο of this kind, of such a kind; TOCOUTOC SO much, pi. so many (on the declension of the last two see note 1 below), ωοτε is usually followed by an infinitive, particularly where the result is to be marked as merely contemplated or in prospect and not stressed as a fact (here ώστε is to be translated as - see first example). Where the subject of the infinitive is the same as the subject of the main verb, it is normally not expressed; where it is different, it is in the accusative (just as in the in f in i t ive construction of indirect statement (8.1/3)). If the infinitive is negated, the negative is μή:

ούτω CKOIOC ει ώοτε μή You are so stupid as not to δύναοθαι μανθάνειν. be able to understand.

τοοαύτην κραυγήν έποίηοαν They made such a din that ώστε TOOC ταξιάρχουο έλθεΐν. the taxiarchs came (I.E.

such a din as to cause the taxiarchs to come).

ώστε + infinitive may also express an intended r e s u l t . T ^ distinction between this and a purpose clause can be t e n u o u s , τούτο notouciv ώοτε μή άποθανειν they are doing this so as to die.

ώ(;τε may also be followed by a finite verb in the indicative (negated by ού), but only where there is emphasis on the actual occurrence of the result; so ούτω CKOIOC ει ώοτε ού δύναοαι μανθάνειν would mean you are so stupid that you [actually] cannot understand; έπέπεοε χιών άπλετοο ωοτε άπέκρυψε και τά όπλα καί τούο άνθρώπουο an immense amount of (lit. boundless) snow fell so that it [actually] covered both the weapons and the men. Notes 1 τοιούτοο and τοοούτοο are compounds of ούτοο (9.1/1) and

are inflected in the same way, except that the initial τ which ούτοο has in most forms is dropped: τοιούτοο, τοιαύτη, τοιούτο(ν); τοοούτοο, τοοαύτη, τοοούτο(ν) (unlike τούτο, the neuter s. nom. and acc. can end in v).

2 ώοτε may be used to introduce an independent sentence, with much the same force as ούν, i.e. and so, therefore, consequently: ούχ ήκεν ωοτε οί Έλληνεο έφρόντιζον he had not come; consequently, the Greeks were worried.

3 The English phrase to such a pitch/point/degree of χ is expressed in Greek by είο τούτο or είο τοοούτο(ν) + genitive (cf. 23.1/1 d): είο τοοούτον ύβρεωο ήλθον ώοτε έπειοαν ύμάο έλαύνειν αύτόν they reached such a pitch of insolence that they persuaded you to drive him out.

4 ώοτε may also be used in the sense on the condition that to express a condition or proviso: ύπέοχοντο ώοτε έκπλεΐν they made a promise on condition that they should sail away. However, on condition that is more usually expressed by έφ' ω or έφ' ωτε followed by an infinitive or, less frequently, by a future indicative: έποιήοαντο είρήνην έφ' ω τά μακρά τείχη καθελόντεο τοΐο Λακεδαιμονίου έπεοθαι (or έψονται) they made peace on condition that after taking down the long walls they would follow the Spartans. Both the infinitive and future indicative in conditions of this type are negated by μή.

5 For the use of a comparative + ή ωοτε, see 17.114c.

Ί6.1/2 Pluperfect indicative active The Greek pluperfect exists only in the indicative mood. It is n°rmally to be translated by the same tense in English (J had gashed before you came) but its use is much more restricted (see below).

^ e pluperfect is a historic tense (4.1/1 note 1) and its active s tem is formed from that of the perfect active. Where the latter

contains reduplication (15.1/1), the pluperfect active stem κ formed by adding the augment, e.g.

PERFECT ACTIVE STEM PLUPERFECT ACTIVE STEM λελυκ- (λύω) έλελυκ-γεγραφ- (γράφω) έγεγραφ-πεπομφ-(πέμπω) έπεπομφ-

Where, however, the perfect active stem is already augmented it is also used for the pluperfect without change, e.g. ήχ- (άγω). The pluperfect active endings are: -η, -TIC, -ει(ν), -εμεν, -ετε. -εοαν. For the conjugation of έλελύκη I had loosened see Appendix 1. The pluperfect is the past version of the perfect and thus expresses a state that existed in the past (cf. 15/1):

έθϋον πρότερον οί Πελαογοι Formerly the Pelasgians TOIC θεοΐο, όνομα δέ used to sacrifice to the έποιοΰντο ούδενί αυτών gods but gave a name to ού γάρ άκηκόεοάν πω. none of them; for they

had not yet (πω) heard Itheir names] (i.e. they were in a state of ignorance about the names of the gods).

The pluperfect is relatively uncommon in Greek. In English we often use the pluperfect in subordinate clauses to denote an action which happened two stages back in the past, e.g. when the soldiers had assembled, Cyrus spoke as follows (if we regard Cyrus' speaking as one stage back in the past, then the soldiers assembling, which happened before Cyrus' speaking, is two stages back in the past). Greek, however, normally regards both actions as single past events and uses two aorists: επει οι οτρατιώται συνηλθον, Κύροο έλεξε τάδε (lit. when the soldier* assembled ..., which we can also say in English). It would be possible to regard the soldiers as being in a state of having assembled and so justify a Greek pluperfect, but in subord inate clauses of time and reason (and also relative clauses) this i> rarely done.

16.1/3 Perfect and pluperfect indicative middle/passive In both the perfect and pluperfect the middle and passive voiw have the same forms.

perfect fhe stem of the strong perfect active is retaind in the middle /passive, but that of the weak perfect active lses its κ. C o n s e q u e n t l y the distinction between strong and we& perfects is not maintained. As, however, the stem of tfc perfect middle/passive is not always predictable, the first per«>n perfect i n d i c a t i v e middle/passive is included in the princip; parts of i r regu lar verbs (7.1/1 note 3 and Principal parts of vcbs). When a perfect middle/passive stem ends in a vowel or diphthong1 (e.g. λελ\>-, νενΤκη-) the endings -μαι, -cat, -xai, -μεθα, ^ θ ε , -νται are added (for the conjugation οΐλελυμαι I have ransomed (mid.), I have been loosened oass.) see Appendix 1). When a perfect middle/passive stem ends in a casonant, a sound change is necessary in certain cases to assimike the final consonant of the stem to the initial consonant of he ending. With all consonant stems a succession of three conso;ants in the second and third plural is avoided; in the second phral the c of the ending (-cQe) is dropped, but in the third plural tttic Greek sidesteps the difficulty by using a two-word periphrasis consisting of the perfect middle /passive participle see 16.1/4) and the third plural present of ειμί. Consonant stems are classified in the same way as for the present tense (6.1/4 and 11.1/3): (a) Palatal stems The final palatal of the stem appears as γ before -μα and -μεθα (and -μενοι of the participle), and as κ before -cat giving -ξαι) and -ται. In the second pi. κ + cθε > κθε > χθε (the κ is aspirated to assimilate it to Θ). From φνλάττω guard (perf. mi4./pass. stem πεφυλακ-) we have:

s· 1 πεφυλαγμαι PL. πεφυλάγμεθα 2 πεφυλαξαι πεφύλαχθε 3 πεφύλακται πεφυλαγμενοι uci(v)

^hen these forms are used as passives they mean I have been guarded, you have been guarded, etc. When they are used as middles their sense depends on the use of the middfe involved in * Particular context (8.1/1), i.e. I have guarded myself ttc., or I

guarded for myself etc., or I have had (something) guarded The participle used in the third plural varies in gender

Wording to the subject. This applies to all forms Df this type.

n vow"?rs ° n l y i n v e r b s w i t h a w e a k P e r f e c t a c t i v e where the κ of tie stem is preceded (Tcck o r dlPhthong; the strong perfect άκηκοα (ακούω) has no passive in Classical

(b) Labial stems The final labial of the stem appears as μ before -μαι and -μεθο (and -μένοι of the participle), and as π before -cat (giving -ψ0ι and -ται. In the second pi. π + c0e > πθε > φθε. From κρύπτω hid, (perf. mid./pass. stem κεκρυπ-) we have:

s. 1 κέκρυμμαι PL. κεκρύμμεθα 2 κέκρυψαι κέκρυφθε 3 κέκρυπται κεκρυμμένοι είά(ν)

The passive meaning is I have been hidden, etc. (c) Dental stems The final dental of the stem becomes c before all endings. In the second person s. and pi. cc > c. From πείθω persuade (perf. mid./pass. stem πεπειθ-) we have:

s. 1 πέπειομαι PL. πεπείομεθα 2 πέπειοαι πέπειοθε 3 πέπειοται πεπεισμένοι είά(ν)

The passive meaning is I have been persuaded, etc.

(d) Stems in λ , μ, ν, ρ The final consonant of λ and ρ stems remains unchanged, άγγέλλω announce, αιείρω sow (perf. mid./pass. stems ήγγελ-έαιαρ-; the α of the latter is irregular) have ήγγελμαι, ήγγελοσι etc. and έοπαρμαι, ecnapcai etc. The final consonant of ν stems is dropped in some verbs, but in others becomes c before -μαι. -μεθα, (and -μένοι). From κρίνω judge, φαίνω show (pert mid./pass. stems κεκρι-, πεφαν-) we have:

s. 1 κέκριμαι πέφαομαι 2 κέκριοαι πέφανοαι 3 κέκριται πέφανται

PL. 1 κεκρίμεθα πεφάομεθα 2 κέκριοθε πέφανθε 3 κεκριμένοι ε ία(ν) πεφαομένοι εία(ν)

The passive meaning is I have been judged, etc., I have bn shown, etc. -η is added to the few μ stems both in the perfect a c t i v e ami 1

the perfect middle/passive, e.g. νέμω apportion, ν ε ν έ μ η κ α νενεμημαι (mid./pass.), 3 pi. νενέμηνται.

Pluperfect ^ f

The pluperfect indicative middle/passive uses the middle/passive stem except that the syllabic a u g m e n t is ^ when the latter is reduplicated, e.g. έλελυ- (λύω), επεο^

(φυλάττω); but έοπαρ- (οπείρω) is used for both perfect and p l u p e r f e c t (cf. 16.1/2). The historic middle/passive endings are Ι μ η ν , -co, -το, -μεθα, -cGe, -ντο (cf. 8.1/1/). For the conjugation of έλελύμην I had ransomed (mid.), I had been loosened (pass.) see Appendix 1. With stems ending in a consonant the same s o u n d changes are involved as with the perfect indicative middle/passive, and the perfect middle/passive participle with ήοαν is used for the third plural, e.g.

s. 1 έπεφυλάγμην PL. έπεφυλάγμεθα 2 έπεφύλαξο έπεφύλαχθε 3 έπεφύλακτο πεφυλαγμένοι fjcav

The passive meaning is I had been guarded etc.

Note Third plural endings in -αται (< νται) and -ατο (< ντο) occur in early Attic and other dialects, e.g. πεφυλάχαται (perf. - its passive meaning is they have been guarded), έπεφυλάχατο (pluperf. - its passive meaning is they had been guarded). These endings must be carefully distinguished from third singular endings in -ται and -το.

16.1/4 Other parts of the perfect tense The perfect infinitives and participles are formed from the same stems as the corresponding indicatives (the reduplication or the temporal/syllabic augment of the perfect indicative stem is not dropped). The infinitive endings are -έναι (act.) and -cGoa (mid./pass.; with consonantal stems this ending undergoes the same changes as -cde). The active participle is a first and third declension adjective (10.1/3) in -ώο, -υΐα, -oc (see below), and t h e m|ddle/passive participle is a first and second declension adjective (3.1/3) in -μένοο, -μένη, -μένον.1 In the following table 07 ΑΛ5ω, φυλάττω, κρύπτω, πείθω, κρίνω only the masculine forms

0 [ the participles are given. In

cfinitiv« Participles

^.T I V E , MIDDLE/PASSIVE ACTIVE MIDDLE/PASSIVE ίο?Κ ε ν α ΐ λελύοθαι λελυκώο λελυμενοο

Ve loosened mid. to have having mid. having ransomed ransomed loosened pass, having been pass, to have loosened

, been loosened -αχεναι πεφυλάχθαι πεφυλαχώο πεφυλαγμενοο

^Φένα ι κεκρυφθαι κεκρυφωο κεκρυμμενοο

—jtis of the perfect middle/pas iparoxytone, see Appendix 9. bit/)).

1 end ^ o r m s perfect middle/passive participle is on the second syllable

160 πεποιθεναι πεποιθώΰ 160 πεπειοθαι πεπείΰμένοσ 3 πεπεικέναι πεπεικώΰ

σ> κεκρικέναι κεκρίΰθαι κεκρικώο κεκριμενοο The corresponding forms of the aorist are sometimes to b translated in the same way as those of the perfect, but th meanings and uses of the two tenses are quite distinct. The perfect always expresses a state (on the meaning of the aorist sec 4.1/1, 12.1/1). λελυκοίκ; is declined:

SINGULAR PLURAL M. F. Ν. M. F. N.

N.V. λελυκώο λελυκυΐα λελυκόο λελυκότεο λελυκυΐαι λελυκότα Acc. λελυκότα λελυκυΐαν λελυκόο λελυκότας λελυκυίδο λελυκότα Gen. λελυκότοο λελυκυίσο λελυκότοο λελυκότων λελυκυιών λελυκότων Dat. λελυκότι λελυκυίςι λελυκότι λελυκόα(ν) λελυκυίαιο λελυκόα(ν)

Notes 1 A perfect subjunctive and perfect optative exist but are rare.

The active is formed by adding to the active stem the endings -ω, -TIC, -η, -ωμεν, -ητε, -<DCI(V) (subj., giving λελύκο) etc.) and -οιμι, -oic, -οι, -οιμεν, -οιτε, -οιεν (opt., giving λελύκοιμι etc.). There are alternative active forms consisting of the perfect active participle and the appropriate part of ειμί: λελυκώΰ ώ, etc. (subj.); λελυκακ; εϊην etc. (opt.). In the middle/passive the subjunctive and optative follow the latter pattern (subj. λελυμένοΰ ώ etc., opt. λελυμένοΰ εϊην etc.) For tables see Appendix 1.

2 Greek has also a future perfect tense, which expresses a future state. For most verbs it exists only in the passive and is not common. Its stem is formed by adding c to the perfect middle/passive stem (e.g. λελϋΰ-), and to this are added the present middle/passive endings, viz λελ^ομαι I shall hai been loosened, λελύΰη (-ει), λελϋοεται, λελί^όμεθι.'· λελ^εΰθε, λελ^ονται The future perfect occurs mostly with verbs whose perfect has a present meaning (19.1/-*' and for this reason is not included in Appendix 1.

16.2 Greek reading 1 έπεί δέ έπί xac οκηνάο ήλθον, οί μέν άλλοι περί τά έπιτηδε 1

rjcav, ΰτρατηγοί δέ καί λοχαγοί CDVT^6OV. καί ένταύθα πο/. άπορία ήν. ένθεν μέν γάρ όρη ήν ύπερύψηλα, ένθεν

1 On the two perfect stems of πείθω see 15.1/1 note 2.

ποταμόο τοοούτοο ωοτε μηδέ τά δόρατα ύπερέχειν πειρωμένοιο του βάθους.

2 ό Διογένης, έρωτηθείο διά τί οί άθληταί άναίοθητοί είοιν, έφη ότι κρέααν ύείοιο καί βοείοιο άνωκοδόμηνται.

3 γαμεΐν κεκρικότα δει. 4 πάντα τον βίον έν κινδύνοιο διατελοΰμεν όντεο, ώοτε οί περί

άοφαλείαο διαλεγόμενοι λελήθαοιν αύτούο τον πόλεμον είο άπαντα τον χρόνον καταοκευάζοντεο.

5 κύνα δέρειο δεδαρμένην. 6 οί Ποτειδεάται προοδεχόμενοι τούο Άθηναίουο

έοτρατοπεδεύοντο πρόο Όλύνθου έν τω ίοθμώ, καί άγοράν έξω τηο πόλεωο έπεποίηντο. καί οτρατηγόν μέν του πεζού παντόο οί ξύμμαχοι ήρηντο Άριοτέα, τηο δέ ϊππου Περδίκκαν.

7 έπεί οί βάρβαροι έκ τηο χώραο άπήλθον, οί 'Αθηναίοι τήν έαυτών πόλιν άνοικοδομεΐν παρεοκευάζοντο. τών γάρ οικιών αί μέν πολλαί έπεπτώκεοαν, όλίγαι δέ περιήοαν, έν αίο αύτοί έοκήνωοαν οί δυνατοί τών Περοών.

8 είο ήκονημέναο μαχαίραο ή αΐξ ήκει. 9 καί τήν μέν νύκτα ένταΰθα διήγαγον έπεί δ' ήμέρα

ύπέφαινεν, έπορεύοντο οιγή ουντεταγμένοι έπί τούο πολεμίουο* καί γάρ ομίχλη έγένετο, ώοτε έλαθον έγγύο προοελθόντεο.

10 έπειτα δέ καί πρόο άπανταο τούο μετά Δημοοθένουο ομολογία γίγνεται, έφ' ωτε μή άποθανειν μηδένα, μήτε βιαίωο, μήτε δεομοΐο, μήτε οίτου ένδεια.

11 Τιρίβαζοο ειπεν ότι οπείοαοθαι βούλοιτο εφ' ω μήτε αύτόο τούο Έλληναο άδικεΐν, μήτ' έκείνουο καίειν τάο οίκίαο, λαμβάνειν τε τά έπιτήδεια ων δέοιντο. έδοξε ταύτα τοΐο οτρατηγοΐο καί έοπείοαντο έπί τούτοιο.

12 ουδέ βουλεύεοθαι έτι ώρα, ώ Cώκpατεc, άλλά βεβουλεύοθαι. μια δέ βουλή* τηοδε γάρ τηο νυκτόο πάντα ταύτα δει πεπράχθαι.

^ ούτωο ούν ού ταύτόν έοτι θάροοο τε καί άνδρεία* ώοτε ευμβαίνει τούο μέν άνδρείουο θαρραλέουο είναι, μή μέντοι τους γε θαρραλέουο άνδρείουο πάνταο* θάροοο μέν γάρ καί απο τέχνης γίγνεται άνθρώποιο καί άπό θυμού καί άπό μανιαο, ώοπερ ή δύναμιο, άνδρεία δ' άπό φύοεωο καί 5 ευτροφίαο τών ψυχών γίγνεται. ρι Λακεδαιμόνιοι τάο οπονδάο προτέρουο λελυκέναι τούο

j 5 Α^Πν«ίουο ήγοΰντο. Ι6

η ούπω τέτοκεν. Φιλιπποο, ό πατήρ του μεγάλου 'Αλεξάνδρου, φρούριόν τι Ρουλόμενοο λαβείν όχυρόν, ώο άπήγγειλαν οί κατάοκοποι

162 c 3

χαλεπόν είναι παντάπαα καί άνάλωτον, ήρώτηοεν ει χαλεπο\ ούτωο έοτίν ωοτε μηδέ δνον προοελθειν χρυοίον κομίζοντα.

Notes 1 ήλθον had come (16.1/2); περί ... ήοαν were busy with;

πειρωμένοιο του βάθουο lit. for [them] testing the depth. 2 ότι here because; άνωκοδόμηνται < άνοικοδομέω. 3 κεκρικότα agrees with άνδρα understood, lit. it is necessary

for a man ... 4 είο + acc. is used here instead of the plain acc. for emphasis

(cf. 7.1/7*). 6 ήρηντο < αίρέομαι choose (18.1/4); ή ϊπποο the cavalry 7 αί πολλαί the majority, most (cf. 8.2.11 and 15.2.17);

έπεπτώκεοαν < πίπτω. 8 ήκονημένδο < άκονάω. 9 ύπέφαινεν, έπορεύοντο inceptive imperfects (began to ...).

11 βούλοιτο (and later δέοιντο) opt. in reported speech in historic sequence (14.1/4d); μητε ... μητ' introduce the negated conditions (that neither he ... nor they...); the subject of λαμβάνειν is έκείνουο from the previous phrase but note that it is not negated; έδοξε ταΰτα these things seemed good.

12 ουδέ ... έτι ώρα supply έστί nor [is it] still [the] time; βεβουλεϋοθαι i.e. to have finished deliberating.

13 if.l ταύτόν the same [thing]; the subject of έοτί is Qapcoc and άνδρείσ (with double subjects the verb may agree with only the nearer one).

14 Take προτέρουο with τούο Άθηναίουο, which is the subject of λελυκέναι.

16 ώο when; έοτίν present tense because in indirect speech Greek always retains the tense of the original direct speecn (7.1/3); Philip cynically implies that any fort can be captured if a sufficient bribe is offered to a potential traitor; προοελθεΐν the infinitive here denotes a possible resulr. could approach.

16.3 Extra reading

Heracles After an attack of madness, Heracles wakes up to find tied to a pillar and surrounded by destruction which he hup ^ has unwittingly perpetrated. The passage is from the Ηρακλή Euripides (485-406 BC), the third of the great Attic t ragedian-

έμπνουο μεν ειμί και δέδορχ' άπερ με δει, αιθέρα τε καί γήν τόξα θ' ηλίου τάδε. (be δ' έν κλύδωνι καί φρενών ταράγματι πέπτωκα δεινώ καί πνοάο θερμάο πνέω μετάρα', ού βέβαια πλευμόνων άπο. ιδού, τί δεομοΐο ναύο όπωο ώρμιομένοο νεανίαν θώρακα καί βραχίονα πρόο ήμιθραύοτω λαΐνω τυκίοματι ήμαι, νεκροΐοι γείτοναο θάκουο έχων; πτερωτά δ' έγχη τόξα f έοπαρται πέδω, ά πριν παραοπίζοντ έμοΐο βραχίοαν έοωζε πλευράο έξ έμού τ' έοωζετο. ού που κατηλθον αύθιο είο "Αιδου πάλιν, Εύρυοθέωο δίαυλον έξ "Αιδου μόλων; άλλ' ούτε Οιούφειον είοορώ πέτρον Πλούτωνά τ' ούδέ οκήπτρα Δημητροο κόρηο. έκ τοι πέπληγμαν που ποτ' ών άμηχανώ; ωή, τίο έγγύο ή πρόοω φίλων έμών δύογνοιαν όοτιο την έμήν ίάοεται;

Notes /.I δέδορχ' (= -κα) the perfect here is virtually an emphatic present I really see. ll.3ff. ώο ... exclamatory, lit. how I have fallen in a terrible wave ... i.e. into what a terrible wave ...; μετάρα'(α) ... βέβαια n. acc. pi. used adverbially (20.1/5), lit. bow (ώο 1.3) ... I breathe warm breaths shallowly, not steadily from my lungs (Heracles is panting but does not know why); απο on the accent of disyllabic prepositions when they follow the word they govern (see note on 11.2.4). 11.6f. Take vatic όπωο together like a ship; ώμιομένοο (< όρμίζω) anchored; νεδνίδν here used adjectivally in the sense sturdy (not youthful, Heracles being no longer young); θώρακα καί βραχίονα lit. with respect to cbest and arm this use of the accusative (called accusative of Aspect, 20.1/5) is used to clarify verbs and adjectives; here the ?ccusa tives tell where (i.e. with respect to what parts of his body) Heracles is anchored (ώρμιομενοο). 1.9 ήμαι (19.1/36) I

θακουο trans, by a singular seat (the plural is often used for ^e singular in verse; cf. τόξα in /. 10 and οκήπτρα in 1.16). 1.10

^ winged weapons (πτερωτά έγχη) are arrows; έοπαρται 3rd s. r ' pass, οίοπείρω. l.ll πρίν (here an adverb) previously,

sb Ίλ παραοπίζοντ'(α) governs the following dative, lit. kin ' c g m y a r m s ' ^ = ^ I-14 Eurystheus was the l ab« 0 Mycenae for whom Heracles had to complete his twelve Cer|UrS die descent to Hades to bring back

erus> is referred to here); Εύρυοθέωο δίαυλον lit. the double

10

163 c 3

0>

15

course (i.e. the descent and return) of (i.e. prescribed b\ Eurystheus; μολών (aor. pple. of βλωοκω) to be taken with δίαυλον going [on] the double course (acc. of spatial extent, 7.1/7d). II. 15f. Sisyphus was one of the sights of Hades. For his sins on earth he had to push a rock to the top of a hill, but when he reached the summit the rock invariably rolled down and he had to start afresh; ούτε ... τ'(ε)... ούδέ neither ... or (lit. and)... nor yet (ούδέ indicates a slight climax). /. 16 The daughter or Demeter was Persephone, who was the wife of Pluto (= Hades). /.17 έκ ... πέπληγμαι = έκπέπληγμαι (tmesis, see note on 12.3.9 1.6); πού etc. lit. wherever being am I helpless? but the emphasis is on ων and we must translate wherever am I in my helplessness?

17.1 Grammar

17.1/1 Imperative mood: commands and prohibitions The imperative mood is used for commands. In Greek it exists in the present and aorist tenses (and also the perfect - see note 4). The stem used is the same as that of the corresponding indicative. As well as second person imperatives (which we have in English), Greek also has imperatives in the third person with the meanings given below. The imperative of λύω is Present

ACTIVE MIDDLE/PASSIVE s· 2 λύε loosen! λύου mid. ransom!

pass, be loosened! 3 λϋέτω let him loosen! λϋέοθω mid. let him ransom!

pass, let him be loosened! λύεοθε mid. ransom!

pass, be loosened! λεόντων1 let them loosen! λϋέοθων mid. let them ransom!

pass, let them be loosened!

PL· 2 λύετε loosen!

Aorist

s. ACTIVE

2 λύοον 3 λΐΣοάτω

PL· 2 λύςατε 3 λϋοάντων

MIDDLE

λύοαι λϋΰάΰθω XtcacQe λϋΰάΰθων

PASSIVE

λύθητι λυθητω λύθητε λυθέντων

neur°te ΐ 3 1 λ ΰ ό™>ν, λεόντων, and λυθέντων can also be the gen. pi. of masculine and ter of the corresponding participles.

166 c 3

The aorist is usually to be translated in the same way as the present but the two are not interchangeable. The difference, as elsewhere, is one of aspect. The present is used for an action which is seen as going on, in the process of happening or being repeated, the aorist for an action which is seen simply as an event. Sometimes this distinction can be brought out in English by using a verbal periphrasis:

Kpoucov (aor.) έκείνην την Swat that fly! μυίαν.

κρούε (pres.) έκείνην την μυιαν. Keep swatting that fly! Generally the present imperative is used with verbs which in themselves imply continual action, e.g. οπεύδε βραδέωο hasten slowly; while the aorist imperative is used with verbs which usually (but not necessarily) indicate a single act, e.g. καύοον πυρ έν τη έοτία light a fire in the hearth. Prohibitions (negative commands) are expressed with μή, e.g. μή πάα πίοτευε do not trust everyone; μηδείο τούτο άγνοείτω let no-one be unaware of this, but if the aorist aspect is appropriate the mood employed is always the subjunctive, not the imperative:

μή έπί δουλείσν έκών έλθηα Do not go willingly to slavery.

μηδείο θαυμάοη. Let no-one be surprised. For the other use of this (jussive) subjunctive see 14.1/4tf(i). To express a very strong prohibition ού μή and the future indicative is used, e.g.

τί ποιεΐο; ού μή καταβήοει. What are you doing? You shall (or must) not come down.

Notes 1 The imperative of the strong aorist has the same endings as

the present. From μανθάνω (aor. έμαθον) the aor. imp. act μάθε, μαθέτω, μάθετε, μαθόντων. However^ five strong aorisr imperatives are irregularly accented on the last syllable m the second person singular: είπέ (λέγω), έλθέ (ερχομέ1

εύρέ (εύρίοκω), ίδέ (όραω), λαβέ (λαμβάνω). ^ 2 The imperative of the root aorist (11.1/1) follows that of the

aorist passive except that the ending for the 2nd s. is -θι, J1^ -τι: from έγνων (γιγνώοκω) we have γνώθι, γνωτω, Υνίύ L

γνόντων. biif 3 The present imperative of contracted verbs is regular ^

because of contraction, the 2nd s. forms are easily contuse t

Active τΓμδ (τίμαε) ποίει (ποίεε) δήλου (δήλοε) Mid./pass. τΓμώ (τΓμάου) ποιου (ποιέου) δηλού (δηλόου) The position of the accent can be important for distinguishing between different forms, e.g. ποίει (imp.), ποιεί (ind.).

4 In addition to the present and aorist there is also a perfect imperative. The perfect imperative active consists of the perfect active participle and the imperative of ειμί (see below note 6), e.g. λελυκώο icOi (lit. be in a state of having loosened); but the perfect imperative middle/passive has single-word forms, e.g. λέλυοο (lit. be in a state of having been loosened). This is rare except in verbs whose perfect has a present meaning (19.1/3#), e.g. μέμνηοο remember! (< μέμνημαι). For these forms of λύω see Appendix 1.

5 The infinitive is sometimes used instead of the second person imperative, (cf. English Not to worry, i.e. do not worry): παντωο, ώ Κριτόβουλε, άπαληθεύοαι πρόο ήμάο at any rate, Critobulus, tell the truth to us.

6 The imperative of ειμί is ic9i be!, έοτω, έοτε, έοτων (or δντων). ic9i is also the 2nd s. imperative active of οίδα (19.1/3a), with the meaning know!

7 Some imperatives have a fixed use: χαίρε, χαίρετε hello or goodbye (χαίρω rejoice) έρρε, έρρετε be damned! go to hell! έρρέτω let him/her/it be

damned! (έρρω go to one's harm) άγε, άγετε; φέρε, φέρετε come on! come now! (by way of

encouragement).

17.1/2 Comparison of adjectives and adverbs Adjectives (and adverbs) have three degrees: positive bad, sick, wonderful; comparative worse, sicker, more wonderful; superlative worst, sickest, most wonderful. To give the three degrees of an adjective is to compare it. Some adjectives in English are compared regularly (sick, wonderful), some Regularly (bad). The same applies in Greek. By far the greater number of adjectives are compared by the addition of suffixes, a o f these Greek has two sets:

|a) Comparative in -τεροο, superlative in -τατοο a* H^u ^P 6 k o tk c o m P a r a t i v e i n -τεροο (f. -τερδ, n. -τερον)

the superlative in -τατοο (f. -τατη, n. -τατον) are first and a j ° n c ? declension adjectives (3.1/3). All regularly compared

t l V e s belong here. The way in which -τεροο and -τατοο are

168 c 3

attached to the stem of an adjective depends on the class of its positive form:

(i) First and second declension adjectives (3.1/3) add -oxepoc, -oxaxoc if the last syllable of their stem is long, but -ωτεροο, -ωτατοο if this is short (the stem is obtained by subtracting -oc from the nom. m. s., e.g. οοφόο, stem co<H. A syllable is long if it contains either a long vowel, or a diphthong, or a short vowel followed by two consonants (the second not being λ, μ, ν, or p); a syllable is short if it contains a short vowel followed by a single consonant (for further details see Appendix 9). Examples are: POSITIVE STEM COMPARATTVE SUPERLATIVE ΟΟφόΰ ΰοφ- ΰοφώτεροΰ ςοφώτατοο

wise wiser wisest δίκαιοΰ δικαι- δικαιότερος δικαιότατος

just more just most just έρημοΰ έρημ- ερημότερος έρημότατος

desolate more desolate most desolate Some 1st and 2nd declension adjectives belong to class (b) below. A few others belong to class (a) but are irregular, e.g. φίλοο dear, compar. φιλαίτεροο, supl. φιλαίτατοο or φίλτατοο.

(ii) Third declension adjectives (10.1/4) with a stem in ov add -εσιεροο, -εστατοο, e.g. άφρων (stem άφρον-) stupid, άφρονέοτεροο more stupid, άφρονέοτατοο most stupid. Those with a stem in ec add ^τεροο, -^axoc, e.g. άληθηο (stem άληθεο-) true, άληθέοτεροο, άληθέοτατοο.

(iii) First and third declension adjectives (10.1/3) in -eic follow χαρίειο, charming, χαριέοτεροο, χαριέοτατοο. Some in -vc follow γλυκύο, sweet, γλυκύτεροο, γλυκύτατοο but most are irregular (see below).

(b) Comparative in -(ΐ)ων, superlative in -icxoc This group, which is much smaller, contains irregular adjectives from all classes. The stem of the positive form is sometimes changed for the other degrees of comparison. The following are the most common examples: POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE άγαθόΰ good άμείνων apicxoc

βελιΤων βέλτιοτοο κρείττων icpaxicxoc

aicxpoc ugly αίοχΐων άίοχιοτοο άλγε ivoc painful <χλγίων άλγιοτοο έχθρόο hostile έχθίων έχθιοτοο

ηδύο κακόο

καλόο μέγαο όλίγοο πολύο ράδιοο ταχύο

sweet ήδίων ήδιοτοο bad κακίων KOKICTOC

χείρων χείρΐϋτοο beautiful καλλίων κάλλιοτοο great μείζων μεγιςτος small, few έλάττων έλαχισιοο much πλείων πλεΐοτος easy ράων pgcxoc swift θάττων τάχιςτος

Two adjectives (άγαθόο and KOKOC) are compared in more than one way; κρείττων, KpdmcToc (from άγαθοο) can also mean stronger; strongest (cf. κράτοο power). Comparatives in this class are declined as third declension adjectives in ov (10.1/4tf), but with some very important alternative forms (we can ignore the vocative, which is rare), e.g.

SINGULAR

M. & F.

Nom. μείζων Acc. μείζονα/μείζω Gen. μείζονος Dat. μείζονι

PLURAL

Ν . M. & F.

μείζον μείζονεο/μείζουο μείζον μείζοναο/μείζουο

μειζόνων μείζοα(ν)

Ν. μείζονα/μείζω μείζονα/μείζω

The alternatives are contracted versions of forms without ν (μείζω < μείζοα). The acc. pi. μείζουο (< μείζοαο) has an irregular contraction (ο + α normally produces ω, as in the singular). It is important to note that the forms in -ouc may be nom. pi. as well as acc. pi. πλείων larger; (pi.) more has a stem πλει- before ω/ου but πλει-or πλε- before ο (but always πλέον):

SINGULAR

M. & F.

πλείων

πλείονα πλεονα πλείω

PLURAL

Ν . Μ. & F. Ν .

πλέον πλείονες πλείονα πλέονες πλέονα πλείους πλείω

πλέον πλείοναο πλείονα πλεονας πλέονα πλείους πλείω

πλείονος πλειόνων πλέονος πλεόνων πλείονι πλείοςι(ν) πλέονι πλέοςι(ν)

Now.

Acc.

bat.

c - iiuni dujccuvta tuywt uavt as LIIVII

^'nparative the neuter singular nom./acc. of the comparative of adjective (οοφώτερον more wisely), and as their superlative

170 c 3

the neuter plural nom./acc. of the superlative (οοφώτατα mosi wisely). Of the few adverbs not formed from adjectives we ma\ note μάλα very, μάλλον more, μάλιοτα most. Notes 1 The meaning of some adjectives (e.g. nac all) precludes a

comparative or superlative. 2 The adverbs μάλλον more and μάλιστα most are sometimes

used to compare adjectives: μάλλον φίλοο more dear, dearer; μάλιοτα φίλοο most dear, dearest.

3 ήττων lesser, weaker, inferior has no positive. Its superlative (ήκιστοο) is only common as an adverb, ήκιοτα least of all, not at all.

17.1/3 Meaning of the comparative and superlative Comparatives and superlatives in Greek are not always to be understood in the sense more X and most X. A comparative adjective is sometimes used where no comparison is expressed, and indicates a higher degree than the positive. English here uses rather or too (cf. also 17.1/4):

ό KOpoc ήν πολυλογώτεροσ Cyrus was rather talkative. αί έμαί διατριβαί ύμιν My discourses have

βαρύτεροι γεγόνδα και become too burdensome έπιφθονώτεραι. and odious for you.

Likewise, the superlative (without the definite article) is often used to express a very high degree:

καί ποτε δντοο πάγου And once when there was δεινοτάτου Οωκράτηο a very terrible frost έξήλθεν Τμάτιον έχων. Socrates went out

wearing (lit. having) [only] a cloak.

A s in English, a superlative adjective is preceded by the d e f i n i t e article when it means the most Χ: ό δεινότατοο πάγοο the most terrible frost. The article is omitted, however, when a s u p e r l a t i v e adjective is used as a predicate, e.g. ό Οωκράτηο οοφωτατο πάντων εστίν Socrates is wisest of all (cf. 5./3).

17.1/4 Constructions involving the comparative and superlative (a) In comparisons in English a comparative a d j e c t i v e ^

adverb is followed by than. In Greek ή than ( w h i c h m v

elsewhere mean or) is used in the s a m e w a v ·

έν xoic όχλοιο πιθανώτεροι Among crowds the oi απαίδευτοι ή οί uneducated [are] more πεπαιδευμένοι. persuasive than the

educated (lit. the having been educated [people]).

τό μή είναι κρεΐττον ή Not existing [is] better τό ζην κακώο. than living badly.

ή is here a conjunction and what follows must be in the same case as what precedes. Whereas in English we can nowadays say Socrates is wiser than me, in Greek we must have Οωκράτηΰ ΰοφώτερόο ecnv ή έγώ; the first member of the comparison ^ωκράτηΰ) is nominative and therefore the second member must also be nominative (hence έγώ). There is, however, another construction, the genitive of comparison, in which the second member of the comparison is put into the genitive and ή is omitted:

ό xpftcoc κρείττων μορίων For mortals gold [is] λόγων βροτοΐο. stronger than countless

words. ουδέν αωπηο ecu Nothing is more useful

χρηαμώτερον. than silence. (b) A comparative may be accompanied by a dative of measure

of difference: κεφαλή έλάττων shorter by a head; μείζων πολλω greater by much, i.e. much greater.

(c) In sentences of the type he is too weak to help ... Greek uses a comparative adjective followed by ή ώοτε and an infinitive (ώστε here introduces a phrase of result -16.1/1): μείζον ecu τό κακόν ή ώστε φέρει ν the evil is too great to bear (lit. greater than so as to ...).

W) A superlative adjective or adverb is preceded by ώο or ότι (both used here adverbially) for expressions such as ώο (ότι) πλειοτοι as many as possible; ώο (ότι) τάχιοτα as quickly as possible.

17.1/5 Active verbs used in a passive sense verb άποκτείνω does not occur in the passive. Instead,

reek uses the active forms of άποθνήοκω (literally die, but in n i s context be killed): οί αιχμάλωτοι άπέθανον υπό τών

£αΡβαρων the captives were killed by the barbarians. The Passive sense of άπέθανον is here made clear by the agent °nstruction υπό + gen. (11.1/2). Some indication of this sort is

n°rmally present.

172 c 3

Similarly, φεύγω (literally flee) and έκπίπτω (literally fall out) are used as the passive of έκβάλλω banish, send into exile:

έκ Νάξου έφυγον πλούαοί Some wealthy men were τινεο ύπό του δήμου. exiled from Naxos by

the people. έκ γάρ τηο άλληο Ελλάδος For when the most

οί πολέμω ή οτάοει influential men were έκπίπτοντεο παρ' Άθηναίουο driven out of the rest of oi δυνατώτατοι άνεχώρουν. Greece by war or

sedition, they used to withdraw to the Athenians (lit. those exiled by war ..., the most influential,... used to ...).

εύ/κακώο λέγω (+ acc.) speak well/badly of has the passive εύ/κακώο άκούω be well/badly spoken of (lit. hear well/badly):

έμέ κακώο άκούοαντα ύπό I was deeply grieved when cou μεγάλη έδακε λύπη. you spoke badly of me

(lit. great grief bit me being badly spoken of by you).

Likewise, εύ/κακώο ποιέω (+ acc.) treat well/badly has the passive εύ/κακώο πάοχω be treated well/badly (lit. suffer well/badly): ούκ άεικέο κακώο πάοχειν ύπό έχθρών [it is] not shameful to be badly treated by enemies.

17.2 Greek reading 1 A large number of pithy maxims current in antiquity were

said to be inscribed on the columns of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. The following is a selection from surviving lists

(the columns themselves no longer exist). The most famous are (y) and (x). (*') άδικούμενοο διαλλάττου. (ii) άλλοτρίων άπέχου. ι'" βραδέωο έγχείρει. (iv) γαμεΐν μέλλε, (ν) γνώθι οεαυτον. γονέαο αιδού. (vii) φρόνει θνητά, (viii) έπί νεκρω μη (ix) καιρόν γνώθι, (χ) μηδέν άγαν. (xi) πίνων μη ποΛΑ

()

λάλει. (xii) πλούτει δικαίωο. (xiii) τύχην νόμιζε- ίν/ί

ύβριζόμενοο τιμωρού, (χν) υίοΐο μή καταρώ. 2# γύμναζε παΐδασ άνδραο ού γάρ γυμνάοειο. , , ή 3 φοβερώτερόν έοτι οτρατόπεδον έλάφων ήγουμένου λεοντο^

οτρατόπεδον λεόντων ήγουμένου έλάφου.

Α

4# φοβοΰ τό γήρασ ού γάρ έρχεται μόνον. 5# καλωο άκούειν μάλλον ή πλουτεΐν θέλε. 6# ρόδον παρελθών μηκέτι ζήτει πάλιν. 7 δύο ώτα έχομεν, οτόμα δέ έν, ίνα πλείω μέν άκούωμεν, ήττω

δέ λέγωμεν. 8 Shorter proverbs

(i) όξύτερον οί γείτονεο βλέπουοι τών άλωπέκων. (ii) πεζρ βαδίζων μή φοβού τά κύματα, (iii) φαγέτω με λέων καί μη άλώπηξ. (iv) ϊοθι καί λέων όπου χρή καί πίθηκοο έν μέρει. (ν) ήν TIC έμαξε μάζαν, ταύτην καί έοθιέτω. (νϊ) οτρατηγοΰ παρόντοΰ nac α άρχή παυΰάΰθω. (vii) ό πλεόνων έρών καί τών παρόντων άποοτερεΐται. (viii) cuiov eic άμίδα μή έμβάλλειν. (ix) ξένοΰ ών άκολούθει TOIC έπιχωρίοιο νόμοιο. (χ) τον φίλον κακώο μή λέγε, μηδ' ευ τον έχθρόν. (xi) μή καταφρόνηση του πένητοΰ εύτυχών. (xii) μή κρίνετε ίνα μή κριθητε. (xiii) αί δεύτεραί πωο φροντίδεο α>φώτεραι. (xiv) οί πλεΐοτοι κακοί, (χν) άεί τά πέρυα βελτίω.

9# άοπίδι μέν Cai'oov TIC άγάλλεται, ήν παρά θάμνω, έντοο άμώμητον, κάλλιπον (= κατέλιπον) ούκ έθέλων

αύτόΰ δ' έξέφυγον θανάτου τέλοσ acnxc έκείνη έρρέτω* έξαΰτιο κτήΰομαι ού κακίω.

0 ό βαάλειοΰ πήχυΰ του μετρίου έοτί πηχέωο μείζων τριοί δακτύλου.

.1 The Spartans (οί Λάκωνεο/Λακεδαιμόνιοι) were men of few words (hence our laconic) and had a reputation for a blunt, dry humour. Most of the following stories are about Spartan kings.

(i) Εύδαμίδαΰ ίδών έν Άκαδαμείρ Ξενοκράτη ήδη πρεοβύτερον μετά τών μαθητών φιλοΰοφουντα καί πυθόμενοΰ ότι τήν άρετήν ζητεί, πότε ούν, ειπεν, αύτη χρήΰεται;

(η) 'Αργείου δέ τι voc λέγοντος, coc φαυλότεροι γίγνονται κατά τάο άποδημίαΰ οί Λάκωνεΰ, άλλ' ούχ ύμεΐΰ γε, έφη, eic τήν Οπάρτην έλθόvτεc χείρονεο άλλά βελτίονεο γίγνεΰθε.

(«V) ΤΑγ^ πρόΰ άνθρωπον πονηρόν έρωτώντα uc apiCTOC ε'ίη Οιαρτιάτηΰ, ειπεν, ό coi άνομοιότατοΰ.

(iv) Άνταλκίδαο, ΰοφιοτού μέλλοντοΰ άναγιγνώΰκειν έγκώμιον Ηρακλέους TIC γάρ αύτόν, έφη, ψέγει;

(ν) Θεαρίδαΰ ξίφοΰ άκονών ήρωτήθη, εί οξύ έοτιν, καί ειπεν, όξύτερον διαβολής

(νϊ) Άρχελαοΰ, αδολεοχου κουρεακ; ερωτηΰαντοο αυτόν, πώΰ cε κείρω, ώ βαοιλεΰ; αωπών, έφη.

12 ό 'Αριστοτέλης άκούοαο υπό τινοο λοιδορεΐοθαι, απόντα με έφη, καί μαοτιγούτω.

13 οί οοφιοταί, τάλλα οοφοί όντεο, τούτο άτοπον έργάζονται πράγμα* φάοκοντεο γάρ άρετηο διδάοκαλοι είναι πολλάκις κατηγοροΰοιν τών μαθητών ώο άδικοΰα οφάο, τούο μιοθους άποοτεροΰντεο καίπερ ευ παθόντες ύπ' αύτών.

14 πολλή έχθρα καί μΐοοο άλλήλων τοΐο πολίταιο έγγίγνεται. δι' ά έγωγε μάλα φοβούμαι άεί μή τι μείζον ή ώοτε φέρειν κακόν τη πόλει ουμβή.

15 οί Λακεδαιμόνιοι έπρεοβεύοντο πρόο τούο 'Αθηναίους έγκλήματα ποιούμενοι, όπωο οφίοιν ότι μέγιοτη πρόφαοις ε'ίη του πολεμεΐν, ήν (= έάν) μή τι είοακούωαν.

16 Κλέανδροο έτυράννευοε μέν Γέλαο έπτά έτη, άπέθανε δέ ύπό Ca|&AAou άνδρόο Γελώου.

17# Έλπίς καί ού Τύχη, μέγα χαίρετε· τον λιμέν' ηύρον ούδέν έμοί χ' ύμΐν* παίζετε τούο μετ' έμέ.

Notes 1 (ii) άπέχομαι is followed by the gen. (20.1/4). (x) Supply an

imperative such as ποίει. (xiii) νομίζω + acc. believe in. (xiv) τΓμωροΰ < τΐμωρέου. (xv) καταρώ < καταράου.

2 γάρ is here placed third word in its clause (cf. 15.3 /.27). 3 ήγουμένου λέοντος and ήγουμένου έλάφου are both genitive

absolutes (12.1/26). 8 (iv) ϊοθι is here the 2nd s. imp. of ειμί (17.1/1 note 6). (v)

ήν... μάζαν lit. which bread (ήν is here the relative adjective, 9.1/2 note 3); έμαξε < μάττω. (νϊ) αρχή as an abstract noun can mean magistracy but is used here concretely in the sense office. (vii) Both έράω desire (13.1/2<z(ii)) and άποοτερέομαι be deprived of (20.1/4) are followed by the genitive, cf. άπέχου in 1 (it) above, (viii) έμβάλλειν infinitive for imperative (17.1/1 note 5). (xv) Supply ήν.

9 A poem of Archilochus (7th cent, BC), the earliest figure in Greek literature about whom we have any reliable information. 1.2 έντοο άμώμητον is in apposition to ήν in the previous line which, a blameless weapon, ... 1.3 θανατου τελοο [the] doom of death (a Homeric phrase). IΑ κακίω f. acc. s. to agree with άοπίδα understood.

10 The royal cubit was that used by the Persians, the other was standard in the Greek world.

11 (i) πυθόμενοο ascertaining; Xenocrates was looking for

virtue in the sense that he was investigating its nature from a philosophical point of view, (ii) This story is also about Eudamidas, who is the subject of έφη; γε emphasises ϋμεΐ£· (iii) apicuoc ... Οιαρτιάτηο [the] best Spartan the article is

not used with a predicate (5.1/3). (iv) For a down-to-earth Spartan, praising Heracles would have seemed as superfluous as praising motherhood; γάρ here introduces an ironical question "Well, who (vi) κείρω aor. subj. in a deliberative question (14.1/4<z(ii)) "How am I to cut

12 After άκούοδο we have the infinitive construction for reported speech (8.1/3^), lit. having heard [himself] to be abused ...; απόντα < άπειμι.

13 τάλλα (= τά άλλα) adverbial accusative (20.1/5), in other respects; τοΰτο refers to what follows but the meaning is not this extraordinary thing (there is no definite article with άτοπον... πράγμα), but an extraordinary thing [viz] this; γάρ explains what precedes, but we would omit it in English; οφac i.e. the sophists (9.1/4^); both άποοτεροΰντεο and παθόντεο agree with the subject of άδικοΰα (3 pi. pres. ind. act., not a pple.), i.e. the students; αυτών also refers back to the sophists and is used instead of οφών for variety.

14 μlcoc άλλήλων hatred of each other (9.1/4b) i.e. mutual hatred.

15 έπρεοβεύοντο impf. to express repeated action (4.1/1); ποιούμενοι making the middle of ποιέω is used with nouns to indicate the involvement of the subject, cf. πόλεμο ν ποιεΐοθαι to wage war; είρήνην ποιεΐοθαι to keep peace but πόλεμον ποιεΐν to cause a war (but not necessarily be involved in it); είρήνην ποιεΐν to impose peace (on belligerents); δπωο (= ϊνα) + opt. to express purpose after a historic tense (14.1/4c(i)).

16 Γέλί& Doric gen. s. of Γέλα. 17 χαίρετε (17.1/1 note 7) is qualified by μέγα (here an

adverb), lit. farewell greatly (the author is pleased to be rid of them); χ' ύμιν elision for καί ύμΐν (English idiom reverses the order, you and me) - the clause means there is nothing for (i.e. between) you and me; παίζετε (here imp.) + acc. play with.

17.3 Extra reading

Prometheus Bound (2) Prometheus has revealed that he alone can save Zeus from a j^arriage which will rob him of his divine kingship. In the scene below, Hermes, the messenger of the gods, has come to force ^ometheus to disclose his secret. Shortly after; the play ends Wlth Prometheus persisting in his refusal.

175 c 3

EPMHC ce τον οοφιοτήν, τον πικρώο ύπέρπικρον, τον έξαμαρτόντ' eic θεούο έφημέροιο πορόντα τιμάο, τον πυρόο κλεπτην λέγω* πατήρ άνωγέ c' ούστιναο κομπεΐο γάμουο αύδάν, πρόο ών τ' έκεΐνοο έκπίπτει κράτουσ καί ταΰτα μέντοι μηδέν αίνικτηρίωο, άλλ' αύθ' έκαοτα φράζε, μηδέ μοι διπλάο όδούο, Προμηθεΰ, προοβάλησ opac δ' ότι Ζεύο τοιο τοιούτοιο ουχί μαλθακίζεται.

ΠΡΟΜΗΘΕΤΟ οεμνότομόο γε καί φρονήματοο πλέωο ό μύθόο έστιν, ώο θεών ύπηρέτου. νέον νέοι κρατείτε, καί δοκεΐτε δή ναίειν άπενθη πέργαμ'· ούκ έκ τώνδ' έγώ biccovc τυράννουο έκπεοόνταο ήοθόμην; τρίτον δέ τον νυν κοιρανούντ' έπόψομαι αϊοχιοτα καί τάχιοτα. μή τί coi δοκώ ταρβεΐν ύποπτήοοειν τε τούο νέουο θεούο; πολλού γε καί του παντόο έλλείπω. ού δέ κέλευθον ήνπερ ήλθεο έγκόνει πάλιν* πεύοη γάρ ούδέν ών άνιοτορεΐο έμέ.

Notes /.I Hermes' words are aggressive and rude. This shows itself in the omission of the verb governing ce (καλώ I am addressing), trans, you there, the clever one ... //.2f. τον έξαμαρτόντ'(α) ... πορόντα lit. the one who offended ... [by] giving (πορόντα aor. pple. of a defective verb which only exists in the aor. and perf. and is listed under the aor. ind. έπορον); take έφημέροιο w i t h πορόντα giving ... to mortals; λέγω I mean. Μ πατήρ i.e. Zeus; άνωγε orders from άνωγα a verb perfect in form but present in meaning (cf. 19.1/3a); oucnvac ( i n d i r e c t interrogative, 10.1/2b) ... γάμουο plural for singular. 1.5 npoc (= ύπό) ών by which; έκπίπτει for vividness the present is used for the future in prophecies; κράτουο (gen.) is governed by έκ-. W Understand φράζε from the next line; καί ... μέντοι and indeed, and what is more; μηδέν adverbial acc. (20.1/5) in no way. /(·'*· αύθ' (= αύτά) έκαστα i.e. each thing, every detail; μηδε ·•· προοβάληο negative command (17.1/1). 1.9 TOIC τοιούτοιο l it . by such things (i.e. behaviour). 1.10 πλέωο 13.1/ltf. / .II ώο for [the talk] of a lackey, on this restrictive use of ώο see 21.1/ltf(vi). /.I ~ νέον is n. acc. s. used adverbially (20.1/5) and to be taken wit" κρατείτε, lit. you rule newly, i.e. you have only just come to power; δοκεΐτε you think, expect; δή adds a note of sarcasm

indeed. /. 14 5icco\)c (= διττούο the non-Attic form is used in T r a g e d y ) τυράννουο Uranus, the first king of the gods, had been d e t h r o n e d by his son Cronus, who in turn was dethroned by Z e u s (Prometheus sarcastically calls them τύραννοι). /.15 Supply έκπίπτοντα from έκπεοόνταο in the previous line; έπόψομαι < έφοράω. /.16 μή ... coi δοκώ is a question expecting a negative a n s w e r (10.1/2Λ), lit. surely I do not seem to you (μή here = surely not); τί (the accent is from the enclitic coi, see Appendix 8, d(ix)) acc. s. n. of the indefinite xic, here used as an adverbial acc. (20.1/5) to some extent. /.18 έλλείπω takes the gen. I lack much (πολλού, i.e. of such behaviour), in fact (καί) all (lit. the whole, i.e. of such behaviour) - Prometheus is strongly emphasizing that he is not frightened of the new rulers of heaven. 1.19 κέλευθον acc. of space traversed along the road, after έγκόνει (2nd s. pres. imp. of έγκονέω); ήνπερ (< δοπερ, i.e. oc + περ) is an emphatic form of the relative. 1.20 ών = τούτων α of those things which the relative pronoun has been attracted into the case of the antecedent, and the latter then omitted (9.1/2 note 2).

178

C O 18.1 Grammar

18.1/1 -μι verbs -μι verbs fall into two groups: (a) The suffixless class, where the endings of the present and

imperfect are added directly to the stem without any suffix or link vowel, e.g. εί-μί (3.1/6) and φη-μί (7.1/2). There are nine other common verbs in this class: δίδωμι give and τίθημι put, place (18.1/2) είμι I shall go (18.1/3; distinguish from ειμί I am) ϊστημι make to stand (19.1/1) ΐημι let go, send forth (20.1/2) δύναμαι be able and έπίοταμαι know (19.1/36; the only common deponents of this type) πίμπλημι fill and πίμπρημι burn (19.1/1 note 2) From another such verb, ήμί say (obsolescent in Attic) Plato often uses the forms ήν I said, ή he/she said (13.3(i) 17; both forms were originally imperfect).

(b) The -νϋμι class, where the stem of the present and imperfect has a vu suffix (20.1/1). Both classes differ from -ω verbs in the p r e s e n t and imperfect; of class (α) δίδωμι, τίθημι, ΐοτημι, ΐημι also differ in the aorist active and middle (ϊοτημι in the p e r f e c t and pluperfect as well). Elsewhere -μι verbs take the same suffixes and endings as -ω verbs.

18.1/2 δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, place These two -μι verbs are closely parallel. In nearly all their forms an ο/ω in δίδωμι corresponds to an ε/η in τίθημι; and also oi to ει in optative forms, and ου to ει in forms other than those of the optative; the only exceptions are the 1st s. impf. act. (έδίδουν/έτίθην), the present and aorist subjunctive (see note 1) and the perfect mid./pass. (δέδομαι etc. but τέθειμαι etc.). Both verbs form their present stem by reduplication with iota (cf. γιγνώοκω); as in the perfect tense (15.1/1), an aspirated consonant is reduplicated with the corresponding non-aspirate, hence τιθη- (not θιθη-). In both, the aorist active is weak in the singular, with κ (not c) added to the long-vowel form of the root (δω-/θη-); in the plural the endings are added directly to the short-vowel form of the root (δο-/θε-; this is really a type of root aorist). Their principal parts are: PRES. FUT. AOR. ACT PERF. ACT PERF. MID./PASS AOR. PASS

δίδωμι δώοω έδωκα δέδωκα δέδομαι έδόθην τίθημι θηςω έθηκα τέθηκα κειμαι

(note 4) έτέθην (τεθειμαι)

The future, perfect (act. and mid./pass.), and aorist passive are regular (see above 18.1/1). The present, imperfect, and aorist active forms, which require the greatest attention and should be mastered first, are set out here. The middle and passive forms are easily recognized from their endings (for full tables see Appendix 5)

PRESENT AORIST

INDICATIVE s· 1 δίδωμι τίθημι έδωκα έθηκα

2 δίδωο τίθηο έδωκαο έθηκαο 3 δίδωα(ν) τίθηοι(ν) έδωκε(ν) έθηκε(ν)

PL· 1 δίδομεν τίθεμεν έδομεν έθεμεν 2 δίδοτε τίθετε έδοτε έθετε 3 διδό<Χοι(ν) τιθέδα(ν) έδοϋαν έθεοαν

AFFINITIVE

διδόναι τιθέναι δούναι θειναι pARTlCIPLE

διδούο, -όντοο τιθείο, -έντοο δούο, δόντοο θείο, θέντοο διδούοα, -ούσης τιθειοα, -είοηο δοΰοα, δούσης θειοα, θείσηο διδόν, -όντοο τιθέν, -έντοο δον, δόντοο θέν, θέντοο

179

180 3

IMPERATIVE

s. 2 δίδου τίθει δόο θέο 3 διδότω τιθέτω δότω θέτω

PL. 2 δίδοτε τίθετε δότε θέτε 3 διδόντων τιθέντων δόντων θέντων

SUBJUNCTIVE (see note 1) s. 1 διδώ τιθώ δω θώ

2 διδφο, etc. τιθηο, etc. δφο, etc. OTIC, etc.

OPTATIVE

s. 1 διδοίην τιθείην δοίην θείην 2 διδοίης τιθείηο δοίηο θείης 3 διδοίη τιθείη δοίη θείη

PL. 1 διδοΐμεν τιθεΐμεν δοιμεν θεΐμεν 2 διδοΐτε τιθεΐτε δοΐτε θεΐτε 3 διδοΐεν τιθεΐεν δοΐεν θεΐεν

IMPERFECT ACTIVE

έδίδουν, έδίδουο, έδίδου, έδίδομεν, έδίδοτε, έδίδοοαν έτίθην, έτίθειο, έτίθει, έτίθεμεν, έτίθετε, έτίθεοαν

Notes 1 The present and aorist subjunctive active of δίδωμι have the

endings -ω, -φο, -φ, -ώμεν, -ώτε, -ωοι(ν) (cf. 14.1/2 note 2). τίθημι has the regular endings (-ω, -ηο, -η etc.) but in both verbs the first syllable of the subjunctive endings has a circumflex as a result of contraction (διδώ < διδόω, τιθώ < ηθέω).

2 The present and imperfect active of δίδωμι can also mean offer.

3 The aorist active also has weak forms for the 3rd pi.: έδωκαν (= έδοοαν), έθηκαν (= έθεοαν); weak forms may also occur in the 1st and 2nd pi. (έδώκαμεν etc.) but are rare.

4 The present tense of the deponent κεΐμαι lie (19.1/3&) 1S

generally used instead of the perfect passive of τίθημι in the sense to have been put, placed, established, e.g. οί νόμοι οι ύπό τών βααλέων κείμενοι (= τεθειμένοι) the laws established by the kings. Likewise έκείμην, the imperfect or κεΐμαι, is used for the pluperfect passive of τίθημι.

1 8 . 1 / 3 ε ί μ ι I shall come/go In Attic Greek prose the verb έρχομαι come/go occurs only in

the present indicative. The remainder of its present tense (subjunctive, optative, imperative, infinitive, participle), and & future and imperfect are supplied by είμι which, though present

in form, has in the indicative the future meaning I shall comet go (to be distinguished from ειμί I am): P E S E N T IND. SUBJ. OPT. IMP. INF. PPLE.

έρχομαι ϊω ΐοιμι ΐθι ίέναι ίων I come/go

pjTURE είμι — ΐοιμι — ίέναι ίων I shall come/go

IMPERFECT f j a

I was coming/going, used to come/go For a complete table of forms see Appendix 3. Note that ΐοιμι, ίέναι and ιών can be either present or future (the context will normally show which tense is meant). The aorist of έρχομαι is ήλθον (7.1/1 note 2), and the perfect έλήλυθα.

18.1/4 Other verbs with principal parts from different roots The English verb to be is a combination of separate and etymologically distinct words (be, am, was, etc.). We have already seen the same in Greek with αίρέω, λέγω, όράω, φέρω (7.1/1 note 2) as well as έρχομαι; other examples are έοθίω eat, πωλέω sell, ώνέομαι buy (see Principal parts of verbs; the principal parts of all eight should now be learnt). A particularly troublesome set is that associated with αίρέω take, capture, whose passive is normally supplied by another verb, άλίοκομαι be captured, and whose middle αίροΰμαι has the special sense choose. When used as a passive αίροΰμαι normally means be chosen. These variations can be set out as follows: RESENT FUTURE AORIST PERFECT αιΡέω J take, αίρήοω ειλον (stem έλ-) ήρηκα , # capture αλιοκομαι (pass.) I am taken, άλώοομαι έάλων έάλωκα

am being captured

αΦούμαι (mid.) I choose αίρήοομαι είλόμην τίρημαι αιΡοΰμαι (pass.) I am being αίρεΟηοομαι ηρέθην ήρημαι

chosen moods, infinitives and participles of είλον I took, captured

|stem έλ-, cf. 7.1/1 note 2) and of the root aorist έάλων I was a*en, was captured are as follows:

IND. SUBJ. OPT. IMP. INF. ppLE

είλον έλω έλοιμι έλε έλειν έλών έάλων άλω άλοίην άλωθι άλωναι άλούς έάλων is exactly parallel to έγνων (11.1/1), e.g. ind. έα/oj έάλωο, έάλω etc. Jv

Notes 1 Most compounds of λέγω have the meaning pick up, gatht>

e.g. εκλεγώ pick out, συλλέγω collect, καταλέγω pick, cho^t (and also recount). These compounds have principal part, from the stem λεγ- only, e.g. έκλέγω, έκλέξω, έξέλεξα, etc.

2 The alternative principal parts of λέγω (έρώ, ειπον etc.) art however used in the compounds of άγορεύω speak m public, e.£. άπαγορεύω forbid (fut. άπερώ, aor. άπεΐπον προαγορευω proclaim.

18.1/5 Conditional sentences Conditional sentences contain at least one main clause and one adverbial clause of condition; the latter is introduced by ει i f . They fall into two clearly defined categories which, in both English and Greek, are distinguished by the form of the main clause:

Category 1 In the main clause English has the auxiliary verb would or should (or occasionally could), and Greek has the particle άν (see below). An English example is: I would be sorry tf you were not to persist with Greek.

Category 2 In the main clause English does not have the auxiliary or should, and Greek does not have the particle άν. A*· English example is: I am sorry if you find Greek verfr difficult.

There is a clear distinction between the two categories. The tiN is used in cases where something could have happened in c

past, could be happening now, or could happen in the rut J ^ The cases covered by the second are also hypothetical conditional sentences must be), but here, by not using w 0 l i i \ 0 ^ should in English or άν in Greek, we express ourselves in a positive and confident way. Conditional clauses of both categories refer either to the futuι present, or past, ου is used to negate main c l a u s e s

1 Unless these are in the form of a command (17.1/1) or wish (21.1/1)·

crative in the ει clause is μή. άν is postpositive and therefore stands as first word in the main clause of conditional

Juses of the first category. Xhe three time-frames of each category are given below: CATEGORY 1 CATEGORY 2 English would/should in the main verb without would/should in

cjause the main clause Greek άν in the main clause no άν in the main clause FUTURE

Conditional clause e i + optative (pres. or aor.) έάν (see note 2) + subjunctive

(pres. or aor.) Main clause

optative (pres. or aon) + άν future indicative εΐ τούτο πράξειας, άμάρτοις άν. έάν τούτο πράξης, άμαρτηςει. If you were to do this, you would If you do this, you will be

be wrong. wrong. PRESENT

Conditional clause ά + imperfect indicative εί + present indicative

Main clause imperfect indicative + άν present indicative ει τούτο έπραττες, ήμάρτανες άν. εί τοΰτο πράττεις, άμαρτάνεις. If you were [now] doing this, you If you are doing this, you are

would be wrong. wrong. PAST

Conditional clause ει + aorist indicative εί + imperfect or aorist

indicative Main clause

a °nst indicative + άν imperfect or aorist indicative jf τ ο υ τ ο επρδξαο, ήμαρτες άν. εί τοΰτο έπραττες, ήμάρτανες.

you had done this, you would have If you used to do this, you en wrong. Were (used to be) wrong.

εί τοΰτο έπρδξας, ήμαρτες. If you did this, you were

We h wrong. ub a v e already seen that the particle άν, when used with the

r e p ^ n c t i v e in subordinate clauses (14.1/4c(iii)), can be equ· 55ented in English by ever. Here, however, it has no semantic n the ^ m English we wish to express potentiality (as

m a i n clause of first category conditional sentences) we use

an auxiliary verb (generally would or should), e.g. I would hai liked to see you. άν, however which expresses potentiality Greek, is an adverbial particle and modifies the verb to w h i c h > is attached: ούκ έγένετο means it did not happen; ούκ ο έγένετο means it would not have happened.

Notes 1 The meaning of εί ... έπρδττεο/έπρδξαο depends on what

follows, i.e. on whether it is in a category 1 or category 2 sentence.

2 The conjunction έάν of the future time-frame of category 2 is a contraction of εί + άν (cf. δταν < δτε + άν, 14.1/4c(iii)). It may also be written as δν (to be distinguished from the particle άν - the latter has a short vowel) or ήν in some dialects.

3 It is possible to combine certain time references within one sentence:

εί τούτο έπρδξαο, If you had done that, you έκινδύνευεο άν. would [now] be in

danger. εί τούτο έπρδξαο, If you did that, you are in

κινδϋνεύειο. danger. 4 In category 2 sentences with a future reference εί + fut. ind.

is substituted for έάν + subj. where a threat or warning is implied:

άποκτενεΐο εί με yf\c έξω You will kill [me] if you βαλεΐο. throw me out of the

country.

18.1/6 QKpoc, μέοοο, έοχατοο These three adjectives vary in meaning according to whether

they are used in the attributive or predicative position (3.1/3b):

τό άκρον opoc the high άκρον τό opoc the top of the mountain mountain

τό μέοον opoc the middle μέοον τό opoc the middle of mountain the mountain

τό έοχατον opoc the furthest έοχατον τό opoc the furthest mountain part of the mountain

For the predicative position we may also have τό opoc άκρον etc

18.2 Greek reading 1 Κ υ μ α ι ό ο xic μέλι έπώλει. γευοαμένου δέ τι voc καί είπόντοο,

πάνυ καλόν έσην, εί μή γάρ, έφη, μύο έvέπεcεv eic αύτό ούκ άν έπώλουν.

2 Λάκαινά TIC πρόο τον υίόν λέγοντα μικρόν έχειν τό ξίφοο είπε, καί βήμα πρόοθεο.

3 Proverbs (/) έάν ή λεοντή μή έξίκηται, τήν άλωπεκήν πρόοαψον. (ii) κυνί δίδωο άχυρα, δνφ δέ όοτά. (iii) έπ' άκρρ τη γλωττη τό φιλεΐν έχειο. (iv) άν (= έάν) τούο φίλουο μιcώμεv, τί ποιήΰομεν τούο μιοοΰνταο; (ν) εί τυρόν ειχον, ούκ άν έδεόμην όψου. (νϊ) # φίλον δι' όργήν έν κακοΐα μή προδώο. (vii) # τό κέρδοο ήδύ, κάν άπό ψευδών ϊη. (viii) δόο τι καί λαβέ τι. (ix) # πλάνη βίον τί&ηοι οωφρονέοτερον. (χ) αίοχρόν εύεργέταο προδοΰναι. (xi) έάν έχωμεν χρήματα, έξομεν φίλουο. (xii) ϊτω τά πράγματα δπη τφ θεφ φίλον.

4 # eic Τόδον εί πλείν δει, TIC Όλυμπικόν ήλθεν έρωτών τον μάντιν, καί πώο πλεύοεται άοφαλεωσ

χώ μάντιο, πρώτον μέν, έφη, καινήν έχε τήν ναΰν, καί μή χειμώνοο, του δέ θέρουο άνάγου*

ταΰτα γάρ ήν ποιήο, ήξειο κάκεΐοε καί ώδε, 5 ήν μή πειρατήο έν πελάγει οε λάβη.

5 γέρων ποτέ ξύλα κόψαο καί ταΰτα φέρων πολλήν όδόν έβαδιζε. διά δέ τον κόπον άποθέμενοο τό φορτίον τον Θάνατον έπεκαλεΐτο. τοΰ δε Θανάτου φανέντοο καί πυνθανομένου διά τίνα αίτίαν έπεκαλεΐτο, ό γέρων έφη, ίνα τό φορτίον τοΰτο άραο έπιθηο μοι.

6 # άπαν διδόμενον δώρον, άν καί μικρόν ή, μέγιοτόν έοτιν, άν μετ' εύνοίαο δοθή.

7 όφιο, ήν μή φάγη δφιν, δράκων ού γενήοεται. 8 # γήο έπέβην γυμνόο, γυμνόο θ' ύπό γαιαν άπειμν

καί τί μάτην μοχθώ, γυμνόν ορών τό τέλοο; 9 More stories about Diogenes

(/) θαυμάζοντόο TIVOC τά έν Οαμοθράκη αναθήματα έφη, πολλφ άν ήν πλείω εί καί οί μή οωθεντεο άνετίθεοαν.

(ii) είο Μύνδον έλθών καί θεαοάμενοο μεγάλαο τάο πύλαο, μικράν δέ τήν πόλιν, άνδρεο Μύνδιοι, έφη, κλείοατε τάο πύλαο μή ή πόλιο ύμών έξέλθη.

(iii) δύοκολον ήτεν τοΰ δ' είπόντοο, έάν με πείοηο, έφη, εΐ οε έδυνάμην πεΐοαι, έπειοα άν οε άπάγξαοθαι.

(iv) λύχνον μεθ' ήμέραν άψαο περιήει λέγων, άνθρωπον ζητώ.

In order to lure the Syracusan army away from Syracuse, the Athenians sent an agent who persuaded the Syracusans

185 c 3

that they could surprise the Athenians at a neighbouring city, Catana. The ruse was totally successful. The passage is from Thucydides' account of the disastrous Athenian expedition to Sicily (415-413 BC). oi δέ οτρατηγοί τών Ουρακοοίων έπίοτευοαν τφ άνθρώπω πολλφ άπεριοκεπτότερον, καί εύθύο ήμέραν ξυνθέμενοι η παρέοονται άπέοτειλαν αύτόν, καί αύτοί προεΐπον πανδημει πάαν έξιέναι CupaKocioic. έπεί δέ έτοιμα αύτοιο τά της παραοκευήο ήν καί αί ήμέραι έν aic ξυνέθεντο ήξειν έγγύο 5 ήοαν, πορευόμενοι έπί Κατάνηο ηύλίοαντο έπί τω Ουμαίθω ποταμφ. οί δ' 'Αθηναίοι, ci)c ήοθοντο αύτούο προαόνταο, άναλαβόντεο τό οτράτευμα άπαν τό έαυτών καί έπιβιβαοαντεο έπί τάο ναύο καί τά πλοία ύπό νύκτα έπλεον έπί τάο (ϋυρακούοαο. 10

Notes 1 γάρ yes, for Greek has no word which corresponds exactly

to the English yes and often the assent of a speaker is implied by particles (24.1/1).

2 μΤκρόν is in the predicative position (3.1/3b), i.e. that he had his sword short, i.e. that the sword he had was short; καί is adverbial (as well) but need not be translated; πρόθεο < προστί&ημι.

3 (ϊ) πρόοαψον < προοάπτω. (iv) ποιέω + two accusatives do [something] to/with (22.1/2/(ii)). (vii) κδν = καί έάν; ψευδών < ψεΰδοο. (ix) τί&ηοι here render (xi) έξομεν < έχω. (xii) ίτω 3rd s. imp. of έρχομαι (18.1/3 and Appendix 3); τφ θεφ φίλον (n. s.) sc. ecu it is dear to God.

4 /.I εί if would be first word of its clause in prose. 1.2 πλεύοεται lit. he will sail, but translate he would sail, because Greek retains the original tense in reported (indirect) speech (8.1/3 and 10.1/26); άοφαλέωο, i.e. άοφαλώο the uncontracted form is Ionic (on Ionic forms in poetry see 1.3). 1.3 χώ = καί ό; καινην predicative as in 2 above, lit. have the ship [which you sail in] new, i.e. get a new ship. 1.4 χειμώνοο ... θέρουο gen. of time within which (7.1/7c). 1.5 ήν = έάν (also in next line and in 7 below); κάκεΐοε (*καί έκεΐοε) καί ώδε lit. both thither and hither, i.e. both there and back.

5 άποθέμενοο aor. mid. pple. of άποτίθημι; φανέντοο gen. m. s. of the aor. pple. of φαίνομαι; πυνθανομένου asking; άρδο nom. m. s. of the aor. act. pple. of αίρω; έπιθήο 2nd s. aor. subj. act. of έπιτίθημι.

6 In both lines fiv = έάν; έάν (or si) καί normally although but here obviously even if (which is usually καί εί/έάν); δοθη 3rd s. aor. subj. pass, of δίδωμι.

7 φάγη 3rd s. aor. subj. act. of έοθίω. 8 θ' i.e. τε. 9 (i) Samothrace, an island in the northern Aegean, was

notorious for shipwrecks; the subject of έφη (and in (it) and (iii)) is Diogenes; πολλφ dat. of measure of difference (17.1/4b); take καί also with what follows; οί μή οωθέντεο (aor. pass. pple. of οφζω) the negative μή is used because Diogenes is referring to a general class (12.1/2tf(vi)); άνετίθεοαν had dedicated the imperfect, not the aorist, is used because the verb refers to repeated action in the past. (ii) μεγάλαο ... μΤκράν both adjectives are predicative as in 2 above; μή introducing a negative purpose clause (14.1/4c(i)). (iii) τοΰ refers to the δύοκολοο; άπαγξαοθαι aor. inf. of άπάγχομαι (iv) περνηει 3rd s. impf. of περιέρχομαι (18.1/3); μεθ' ήμέρδν after day [break] i.e. by day; cf. άμα τη ήμέρρ.

10 1.2 πολλφ (dat. of measure of difference, 17.1/4fe)ris~to be taken with the following word. 1.3 παρέοονται (< πάρειμι) on the future see note on πλεύοεται in 4 1.2 above (cf. ήξειν in 1.5). llAi. Take πάοιν ... Ουρακοοίοιο with προεΐπον (< προαγορεύω, 18.1/4 note 2)f.; τά τηο παραοκευηο lit. the [things] of their preparation but trans, their preparations. 1.6 ηυλίοαντο < αύλίζομαι. 1.9 τά πλοία is acc. after έπί.

18.3 Extra reading

The sea, the sea! The Anabasis of Xenophon (7.2.12) tells how an army of Greek mercenaries, after becoming embroiled in a dispute between rivals for the Persian throne, had to make their way back from Persia to Greece. The following passage describes their elation when, after many months of hardship, they finally reached the Black Sea. και άφικνοΰνται έπί τό opoc τη πέμπτη ήμέρςτ όνομα δέ τφ δρει ην Θήχηο. έπεί δέ οί πρώτοι έγένοντο επί τοΰ opouc καί κατεΐδον τήν θάλατταν, κραυγή πολλή έγένετο. άκούοαο δέ ό Ξενοφών καί

όπιοθοφύλακεο ωήθηοαν έμπροοθεν άλλουο έπιτίθεοθαι πρλ^μίουσ έπειδή δ' η βοή πλείων τε έγίγνετο καί έγγύτερον καί 5 0 1 αεί έπιόντεο έθεον δρόμφ έπί τούο άεί βοώνταο καί πολλφ

188 e s π 00

μείζων έγίγνετο ή βοή oc<p δή πλείουο έγίγνοντο, έδόκει δή μείζον τι είναι τφ Ξενοφώντι, καί άναβάο έφ' ίππον καί τούς ίππεαο άναλαβων παρεβοήθει* καί τάχα δή άκούουοι βοώντων τών οτρατιωτών, θαλαττα θάλαττα, καί παρεγγυώντων. ένθα δή έθεον ίο παντεο καί οί όπιοθοφύλακεο, καί τά ύποζύγια ήλαύνετο καί οί Ιπποι, έπεί δέ άφίκοντο πάντεο έπί τό άκρον, ένταΰθα δή περιέβαλλον άλλήλουο καί οτρατηγούο καί λοχαγούς δακρύοντεο.

Notes /.I άφικνοΰνται vivid present (see note on 7.2.13 /.9f.; cf. άκούουοι in 1.9). ΙΑ φήθηοαν < οΐομαι. 1.6f. οί αεί έπιόντεο (< έπέρχομαι) those who kept coming up refers to the different groups who went up the hill, but τούο άεί βοώνταο those who kept shouting refers to the ever-increasing group that could see the sea; δρόμφ at a run is redundant after έθεον (inceptive imperfect began to run 4.1/1 footnote). II.7f 6c<p etc. lit. by how much they became more [numerous]; on ococ see 21.1/3; έδόκει ... τφ Ξενοφώντι lit. it seemed to Xenophon; μείζον τι something more serious. 1.9 παρεβοήθει and the imperfects in the following lines are inceptive (see above on έθεον). / . I I ήλαύνετο has τά ύποζύγια and οί ίπποι as its subjects but it agrees with the nearer one, τά ύποζύγια, which as a neuter plural takes a singular verb (3.1/1 note 2; for another example of a double subject see 16.2.13 1.1).

19.1 Grammar

19.1/1 ϊοτημι and its compounds ϊοτημι make to stand, set up was originally cicxCtyn with a present stem of the same formation as δίδωμι and τίθημι (i.e. reduplication with iota and no suffix). At an early stage in the history of Greek the initial sigma developed into a rough breathing; the resulting ϊοταμι (the form in most dialects) became ϊοτημι in Attic with the regular change of 0 > η.1

Consequently, where the alternation δω/δο occurs in δίδωμι and θη/θε in τίθημι we have οτη/οτα in ϊοτημι; the alternation φη/φα in φημί (7.1/2) has the same explanation (the original form of the first person singular is φΰμί). The present and imperfect of ϊοτημι are almost completely parallel to δίδωμι and τίθημι. In the active we have: PRESENT

IND. IMP. SUBJ. OPT. 1 ϊοτημι ίοτώ ίοταίην 2 ϊοτηο ϊοτη ίοτηο ίοταίηο 3 ϊοτηοι(ν) ίοτάτω ίοτη ίοταίη 1 ΐοταμεν ίοτώμεν ίοταιμεν 2 ϊοτατε ϊοτατε ίοτητε ίοταιτε 3 ίοτάοι(ν) ίοτάντων ίοτώοι(ν) ίοταιεν

INFINITIVE ίοτάναι PARTICIPLE ίοτάο, ίοτάοα, ίοτάν; gen. ίοτάντοο, ίοτάοηο, ίοτάντοο ^PERFECT Τοτην, ΐοτηο, ΐοτη, ΐοταμεν, Τοτατε, tcxacav

1 s t r i k

l s change, which occurs when d is not preceded by a vowel or p, is one of the more m 8 differences between Attic and most other dialects.

190 c 3 3? -Λ <0

The future στηοω I shall make to stand, shall set up is also parallel, but we meet a divergence in the aorist. ΐοτημι has two sets of forms (cf. the two aorists of φύω, 11.1/1): (a) A weak aorist έαηοα, which is transitive and means I made

to stand, set up. (b) A root aorist έοτην (conjugated as έβην, 11.1/1), which is

intransitive and means I stood. Examples of these two aorists are:

έγχοο έστηοε πρόο κίονα. He stood his spear against a pillar (transitive).

'Αλκμήνηο XOKOC έοτη αωπή. The son of Alcmene stood in silence (intransitive).

The two aorists have identical forms in the 3rd pi. indicative active έοτηοαν (έοτηο-αν from έοτηοα; έστη-οαν from έστην). Where this form occurs, only the context will show whether it is transitive or intransitive. ϊστημι is also irregular in its perfect and pluperfect. Both tenses have a κ suffix in the singular of the indicative but elsewhere a stem without κ (έστα-) is normally used (see below). Because these tenses are intransitive (see below) they occur only in the active voice: PERFECT

IND. IMP. SUBJ. ΟΡΤ. 1 εοτηκα έςτώ έοταίην 2 έοτηκαο έοταθι έοτ^ο έοταίηο 3 έοτηκε(ν) έοτάτω έοτη έοταίη 1 έοταμεν έοτώμεν έοταΐμεν 2 έοτατε έοτατε έοτητε έσιαιτε 3 έοτοκπ(ν) έοτάντων έοτώοι(ν) έοταΐεν

INFINITIVE ECXAVAI

PARTICIPLES Ecxiic, έοτώοα, ecxoc gen. έστώτοο, έοτώσης, έοτώτοο PLUPERFECT είοτηκη, είοτηκηο, είστηκει(ν), έοταμεν, έοτατε, έοταοαν Except for the imperative, forms with the stem έοτα- have alternatives in έοτηκ- (e.g. 3rd pi. ind. έστηκσοι(ν), inf. έστηκέναι) but these are less common. The first syllable of the perfect stem was originally cecx- with reduplication of c, but, as in the present stem, the initial c developed into a rough breathing, giving ecx-. Because έ is in fact the reduplication it is kept in all forms of the perfect (16.1/4). The initial είσι- of the singular of the pluperfect was originally έοεστ- with the syllabic augment and reduplication (quite irregularly the augment does not occur in the plural and hence the 1st and 2nd pi. forms are identical with those of the perfect).

PERFECT

FUT. PERF.

PLUPERFECT

B o t h perfect and pluperfect are intransitive and they are used as a present and imperfect tense respectively: έοτηκα I am standing and είοτηκη I was standing. The future perfect έοτηξω I shall stand (cf. 16.1/4 note 2) is also intransitive. We may summarize these forms as follows:

Transitive PRESENT ϊοτημι I am making

to stand FUTURE οτηοω I shall make to

stand IMPERFECT Τοτην I was making to

stand WEAK AORIST έοτηοα I made to stand A comprehensive table of ϊοτημι is given in Appendix 5. The present middle ϊοταμαι is intransitive and literally means I am in the process of making myself stand, i.e. it represents a present act as opposed to the perfect, which represents a present state (I am in a standing position). The imperfect middle (Τοτάμην) and future middle (οτηοομαι) are also intransitive but the weak aorist middle (έοτηοάμην) is transitive and means I made (something) stand for myself. ϊοτημι has many compounds and these retain the same distinctions between transitive and intransitive tenses. Among the most common are:

Transitive tenses raise up; restore; cause to

Intransitive εοτηκα I am

standing έοτηξω I shall

stand είοτηκη I was

standing ROOT AORIST έοτην I stood

ανιοτημι

(άνά up) άφίοτημι (άπό away) καθίοτημι

migrate, expel, uproot remove; cause to revolt

Intransitive tenses rise up; be expelled;

migrate

go away from; revolt

(κατά down)

set down; put in a certain state; appoint; establish (laws etc.)

settle down; come into a certain state; be appointed; be established

The middle voice of compounds of ϊοτημι follows the pattern of the simple verb: οί βάρβαροι άφίοτανται the barbarians are in [the act of] revolt (cf. οί βάρβαροι άφεοτάαν (perfect) the barbarians **e in [a state of] revolt). Examples of the above compounds are:

άνεοτηοαν καί ΑίγΤνητσο τω In this same summer the αύτω θέρει τούτφ έξ Athenians also expelled Αίγινηο 'Αθηναίοι. the Aeginetans from

Aegina.

192 c 3 7* <0

Βοιωτοϊοί νυν έξηκοοτώ έτει μετά Ιλίου άλωοιν έξ "Αρνηο άναοτάντεο υπό Θεοοαλών την Βοιωτίδν φκιοαν.

εί τούο ξυμμάχουο αύτών άφιοτάναι πειρσοόμεθα, δεήοει καί τούτοιο ναυοί βοηθεΐν τό πλέον ούοι νηοιώταιο.

πρώτοι άπ' αύτών Μήδοι ήρξαντο άφίοταοθαι.

κατεοτηοε τυραννον είναι παΐδα τον έαυτού.

ec φόβον καταοτάντων διαφθείρονται πολλοί Χαόνων.

In the sixtieth year after the capture of Troy the present Boeotians, after being expelled from Arne by the Thessalians, colonised Boeotia.

If we try (lit. shall try) to make their allies revolt, we shall have to come to their assistance as well with a fleet because they are for the most part islanders (lit. it will be necessary to assist them also with ships, being [for] the greater [part] islanders).

The Medes were the first to start to revolt from them (lit. the Medes first started...).

He appointed his own son to be tyrant.

When they were reduced to a state of panic many of the Chaonians were killed (vivid present).

Notes To distinguish the different forms of ϊοτημι it is essential to remember that:

(i) ίοτ- occurs in all forms of the present and imperfect but nowhere else.

(ii) έοτ- occurs only in the aorist indicative. (iii) έοτ- occurs in all forms of the perfect and in the

pluperfect plural but nowhere else. (iv) είοτ- occurs only in the pluperfect singular,

πίμπλημι fill and πίμπρημι burn (tr.) follow ϊοτημι in the present and imperfect, e.g. the pres. ind. act. of the first is: πίμπλημι, πίμπληο, πίμπληοι(ν), πίμπλαμεν, πίμπλατε, πιμπλαοι(ν).

19.1/2 Potential clauses Potential clauses express an action or state which has or had the potentiality of happening: I wouldn't like to meet him on a dark night; Alcibiades would have been a disaster at our last party. In Greek the construction is the same as for main clauses in category 1 conditional sentences (18.1/5; for the only complication see note 1 below); and the same is true in English, which uses would or could (although other auxiliaries such as might are also possible). As with conditional sentences (18.1/5) we have three time-frames: Future The optative (present or aorist as appropriate) with

άν: τούτο ούκ άν γένοιτο that would not happen. Present The imperfect indicative with άν: τούτο ούκ άν

έγίγνετο that would not be happening or happen [now - to make a distinction between future and present English may need to add an adverb^.

Past The aorist indicative with άν: τούτο ούκ άν έγένετο that would not have happened.

Notes ^ 1 A future potential can be used as a form of politeness to

make a statement or request less blunt, e.g. βουλοίμην άν I should like (cf. βούλομαι I want), έβουλόμην άν I could wish (sc. that something were now the case) is also frequently used with a past reference I could have wished; this is a relic of older use.

2 In a particular context it is sometimes possible to translate a present or future potential by can, instead of could/would; the above examples would then be translated that can not' happen/be happening.

19.1/3 Oddities in verbs (a) Perfects with a present meaning As we have seen (15.1.1), the perfect expresses a state in the present resulting from an action in the past. The perfect of some Greek verbs is best expressed in English by the present tense of verbs which in themselves indicate a state. The most common examples are:

δέδοικα I am afraid (lit. I have become alarmed) from δείδω be alarmed. The aorist έδειοα is common and has the meaning I was afraid.

193 c 3

<0

194 c 3 S·' —fc <0

έγνωκα I know (lit. I have recognized) from γιγνώοκω recognise. έοικα I resemble, I seem exists only in a few forms outside the

perfect. Poetical forms in είκ- occur in the infinitive (είκέναι, otherwise έοικέναι) and participle (είκώο, είκυΐα, εικός, otherwise έοικώο etc.).

κέκτημαι,1 lit. I have acquired or I am in a state of having acquired (< κτάομαι acquire), is normally to be translated by I possess, own (plpf. έκεκτημην I possessed, owned; fut. perf. κεκτηοομαι I shall possess, own).

μέμνημαι I remember (lit. I have reminded myself) from μιμνηοκομαι remind oneself. The aorist passive έμνηοθην means I remembered (ex. at 12.3.9 1.2).

οΐδα I know exists only in the perfect, pluperfect, and future - see Appendix 3.

τέθνηκα I am dead (lit. I have died) from άποθνηοκω die (the perfect is exceptional in never having the prefix άπο-, whereas the other tenses of the uncompounded verb are normally restricted to poetry). As with the perfect of ϊοτημι (19.1/1) shorter forms occur, e.g. inf. τεθνάναι (for τεθνηκέναι), pple. τεθνεώο (for τεθνηκώο), opt. τεβναίην.

(b) Eccentric - μ α ι verbs A few deponents end in -αμαι, not -ομαι, because they belong to the -μι class of verbs (18.1/1; cf. ϊσυαμαι pres. mid./pass. of ϊοτημι, 19.1/1). The only common examples are δύναμαι be able and έπίοταμαι know how to, understand (both passive deponents with a middle future - see Principal parts of verbs; we have already met some forms, e.g. 10.3 IAL). These differ from -ω verbs only in the present and imperfect. In these tenses δύναμαι is conjugated: PRESENT

INDICATIVE δύναμαι, δύναοαι, δύναται, δυνάμεθα, δύναοθε, δύνανται INFINITIVE δύναοθαι PARTICIPLE δυνάμενοο, -η, -ον

IMPERFECT

έδυνάμην, έδύνω (< -αοο), έδύνατο, έδυνάμεθα, έδύναοθε, έδύναντο. For έδυν- we may also have ήδυν-. The other moods of the present, where they occurs follow ϊοτημι (19.1/1). The forms of έπίοταμαι are parallel. Two similar verbs are κεΐμαι lie, be laid down and κάθημαι be seated, si? which, because they both describe a continual action, exist only in the present, imperfect, and future, κεΐμαι is conjugated:

1 This reduplication is an exception to the rule given at 15.1/1 (we would have expected έκτη-). 2 κάθημαι is used in prose but the uncompounded verb, ήμαι, is found in verse (e.g. 16.3 1.9).

PRESENT INDICATIVE κεΐμαι, κεΐοαι, κείται, κείμεθα, κεΐοθε, κείνται INFINITIVE κεΐςθαι PARTICIPLE κείμενος, -η, -ον

IMPERFECT έκείμην, έκειοο, εκείτο, έκείμεθα, έκειοθε, έκειντο FUTURE INDICATIVE κείοομαι, κείοη , etc. The forms of κάθημαι follow the same pattern. The other moods of the present of both verbs are rare. On the use of κεΐμαι for the perfect passive of τίθημι see 18.1/2 note 4.

19.2 Greek reading 1 λέγει που Ήράκλειτοο ότι πάντα χωρεί καί ούδέν μένει,

καί ποταμού ροη άπεικάζων τά όντα λέγει ώο δίο eic τον αύτόν ποταμόν ούκ άν έμβαίηο.

2# νηφε καί μέμνης' (= -co) άπιοτεΐν άρθρα ταΰτα τών φρενών. 3 Πύρρων ούδέν έφη διαφέρειν ζην ή τεθνάναι. είπόντοο δέ

tivoc, τί ούν ούκ άποθνηοκειο; ότι, έφη, ούδέν διαφέρει. 4# δοκεΐτε πηδάν τάδικήματ' eic θεούς

πτεροΐα, κάπειτ' έν Διόο δέλτου πτυχαΐο γράφειν τι ν' αύτά, Ζήνα δ' είοορώντά νιν θνηΐοίο δικάζειν; ούδ' ό nac άν ούρανόο, Διός γράφοντοο τάο βροτών άμαρτίαο, 5 έξαρκέοειεν ούδ' έκεΐνοο άν οκοπών πέμπειν έκάοτω ζημίαν άλλ' ή Δίκη ένταύθά πούςτιν έγγύο, εί βούλεοθ' όράν.

5 Proverbs and famous sayings (/) έάν δύνη όδεύοαι, μή πλεύοης. (//) τοις ςεαυτού πτεροΐο έάλως. (iii) έκ παντός ξύλου Έρμης ούκ άν γένοιτο, (iv) ύδωρ πίνων ούδέν άν τέκοιο οοφόν. (ν)# ό χρήοιμ' είδώο, ούχ ό πόλλ' ειδώο, οοφόο. (vi)# θεού διδόντοο ούκ άν έκφύγοιο κακά. (vii) πάντεο άνθρωποι του είδέναι ορέγονται φύοει. (viii) όταν εύπλοτ|ο, μάλιοτα μέμνηςο ζάλης, (ix) δόο μοι πού οτώ καί κινηοω την γήν. (χ) πολυμαθίη (= - ία) νόον έχειν ού διδάοκει* Ήοίοδον γάρ άν έδίδαξε καί Πυθαγόρην (= -αν). (χϊ) τό φύοει πεφυκός ού μεθίοταται. (xii)# κούφως φέρειν δει τάο παρεοτώοας τύχαο. (xiii) άθυμούντεο άνδρεο ούπω τροπαΐον έοτηςαν. (χiv) άνθρωποο ων μέμνηοο. (χν) πάγην ίοτάο έν πάγη ληφθήοη. (χνϊ) πόρρω έοτώο ό θεόο έγγύθεν βλέπει, (xvii) έπί ξυρού ϊοταται.

6# coc τοίο κακώο πραοοουαν ηδυ και βραχυν χρόνον λαθέοθαι τών παρεοτώτων κακών.

7 One of the most famous Spartan kings was Leonidas, who died with three hundred Spartan soldiers at Thermopylae

195 c 3

196 in an attempt to defend the pass against the invading Persians (480 BC). The following are stories about him: (i) Λεωνίδαο πρόο τι να ειπόντα, πλην του βαοιλεύειν ημών ούδέν διαφέρεις άλλ' ούκ άν, έφη, εί μή βελτίων ύμών ήν, έβαοίλευον. (ii) γενόμενοο έν Θερμοπύλαιο πρόο τι να ειπόντα, άπό τών όϊοτευμάτων τών βαρβάρων ούδέ τον ήλιον ίδεΐν έξεοτιν, ούκοΰν, έφη, χαρίεν, ει ύπό οκια αύτοιο μαχούμεθα. (iii) Ξέρξου δέ γράψαντοο αύτω, έξεοτί οοι μή θεομαχούντι, μετ' έμού δέ ταττομένω, τηο Έλλάδοο μοναρχεΐν, άντέγραψεν, εί τά καλά τοΰ βίου έγίγνωοκεο, άπέοτηο άν τηο τών άλλοτρίων έπιθυμίαο* έμοί δέ κρείττων ό ύπέρ τηο Έλλάδοο θάνατοο του μοναρχεΐν τών ομοφύλων. (iv) πάλιν δέ τοΰ Ξέρξου γράψαντοο, πέμψον τά όπλα, άντέγραψε, μόλων λαβέ. The following epitaph for Leonidas and his men was written by Simonides: (v)# ώ ξεΐν', άγγέλλειν Λακεδαιμονίοιο ότι τηδε

κείμεθα, τοΐο κείνων ρήμαοι πειθόμενοι. 8 The normal way of publishing an official document in the

Greek world was to cut the text on stone (usually marble) and display it in a prominent place. Many thousands of such inscriptions have survived. The following is an extract from the record of the Athenian settlement with the Euboean city of Chalcis after the Euboean revolt from the Athenian empire in 446 BC, and it gives the wording of the oath to be sworn by all adult males in Chalcis. ούκ άποοτήοομαι άπό τοΰ δήμου τοΰ 'Αθηναίων ούτε τέχνη ούτε μηχανή ούδεμια ούδ' έπει ούδέ έργω, ούδέ τω άφιοταμένω πείοομαι, καί έάν άφιοτή τιο, κατερώ Άθηναίοιο, καί τον φόρον ύποτελώ Άθηναίοιο όν άν πείθω 'Αθηναίους καί ξύμμαχοο έοομαι oioc άν δύνωμαι apicxoc 5 καί δικαιότατος καί τω δήμω τω 'Αθηναίων βοηθήοω και άμυνώ, έάν τιο άδικη τον δήμον τον 'Αθηναίων, καί πείοομαι τω δήμω τω 'Αθηναίων.

Notes 1 τά όντα neuter pi., lit. the being [things], i.e. existing things;

ώο = ότι (8.1/36) 2 ταΰτα is subject and άρθρα predicate.

. 3 ούδέν έφη cf. ού φημί (8.1/3* note 4); ούδέν in no respect, not at all (20.1/5); ζην and τεθνάναι (19.1/3*) are the subjects of διαφέρειν; είπόντοο ... τινοο gen. a b s o l u t e (12.1/26).

4 /.I δοκεΐτε do you think; τάδικήματ'(α) (= τά άδ-) is the subject of πηδάν. 1.3 τιν'(α) someone is the subject of γράφειν and αυτά the object; viv an obsolete pronoun used solely in verse; it exists only in this form, which can function as the accusative of either the singular or plural of any gender of the 3rd person unemphatic pronoun (i.e. it can mean him, her, it, them); here it is the equivalent of αυτά (acc.), i.e. the άδικήματα. IA Take άν with έξαρκέοειεν. 1.6 έξαρκέοειεν (< έξαρκέω - the ε is not lengthened, cf. 5.1/2 note 2) is to be supplied after ούδ\ /.8 πούοτιν crasis (11.1/5) for πού έοτιν; βούλεοθ' i.e. βούλεοθε.

5 (/) δύνη 2nd s. pres. subj. of δύναμαι (the subjunctive is required after έδν - 14.1/4c(iii)). (ii) έάλωο < άλίοκομαι (18.1/4). (iii) Not the god himself but a statue of him. (iv) ύδωρ πίνων is the equivalent of a conditional clause (if you drink water - 12.1/2*(iv)); τέκοιο 2nd s. aor. opt. act. of τίκτω, (ν) είδώο < οΐδα (19.1/3* and Appendix 3). (vii) τοΰ είδέναι articular infinitive (5.1/3 - other examples below in 7(i) and (iii)); ορέγομαι is followed by the genitive (13.1/2*(ii)). (viii) μέμνηοο cf.17.1/1 note 4. (ix) δόο 2nd s. aor.amp. act. of δίδωμι; στώ (1st s. intr. aor. subj. of ϊοτημι) deliberative subjunctive in indirect speech (14.1/4*(ii)), where I am to stand, (x) Written in Ionic (1.3); γάρ for [otherwise], (xi) πεφϋκόο < φύω. (xii) παρεοτώοαο f. perf. pple. of παρίστημι. (xiii) έστηοαν gnomic aor. (see note on 5.2.10). (xiv) μέμνημαι is followed, where appropriate, by a participle, not an infinitive (cf. 15.1/2*). (xv) ληφθήοη 2nd s. fut. ind. pass, of λαμβάνω.

6 παρεοτώτων n. perf. pple. of παρίστημι. 7 (i) Take ημών with διαφέρεις not with βααλεύειν. (ii)

ούδέ not even; έξεσπ,ν (also in (iii)) an impersonal verb meaning it is possible (21.1/4*); χαρίεν sc. ecxai. (iii) Take ταττομένω (mid. of τάττω, drawing yourself up (with me)) with coi; τοΰ μοναρχεΐν gen. of comparison (17.1/4*). (iv) μόλων aor. pple. of βλώοκω. (ν) ξειν'(ε) = ξένε; άγγέλλειν infinitive used as imperative (17.1/1 note 5); κείνων = έκείνων.

8 ll.If. The first negative, ούκ, is reinforced by ούτε ... ούτε ... ούδεμιφ and ούδ'... ούδέ, lit. I will not... neither in no ... nor, etc. but trans. I will not... either in any ... or, etc. (ουδεμιφ goes with both τέχνη and μηχανη ); the fut. mid. ρποοτηοομαι (< άφίστημι) is intransitive; τοΰ δήμου τοΰ 'Αθηναίων the people, [i.e.] the [people] of [the] Athenians a regular formula in inscriptions, trans, the people of

198 c 3

Athens; έπει dat. s. of έποο. //.3f. πείοομαι fut. of πείθομαι, not πάοχω; άφιοτη 3rd s. pres. subj. act., this is a transitive tense (19.1/1) but the verb here has no object expressed -lit. causes [others] to revolt, i.e. tries to stir up revolt-κατερώ < καταγορεύω (18.1/4 note 2); ύποτελώ fut. (5.1/2 note 2); τον φόρον ... δν άν πείθω Άθηναίουο lit. the tribute whatever I persuade the Athenians, i.e. whatever tribute I persuade the Athenians (sc. is appropriate). //.5ff. oioc of what sort (21.1/3) is given a general reference (of whatever sort) because it is followed by άν and the sub). (14.1/4c(iii)), lit. of whatever sort best and most just I am able [to be]; The phrase ό δήμοο ό 'Αθηναίων is repeated to avoid any misunderstanding whatsoever.

C 3

ΙΟ 20.1 Grammar Ο

20.1/1 Verbs in -νϋμι The -νϋμι class (18.1/1) constitutes the more numerous subdivision of -μι verbs but presents no especial difficulty. All forms of the present and imperfect contain the suffix νϋ or vt5; the present indicative, infinitive and participle, and the imperfect have endings without the o/e characteristic of -ω verbs (cf. 2.1/5 note 3), but the present subjunctive and optative have the same endings as λύω. The other tenses, which do not keep the νϋ/νΌ suffix, are formed in the same way as those of -ω verbs. An example is δείκνϋμι show; which has the principal parts δείκνϋμι, fut. δείξω, aor. act. έδειξα, perf. act. δέδειχα, perf. mid./pass. δέδειγμαι, aor. pass, έδείχθην. The present and imperfect of this verb are given in full in Appendix 6. Notes 1 A number of verbs in this class end in -ννϋμι rather than

-νϋμι, e.g. κεράννϋμι mix, οκεδάννϋμι scatter, κρεμάννϋμι hang (tr.; the intransitive meaning of this verb is supplied by the passive κρέμαμαι, which is conjugated like ϊοταμαι (19.1/1)).

1 ολλϋμι (originally δλ-νϋμι) destroy, ruin, lose (fut. όλώ) has two aorist and two perfects. The weak forms of both are transitive and the strong intransitive (cf. 15.1/1 note 2): AORIST (weak) ώλεοα I destroyed/ruined/lost

(strong) ώλόμην I perished (middle voice, not active!)

PERFECT (weak) όλώλεκα I have destroyed/ruined/lost (strong) δλωλα I have perished, am ruined

or lost

όλλϋμι in its uncompounded form occurs only in verse. In prose we find the compound άπόλλϋμι, which has the same meaning. Cf. the use of θνήοκω in verse but άποθνήοκω in prose (19.1/3*).

20.1/2 ϊημι and its compounds ιημι let go, send forth is another -μι verb of group (*) (18.1/1). Its present stem was originally αοη- (root οη/οε; cf. δίδωμι and τίθημι) but with the change of the initial sigma to a rough breathing (cf. ϊοτημι 19.1/1) and the loss of intervocal sigma (cf. 6.1/lc) this was reduced to Τη- (root ή/έ). The principal parts of ιημι are: pres. ϊημι, fut. ήοω, aor. act ήκα, perf. act. εΐκα, perf. pass, είμαι, aor. pass, είθην. As will be seen from Appendix 5 its present and imperfect tenses are exactly parallel to those of τίθημι except in the 3rd pi. pres. ind. act., where contraction has taken place (taci < ίέαα) . The parallelism extends to nearly every other form, although it is obscured in some cases by contraction. Note that the sing. aor. act. ind. has a κ suffix as in τίθημι. Almost all forms of ιημι, except those of the present and imperfect, exist only in compounds. The following are the most common:

άφίημι send forth; discharge; let go έφίημι send; set on, send against; (mid.) aim at, desire μεθίημι let go, release; give up παρίημι pass over; let pass

Examples of each of these compounds are: πρέπει coi την όργήν άφϊέναι It is fitting for you to vent

είο τον βλάψαντά οε. your anger on the man who harmed you.

έάν έλων TIC τινα άκουοίου If anyone convicts a man φόνου καί οαφώο έπιδείξσο of involuntary homicide μή καθαρόν, μετά ταΰτ' and clearly shows him to αίδέοηται καί άφή, ούκέτ' be polluted (lit. not έκβαλεΐν κϋριοο τον αύτόν pure), and then feels pity έοτιν. for him and releases him-

he no longer has the power to cast the same person into exile.

έφήκε τήν ϊππον έπί τούο He sent the cavalry against Έλληναο. the Greeks.

ού γάρ toic έθνεοιν έχθει έπίάαν, άλλά τών έν τη Ο,κελία άγαθών έφΐέμενοι.

έλευθέραν δέ με, ώο έλευθέρδ θάνω, πρόο θεών μεθέντεο κτείνατε.

εί μεθηοει την άρχήν, άλλος τις άντ' αύτού τύραννος καταςτηςεται.

μή τοινυν γιγνώςκοντέο γε παρώμεν αύτό άρρητον.

χρή ήμάο καταςκόπουο μή πέμπειν μηδέ διαμέλλειν καιρόν παρϊέντας.

/

For they will not attack the races because of hatred but because they are aiming at the good things of Sicily.

In the name of the gods, release me [to be] free, so that I may die free, and [then] kill me (a woman is speaking).

If he gives up his power, someone else will set himself up as tyrant in his stead.

Let us not then, since we know [it], pass it over unmentioned.

We ought not to send inspectors or to delay, letting an opportunity pass.

20.1/3 Genitive of price or value The genitive is used to express price or value with verbs and adjeetives denoting buying, selling, valuing, and the like:

δταν δέη άργυρίου πρίαοθαι Whenever it is necessary to ή άποδόοθαι ίππο ν ... buy or sell a horse for

money ... This is what Philip is

buying with all the money which is being spent.

A. What is his fee for teaching? (lit. for how much does he teach?)

B. Five minae (lit. for five minae).

He thinks us of no account.

ΦΤκρα καί ολίγου άξια ανέρωτα. He asks petty, insignificant questions (lit. things small and worth little).

τούτο δ' έοτίν δ τών άναλιοκομένων χρημάτων πάντων Φίλιππος ώνεΐται.

Α. πόοου διδάοκει;

Β. πέντε μνών.

ημάο ούδενόο λόγου άξιοι.

202 c 3

To value highly/little/not at all etc. is commonly expressed b\ ποιεΐοθαι and a genitive governed by περί: περί πολλοί (πλέονοο, πλείστου) /ολίγου (έλάττονοο, έλαχίοτου)/ ούδενόο ποιεΐοθαι. Examples are:

τά πλείοτου άξια περί έλαχίοτου ποιείται, τά δέ φαυλότερα περί πλεονοο.

άναγκαϊον έδόκει είναι τό τοΰ θεοΰ περί πλείοτου ποιεΐοθαι.

ούτοο άπανταο τούο πολίτδο περί ούδενόο έποιήοατο.

He values least what is worth most, and [values] more highly what is more trivial

It seemed essential to value most highly the god's [word].

He valued all the citizens at nothing.

20.1/4 Genitive of separation The genitive is used with verbs and adjectives denoting separation, cessation, prevention, hindrance, difference, etc. It is common with verbs compounded with άπό and έκ:

άπέχει τών Έπιπολών έξ ή It is six or seven stades έπτά οταδίουο. distant from Epipolae.

έπαυοαν αύτόν τηο οτρατηγίδο. They deposed him from his generalship.

They prevented him from passing (lit. from the passage).

\ou voted that he be excluded from the agora and the temples.

You will be no different from Chaerephon.

έργων πονηρών χειρ' έλευθέρδν Keep your hand free from έχε. wicked deeds.

έκώλϋον τηο πορείδο αύτόν.

έψηφίοαοθε ύμεΐο αύτόν εϊργεοθαι τηο άγοράο καί τών ιερών,

ούδέν διοίοειο Χαιρεφώντοο.

20.1/5 Accusative of respect or specification The accusative may be used with a verb (usually intransitive) or an adjective to denote a thing with respect to which that verb or adjective is limited. A literal translation may be obtained by employing the words with respect to before the noun involved, but, to produce an idiomatic translation, it will often be necessary to recast the expression somewhat in English:

τάο γνάθουο άλγήοετε. You will have a pain with respect to your jaws, i.e. you'll have sore jaws.

πάδαο ώκύο Άχιλλεύο.

τυφλοο τά τ' ώτα τον τε νουν τά τ* δμματ' ει.

τεΐχοο πεντήκοντα μεν πήχεων τό εύροο, ϋψοο δέ διδκοοίων πήχεων.

Swift-footed (lit. swift with respect to feet) Achilles.

You are blind both in (lit. with respect to) ears and mind and eyes.

A wall fifty cubits wide and two hundred cubits high (lit. of fifty cubits with respect to the width, and of two hundred with respect to height).

Tell [me] who you are by race.

Under this heading may also be included the so-called adverbial accusatives, e.g. ουδέν in no respect, not at all; τι to some extent; τί why (lit. with respect to what?); πολύ much, by far; τά άλλα, τάλλα in other respects; τούτον τον τρόπον in this way; τίνα τρόπον...; in what way..? how...? Examples of these have already occurred. We have also met the neuter accusative (both singular and plural) of adjectives employed in this way, e.g. όρθά βαδίζειν to walk straight (15.2.3, see also 16.3 /.5, 17.3 /.12). Adjectives so used are the equivalent of adverbs.

λέξον OCTIC ει γενοο.

20.2 Greek reading 1 νεανίαο TIC ποτε νοσηοαο είπε τω ίατρω ούτωο άλγεΐν ώοτε

μή δύναοθαι μήτε καθηοθαι μήτε κεΐοθαι μήτε έοτάναν ό δέ ίατρόο, ώ φίλε, έφη, ούδέν άλλο coi λοιπόν έοτιν ή κρέμαοθαι.

2# τίο δ' οιδεν εί ζην τούθ' ό κέκληται θανειν, τό ζην δέ θνηοκειν έοτί; πλήν όμωο βροτών vocouciv οί βλέποντεο, οί δ' όλωλότεο ούδέν vocouciv ούδέ κέκτηνται κακά.

3 Proverbs and famous sayings (ι) δραχμής μέν ηύλει, τεττάρων δέ παύεται, (it) ή κάμηλοο έπιθυμήοαοα κεράτων καί τά ώτα προοαπώλεοεν. (iii)# ούκ έοτιν ocxic πάντ' άνήρ εύδαιμονεΐ. (iv) πολλοί οτρατηγοί Καρίαν άπώλεοαν. (ν) άφείο τά φανερά μή δίωκε τά άφανη. (vi) χρόνοο δίκαιον άνδρα δείκνυοιν μόνοο. (vii) έλέφαντοο διαφέρειο ούδέν. (viii)# άπάτηο δικαίαο ούκ άποοτατεΐ θεόο. (ix)# πολλών ιατρών εϊοοδόο μ' άπώλεοεν. (χ) λέων ει τήν τρίχα, ovoc δέ τον βίον.

4# An epic nose τοΰ γρυποΰ NIKCDVOC όρώ την ρίνα, Μένιππε,

αύτόο δ' ούν μακράν φαίνεται είναι έτι* άλλ' ήξει, μείνωμεν όμωο* εί γάρ πολύ, πέντε

τηο pivoc οταδίουο, οϊομαι, ούκ άπέχει. άλλ' αύτη μέν, όραο, προπορεύεται* ήν δ' έπί βουνόν 5

ύψηλόν οτώμεν, καύτόν έοοψόμεθα. 5# τήν κεφαλήν βάπτων TIC άπώλεοε τάο τρίχαο αύτάο,

καί δαούο ων λίαν ώόν άπαο γέγονεν. 6 έπί τούτω Κλεάνωρ άνέοτη καί έλεξεν ώδε* άλλ' όράτε μέν,

ώ άνδρεο, τήν βααλέωο έπιορκίαν καί άοέβειαν, όράτε δέ τήν Τιοοαφέρνουο άπιοτίαν, όοτιο, λέγων ώο γείτων τε εϊη τηο Έλλάδαο καί περί πλείοτου άν ποιήοαιτο οώοαι ήμάο, καί έπί τούτοιο αύτόο όμόοαο ήμΐν, αύτόο δεξιάο δούο, 5 αύτόο έξαπατήοαο ουνέλαβε τούο οτρατηγούο, καί ούδέ Δία ξένιον ήδέοθη, άλλά Κλεάρχω καί όμοτράπεζοο γενόμενος αύτοιο τούτοιο έξαπατήοαο τούο άνδραο άπολωλεκεν.

7 άλλ', ώ Οωκρατεο, πειθόμενοο τοΐο νόμοιο μήτε παΐδαο περι πλείονοο ποιοΰ μήτε τό ζην μήτε άλλο μηδέν προ του δικαίου, ίνα είο "Αιδου έλθών έχηο πάντα ταΰτα άπολογήοαοθαι τοΐο έκεΐ άρχουοιν.

8 ό C<OKp0/nic φανερόο ήν ού τών τά οώματα πρόο ωραν, άλλά τών τάο ψυχάο πρόο άρετήν εύ πεφυκότων έφιέμενοο.

9# γραμματικού θυγάτηρ έτεκεν φιλότητι μιγεΐοα παιδίον άροενικόν, θηλυκόν, ούδέτερον.

10# Ζεύο γάρ τά μέν μέγιοτα φροντίζει βροτών, τά μικρά δ' άλλοιο δαίμοοιν παρείο έφ.

11 ο ί δ ' έ ν τ η Χ ί ω μετά τοΰ Έτεονίκου οτρατιώται όντεο, έωο μέν θέροο ήν, άπό τε τηο ώραο έτρέφοντο καί έργαζόμενοι μιοθοΰ κατά τήν χώραν έπεί δέ χειμών έγένετο καί τροφήν ούκ εΐχον γυμνοί τε ήοαν καί άνυπόδητοι, ουνίοταντο άλλήλοιο ώο τη Χίω έπιθηοόμενοι. 5

12# Polymnestoi; who has been blinded by Hecuba, screams for vengeance but is restrained by Agamemnon.

ΠΟ. ωμοι, τί λέξειο; ή γάρ έγγύο έοτί που; οήμηνον, είπέ ποΰ 'c0\ ϊν' άρπάοαο χεροΐν διαοπάοωμαι καί καθαιμάξω χρόα.

ΑΓ. ούτοο, τί πάοχεισ, ΠΟ. πρόο θεών οε λίοοομαι, μεθεο μ' έφεΐναι τηδε μαργώοαν χέρα. 5

ΑΓ. ϊοχ'· έκβαλών δέ καρδίαο τό βάρβαρον λέγ', ώο άκούοαο οοΰ τε τηοδε τ' έν μέρει κρίνω δικαίωο άνθ' ότου πάοχειο τάδε.

Notes 1 vocricac having fallen sick not having been sick as is shown

by the context (technically called an ingressive aorist); μή δύναοθαι... lit. not to be able neither to ... nor to, i.e. not to be able either to ... or ίο.

2 /.I τούθ' (τοΰτο) is the subject of the first clause after ει (supply ecu from the next line). 1.2 πλήν όμωο except however (lit. except nevertheless). 1.3 οί βλεποντεο sc. the light of day, a regular expression for the living; οί όλωλότεο (20.1/1 note 2) i.e. the dead.

3 (/) ηύλει inceptive imperfect (4.1/1 footnote) started to play the pipe, (ii) καί adv. also, (iii) Lit. there is not whatever man ..., i.e. there is no man who ... (on OCTIC, which is here used adjectivally, see 10.1/26 note 2). (ν) μή negates the whole sentence, i.e. άφείο (aor. pple. of άφίημι) and δίωκε. (χ) εί (< ειμί) you are.

4 1.2 δ' ούν (13.1/3c(ii)) introduces a contrast but/however (ούν does not have its normal meaning here). II.3f. μείνωμεν jussive subj. (14.1/4<z(i)); with εί γάρ πολύ supply άπέχει from next line, lit. for [even] if he is far away; πέντε οταδίαυο acc. of spatial extent (7.1/7d); TT\C plvoc from his nose gen. of separation (20.1/4). 1.5 ήν = έάν (18.1/5 note 2), which is followed by the subj. 1.6 οτώμεν intr. aor. subj. of ϊστημι (19.1/1); καύτόν (= καί αύτόν) him too.

5 The participle ων has a concessive force though being (we might have expected an accompanying καίπερ (12.1/2<z(iii)) but cf. λέγων, όμόοαο, δούο in the next passage, which are used in the same way); take λίδν with Sacvc (this unusual word order is dictated by metre).

6 /.I ανεοτη < άνίοτημι. 1.3 The indefinite relative OCTIC , (10.1/2 note 2) is also used to introduce an adjectival clause which gives a reason, trans, since he; εϊη opt. in indirect speech in historic sequence (14.1/4d). 1.5 όμο^ < δμνϋμι. (.6 ούδέ not even; 1.7 ήδέοθη < αίδέομαι; Κλεάρχω dat. with ομοτράπεζοο (to share a meal automatically involved permanent ties of friendship and a violation of these was an offence against Ζεύο ξένιοο); καί actually; αύτοΐο τούτοιο (instrumental dat., 11.1/2) by these very means .

7 μήτε άλλο μηδέν nor anything else (7.1/6); πρό lit. in preference to but trans, than; είο is used with the gen. to mean to the place/house of - the house of Hades is the Underworld, to which all souls (ψϋχαί) went after death; eXllc you may be able (έχω + an infinitive means be able).

205 c 3 m!

8

206 C 3

8

8 φανερός ήν + pple. lit. was clear(ly) ... (cf. 15.2.10); πεφϋκότων must be taken with both phrases beginning with τών; εύ πεφϋκέναι (< φύω, the pple. is used here) means to bc well endowed by nature, to be naturally sound; τά οώματο and τάο ψϋχάο are acc. of respect (20.1/5), but trans, in body ... in soul and trans, πρόο (lit. towards) by with respect to'

9 μιγεΐοα f. aor. pass. pple. of μείγνΰμι; the lady gave birth to triplets, whose gender reflected her father's professional interests.

10 παρείο aor. act. pple. of παρίημι. 11 ωρδ [produce of] the season; γυμνοί lit. naked but here to be

understood simply as badly clothed. 12 /.I ή γάρ introduces a surprised question is she really ...? (ή

= άρα). 1.2 'οθ' i.e. έοτί; χεροΐν is dat. dual (24.1/4), lit. with two hands. 1.3 καθαιμάξω aor. subj. (as is διαοπάοωμαι) after ίνα (14.1/4c(i)); χρόα acc. s. of χρώο. 1.4 The nom. ούτοο (which does not, in any case, have a voc.) expresses an impatient demand for the attention of the person addressed (here Polymnestor), trans, you there! or what's thisτί πάοχειο lit. what are you sufferingi.e. what's wrong with you?. 1.5 μέθεο 2nd s. aor. imp. act. of μεθίημι; έφεΐναι aor. inf. of έφίημι; 1.6 τό βάρβαρον the barbarous [element], i.e. savagery, ll. 7f. ώο (here = ίνα) introduces a purpose clause (22.1/lfc(ii)), and consequently κρίνω is subjunctive.

207

c

to 21.1 Grammar

21.1/1 Wishes Like potential clauses (19.1/2) and conditional sentences (18.1/5), wishes can have reference to the present, past or future. TTie negative used in wishes is always μή. (a) Wishes for the future are expressed by the optative (present

or aorist, according to the aspect involved - 14.1/1) and may be introduced by είθε or εί γάρ (if only ... /):

ϋμινθεοί δοΐεν έκπεροαι May the gods grant that Πριάμου πόλιν. you sack (lit. give to you

to sack) the city of Priam.

είθε γράψειεν ώο χρή. I wish that he would write as he should (lit. would that he would write as is necessary or if only he would ...).

(b) Wishes for the present are expressed by the imperfect indicative and must be introduced by είθε or εί γάρ:

εί γάρ τοοαύτην δύναμιν I wish I had so much είχον. power (lit. would that I

had ... or if only I had...).

είθ' είχεο βελτΓουο φρέναο. I wish you had better thoughts.

(c) Wishes for the past are expressed by the aorist indicative, also with an obligatory εϊθε/εί γάρ:

208 C 3 » ΙΟ

εϊθ' εύρομέν οε, ώ "Αδμητε, I wish we had not found μή λϋπούμενον. you grieving, Admetus.

είθε coi, ώ Περίκλειχ, τότε I wish I had been with yon ουνεγενόμην. then, Pericles.

In the nature of things only wishes for the future can be fulfilled (and then not always). Wishes for the present and past are futile protests against what is happening or has happened.

Note A present or past wish may also be expressed by ωφελον (the aorist of οφείλω owe, be obliged to), which has the meaning ought. It is followed by a present or aorist infinitive, depending on whether the wish is for the present or past, εϊθε/εί γάρ is optional:

ώφελε Kupoc ζην. I wish Cyrus were alive (lit. Cyrus ought to be alive).

μήποτ' ωφελον λιπειν τήν I wish I had never left Cicupov. Scyrus (lit. I ought never

to have left...).

21.1/2 Further temporal conjunctions (scoc, μ έ χ ρ ι , n p i v )

Each of these three words has more than one use, but all can be employed as subordinating conjunctions with the meaning until. έωο and μέχρι both take the same construction as certain other temporal conjunctions (ότε, έπειδή etc., see 14.1/4c(iii)). They are followed by the indicative when the clause they introduce refers to a definite event:

ταΰτα έποίουν μέχρι CKOXOC They were doing these έγένετο. things until darkness fell

(lit. happened). When the reference is to something anticipated (but we do not know if it eventuates or not), the indefinite construction is used (14.1/4c(iii)):

περιμένετε έωο άν έλθω. Wait until I come (or for me to come);

έδοξεν αύτοιο προϊέναι έωο They decided (lit. it Κύρω ουμμείξειαν. seemed good to them,

IX.VAa) to advance until they should meet Cyrus.

With these conjunctions the indefinite construction can also refer to repeated action:

περιεμένομεν έκάοτοτε έωο On each occasion we used άνοιχθείη τό δεομωτηριον. to wait until the prison

opened. πρίν has a wider range of constructions: (a) When the main verb is affirmative, πρίν is followed by an

infinitive (usually aorist) and has the meaning before: έπί τό άκρον άνέβη Cheirisophus went up to

Χειρίοοφοο πρίν τινα the peak before any of αίοθέοθαι τών πολεμίων. the enemy noticed.

λέγεται 'Αλκιβιάδηο, πρίν Alcibiades is said to have ε'ίκοαν έτών είναι, conversed with Pericles Περικλεΐ διαλεχθηναι about laws before he περί νόμων. was twenty years old (lit.

of twenty years). The rules governing the case of the subject of the infinitive are exactly the same as in the infinitive construction in indirect statement (8.1/3a); in the first example above, the subject (τινά) of the infinitive is not the same as the subject of the main verb and so is in the accusative.

(b) When the main verb is negated and πρίν can be translated by until or before, it has the same construction as έωο and μέχρι:

ούκ ήν γένοο άθανάτων πρίν There was not a race of "Epoc ξυνέμειξεν άπαντα. immortals until (or

before) Love mixed everything together.

μή απέλθετε πρίν άν μου Do not go away before (or άκούοητε. until) you hear me.

(c) When the main verb is negated and πρίν must be translated by before, it has the same construction as in (a):

ούδέ πρίν νΤκηθηναι έθάρρει Not even before being ό οτρατηγόο. defeated was the general

confident (πρίν cannot here be translated by until).

Notes 1 έωο (and occasionally μέχρι) with the indicative can also

mean while, as long as:

209 c 3 H·' ro

210 c 3 7+ ΙΟ

Κλέαρχοο, έωο πόλεμοο ήν As long as the Spartans xoic Λακεδαιμονίου πρόο were at war (lit. there τούο Άθηναίουο, was war for the παρέμενεν. Spartans) with the

Athenians, Clearchus remained loyal.

2 μέχρι may also function as a preposition (+ gen.) with the meaning until, up to, as far as (with reference to time or space): μέχρι τοΰ γόνατοο up to the knee; μέχρι τούτου up to this [time].

3 πρίν can also be used as an adverb meaning before, formerly: έν τω πριν χρόνω in the previous time.

4 ού is used to negate the indicative in the subordinate clauses described above, μή to negate the indefinite construction and also the infinitive after πριν.

21.1/3 Further demonstrative and relative adjectives/pronouns Greek possesses two series of adjectives, each containing a demonstrative, relative (and exclamatory), and interrogative form. One series, with the element -oc-, refers to quantity, the other, with the element -οι-, refers to quality: DEMONSTRATIVE RELATIVE/EXCLAMATORY INTERROGATIVE

τοοούτοο, τοοόοδε so ococ as much/many as; πόοοο how bigf pi. much/many how much/many! how many f

τοιοΰτοο, τοιόοδε of oioc of what sort; ποιοο of what sortf this sort, such what a ... /

The relative/exclamatory and interrogative forms are first and second declension adjectives (3.1/3). On the declension of τοοοΰτοο, τοιοΰτοο see 16.1/1 note 1. τοοόοδε and τοιόοδε are compounds of τοο/τοι + oc (declined as καλόο, 3.1/3) + δε. All can function as pronouns as well as adjectives. We have already dealt with the interrogatives (10.1/2) and the use of τοοοΰτοο and τοιοΰτοο to anticipate an adverbial clause or phrase of result (16.1/1). We must also note that: (α) τοιοΰτοο is used with reference to what precedes in a

narrative, τοιόοδε with reference to what follows. This is the principal use of the lattery e.g. οί μέν τοιαΰτα είπον, οί δε 'Αθηναίοι τοιάδε άπεκρίναντο they said this (lit. such things as precede) and the Athenians replied as follows (lit. such things as follow), ούτοο and όδε are used in the same way (9.1/1 note 1).

φ) τοοόοδε, like τοιόοδε, can refer to what follows but is generally the equivalent of xocouxoc.

(c) ococ and oloc can introduce exclamations: oca πράγματα έχειο. How much trouble (lit.

how many things) you have!

οία epdctfc οία λαγχάνει After what deeds what κακά. sufferings are his! (lit.

what things having done what evil things he obtains!).

(d) πάντεο ocoi is used in the sense all who (lit. all as many as) instead of the expected πάντεο οί:

πάνταο έχθαίρω θεούο ocoi I hate all the gods who κακοΰοί μ' έκδίκωο. unjustly wrong me.

Very often ococ is used by itself in this sense: οί Καδμείοι OCODC κακούο All the Cadmeans whom I

εύρον ... found wicked ... (lit. the Cadmeans as many as I

/ found...). (e) xocoOxoc/ococ and xoiouxoc/oioc are used in sentences where

ococ and oioc introduce a comparison. As English does not have relatives of this sort some change is needed in translation:

oioc ό πατήρ έοτιν, τοιοΰτοο Like father; like son (lit. of καί ό DIOC. what sort the father is,

of that sort [is] the son too).

έχετε τοοούτουο οτρατιώτσο You have as many soldiers OCODC οί Πέροαι. as the Persians (sc. have;

lit. you have so many soldiers as many as the Persians).

The relatives alone, without the corresponding demonstratives, may be used in this way:

ού μοι ή δύναμίο έοτιν οίδ / have not the same πάροο ήν. strength as I previously

had (lit. there is not to me the strength of what sort (- of the sort which) there was previously).

211 c 3

IO

212 c 3

Notes 1 In verse xococ and xoioc often occur as the equivalents of

xocouxoc and xoiouxoc respectively. 2 oioc χ' ειμί I am able is a stereotyped formula (example in

13.3(ii) /.3); χε here is purely idiomatic and is not to be translated, and oioc has no relative force.

21.1/4 Further impersonal verbs Impersonal verbs have no real subject. In English they are given a grammatical subject it, which is purely idiomatic and does not refer to anything. In Greek impersonal verbs are simply put in the 3rd singular. We have already met δει and χρή it is necessary, which are followed by an infinitive whose subject, if expressed, is put into the accusative (examples at 3.2.12(x), 5.2.15 etc.). Other impersonals can be classified as follows:

(a) Impersonals followed by the dative and infinitive δοκεΐ it seems good πρέπει it is fitting έξεοτι it is allowed/possible προσήκει it concerns/is fitting λϋοιτελει it is profitable ουμφέρει it is expedient πάρεοχι it is possible Examples of έξεοχι occur at 9.2.7 and 19.2.7(ii). Of the others we may cite:

χαΰχα πρέπει μάλλον βαρβάροιο It is more fitting for ποιεΐν ή Έλληοιν. barbarians than Greeks

to do these things. ού coi προσήκει φωνεΐν. You have no business

speaking (lit. it does not concern you to speak).

δοκεΐ is usually to be translated by think, intend, decide, e.g. coc έμοί δοκεΐ as I think (lit. as it seems good to me); δοκεΐ αύτω άπιέναι he intends to leave; έδοξε xoic Άθηναίοιο μάχεοθαι the Athenians decided to fight (another example at 14.2.18 1.3). Some of the above verbs can be used personally, sometimes with a different meaning, e.g. πάρειμι I am present.

(b) Impersonals followed by the dative of the person involved and the genitive of the thing μέχεοχι μοι χούτου there is a share to me of this, i.e. I have

a share in this μέλει μοι χούχου there is a concern to me of this, i.e. I

am concerned about this μεχαμέλει μοι χούχου there is repentance to me of this, i.e. I

repent of this

Examples are: xoic θεοΐο δίκηο μέλει. The gods are concerned

with justice. τί τούδέ coi μέτεοτι πράγματοο; What concern (lit. share)

(c) Weather impersonate The various verbs for expressing weather conditions, as ϋει it is raining, νείφει it is snowing, are not strictly impersonals because Zeus, in his capacity as sky god, is their understood subject. We should, however, translate them by the impersonal English expression.

1 έοτι (always so accented) is often used in the sense of έξεοτι (examples at 9.2.13 1.5 and 11.2.10 1.4). For other cases of thi/accentuation see Appendix 8, d(x).

2 πάρα, μέτα (note accent!) are often used for πάρεοτι, μέτεση respectively.

3 When the impersonal δει means there is need of it takes the same construction as class (b) (example in 13.2.21); in the sense it is necessary it is always followed by the infinitive.

21.1/5 Accusative absolute The participle of an impersonal verb stands in the accusative, in the neuter singular, in circumstances where other verbs would be placed in the genitive absolute (cf. 12.1/2b); it has no subject. Such accusative absolutes are δέον it being necessary; έξόν, παρόν, παρέχον it being possible; μέλον it being a care; προσήκον, πρέπον it being fitting; δόξαν it having been decided. Examples are:

εξον είρήνην έχειν, αίρεΐται Although he can live in πολεμεΐν. peace (lit. it being

have you in this business?

ϋμιν μεταμεληοάτω τών πεπραγμένων.

Repent of your deeds! (lit. let there be repentance [3rd s. aor. imp. act.] to you of the things done).

Notes

δήλον γάρ ότι oicGa, μέλον γέ coi.

possible to have peace), he chooses to make war.

For it [is] clear that you know, since you are interested [in the subject] (lit. it being a care to you).

214 c 3

ΙΟ

ουνδόξαν τω πατρί καί τη μητρί, Since his father and γαμεΐ την Κυαξάρου mother approved (lit it θυγατέρα. having seemed good also

to ...) he married (vivid present) the daughter of Cyaxares.

The accusative absolute is also found with expressions consisting of a neuter adjective and ov, such as αδύνατον όν it being impossibley αίοχρόν όν it being disgraceful, άδηλον όν it being unclear, e.g.

παρεκελεύοντο άλλήλοιο They encouraged each κραυγή ούκ όλίγη χρώμενοι, other with (lit. using) no αδύνατον όν έν νυκτί άλλω little shouting, since it τω οημήναι. was impossible (lit. it

being impossible) by night to signal by any other [means].

21.2 Greek reading 1 (Γπαρτιάτηο TIC eic Άθήνac έλθών καί ίδών έν άποχωρήοει

θακοΰνταο έπί δίφρων άνθρώπουο, μή μοι γένοιτο, ειπεν, ένταΰθα καθίοαι όθεν ούκ εστίν έξαναστηναι πρεοβυτέρω.

2 Proverbs (i) πριν τούο ίχθΰο έλεΐν τήν αλμην κυκάο. (ii) ού μέλει τη χελωνη μυιών. (iii) αεί με τοιούτοι πολέμιοι διώκοιεν. (iv) προοήκει τοΐο τέκνοιο έντόο θυρών λοιδορειοθαι. (ν) oioc ό τρόποο τοιοΰτοο ό λόγοο. (νϊ)# μηδένα νομίζετε εύτυχεΐν πριν άν θάνη . (vii)# οϊαπερ ή δέοποινα τοία χή κύων. (viii)# νέω δέ οιγάν μάλλον ή λαλεΐν πρέπει, (ix) ώ οία κεφαλή, και έγκέφαλον ούκ έχει. (*)# μέτεοτι τοΐο δούλοιαν δεοποτών νόοου. (xi)# μή μοι γένοιθ' ά βούλομ', άλλ' ά συμφέρει, (xii) "Αιδου πρωκτω περιπέοοιο. (xiii)# εϊθ' ήν άφωνον οπέρμα δυοτήνων βροτών.

3# όοτιο δέ θνητών θάνατον όρρωδεΐ λίαν, μώροο πέφυκε* τη τύχη τώνδε μέλει, όταν δ' ό καιρόο τοΰ θανεΐν έλθών τύχη, ούδ' άν πρόο αύλάο Ζηνόο έκφύγοι μόλων.

4 ocoi γαμοΰοι γένει κρειττουο γάμουο ούκ έπίοτανται γαμεΐν.

5 οϊω xic άν τό πλείστον τηο ήμέραο ουνη, τοιούτον άνάγκη γενέοθαι καί αύτόν τούο τρόπουο.

6 avacTac αύθιχ Θώραξ ό Βοιώτιοο, oc περί οτρατηγίαο Ξενοφώντι έμάχετο, έφη, εί έξέλθοιεν έκ του Πόντου, έοεοθαι αύτοΐο Χερρόνηοον, χώραν καλήν καί εύδαίμονα, ώοτε έξειναι τω βουλομένω ένοικεϊν, τω δέ μή βουλομένω άπιέναι οϊκαδε. γελοΐον δέ είναι, έν τη Ελλάδι ούοηο 5 χώραο πολλήο καί άφθονου, έν τη βαρβάρων μαοτεύειν. εωο δ' άν, έφη, έκεΐ γένηοθε, κάγω ύπιοχνοΰμαι ύμΐν τον μιοθόν.

7 Διογένηο ίδών ποτε γυναικαο άπ' έλάαο άπηγχονιομέναο, είθε γάρ, έφη, πάντα τά δένδρα τοιούτον καρπόν ήνεγκεν.

8 # OCTIC δέ πράοοει πολλά, μή πράοοειν παρόν, μώροο, παρόν ζην ήδέωο άπράγμονα.

9 βουλευομένοιο τοιο οτρατιώταιο έδοξεν άποκρίναοθαι τάδε* καί έλεξε Χειρίοοφοο* ήμΐν δοκεΐ, εί μέν τιο έα ήμάο άπιέναι οϊκαδε, διαπορεύεοθαι τήν χώραν ώο άν δυνώμεθα άανέοτατα* ήν δέ TIC ήμάο τηο οδού άποκωλύη, διαπολεμεΐν τούτω ώο άν δυνώμεθα κράτιοτα.

10# Prometheus laments his lot. ή δυοπετώο άν τούο έμούο άθλουο φέροιο, δτω θανεΐν μέν έοτιν ού πεπρωμένον αύτη γάρ ήν άν πημάτων απαλλαγή" νύν δ' ούδέν έοτι τέρμα μοι προκείμενον μόχθων πρίν άν Ζεύο έκπέοη τυραννίδοο. 5

11 καί ό Kupoc άκούοαο του Γωβρύα τοιαύτα τοιάδε πρόο αύτόν έλεξεν.

12# Medea resolves to murder her children, ε ι εν τί δράοειο, θυμέ; βούλευοαι καλώο πρίν έξαμαρτεΐν καί τά προοφιλέοτατα έχθιοτα θέοθαι. ποι ποτ' έξήξαο τάλαο; κάτιοχε λήμα καί οθένοο θεοοτυγέο. καί πρόο τί ταύτα δύρομαι, ψυχήν έμήν 5 όρώο' έρημον καί παρημελημένην πρόο ών έχρήν ήκιοτα; μαλθακοί δέ δή τοιαύτα γιγνόμεοθα πάοχοντεο κακά; ού μή προδώοειο, θυμέ, οαυτόν έν κακοΐο. οϊμοι δέδοκται* παΐδεο, έκτόο ομμάτων 10 άπέλθετ'· ήδη γάρ με φοίνιον νέα δέδυκε Xvcca θυμόν. ώ χέρεο χέρεο, πρόο οίον έργον έξοπλιζόμεοθα* φεύ ταλαινα τόλμηο, ή πολύν πόνον βραχεί διαφθερουοα τον έμόν έρχομαι χρόνω. 15 EIC Λακεδαίμονα παραγενόμενόο TIC καί τήν πρόο τούο πρεοβύταο τών νέων τιμήν θεαοάμενοο, έν (Γπάρτη μόνη, ειπε, λυοιτελεΐ γηράοκειν.

216 c 3 S ro

14# έχρήν γάρ ήμάο ούλλογον ποιουμένουο τον φύντα θρηνεί ν eic oc' έρχεται κακά, τον δ' αύ θανόντα και πόνων πεπαυμένον χαίρονταο εύφημοΰνταο έκπέμπειν δόμων.

Notes 1 The Spartans, as well as living in a primitive simplicity

where a public toilet would have been unheard of, prided themselves on old-fashioned virtues such as respect for people older than oneself (cf. 13 below); έσπ,ν = έξεοτιν; έξαναστηναι intr. aor. inf. of έξανίοτημι.

2 (/) The brine is to boil the fish, (iv) Take τέκνοιο with λοιδορεΐοθαι, not with προοήκει. (ν) Supply έοτί with oioc and with τοιοΰτοο (cf. (vii) below), (vii) χή = καί ή. (ix) οία exclamatory, (x) Take δεοποτών with νόοου, and νόοου with μέτεοτι. (xi) γένοιθ' = γένοιτο; βούλομ' = βούλομαι (2.1/66 note); συμφέρει is not here impersonal but has ά as its subject.

3 1.2 τώνδε neuter these things. 1.3 έλθών τύχη (3rd s. aor. subj. of τυγχάνω) chances to come (15.1/2e).

4 γένει in race (dat. of respect, 23.1/2ra). 5 συνη 3rd s. pres. subj. of ούνειμι, which takes a dative (here

οϊω); άνάγκη sc. έοτί; τούο τρόπουο acc. of respect (20.1/5) with τοιούτον.

6 After έφη in 1.2 we have a passage of indirect speech, but the last sentence of the passage is in direct speech with an extra έφη inserted (cf. 8.1/3a and 7.1/2 note 3). 1.2 εί έξέλθοιεν represents in historic sequence έάν έξέλθωοι of the original direct speech (14.1/4c(iii)). 1.3 έοεοθαι αύτοιο lit. there to be going to be for them, i.e. they would have. 1.4 τω ... μη βουλομένω the negative is μή because a general class is meant (12.1/2tf(vi)), trans, anyone who did not [so] wish. 1.7. έκεΐ γένηοθε i.e. you get there.

7 άπηγχονιομένδο f. acc. pi. of the perf. pass. pple. of άπαγχονίζω; είθε + aor. expresses a wish for the past

8 The old Athenian aristocratic ideal was a life of leisure. In both lines παρόν is an acc. absolute (21.1/5). /.I μή negates πρδοοειν.

9 άπιέναι < άπέρχομαι (18.1/3); ώο ... άοινέσιατα lit. & whatever way (ώο άν) we can most harmlessly, i.e. doing the least possible harm.

(21.1/1 c).

10 1.2 δτω the relative δοτιο can be used to introduce an adjectival clause which gives a reason (cf. note on 20.2.6 1.3). 1.3 αύτη this refers to what has just been mentioned (i.e. death), but is attracted into the gender of απαλλαγή. //.4f. νυν δ'(έ) but as it is; take μόχθων with τέρμα; έκπίπτω is here acting as the pass, of έκβάλλω throw out (cf. 17.1/5); τυραννίδοο gen. of separation (20.1/4).

11 Take τοιαύτα with άκούοδο, τοιάδε with έλεξεν; Γωβρύδο (1st declension) has the non-Attic gen. s. Γωβρύδ.

12 /.I βούλευοαι 2nd s. aor. imp. mid. of βουλεύω. 1.3 θέοθαι (< τίθημι) here make; έξήξαο 2nd s. aor. ind. act. of έξαΐοοω; τάλαο (10.1/3 note 2) is voc. (Medea is still addressing her θϋμόο). 1.5 πρόο τί lit. with a view to what, i.e. why. 1.6 έρημον is f. and agrees with ψϋχήν (έρημοο is one of the few two termination adjectives (3.1/3) which are not compounds); παρημελημένην perf. pass. pple. of παραμελέω. //.7f. πρόο ών i.e. πρόο (= ύπό) τούτων ouc (9.1/2 note 2); δέ δή here introduces an emphatic question And so Then ... f; when a woman is using the royal plural, as with γιγνόμεοθα (= -μεθα, cf. 8.2.9 and έξοπλιζομεοθα in /.13 belpw), she refers to herself with masculine pi. adjectives and participles, hence μαλθακοί and πάοχοντεο; take τοιαύτα ... κακά after πάοχοντεο. 1.9 ού μή + fut. ind. expresses a strong prohibition (17.1/1). /. 10 δέδοκται it is decided (i.e. by me, lit. it is in a state of seeming good [to me]) the impers. δοκεΐ (21.1/4^) is mid./pass. in the perfect; παιδεο voc. II.lli. άπέλθετ'(ε) 2nd pi. aor. imp.; με ... δέδϋκε ... θϋμόν lit. has entered me [with respect to] my heart, i.e. has entered my heart (acc. of respect 20.1/5). Z.14 τόλμηο gen. of cause (23.1/l&(ii)) with τάλαινα wretched [that I am] because of my daring, Medea is talking about herself; πόνον i.e. the labour of bearing and raising her children. /.15 διαφθεροΰοα fut. pple. to express purpose (12.1/2tf(v)).

14 /.I έχρήν = έχρήν άν a common idiom which means it should be necessary, not it was necessary, because it expresses something which should be happening now (present potential,19.1/2), trans, we should ... 1.2 κακά is acc. of respect (20.1/5) after θρηνεΐν and the antecedent of eic oc'(a) έρχεται, lit. with respect to the troubles to how many he is coming, i.e. for all the toubles he is coming to (21.1/3J). //.3f. δ'(έ) αύ and in turn; πόνων, δόμων gen. of separation (20.1/4); δόμων is also an example of the plural used for the singular, from [his, i.e. the dead man's^ house.

217 c 3

to

218 c 3 ΙΟ

21.3 Extra reading

Love poetry Love poetry had a long history in Greek. The first example below is from Mimnermus (seventh century BC) but the others are much later (2 and 3 are attributed to Plato, whether correctly or not we have no means of telling; the authors of 4 and 5 are unknown). All are written in elegiacs (Appendix 9), the metre most associated with this genre.

1 xic δέ pioc, τί δέ τερπνόν άτερ xpucfjc Άφροδίτηο; τεθναίην, ότε μοι μηκέτι ταΰτα μέλοι,

κρυπταδίη φιλότηο καί μείλιχα δώρα καί εύνή, οί' ήβηΰ άνθεα γίγνεται άρπαλέα

άνδράαν ήδέ γυναιξίν έπεί δ' όδυνηρόν έπέλθη 5 γήραο, δ τ' αίοχρόν όμώο καί κακόν άνδρα τιθεΐ,

αίεί μιν φρέναο άμφί κακαί τείρουοι μέριμναι ούδ' αύγάο προοορών τέρπεται ήελίου,

άλλ' έχθρόο μέν παιοίν, άτίμαοτοο δέ γυναιξίν ούτωο άργαλέον γήραο έθηκε θεόο. 10

2 άοτέραο είοαθρεΐο άοτήρ έμόσ είθε γενοίμην ούρανόο, e>c πολλοίο όμμααν eic ce βλέπω.

3 αστήρ πριν μέν έλαμπεο ένί ζωοΐαν Έωοσ νΰν δέ θανών λάμπειο "Εαιεροο έν φθιμένοισ

4 πέμπω coi μύρον ηδύ, μύρω παρέχων χάριν, ού coi* αύτη γάρ μυρίοαι καί το μύρον δύναοαι.

5 Ήοΰο άγγελε, χαίρε, Φαεοφόρε, καί ταχύο έλθοιο Έοπεροο, ήν άπάγειο, λάθριοο αύθιο άγων.

Notes 1 All deviations from Attic in this poem are Ionic (1.3). /.2

τεθναίην the shorter form of the perf. opt. of 0VT|CKCO (19.1/3tf) - the opt. is used here to express a wish for the future (21.1/ltf); ταΰτα (referring to the nouns in /.3) is the subject of μέλοι, which is not impersonal here and should be translated as though ind. (the verb has been assimilated to the mood of τεθναίην). 1.3 κρυπταδίη = - ίδ . ΙΑ οί'(α) γίγνεται lit. of what sort are, i.e. the sorts of things which; άνθεα = άνθη (< άνθοο). l.S έπεί ... έπέλθη in this indefinite construction Attic would require άν (14.1/4c(iii)). αίοχρόν and κακόν (here lowly, base) are predicative afte* άνδρα τιθεΐ (= τίθηα), makes a man both (όμώο) ugly aw base - note here that we have όμώο, not όμωο nevertheless-1.7 φρέναο άμφί = άμφί φρέναο.

2 /.I άοτηρ έμόο is in apposition to you, the subject of eica9peic. 1.2 a>c = ϊνα (βλέπω is subj., 14.1/4c(i)).

3 /.I πριν here an adverb formerly; αστήρ ... Έωοο the Morning Star. 1.2 "Eaiepoc the Evening Star; the Greeks knew that both were in fact the planet Venus (see 5 below), which makes the poet's fanciful identification of his lover with them all the more appropriate.

4 /.I παρέχων χάριν doing a favour. 1.2 καί even (μύρον has a very strong scent).

5 The poet, who supposes that the planet Venus in its guise as the Morning Star is taking away his girlfriend, expresses the wish that it return quickly as the Evening Star and bring her back. l.l 'Houc gen. of Ήώο. 1.2 "Eacepoc i.e. [as] the Evening Star; ήν άπάγει ... άγων bringing [the girl] whom you are [now] leading away.

219 c 3 f¥ IO

22.1 Grammar

22.1/1 Summary of the uses of ωο ώο, originally an adverb of manner meaning in which way, how, came to have various uses as an adverb or as a conjunction. It may also occur as a preposition.

(α) ώο as an adverb (i) ώο with participles and prepositional phrases

We have already seen how ώο is used with participles of cause (12.1/2<z(ii)) and purpose (12.1/2tf(v)), reflecting the attitude (thought, opinion, intention, hope) of the subject of the participle without any implication of the belief or opinion of the writer or speaker. In this use, which also occurs with phrases introduced by a preposition, ώο expresses an alleged reason or assumed motive, and may be translated as i f , in the opinion that, under the impression that, with the (avowed) intention of, etc.:

συλλαμβάνει Κΰρον ώο He seized (vivid present) άποκτενών. Cyrus with the intention

of putting him to death. άγανακτοΰοιν (be μεγάλων They are annoyed in the

τινών άπεοτερημένοι. belief that they have been deprived of some great [benefits].

άνηγοντο ώο έπί ναυμαχίδν. They put out to sea with the intention of fighting (lit. as for a sea-battle).

( i i )

άπέπλεον (be eic xQc Άθηναο. They sailed away as if for Athens.

cbc exclamatory coc how ... / is used in exclamations with adjectives, adverbs and verbs:

221

roc acxeioc ό άνθρωποο. ώο άδεώο καί γενναίωο

έτελεύτα. ώο μ' άπώλεοαο, γύναι.

How charming the man is! How fearlessly and nobly

he died! How you have destroyed

me, woman! (iii) d>c with positive adverbs

ώο may be used to emphasize positive adverbs: ώο άληθώο in very truth; ώο έτέρωο quite otherwise; ώο αΰτωο (often written ώοαύτωο) in the same way, just so. Note too the common idiom where ώο is added to the adverbs θαυμαοίωο and θαυμαοτώο (lit. marvellously, wonderfully) to express emphasis:

νυν δέ θαυμαοίωσ ώο άθλιοο γέγονεν.

ε# λέγει θαυμαοτώο ώο οφόδρα.

But now he has become prodigiously wretched.

He speaks marvellously well (lit. he speaks well marvellously very).

(iv) coc with superlative adjectives and adverbs (see 17.1/4d) (ν) ώο EKacxoc/eKaxepoc

ώο is often combined with έκαοιοο (or έκάτεροο) in the sense each by himself, each severally or individually:

άλλοι παριόντεο έγκλήματα Others came forward and made their separate complaints (lit. each [group] by themselves).

They ceased from fighting and on either side (lit. each side by themselves) remained quiet [but] on guard for the night.

(vi) coc restrictive <oc may also be used to limit the validity of a statement, with the meaning for:

εποιουντο coc εκαοτοι.

παυοαμενοι τηο μαχηο coc έκάτεροι ήουχάοαντεο την νύκτα έν φυλακή ήοαν.

ην ούδέ άδύνατοο, ώο Λακεδαιμόνιος ειπείν.

He was not a bad speaker (lit. not unable to speak) either, for a Spartan (or considering that he was a Spartan).

c 3

β

222 c 3

β

μακρά ώο γέροντι όδόο.

φρονεί ώο γυνή μέγα.

A long road, for an old man.

She has proud thoughts (lit. thinks big), for a woman.

Restrictive ώο is also found with the infinitive in certain idiomatic expressions which stand independent of the overall grammatical construction and which express some limitation or qualification of the sentence as a whole. This use is particularly common in the phrase ώο έποο ειπείν (or ώο ειπείν) so to speak, which usually modifies a sweeping statement with πάο or ούδείο (or the like); occasionally it apologizes for a metaphor:

αληθεο γε coc έποο ειπείν ούδέν είρήκδαν.

Ίππόλυτοο ούκέτ' έοτίν, ώο ειπείν έποο.

ίδιώται ώο ειπείν χειροτέχναιο άνταγωνιοάμενοι.

They have spoken virtually no word of truth (lit. nothing true so to speak).

Hippolytus is as good as dead (lit. is no longer alive, so to speak).

Laymen, as it were, pitted against craftsmen (the metaphorical use of άνταγωνιοάμενοι is toned down).

(vii) a>c with numerals ώο is used with numerals in the sense about, nearly:

διέοχον άλλήλων βααλεύο The King and the Greeks τε καί οί "Ελληνεο ώο were about thirty stades τριάκοντα οτάδια. distant from each other:

ώο is similarly used in the common phrase ώο έπί τό πολυ for the most part (lit. nearly so far as regards the much).

(b) ώο as a conjunction (i) in indirect speech, that (see 8.1/3b)

(ii) in purpose clauses, in order that (see 14.1/4c(i)) Purpose clauses are generally introduced by ίνα or όποκ, but ώο may also be used, especially in poetry and in Xenophon:

διανοείται την γέφυραν He intends to break up the λΰοαι ώο μή διαβήτε. bridge in order that you

may not cross.

223 iii) in clauses of reason, as, since, because Causal clauses are regularly introduced by δτι, διότι because, as, έπεί, έπειδη since, but may also be introduced by coc. As in its use with the participle (see a(i) above), CDC β sometimes carries the implication that the reason given is the subjective opinion of the person described:

έπειτα δέ ξύμβααν Then, when they had made ποιηοάμενοι npoc τον an agreement with Περδίκκδν, (be αύτούο Perdiccas because (in κατηπειγεν ή Ποτείδαια, their opinion) [the άπανίοτανται έκ τηο situation in] Potidaea Μακεδονία. was pressing them, they

withdrew (vivid present) from Macedonia.

(iv) in temporal clauses, when, after (be may be used like έπεί (cf. 14.1/4c(iii)):

(be ήοθετο Κΰρον When he perceived that πεπτωκότα έφυγεν. Cyrus had fallen, he fled.

(be τάχιστα may be used for έπειδή τάχιστα in the sense as soon as:

(be Τάχιστα ήκομεν eic As soon as we had come to Μακεδονίδν, συνετάξαμεν Macedonia, we arranged τον πρεοβύτατον πρώτον for the eldest man to λέγειν. speak first.

(v) (be in clauses of manner (be may be used to introduce adverbial clauses of manner in the sense as, according as, in which way, often coupled with ούτω(ο) thus, so in the principal clause. In such clauses the verb in the subordinate clause will be in the indicative mood if the action is marked as a fact:

έκέλευσε τούο "Ελληνασ, ώσ He ordered the Greeks to νόμοο αύτοιο ήν eic be drawn up as was their μάχην, ούτω ταχθηναι. custom for battle (lit. as

was their custom, so ... to be drawn up).

But if the action has a future reference or is indefinite, the mood of the verb will follow the rules for indefinite clauses (cf. 14.1/4c(iii)), i.e. subjunctive with άν in primary sequence, optative without άν in historic sequence:

το πέραο roc άν ό δαίμων The end of all things βουληθή πάντων γίγνεται. comes about in whatever

way the deity wishes.

224 c 3 »

β

ξυνετίθεοαν coc έκαοτόν They put [them] together τι ξυμβαίνοι. as each [piece] fitted.

The verb in the (be clause is often omitted, e.g. είθε πάντεο οε φιλοΐεν ώο έγώ would that all loved you as I (sc. do). Other examples occur at 13.2.6 and 15. ώο is likewise frequently used to introduce clauses which are parenthetical: ώο έοικε as it seems; ώο έγωμαι (= έγώ οιμαι) as I think; ώο έμοί δοκεΐ in my opinion (lit. as it seems to me).

(c) was a preposition ώο as a preposition governs the accusative case and has the sense to, towards. It is used only with persons:

ώο Περδίκκσν έπεμψαν Both sides sent αμφότεροι πρέοβειο. ambassadors to

Perdiccas.

22.1/2 Uses of cases (1) - accusative Apart from its use as the case of the direct object of transitive verbs (2.1/3c) and after certain prepositions (2.1/3f; 3.1/5a), the accusative can function in a number of ways, some of which require rephrasing to be turned into normal English. (a) Accusative and infinitive (see 8.1/3^, and cf. 16.1/1) (b) Accusative to express time how long (see 7.117a) (c) Accusative to express spatial extent (see 7.1/7d) (d) Accusative of respect or specification (see 20.1/5) (e) Accusative absolute (see 21.1/5) ( f ) Verbs taking two accusatives These occur in Greek as in English (we chose him leader; they asked us our opinion) and can be divided into two categories: (i) Verbs of making, considering, naming, choosing,

appointing, etc. (factitive verbs), which take a direct object and an object complement (also called a predicate):

οί Θετταλοί καί οί Θηβαίοι The Thessalians and φίλον, εύεργέτην, οωτηρα Thebans considered τον Φίλιππον ήγοΰντο. Philip (direct object) a

friend, benefactor and saviour (object complement).

τρεΐο τών έμών έχθρών I shall make three of my νεκρούο θήοω. enemies corpses.

When such expressions are put into the passive, both accusatives become nominative:

Λαοθένηο φίλοο ώνομάζετο Lasthenes was called the Φιλίππου. friend of Philip.

(ii) Verbs of asking for (αίτέω), teaching (διδάοκω), concealing (κρύπτω), depriving (άποοτερέω), taking away (άφαιρέομαι), and a few others, which may take two accusatives (one accusative of the person and the other of the thing involved). The construction of the corresponding verbs in English is not always the same:

ό πόλεμοο άείμνηοτον The war taught them a παιδείαν αύτούο έπαίδευοεν. lesson never to be

forgotten. άποοτερεΐ με την Αμήν. He takes the honour from

me. τήν θυγατέρα έκρυπτε τον He concealed her husband's

θάνατον τοΰ άνδρόο. death from his daughter. Wh£n such expressions are put into the passive, the thing involved remains in the accusative (retained accusative):

έκεΐνοι ίππουο Those men have been άπεοτέρηνται. deprived of their horses.

ούδέν άλλο διδάοκεται A man is taught nothing άνθρωποο ή έπιοτήμην. else except knowledge.

Under this heading also belong the phrases άγαθά (κακά, etc.) λέγειν τινά to speak well (ill, etc.) of someone, and άγαθά (κακά, etc.) ποιεΐν τινα to do good (evil, etc.) to someone and the like:

τούο Κορινθίουο πολλά τε He said many bad things καί κακά έλεγεν. about the Corinthians.

Instead of the neuter pi. acc. of the adjective, however, we often find the adverbs εύ/κακώο, etc.:

τον μέντοι καί λόγω καί έργω However, I would be able πειρώμενον έμέ άνιάν ούκ neither to speak well of άν δυναίμην ούτ' ευ λέγειν nor to do good to the ούτ' εύ ποιειν. man who tries to vex me

both in word and in deed.

For the passive of expressions using λέγω and ποιέω see

(g) Cognate accusative This describes an expression in which a noun and the verb (usually otherwise intransitive) by which it is governed are both derived from the same root (as in English sing a song): voce! vocov άγρίδν he is ill with a cruel disease; έωράτε Οωκράτη πολλήν φλυδρίδν φλυσροΰντα you used to see Socrates talking much nonsense. Except in poetry, the cognate accusative is usually accompanied by an adjective or other attribute. Also included under this heading are accusatives used in exactly the same way with nouns not derived from the same root as the verb: ήοθένηοε ταύτην την vocov he fell sick with this disease. Instead of a cognate noun in the accusative we may also find the neuter of an adjective used as an equivalent: 'Ολυμπία (acc. pi. n.) νϊκάν to win an Olympic victory (lit. Olympic things).

(h) Accusative in oaths The accusative is regularly found in oaths, especially after the particles μά and νή. νή conveys strong affirmation; νή τον Δία yes, by Zeus!, but μά may be either affirmative or negative, the choice being determined either simply by the context (as, e.g., in 23.2.5 IA) or by adding ναί or ού: ναί μά τον Δία yes, by Zeus!; μά τον Άπόλλω, ούκ no, by Apollo! (cf. 24.1/lc). In these expressions we must understand the verb δμνϋμι sweat; which can also be used with the accusative of the god's name in the sense I swear by: ομνϋμι θεούο καί θεάο I swear by [the] gods and goddesses. (i) Accusative to express motion towards (see 2.1/3/) In poetry the accusative can be used with verbs of motion without any preposition:

Μήδεια πυργουο γήο έπλευο' Medea sailed to the towers Ίωλκίδο. of the Iolcian land.

22.2 Greek reading 1# ού δ' ώ θεών τύραννε κάνθρώπων "Epcoc,

ή μή δίδαοκε τά καλά φαίνεοθαι καλά, ή τοιο έρώαν εύτυχώο ουνεκπόνει μοχθούοι μόχθουο ών ού δημιουργόο εΐ.

2 έοπέρα μεν γάρ ήν, ήκε δ' άγγέλλων τιο (be τούο πρυτανεία ώο Ελάτεια κατείληπται. καί μετά ταΰτα οί μέν εύθυο έξαναοτάντεο μεταξύ δειπνούντεο τούο i έκ τών οκηνών τών κατά τήν άγοράν έξειργον καί τά γέρρα ένεπίμπραοαν, οι δε

τούο οτρατηγούο μετεπέμποντο καί τον οαλπικτήν έκάλουν t 5 καί θορύβου πληρηο ήν ή πόλιο. τη δ* ύοτεραίρ άμα ττ\ ήμερα οί μεν πρυτάνειο τήν βουλήν έκάλουν είο το βουλευτήριον, ύμεΐο δ' eic τήν έκκληοίαν έπορεύεοθε, καί, πριν έκείνην χρηματίοαι καί προβουλεΰοαι, πάο ό δήμοο άνω καθητο. καί μετά ταΰτα ώο ήλθεν ή βουλή καί 10 άπήγγειλαν οί πρυτάνειο τά προοηγγελμέν' έαυτοΐο καί τον ήκοντα παρήγαγον κάκεΐνοο ειπεν, ήρώτα μέν ό κήρυξ, τίο άγορεύειν βούλεται; παρήει δ' ούδείο.

3 In addition to translating, define each use of the -accusative: (i) α'ίτει καί τούο άνδρίανταο άλφιτα. (ii) έοτιν τιο Οωκράτηο ~ οοφόο άνήρ, τά τε μετέωρα φροντιοτήο καί τά ύπό γήο πάντα -άνεζητηκώο. (iii) ήκει καί τά τοΰ πάππου χρήματα ήμάα-άποοτερήοων. (iv)# ήλθε πατρόο άρχαΐον τάφον. (ν)# πολλα^ διδάοκει μ' ό πολύο βίοτοο. (νϊ) Μέλητοο με έγράψατο τήνν γραφήν ταύτην. (vii) ό Κΰροο ήν ειδοο μέν κάλλιοτοο, ψυχήν** δέ φιλανθρωπότατοο. (viii) μά Δια, ούκ ειδον έμαυτοί^ άμείνω ύλοτόμον. (ix) οπονδάο καί ξυμμαχίαν έποιήοαντς^ έκατόν έτη. (*)# δμνυμι δ' ιερόν αίθέρ', οϊκηοιν Διόο.

4 In addition to translating, define each use of ώο: (i)f ώο ήδύ τω μιοοΰντι τούο φαύλουο έρημία. («)# κρύπτη μηδέν, ώο πάνθ' όρων πάντ' άναπτύοοει χρόνοο. (iii)# τέκνο^ τοΰδ* έκατι τίκτομεν, ώο θεών τε βωμούο πατρίδα τ ^ ρυώμεθα. (iv) κατέλαβε τήν άκρόπολιν ώο έπί τυραννίδι. (ι/) πειράοθαι δέ χρή ώο ρφοτα τάναγκαΐα (= τά άν-) τοΰ βίον^ φέρειν. (νϊ)# πόνοο γάρ, ώο λέγουοιν, εύκλείαο πατήρ. (vii)i$ φεΰ, φεΰ, τό νικάν τάνδιχ' (= τά ένδικα) ώο καλόν γεραο, τ<^ μή δίκαια δ' ώο πανταχοΰ κακόν. (viii)# ώο ήδύο ό βίοο, ά ν τιο αύτόν μή μάθη . (/*)# δίδου πένηοιν ώο λάβηο θεόν δότην% (χ)# κρίνει φίλουο ό καιρόο, ώο χρυοόν τό πΰρ. (χήίφ μέμνηοο νέοο ων ώο γέρων έοη ποτέ. (xii)# ού ζώμεν ώ^ ηδιοτα μή λυπούμενοι; (xiii) άπέπλευοαν έξ Έλληοπόντο·^ ώο έκαοτοι κατά πόλειο. (xiv) άνδρεο οοφοί ώο άληθώο.

5# ήν Οίδίπουο τό πρώτον εύτυχήο άνήρ, εΐτ' έγένετ' αύθιο άθλιώτατοο βροτών. Deianeira laments the absence of her husband Heracles, πάθη μέν ούν δή πόλλ' έγωγ' έκλαυοάμην εν δ', οίον ούπω πρόοθεν, αύτίκ' έξερώ. οδόν γάρ ήμοο τήν τελευταίαν άναξ ώρμάτ' απ' οίκων Ήρακλήο, τότ έν δόμοιο λείπει παλαιάν δέλτον έγγεγραμμένην 5 ξυνθήμαθ', άμοί (= ά έμοί) πρόοθεν ούκ έτλη ποτέ, πολλούο άγώναο έξιών, ούτω φράοαι, αλλ' ώο τι δράοων είρπε κού θανούμενοο.

228 c 3 ϊ¥ IS

7 και πρώτον πρόο τούο Θράκαο έπολεμηοα, έκ της Χερρονηοου αύτούο έξελαύνων βουλομένουο άφαιρεΐοθαι τούο "Ελληναο την γήν.

8# ώ γήραο, ο'ίαν έλπίδ' ήδονηο έχειο, καί πάο τιο είο οέ βούλετ' ανθρώπων μολείν λαβών δέ πεΐραν, μεταμέλειαν λαμβάνει, ώο ούδέν έοτι χείρον έν θνητώ γένει.

9 έγώ γάρ, ώ Κέβηο, νέοο ών θαυμαοτώο ώο έπεθύμηοα ταύτης τηο οοφίαο ήν δή καλούοι περί φύοεωο ίοτορίαν.

Notes 1 /.I κάν- = καί άν- //.3f. ουνεκπόνει 2nd s. pres. imp. act.,

as the accent indicates (the 3rd s. pres. ind. act would be συνεκπονεΐ); έρώα, and μοχθούοι (the latter agrees with the former) are m. dat. pi. of the pres. act. pples. of έράω and μοχθέω respectively.

2 A famous passage of the orator Demosthenes in which he describes how the Athenians in 339 BC received the news that their enemy Philip of Macedon (father of Alexander the Great) had captured a town only three days march from Athens. //.If. ώο τούο πρυτάνειο to (22.1/lc) the prytaneis (a committee of the Council in charge of day-to-day administration); take ώο (= δτι) Ελάτεια κατείληπται with άγγέλλων; κατείληπται 3rd s. perf. ind. pass, of καταλαμβάνω (the tense used in the original direct speech is kept, 8.1/3). //.3f. μεταξύ δειπνούντεο 12.1/2tf(i); τούο έκ τών οκηνών lit. those from the stalls but trans, those in the stalls; in this pregnant use of έκ (cf. note on 9.2.13 /. 14, where the use is somewhat different) the choice of preposition has been influenced by έξεΐργον; the imperfect is often used for vivid effect in narrative, hence έξεΐργον, ένεπίμπραοαν (< έμπίμπρημι) etc. - trans, by the simple past (cleared out, set fire to, etc.); the γέρρα (wicker-work of some kind) were set on fire to inform the Athenians of the emergency. /. 8 ϋμεΐο i.e. the people (referred to as ο δήμοο in 7.9). ΙΛΟ άνω above i.e. on the Pnyx, a hill to the south-west of the Athenian agora which was used for meetings of the Assembly; καθητο impf. (19.1/3&); ώο when (22.1/lfc(iv)). / / . l l f . τά προοηγγελμέν'(α) έαυτοΐο the things reported (perf.) to them (refl. because it refers back to the subject of the clause οί πρυτάνειο); τον ήκοντα the person mentioned in the first line as having brought the message. /.13 παρήει < παρέρχομαι (cf. 18.1/3).

3 (i) άίτει 2nd s. pres. imp. act. (ii) έοαν here there is; άνεζητηκώο perf. act. pple. of άναζητέω. (ix) Zeus dwelt in the heavens or upper air (αίθήρ).

4 Supply έοτί in (*), (vi), (vii), (viii). (ii) πάνθ' i.e. πάντα, (iii) Take τοΰδ' έκατι together - the phrase anticipates the (be clause, (vii) δ'(έ) is placed here after the first phrase, not the first word; with τά μή δίκαια supply τό νϊκάν. (viii) άν = έάν. (xi) έοη 2nd s. fut. ind. of ειμί. (xii) μή with a pple. to express a condition (12.1/2tf(iv)). (xiv) A phrase, not a sentence.

5 τό πρώτον acc. of respect (20.1/5), with respect to the first [period], i.e at first.

6 //.If. μέν and δέ contrast πάθη... πόλλ' (= πολλά) and έν (sc. πάθoc); ούν δή so then, well as you know; with οίον ούπω πρόοθεν supply έκλαυοάμην; έξερώ fut. of έξαγορεύω (cf. 18.1/4 note 2). ll.3f. γάρ begins the explanation of the previous line and need not be translated; take όδόν ... τήν τελευταίων as virtual cognate acc. (22.1/2g) with ώρμάτ'(ο) was setting out on ...; οίκων ... δόμοιο plural for singular (a common use in poetry). 1.6 ξυνθήμαθ' (= -τα) a type of retained acc. (22.1/2/"(ii)) with έγγεγραμμένην (1.5), inscribed with signs (έγγράφει ξυνθήματα δέλτω means he inscribes signs on a tablet; this can, somewhat illogically, be mit into the passive δέλτοο έγγράφεται ξυνθήματα with the original accusative retained, but we must translate a tablet is inscribed with signs - this differs from the examples in 22.1/2/(ii) in that έγγράφω takes an acc. and dat., not two accusatives); έτλη root aor. of τλάω. 1.7 πολλονσ άγώναο έξιών going out on many exploits virtual cognate acc. (22.1/2g); ούτω thus, like this as Deianeira goes on to explain later. /. 8 ώο ... under the impression of going to do something, as [one] going to do something (see note on 12.3.7).

8 1.2 nac uc emphatic for πάο, lit. every single one; βούλετ' i.e. βούλεται 1.4 ώο to introduce a clause of reason (22.1/l&(iii)).

9 θαυμασιώο ώο 22.1/ltf(iii).

22.3 Extra reading

Anacreontea Anacreon was an Ionic poet of the sixth century BC. His Personal poetry was famous but very little has survived. It ^ttracted many imitators in antiquity and some of their poems

1 below) have come down under his name. The second poem ls certainly genuine.

229 c 3 S·' β

1 μακαρίζομέν ce, τέττιξ, ότε δενδρέων έπ' άκρων όλίγην δρόοον πεπωκώο βααλεύο όπωο άείδεισ ca γάρ έσα κείνα πάντα, 5 όπόοα βλέπειο έν άγροΐο, όπόοα τρέφουαν ύλαι. cx> δέ τίμιοο βροτοΐαν,

2 πολιοί μέν ήμίν ήδη κρόταφοι, κάρη τε λευκόν, χαρίεοοα δ' ούκέτι ήβη πάρα, γηράλεοι δ' όδόντεο. γλυκερού δ' ούκέτι πολλοο 5 βιότου χρόνοο λέλειπταν

θέρεοο γλυκύο προφήτηο. φιλέουα μέν ce Μούοαι, φιλέει δέ Φοΐβοο αύτόο, λιγυρήν δ' έδωκεν οϊμην. τό δέ γήραο ού ce τείρει, οοφέ, γηγενέο, φίλυμνε, άπαθήο δ', άναιμόοαρκε, 1: σχεδόν ει θεοΐο όμοιοο.

διά ταύτ' άναοταλύζω θαμά Τάρταρον δεδοικώσ Άΐδεω γάρ έσπ, δει voc μυχόο, άργαλέη δ' ec αύτόν ic κάθοδοσ καί γάρ έτοΐμον καταβάντι μή άναβήναι.

Notes 1 1.2 δενδρέων (Ionic for δένδρων, cf. 13.1/1 c) έπ' άκρων on the

tops of trees (18.1/6). 1.4 βααλεύο όπωο = όπωο (like) βααλεύσ. 11.5f. πάντα, όπόοα (= oca, as also in 1.7) 21.1/3d. 1.8 Supply ει (< ειμί); βροτοΐαν among mortals (dat. of reference, 23.1/2e). //.9ff. Three examples of the use of uncontracted forms in Ionic, θέρεοο (= θέρουο, cf. 6.1/lc), φιλέουα (= φιλούα), φιλέει (= φιλεΐ). /.12 λιγυρήν = -άν.

2 /.I Supply είσί; ήμίν (= ήμίν) plural for singular (the dative is one of possession, 23.1/2c). 1.2 κάρη, an irregular noun, is neuter hence λευκόν. 1.4 πάρα = πάρεση (cf. 21.1/4 note 2 but here it is not used impersonally). II.7f. Take θάμα w i t h άναοταλύζω; δεδοικώσ 19.1/3^. 1.9 Άΐδεω = Attic Άιδου (gen. of Άιδηο), on the ending cf. 25.1/2fe(i). /. 10 άργαλέη = -έδ. / .II έτοΐμον [it is] fixed the neuter singular adj. is used in impersonal expressions.

23.1 Grammar

23.1/1 Uses of cases (2) - genitive Apart from its use as the case of possession (2.1/3d) and after certain prepositions (2.1/3g, 3.1/5&), the genitive can function in a number of ways with another noun, verb, adjective or even adverb./Although the genitive is often to be translated by of, in some of its uses a different rendering in English is required. (a) Possessive genitive (see 2.1/3d) In this use the genitive denotes ownership, possession or some looser association: ή τοΰ Δημοοθένουο οίκίσ the house of Demosthenes (or Demosthenes' house); ot CoXcovoc νόμοι the laws of (made by) Solon; τά τηο πόλεωο the [affairs] of the city. In certain very restricted contexts a possessive genitive qualifies a missing noun, which can easily be supplied; the most common are wife, son!daughter (cf. 5.1/3 note 2) and place of abode:

'Αλεξανδροο ό Φιλίππου. Alexander, [son] of Philip. "Αρτέμιο ή Διόο. Artemis, [daughter] of

Zeus. έν Άρίφρονοο. At Ariphron's (in [the

house] of Ariphron). έν Διονύοου. At [the shrine] of

Dionysus (cf. at St. Paul's).

(k) Genitive of characteristic In English we may say it is the part/duty/nature/characteristic, etc· °f someone to do something. In Greek this is expressed simply by the use of the third singular of είμι plus the genitive.

In translation from Greek the appropriate English word to be supplied must be gauged from the context:

(c) Subjective and objective genitive An objective genitive stands in the same relation to a noun or adjective as an object does to a transitive verb. In Socrates' love of the truth dominated his life, the genitive of the truth is objective because the sense connection between truth and love is the same as between an object and a verb (we could say, with the same meaning, Socrates loved the truth; this dominated his life). Examples in Greek are: φόβοο του γήρωο fear of old age, τό κράτοο τηο θαλάττηο the command of the sea, epcoc xr\c άρετηο love of virtue. Because this use is more extensive in Greek than in English we must sometimes translate it by a different preposition: ό του κυνόο λόγοο the story about the dog, νίκη τών ηδονών victory over pleasures. A subjective genitive, on the other hand, stands in the same relation to a noun as a subject does to a verb: νίκη τών βαρβάρων victory of the barbarians (i.e. οί βάρβαροι νΤκώαν the barbarians are victorious). This use is only a variety of the possessive genitive. Sometimes, however, we must decide from the context whether a genitive is subjective or objective, ό τών Ελλήνων φόβοο can mean the Greeks' fear (i.e. the fear felt by the Greeks) (subjective), as well as the fear of the Greeks (i.e. the fear inspired by the Greeks) (objective). A possessive adjective (9.1/5b) usually represents a subjective genitive, but may on occasion be the equivalent of an objective genitive: φιλία τη έμη can mean through friendship for me as well as through my friendship. Cf. έπί διαβολή τη έμή in 10.3 11.6f.

(d) Partitive genitive In this construction the genitive denotes the whole and the n o u n or pronoun on which it depends denotes a part of that whole:

μέροο τι τών βαρβάρων a part of the barbarians οί άδικοι τών άνθρώπων the unjust among men ολίγοι αυτών few of them οί πρεοβύτατοι τών οτρατηγών the oldest of the generals

The partitive genitive may also occur by itself as the object of a verb: τηο γήο έτεμον they ravaged [part] of the land (τήν γήν

έτεμον would mean they ravaged the [whole] land). It can also

ούτοι γυναικοο εοτιν ίμείρειν μάχηο.

δοκει δικαίου του^ είναι πολίτου.

It is indeed not a woman's part to long for battle.

This seems to be the duty of a just citizen.

be used predicatively: θόλων τών έπτά οοφιοτών Solon was called [one] of

έκλήθη. the Seven Sages. T h i s use of the genitive also occurs in abstract nouns after the phrase eic τοΰτο (τοοοΰτο) άφικνεΐοθαι (ήκειν etc.) to reach this (such a) pitch/point/stage of (cf. 16.1/1 note 3):

eic τοΰτο θράοουο καί He reached such a pitch of άναιδείδο άφίκετο. boldness and

shamelessness. eic τοΰθ' ΰβρεωο ήκει. He has come to such a

pitch of insolence. Under this heading also belongs the chorographic genitive, or genitive of geographic definition:

έπλευοαν τηο Ίταλίσο eic They sailed to Tarentum in Τάραντα. Italy (lit. [a part] of

Italy). τηο Ο,κελίαο οί OupCncocioi. The Syracusans in Sicily.

Compare the use of the genitive with adverbs of place, e.g. είδέναι όπου γήο έοτιν to know where in the world he is (cf. 2.2.11)/ (e) Genitive of explanation The genitive may be used as the equivalent of a noun in apposition which gives an explanation or definition of the preceding noun. The construction in English is generally the same:

ω πόλι Θηβών. Ο city of Thebes (i.e. Ο city, viz Thebes).

τέλοο θανάτου. The end of death (i.e. the ' end that is death),

ύπνου δώρον. The gift of sleep. ( f ) Genitive of price or value (see 20.1/3) (g) Genitive of time within which (see 7.1/7c) (h) Genitive absolute (see 12.1/26) (') Genitive of comparison (see 17.1/4*) (/) Genitive of separation (see 20.1/4) (k) Genitive with verbs (see 13.1/2*) At 13.1/2d we considered certain intransitive verbs which take the genitive. Two other groups are followed by an accusative and a genitive:

233

ro ω

(i) Verbs of accusing, acquitting, condemning, prosecuting and the like are generally followed by an accusative of the person involved and a genitive of the crime or charge. Such verbs are αίτιάομαι accuse, γράφομαι indict, διώκο) prosecute:

ό Μελητοο άοεβείδο έμέ Meletus indicted me for έγράψατο. impiety.

διώξομαί ce δε ιλ ία . I shall prosecute you for cowardice.

However, verbs of accusing and condemning which are compounded with κατά (such as κατηγορέω accuse, καταγιγνώοκω give judgement against, condemn, κατακρίνω give sentence against, καταψηφίζομαι vote against) reverse the normal construction, and so take a genitive of the person and an accusative of the crime or penalty:

έγώ δ' ύμών δέομαι μή I request you not to καταγνώναι δωροδοκιών condemn me for bribery. έμοΰ.

έμοΰ Φιλιππιομόν κατηγορεί. He accuses me of siding with Philip.

(ii) A genitive of cause can follow verbs of emotion. Such verbs are θαυμάζω wonder at, ζηλόω admire, οικτίρω pity, etc.:

τούτουο τηο τόλμηο θαυμάζω. I wonder at these men for (or because of) their boldness.

του πάθουο ωκτΐρεν αύτόν. He pitied him for his suffering.

A genitive of cause can also occur with adjectives: εύδαίμων τοΰ τρόπου happy in his way of life.

(I) Genitive of exclamation This genitive, which is often coupled with an interjection (φευ alas (of grief), ah, oh (of astonishment); οϊμοι alas), is akin to the genitive of cause as it gives the reason for the speaker's astonishment or grief:

οϊμοι ταλαίνηο τηοδε Alas for this wretched ουμφοράα plight!

φευ φεΰ τηο ώρGc, τοΰ Ah, what youthful bloom, κάλλουο. what beauty!

ειπε προο αυτόν, τηο τυχηο. He said to himself, "What luck!"

23.1/2 Uses of cases (3) - dative The Greek dative is an amalgam of three cases:

(i)the dative proper, generally to be translated to or for, indicating the person (or thing) involved in an action (the recipient, the person advantaged or disadvantaged, etc.);

(ii)the old instrumental case, denoting that by which or with which an action is done or accompanied;

(iii) the original locative case, which expressed place where and time when.

Some of these uses were distinguished and made more precise by the use of prepositions (cf. 2.1/3/7, 3.1/5). Dative proper (a) Verbs governing the dative

(i) Verbs followed by a direct object (accusative) and an indirect object (dative - 2.1/3e), such as verbs of giving, saying, promising: KOpoc δίδωαν αύτω μϋρίουο δδρεικούο Cyrus gives him 10,000 darics; ύπιοχνοΰμαί coi δέκα ταλαντα I promise you ten talents. However, many verbs of reproaching, blaming and the like, which in English take a direct object of the person involved, in Greek take a dative of tne person and an accusative of the thing (when expressed):

μή πάθωμεν δ άλλοιο Let us not get into a έπιτΓμώμεν. situation for which we

censure others (lit. let us not experience [the thing] which we censure in others).

αίοχύνομαί coi τοΰτ' I am ashamed to reproach όνειδίοαι. you with this.

τί άν μοι μέμφοιο; What would you blame me fori

The English construction which allows the indirect object of a verb in the active voice to be made the subject of the same verb in the passive (I was given this land) is generally impossible in Greek, ταύτην την χώρδν μοι έδωκε he gave me this land becomes αύτη ή χώρΕ μοι ύπ' αύτοΰ βδόθη this land was given to me by him. έδόθην would mean I was given in the sense I was handed over. For an exception see note on 22.2.6 1.5. Intransitive verbs followed by the dative (see 13.1/2b)

Uu) Impersonal verbs followed by the dative (see 21.1/4)

(b) Dative with adjectives, adverbs and nouns The dative is used with certain adjectives whose English equivalent is usually followed by to or for These include φίλος dear, friendly; εχθρός hateful, hostile; (coc equal; όμοιος like, resembling; ανόμοιος unlike, dissimilar:

τύραννος anGc έχθρόο Every tyrant [is] hostile to έλευθερίρ καί νόμοιο freedom and opposed to έναντίοσ laws.

ποιείτε όμοια τοΐο λόγοις. You are acting in accordance with (lit. doing things like) your words.

Compare ό αύτόο with the dative the same as (9.1/36). A similar use of the dative is found after some adverbs:

ακολούθως τοις νόμοις In accordance with the laws.

ομολογουμένως τη φύοει ζην To live in agreement with nature.

as well as with some nouns, especially those related to verbs of similar meaning which take the dative:

έπιβουλή έμοί. A plot against me. κοινωνίδ τοιο άνδράα. Association with men.

(c) Dative of possession The dative is used with είναι (and verbs of similar meaning such as ύπάρχειν and γίγνεοθαι) to denote the owner or possessor:

οικείοι μοί ε ί α καί υίεΐο. I have relatives and sons (lit. relatives and sons are to me);

τω δικαίω παρά θεών δώρα The just man has gifts (lit. γίγνεται. gifts come into being for

the just man) from the gods.

(d) Dative of advantage and disadvantage The dative is used to indicate the person or thing for whose advantage or disadvantage something is done: nac άνηρ αύτώ πονει every man works for himself (advantage); άλλο στράτευμα αύτώ ουνελέγετο another army was being gathered for hint (advantage); ήδε ή ήμέρδ τοΐο "Ελληα μεγάλων κακών άρξει this day will be the beginning of great troubles for the Greeks (disadvantage). Sometimes this use cannot be translated by for-

CVTOV αύτοιο άφείλεν he took food away from them (lit. he took food away to their disadvantage; for the other construction used with verbs meaning take away see 22.1/2/(ii)).

(e) Dative of reference or relation Similarly, the dative may be used to denote a person or thing to whose case a statement is limited: τριήρει έοτί ν eic Ήράκλειαν ημερδο μακράο πλούο for a trireme it is a long day's voyage to Heraclea. This dative is often used to denote in the eyes of or in the judgement of.

ήμΐν Άχιλλεύο άξιοο τϊμήο. In our eyes (lit. for us) Achilles [is] worthy of honour.

ανάξιοι πάοιν έοτε δυοτυχεΐν. In the eyes of all (lit. for all) you are unworthy to suffer misfortune.

A participle in the dative singular is used in this way with an indefinite reference:

Έπίδαμνοο έν δεξιά έοτιν Epidamnus is on the right είοπλέοντι ec τον Ίόνιον as one sails into (lit. in κόλπρν. relation to one sailing

into) the Ionian Gulf. έλεγον δτι ή όδόο διαβάντι They said that, when one

τον ποταμόν έπί Λϋδίδν had crossed the river, the φέροι. road led to Lydia.

Compare also the phrase ώο ουνελόντι ειπείν to speak concisely, in a word (lit. so to speak for one having brought [the matter] together).

(f) Ethic dative (a purely conventional term, with no connection with ethics) The dative of the first or second person pronouns can be used simply to attract the attention of the person addressed. There is n o grammatical connection with the surrounding words. This so-called ethic dative is usually to be represented in English by I beg you, please, let me tell you, you know, and the like:

κ«ι μοι μή θορυβήσητε. And, I beg you, don't make a clamour.

Αρταφέρνηο ύμΐν Ύοτάοπου Artaphernes, you know, is eeri παΐο. Hystaspes' son.

(g) Dative of the agent This use, replaced in most contexts by ύπό + gen., is found with

Perfect and pluperfect passive (very rarely with other tenses):

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πάνθ' ήμίν πεποίηται. Everything has been done by us.

έπειδή αύτοΐο παρεοκεύαοτο. When they had made then preparations (lit. it had been prepared by them).

For the dative of the agent with verbal adjectives, see 24.1/56.

Instrumental dative (h) Dative of instrument (see 11.1/2) (i) Dative of cause The dative may denote cause: ρίγει άπωλλύμεθα we were perishing from (or because of) cold. Often the noun in the dat ive denotes an emotional or mental condition:

ύβρει και ούκ οϊνω τούτο ποιεί.

He does this through insolence and not because he is drunk (lit. because of wine).

They were hurrying towards the river because of their desire to drink (lit. because of a desire for drinking).

Occasionally cause may also be expressed by ύπό with the genitive:

ηπειγοντο προο τον ποταμον τοΰ πιεΐν έπιθϋμίρ.

ούκ έδύνατο καθεύδειν ύπό λύπηο

He could not sleep because of (or for) grief.

(/) Dative of manner and attendant circumstances The dative may be used to denote the manner in which something is done or the circumstances accompanying an action:

οί Αθηναίοι παντί οθένει The Athenians helped with έπεκούρηοαν. all their strength

(manner). άτελεΐ τη νίκη άπήλθον. They went away with then

victory incomplete (accompanying circumstance).

Normally a noun used in this way is qualified by an adjective U-above). Some nouns, however, are regularly employed ^ themselves as datives of manner and are virtually the equivale11

of adverbs:

βία by force, forcibly; δρόμω * ί * raw; έργω in fact, in deed; λόγω w word, m theory; οιγή w silence; οπουδή hastily; φύοει... νόμω by nature ...by convention; compare also τω όντι in reality (see 12.1/1 note 1); τούτω τω τρόπω in this way.

Under this category are also included the datives of feminine adjectives with a noun understood: ταύτη in this way; ιδία privately; δημοοία publicly; πεζή on foot.

(k) Dative of accompaniment We have already met this use of the dative with αύτόο (see 9.1/3*(ii)). The dative by itself is particularly common in military contexts (the military dative) to denote the forces with which a journey or expedition is made:

'Αθηναίοι έφ' ήμάο πολλή The Athenians have made οτρατια ώρμηνται. an expedition against us

with a large force.

(I) Dative of measure of difference (see 17.1/46) (m) Dative of respect As well a§/an accusative of respect (20.1/5) we may also find the dative used in a similar way:

άνήρ ήλικία έτι νέοο a man still young in age; ονόματι οπονδαί a truce in name [alone].

Locative dative (n) Dative of place where In poetry place where may be expressed by the dative without a preposition: Κρονίδηο αίθέρι ναιων the son of Cronos living in the sky. In Attic prose, however, a preposition is generally required (2.1/36), except with some place names, e.g. Μαραθώνι <*t Marathon. Traces of the old locative endings remain in such forms such as: Άθήνηα (= έν Αθηναίο) at Athens; Φαληροΐ (= έν φαληρ<ρ ) at Phalerum; cf. οίκοι at home; these words are usually classified as adverbs.

<°) Dative of time when (see 7.1/76)

23.2 Greek reading 1 In addition to translating, define each use of the genitive

and dative: (*)# ω φίλον ύπνου θέλγητρον, έπίκουρον νόοου. (ii) ήθελε τών Ενόντων είναι, (iii) ώ Ποοειδον, τηο τέχνηο. (iv)# πενίαν

239 C 3

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(χχιι) ο cxpaxoc αφικετο τηο Αττικής ec Οινοην. (χχιιι) οράτε την βααλεωο έπιορκίαν. (xxiv) ούκ ειμί τοΐο πεπραγμένοι δύςθυμοο.

2 ό Διογένης, Άναξιμένει τω ρήτορι παχεΐ όντι προοελθών, έπίδος καί ήμίν, έφη, τοιο πτώχοιο της γασυρόσ καί γάρ αύτόο κουφιοθήοει καί ήμάο ωφελήοειο.

3# ήν γάρ τιο αινοο ώο γυναιξί μέν τέχναι μέλχ>υοι, λόγχη δ' άνδρεο εύοτοχώτεροι. εί γάρ δόλοιοιν ήν τό νικητήριον, ήμειο άν άνδρών εϊχομεν τυραννίδα.

4# καί νΰν παραινώ πάοι τοΐο νεωτέροιο μή πρόο τό γήραο άναβολάο ποιουμένουο οχολή τεκνούοθαι παΐδασ ού γάρ ήδονή, γυναικί τ' έχθρόν χρήμα πρεοβύτηο άνήρ· άλλ' ώο τάχιοτα. καί γάρ έκτροφαί καλαί καί ουννεάζων ήδύ παΐο νέω πατρί.

5 One of the accusations brought against Socrates (10.3) was that he did not believe in the traditional gods. In the Apology of Plato (see 13.3), which is an account of his t r i a l he is represented as interrogating one of his accusers on this charge.

MEAHTOC - CQKPATHC ME. ταύτα λέγω, ώο τό παράπαν ού νομίζειο θεούο. CQ. ώ θαύμααε Μέλητε, τί ταΰτα λέγεις; ούδέ ήλιον ουδε οελήνην άρα νομίζω θεούο είναι, ώοπερ οί άλλοι άνθρωποι; ΜΕ. μά Δι', ώ άνδρεο δικαοταί, έπεί τον μέν ήλιον λίθον είναι, τήν δέ οελήνην γήν. CQ. 'Αναξαγόρου ο'ίει κατηγορεΐν, ώ φίλε Μέλητε; καί ουτ0)

καταφρονεΐο τώνδε καί οϊει αύτούο απείρους γράμμα είναι ώοτε ούκ είδέναι ότι τά 'Αναξαγόρου βιβλία τον Κλαζομενίου γέμει τούτων τών λόγων; καί δή καί οι ν ε° ι

φέρειν ού παντόο, άλλ' άνδρόο οοφοΰ. (ν) τούτω πάνυ μ0 προοέχετε τον νοΰν. (νϊ) πολλαί θεραπειαι τοίο ιατροί εύρηνται. (vii) ύπνος πέφυκε οωμάτων οωτηρία. (viii) το αύτόν αίνεΐν καί ψέγειν άνδρόο κακοΰ. (ix) τοιούτο ύ μ ΐ ν

εοτιν η τυραννις, ω Λακεδαιμόνιοι. (χ)# ταΰτα Ζεύο οιδε\ 'Ολύμπιος, αίθέρι ναίων. (χϊ) αίτιώνται αύτόν κλοπηο. (ΧΗ) οι άνθρωποι διά τό αύτών δέος τοΰ θανάτου ψεύδονται, (xm έφοβοΰντο μή οί 'Αθηναίοι μείζονα παραοκευη έπέλθωςιν (xiv) κραυγή πολλή έπίααν. (χν) όνομα τφ μειρακίω ήν Πλάτων. (xvi)# τέχνη ανάγκης άοθενεοτέρα μακρώ. (χνιι)# ζηλώ ce τοΰ νοΰ, της δέ δειλίας οτυγώ. (xviii) έγώ τών κρεών έκλεπτον. (xix)# άρ' ύμιν ούτος ταΰτ' έδραοεν ένδικα; (χχ) θεοίς ταΰτα έποίηςαν. (χχϊ) στυγνόc ήν καί τη φωνη τραχύο.

ταύτα παρ' έμοϋ μανθάνουαν, ά έξεοτιν δραχμήο έκ τηο 10 ορχήοτραο πριαμένοιο Οωκράτουο καταγελάν, έάν προοποιήται έαυτού είναι, άλλωο τε καί ούτωο άτοπα δντα; άλλ', ω πρόο Διόο, ούτωοί οοι δοκώ; ούδένα νομίζω θεόν είναι; ΜΕ. ού μέντοι μά Δία ούδ' όπωοτιούν. 15 CO.. άπιοτόο γ' εί, ώ Μέλητε, καί ταΰτα μέντοι, ώο έμοί δοκεΐο, οαυτώ. έμοί γάρ δοκεΐ ούτοοί, ω άνδρεο 'Αθηναίοι, πάνυ είναι ύβριοτηο καί άκόλαοτοο, καί άτεχνώο την γραφήν ύβρει τινί καί άκολαοίρ καί νεότητι γράψαοθαι. έοικεν γάρ ώοπερ αίνιγμα ουντιθέντι διαπειρωμένω, άρα γνώοεται20 Οωκράτηο ό οοφόο δή έμοΰ χαριεντιζομένου καί έναντι' έμαυτώ λέγοντοο, ή έξαπατηοω αύτόν καί τούο άλλουο τούο άκούονταο; ούτοο γάρ έμοί φαίνεται τά έναντία λέγειν αύτόο έαυτω έν τη γραφή ώοπερ άν εί είπον άδικεΐ Ca>Kp0 ic θεούο ού νομίζων, άλλά θεούο νομίζων. καίτοι τοΰτό έοτι25 παίζοντοο.

Notes 1 (ι) ύπνου θέλγητρον 23.1/le. (iv) Supply έοτί (cf. (viii) and

(χνψ. 2 έπίδοο 2nd. s. aor. imp. act. of έπιδίδωμι; τηο γαοτρόο

23.1/1J; κουφιοθήοει 2nd s. fut. ind. pass. 3 1.2 Supply είοί with άνδρεο. 1.3 Lit. for if the prize of victory

were through guiles (dat. of instrument), i.e. were [won] by guiles.

4 //.2f. άναβολάο ποιοΰμαι (mid.) I make delays, i.e. for myself - the active would mean I make delays (for others), cf. 8.1/16; the middle is used in the same way with τεκνοΰοθαι; ού ... ήδονή (έοτι), i.e. in producing children in old age. 1.5' ώο τάχιοτα is contrasted with οχολή (/.3), i.e. have children as quickly as possible; έκτροφαί (plural for singular) the rearing [of children], i.e. rearing children. 1.6 The neuter adj. ηδύ is predicate [is] a pleasant [thing] (ecu is understood), cf. 5.2.5(f).

^ ΙΛ ταΰτα trans, this (the neuter plural is often used where we would have the singular in English); τό παράπαν ού not at all, cf. note on 11.2.12 1.3; νομίζειο believe in. 1.2 ούδέ ... ουδε not even ... nor (not neither ... nor which is ούτε ... ουτε) - note that this question is not marked by any introductory word (the same applies to all the questions in what Socrates says next). 1.4 μά Δι'(α) here no, by Zeus (22.1/2h). 1.6 Anaxagoras of Clazomenae was a philosopher of the generation before Socrates who taught that the sun and nioon were material bodies suspended in the sky (the sun

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242 c 3 to ω

was a burning rock about the size of the Peloponnese); the traditional belief was that they were divinities, ll7f. τ'ονδε i.e. the jurymen; αύτούο ... ώοτε lit. them to be inexperienced m letters with the result..., i.e. that they are [so] illiterate that ούκ είδέναι an exception to the rule given at 24.1/2d - ώοτε -inf. is often negated by ού when it follows the inf. construction of indirect speech (here αύτούο ... είναι); //. 1 Off. ά is the object of πριαμένοιο, lit. which having bought ... it is allowed (έξεοτιν) [to them] to mock (καταγελαν)..., i.e. which they can buy ... and [then] laugh at...; δραχμήο gen. of price (20.1/3); έκ τηο όρχήοτρδο lit. from the orchestra (a part of the Athenian agora where books were sold) but English idiom requires in the orchestra; έαυτού είναι [them, i.e. the doctrines of Anaxagoras/ to be his (lit. of himself possessive gen., 23.1/1^); άλλωο τε καί especially; άτοπα δντα agrees with the understood subject of είναι. /.16 καί ταύτα μέντοι and that (cf. note on Ll) too (ταύτα refers to the clause άπιοτόο / εί you are not to be believed), ll 19ff. ύβρει τινί, άκολαοία datives of cause (23.1/2/); ώοπερ (lit. as i f ) tones down the metaphor (cf. 22.1/l<z(vi) for ώο used in the same way) and need not be translated; αίνιγμα object of ουντιθέντι which agrees wi th διαπειρωμένω, [a man] composing a riddle making trial [of me], i.e. [a man] making trial [of me] [by] composing ... (the actual riddle is άρα... άκούονταο); δή adds a note of sarcasm to ό οοφόο. //.21f έμού ... έναντί'(α) έμαυτώ λέγοντοο (saying [things] opposite to myself, i.e. contradicting myself) gen. absol. with two participles (will S. realise when I... ?). 124 ώοπερ άν εί (= ώοπερ εί) ε'ίποι as if he were to say. 126 παίζοντοο gen. of characteristic (23.1/16).

23.3 Extra reading

Further elegiac poetry Of the following, 1-5 are epitaphs, which were nearly always written in elegiac couplets (Appendix 9). Other examples ot epitaphs occur at 9.2.3 and 19.2.7(f). 1 ναυηγού τάφοο ειμί* ό δ' άντίον έοτί γεωργού*

ώο άλί καί γαίη ξυνόο ύπεοτ Άΐδηο. 2 τηδε Ca<ov ό Δίκωνοο Άκάνθιοο ιερόν ύπνον

κοιμάται* θνηοκειν μή λέγε τούο άγαθούο. 3 δωδεκετη τον παΐδα πατήρ άπέθηκε Φίλιπποο

ένθάδε, τήν πολλήν έλπίδα, Νικοτέλην.

4 On the Spartans who died fighting the Persians at Plataea άοβεοτον κλέοο οϊδε φίλη περί πατρίδι θέντεο

κυάνεον θανάτου άμφιβάλοντο νέφοο* ούδέ τεθνάοι θανόντεο, έπεί οφ' άρετη καθύπερθεν

κυδαίνουο' άνάγει δώματοο έξ Άίδεω. 5 Αιοχύλον Εύφορίωνοο 'Αθήναιον τόδε κεύθει

μνήνα καταφθίμενον πυροφόροιο Γέλαο* άλκήν δ' εύδόκιμον Μαραθώνιον άλοοο άν ε'ίποι

καί βαθυχαιτηειο Μήδοο έπιοτάμενοο. 6 δάκρυα coi καί νέρθε διά χθονόο, Ήλιοδώρα,

δωρούμαι οτοργάο λείψανον eic Άΐδαν, δάκρυα δυοδάκρυτα* πολυκλαύτω δ' έπί τύμβω

οπένδω νάμα πόθων, μνάμα φιλοφροούνασ οικτρά γάρ οικτρά φίλαν ce καί έν φθιμένοιο Μελέαγροο

αίάζω, κενεάν eic 'Αχέροντα χάριν, αίαι, πού τό ποθείνόν έμοί θάλοο; άρπαοεν Άιδαο,

άρπαοεν, άκμαΐον δ' άνθοο έφυρε κόνιο. άλλά οε γουνοΰμαι, γά παντρόφε, τάν πανόδυρτον

ήρέμα coic κόλποιο, μάτερ, έναγκάλιοαι. Notes 1 /.I o/sc. τάφοο. 1.2 ώο exclamatory (22.1/ltf(ii)); ύπεοτ'(ι) <

ύπειμι. 2 ό Δίκωνοο (23.1/1 α); ιερόν ύπνον cognate acc. (22.1/2g)

with κοιμάται. 3 /. 1 άπέθηκε < άποτίθημι. 1.2 την πολλήν έλπίδα is in

apposition to παΐδα. 4 /. 1 περι... θέντεο tmesis (12.3.9 1.6 note) for περιθεντεο (the

image is from putting a wreath on a person's head). 1.2 άμφιβάλοντο (= άμφεβάλοντο) a Homeric form without the augment (25.1/2^(i)) - the image here is of putting on a mantle. 1.3 τεθνάοι shorter form of τεθνηκίϊα (19.1/3^); cφ,(ε) here them. ΙΑ κυδαίνουο'(α) f. nom. pple.; in prose the order of the last three words would be έκ δώματοο Άΐδεω (= 'Αιδου, cf. 22.3.2 1.9 and 25.1/2fe(i)). /.I Εύφορίωνοο [son] of E., 23.1/1 a (the article can be omitted). 1.2 καταφθίμενον (Homeric aorist mid. pple.) dead (trans, who died); πυροφόροιο (= -ου, 25.1/2fc(ii)) Tekec Homeric use of gen. to denote place where. II.3f. Μαραθώνιον άλοοο the grove at Marathon (a village to the north of Athens) which celebrated the Athenian victory Over a n invading Persian force in 490 BC. Aeschylus had distinguished himself in the battle and set more value on this than on any literary achievements, if the tradition assigning

243 c 3

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244

ΙΟ ω

the epitaph to him is correct. The subject of ε'ίποι is bot'-akcoc and Μήδοο (with double subjects of this sort the may agree with the closer noun). 1.4 έπιοτάμενοο sc. it, u Aeschylus' άλκη.

6 The poem has a smattering of Doric forms, which ai\ sometimes used in elegiac poetry; these involve α for Attic η cxopyac, Άΐδαν (= "Αιδην) (1.2); μνάμα, φιλοφροσυναο (/.4 "Axbdc (1.7); γά, τδν (1.9); μάτερ (1.10). II.2ί. Take cxop76 with λείψανον, which is in apposition to δάκρυα. IΑ μνάμ<; is in apposition to νάμα. 1.5 οικτρά ... οικτρά n. pi. acc. used adverbially (20.1/5), piteously. 1.6 κενεάν ... χάριν is n apposition to the whole of the preceding clause; Acheron, one of the rivers of the Underworld, is used here to mean the Underworld itself. 1.7 έμοί indicates possession (23.1/2c); άρπαοεν = ήρπαοεν (cf. άμφιβάλοντο in 4 1.2 above). /. 10 έναγκάλιοαι 2nd s. aor. imp. mid. of έναγκαλίζομαι.

245

24.1 Grammar

24.1/1 Yes and no Greek has four ways of answering questions where in English we would use yes or no. In answer to the question άρα τούτο ειπαο; Did/you say thisi we may have: (a) the key word of the question repeated either affirmatively

or negatively: ειπον yes (lit. I said [it]); ούκ ειπον no (lit. I did not say [it]).

(b) the personal pronoun with γε: έγωγε yes (lit. I at any rate [said it]); ούκ έγωγε no.

by ναί yes and ού no; or by a phrase such as πάνυ μέν ούν certainly; ούδαμώο certainly not. This can take the form of an abbreviated question, e.g. n&c γάρ ού; of course (lit. for how not?); or of an oath (22.1/2h).

W) a short clause such as άληθη λέγειο you speak [the] truth (lit. true things).

Sometimes one speaker in a conversation makes a comment on j^nat the other speaker has said (which may or may not have

e e n a question), and we must infer from his words whether he ls a§reeing or not:

A. c{> γ ούπω οωφρονεΐν Λ. You do not yet know επιοταοαι. prudence (lit. how to be

u x prudent). Β· εε γάρ προοηύδων ούκ άν. Β. [No], for I would not be

speaking to you (sc. if I did). t h er examples have already occurred at 13.3(ii) 1.4 and 18.2.1.

24.1/2 Summary of uses of ού and μή Both ού and μή are to be translated by not. Their uses, whicr involve distinctions which we do not make in English, can b. classified as follows: (a) In main clauses, ού is used as the negative in statements oi

fact and in suppositions (i.e. in the main clause of a categon 1 conditional sentence (18.1/5) and in potential clauses (19.1/2)); μή is used in constructions expressing an order or desire, i.e. prohibitions (17.1/1), exhortations (14.1/4<z(i)), and wishes (21.1/1). Also, ού is used in direct questions expecting the answer yes, μή in direct questions expecting the answer no (10.1/2^) and in deliberative questions (14.1/4d(ii)).

(b) When the verb of an adverbial clause is negated, μή is used in clauses of purpose (14.1/4c(i)), condition (18.1/5), and for indefinite adverbial clauses (14.1/4c(iii) and 21.1/2 note 4); elsewhere the negative is ού.

(c) When the verb of an adjectival clause is negated, μή is used if the clause has an indefinite or general sense whether the indefinite construction (14.1/4c(iii)) is used or not, e.g.

ού γάρ ά πράττουαν oi You are speaking not of those δίκαιοι, άλλ' α μή things which the just do, πράττουα, ταΰτα λέγειο. but [of those things] which

they do not do. (d) ού is used to negate the verb of a noun clause, i.e. in indirect

statements when expressed by a δτι/ώο clause (8.1/3b), indirect questions (10.1/2b), and clauses following verbs of fearing (14.1/4c(ii)).

(e) Infinitives are always negated by μή, except in the infinitive construction for indirect statement after verbs of saying and thinking (8.1/3*).

( f ) Participles are negated by ού except: (i) when used with the article to denote a general class

(12.1/2tf(vi)); this also applies to adjectives, e.g. οί μη άγαθοί the [general class of] people who are not good, but οί ούκ άγαθοί the [particular] people who are not good.

(ii) when used conditionally (12.1/2tf(iv)). (g) ού μή with the fut. ind. expresses a strong prohibition

(17.1/1).

οΰ μη with the aor. subj. expresses a strong denial: ού μή παύοωμαι φιλοοοφών. I shall certainly not stop

studying philosophy. Or not as an alternative question in indirect speech is either ή ού or ή μή:

ύμών δέομαι οκοπείν εί I ask you to examine δίκαια λέγω ή μή (or ή ού). whether I am speaking

justly or not.

24.1/3 Diminutives Nouns can be modified by the addition of a suffix to indicate something smaller, e.g. booklet (<book), islet (< isle). The modified form is called a diminutive. Greek has a number of diminutive suffixes but the most common is -ιον, e.g. παιδίον little child (παΐο, stem παιδ-). All diminutives in -ιον (including those from proper names) are 2nd declension neuters, even when they denote living beings. Very often diminutives are used to indicate affection and familiarity without any real connotation of smallness, e.g. πατρ-ίδιον daddy (< πατήρ with the suffix -ίδιον), CooKpa^iov dear little/old Socrates. Occasionally a diminutive has lost any special meaning and replaced the original noun, e.g. θηρίον wild beast (< θήρ, which has the same meaning but is used mainly in verse). Diminutives were a feature of the colloquial language, and consequently are not found in literary genres written in an elevated style, such as tragedy. They are, however; very common, in comedy, and in the dialogues of Plato, who aimed at reproducing the everyday speech of educated Athenians. An amusing example occurs in Aristophanes' Clouds where Strepsiades wakes his adult son by coaxing him with the diminutive of his name:

πώρ δήτ' άν ήδιοτ' αύτόν How could I wake him έπεγείραιμι; πώο; Φειδιππίδη, most gently? How? Φειδιππίδιον. Pheidippides, dear little

Pheidippides.

24.1/4 Dual number In addition to the singular and plural, Indo-European (1.3) also had a dual number, which was used for two persons or objects.

i h )

0

In Homer it is still frequent, but in Attic Greek of the fifth and fourth centuries BC its use is generally confined to two persons or things closely associated or normally considered to form a pair, e.g. two brothers, sisters, hands, eyes, but even here it is optional. Its endings do not show anything like the same variety as either the singular or plural. In verbs the same stems are used as elsewhere. There is no first person dual. In the second person the dual endings are identical for the primary and historic tenses but in the third person endings there is a distinction between primary and historic forms (cf. 4.1/1 note 1 and 8.1/1/) :

ACTIVE MIDDLE/PASSIVE

Primary Historic Primary Historic 2 -τον -τον -οθον -οθον 3 -τον -την -οθον -οθην In -ω verbs the link vowel (cf. 8.1/1 d) is the same as in the singular and plural except that we have ε (not ο/ε) in the present, imperfect and future. For λύω in the indicative we have:

ACTIVE MIDDLE/PASSIVE

PRESENT 2 λύ-ετον you two loosen

λύ-εοθον

3 λύ-ετον two λϋ-εοθον (people) loosen

FUTURE 2 λϋο-ετον mid. λϋο-εοθον pass. λυθηο-εοθον 3 λύο-ετον λύο-εοθον λυθηο-εοθον

IMPERFECT 2 έλύ-ετον έλύ-εοθον 3 έλϋ-ετην έλϋ-εοθην

AORIST 2 έλϋο-ατον mid. έλύο-αοθον pass. έλύθη-τον 3 έλϋο-άτην έλϋο-άοθην έλυθη-την

PERFECT 2 λελύκ-ατον λελυ-οθον 3 λελύκ-ατον λελυ-οθον

PLUPERFECT 2 έλελύκ-ετον έλελυ-οθον 3 έλελυκ-ετην έλελύ-οθην

The subjunctive mood takes the primary endings (cf. 14.1/2), giving for both second and third persons λύ-ητον (pres. act.) and λύ-ηοθον (pres. mid./pass.), etc. (the η represents the lengthening of ε in λύ-ε-τον, λύ-ε-οθον of the indicative). The optative takes the historic endings (cf. 14.1/3) with the same preceding diphthong as occurs in the singular and plural of the tenses which have an optative (i.e. οι/αι/ει), e.g. pres. act. 2 λύ-οιτον, 3 λΐ5-οίτην; aor. act. 2 λύο-αιτον, 3 λϋο-αίτην; aor. pass. 2 λυθ-ειτον, 3 λυθ-είτην.

The 2nd person dual of the imperative is the same as in the indicative. The 3rd person dual of the imperative is rare. The dual endings for nouns and the dual forms of the article and personal pronouns are:

NOUNS ARTICLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS ( D e c l e n s i o n ) M.F.N. 1st 2 n d 3 r d

N.V.A. - β -ω - ε τώ vwwetwo c<(>is you two Gen. Dat. - α ι ν - ο ι ν - ο ι ν τ ο ι ν νων ΰφων

The article has the same forms for all genders, and the demonstrative pronouns follow the same pattern (τούτω/τούτοιν from oxnoc; τώδε/τοΐνδε from δδε). In each declension adjectives (and αύτόο and participles) take the same endings as nouns. Because the dual is not obligatory we often find dual and plural forms used indiscriminately:

δύο άνδρεο προοελθόντε Two men came forward "Αγιδι διελεγέοθην. and (lit. having come

/

forward) were talking with Agis (we might have expected άνδρε instead of δύο άνδρεο).

24.1/5 Verbal adjectives in -toc/-toc and -tcoc (a) We have already met many verbal adjectives in -TOC/-TOC.

Most have a prefix, in many cases the negative ά-/άν- e.g. έμφυτοο (έν + φυτοο), άβατοο (ά + βατοο), but some have none, e.g. χυτόο. They can be either:

(i)the equivalent of a perfect passive participle, e.g., εύγνωοτοο well-known, έμφυτοο inborn, χυτόο melted

(ii) the equivalent of a present participle active, e.g. άνόητοο stupid (lit. not perceiving)

(iii) an adjective denoting possibility, e.g. άβατοο impassable, βιωτόο livable.

Some can be either (i) or (iii), e.g. άόρδτοο unseen/invisible. (b) The verbal adjective in -τέοο differs from the above in being

considered a normal part of a verb, although, in its neuter singular form, it is given a separate listing in dictionaries. It is formed by replacing θη of the aorist passive stem with -τέοο, e.g. φιλητεοο (< φιλέω, aor. pass έφιλήθην), κελευοτέοο (< κελεύω, aor. pass, έκελεύοθην); and has the meaning of a present passive participle but with the added idea of necessity. The literal translation of φιλητέοο ειμί is I am

needing-to-be-loved, i.e. I must be loved. The agent is expressed by the dative (23.1/2g), not by υπό + gen.:

ό ποταμόο ήμΐν έοτι The river is needing-to-be-διαβατέοο. crossed-over by us, i.e.

we must cross over the river.

εκείνη coi ού φιλητέδ. That woman [is] not needing-to-be-loved by you, i.e. you must not love that woman.

The neuter singular (and occasionally the neuter plural) of the verbal adjective can be used impersonally: διαβατέον ήμΐν έοτιν it is needing-to-be-crossed-over (there must be a crossing over) by us, i.e. we must cross over. The verbal adjective of a transitive verb can, when used impersonally, take an object: τον ποταμόν ήμΐν έοτι διαβατέον it is needing-to-be-crossed-over the river (there must be a crossing over the river) by us, i.e. we must cross over the river. There is no difference in meaning between ό ποταμόο έοτι διαβατέοο and τον ποταμόν ecu διαβατέον. Sometimes a literal translation of an impersonal verbal adjective is impossible:

τω άδικοΰντι δοτέον έοτί The [person] doing wrong δίκην must pay the penalty (the

closest translation is there must-be-a-paying of the penalty...).

The neuter plural of the verbal adjective has exactly the same meaning. We may equally well have τον ποταμόν έοτι διαβατέα or τον ποταμόν ecu διαβατέον.

24.1/6 Verbs of precaution and striving When these verbs, which include έπιμελέομαι, εύλαβέομαι both take care, οπουδάζω be eager/busy, οκοπέω consider; take heed, are followed by a clause (take care that..., be eager that..., etc.), this is expressed by δπωο with the future indicative. The future indicative is retained even after main verbs in a historic tense. The όπωο clause is negated by μή:

όπωο άμυνούμεθα, ούδείο No-one is making παραοκευάζεται ούδέ preparations or taking έπιμελεΐται. care that we should

defend ourselves.

δει οκοπειν δπωο τά παρόντ' έπανορθωθήοεται.

έοκόπουν δπωο αύτόο άπολυθηοομαι τηο έγγύηο.

Less often δπωο is followed by the purpose clauses (14.1/4c(i)):

ού φυλάξεοθε δπωο μή δεοπότην εύρητε;

έπεμελεΐτο ό Κΰροο δπωο μήποτε οί οτρατιώται άνίδρωτοι γενόμενοι έπί τό άριοτον είοίοιεν.

We must take heed that the present state of affairs be remedied.

I was taking heed that I myself be freed from the pledge.

subjunctive or optative, as in

Will you not be on your guard that you do not find a master?

Cyrus took care that the soldiers should never come to breakfast without working up a sweat (lit. being without a sweat).

Note Sometimes a main verb in the imperative such as οκόπει/οκοπειτε see to it ίβ omitted and we are left with nothing but όπωο and the future indicative:

δπωο έοεοθε άνδρεο άξιοι τηο έλευθερίδο.

[See to it] that you show yourselves (lit. will be) men worthy of freedom!

24.1/7 Verbs of hindering, preventing, forbidding, denying In English, verbs with these and similar meanings take various constructions (I prevented him from entering, we forbid you to do this). In Greek they are always followed by an infinitive which is accompanied by the negative μή; the latter is redundant from an English point of view: ε'ίργω ύμάο μή μάχεοθαι I hinder you from fighting; άπαγορεύομεν αύτόν μή οίκοδομεΐν we forbid bim to build. When the main verb is itself negated, the infinitive is accompanied by a double redundant negative μή ού: ούκ ε'ίργω

μή ού μάχεοθαι / do not hinder you from fighting. However, κωλύω prevent ή usually followed by a simple infinitive without μή or μή ού: κωλύω αύτόν ίππεύειν / prevent him from riding; ού κωλύω αύτόν βαδίζειν I do not prevent him from walking.

24.2 Greek reading 1 In addition to translating, explain each use of a negative:

(/)# ό μηδέν είδώο ούδέν έξαμαρτάνει. (ii) μηδένα φίλον ποιου πριν άν έξετάοηο πώο κέχρηται xoic πρότερον φίλοιο. (iii) πάν ποιοΰοιν ώοτε μή δούναι δίκην. (iv) ούδέν έπράχθη διά τό μή τον άρχοντα παρεΐναι. (ν) ούκ οίδα πότερον πορευθώ ή μή. (νϊ) δέδοικα μή ούχ ίκανούο έχω oic τον χρυοόν δω. (vii) θάρρει, ω Κΰρε, ού μή ce κρύψω πρόο δντινα βούλομαι άφικέοθαι. (viii) οί δ' έφαοαν άποδωοειν τούο νεκρούο έφ' ω μή καίειν τάο κώμαο. (ix)# τό μή δίκαιον έργον ού λήθει θεούο. (χ) τί έμποδών μή ούκ άποθανεΐν αύτούο; (xi) φίλοο έβούλετο είναι τοΐο μέγιοτα δυναμένοιο ίνα άδικων μή διδοίη δίκην. (xii)# εί μή καθέξειο γλώτταν, έοται coi κακά. (xiii)# ούκ άν δύναιο μή καμών εύδαιμονεΐν. (χiv)# ού μή δυομενήο έοει φίλοιο. (χν) ειπών ά θέλειο, άντάκου' ά μή θέλειο. (χνϊ) ή δει χελωνηο κρέα φαγεΐν ή μή φαγεΐν. (xvii) δύναοαί μοι λέγειν εί διδακτόν ή άρετή ή ού; (xviii) ούδείο άπαρνήοεται μή ούχί έπίοταοθαι τά δίκαια, (xi:c) έφοβεΐτο μή ού δύναιτο έκ τηο χώραο έξελθεΐν. (χχ) μή άπέλθητε πριν άν άκούοητε.

2 θεραπευτέον τούο θεούο, τούο φίλουο εύεργετητέον, την πόλιν ωφελητέον, τήν Ελλάδα πειρατέον ευ ποιεΐν, τήν γην θεραπευτέον, τών βοοκημάτων έπιμελητέον, τάο πολεμικάο τέχναο μαθητέον.

3# ό φόβοο, δταν τιο αίματοο μέλλη πέρι λέγειν καταοτάο είο άγων' έναντίον, τό τε οτόμ' eic έκπληξιν άνθρώπων άγει τον νοΰν τ' άπείργει μή λέγειν ά βούλεται.

4 ύμάο εύλαβεΐοθαι δει όπωο μηδέν ών ίδίςι φυλάξαιοθ' άν, τοΰτο δημοοίςι ποιοΰντεο φανήοεοθε.

5 ούτοι πάντεο οί νόμοι κείνται πολύν ήδη χρόνον, ώ άνδρεο δικαοταί, καί ούδείο πώποτ' άντεΐπεν μή ού καλώο έξειν αύτούο.

6 εύλαβοΰ μή φανηο κακόο γεγώο. 7 Socrates tells of an encounter with two sophists whom he

has previously met (sophists were teachers who travelled about from one Greek city to another). ήοπαζόμην ούν αύτω άτε διά χρόνου έωρακώσ μετά δέ τούτο εΐπον πρόο τον Κλεινίαν ώ Κλεινία, τώδε μέντοι τω άνδρε οοφώ, Εύθύδημόο τε καί Διονυοόδωροο, ού τά ομικρά άλλα τά μεγάλα* τά γάρ περί τον πόλεμον έπίοταοθον. ειπών ούν ταΰτα κατεφρονήθην ύπ' αύτοΐν έγελαοάτην ούν άμφω βλέψαντε είο άλλήλω, καί ό Εύθύδημοο ειπεν* ούτοι

έτι ταΰτα, ώ Οώκρατεο, οπουδάζομεν, άλλα παρέργοιο αύτοιο χρώμεθα. κάγώ θαυμάοαο ειπον* καλόν άν που τό έργον υμών εϊη, εί τηλικαΰτα πράγματα πάρεργα ύμιν τυγχάνει όντα, καί πρόο 10 θεών ε'ίπετόν μοι τί έοτι τούτο τό καλόν; άρετήν, έφη, ώ Οώκρατεο, οίόμεθα οϊω τ' είναι παραδοΰναι κάλλιοτ' άνθρώπων καί τάχιοτα. ω Ζεΰ, οίον, ήν δ' έγώ, λέγετον πράγμα* πόθεν τούτο τό έρμαιον ηύρετον; έγώ δέ περί ύμών διενοούμην έτι, ώοπερ 15 νυνδή έλεγον, ώο τό πολύ τούτο δεινοΐν όντοιν, έν όπλοιο μάχεοθαι, καί ταΰτα έλεγον περί οφών ότε γάρ τό πρότερον έπεδημήοατον, τούτο μέμνημαι οφώ έπαγγελλομένω.

8 μετά τοΰτον Ξενοφών είπεν* έγώ δ' ούτω γιγνώοκω. εί μέν άνάγκη μάχεοθαι, τούτο δει παραοκευάοαοθαι όπωο ώο κράτιοτα μαχούμεθα. εί δέ βουλόμεθα ώο ράοτα ύπερβάλλειν, τούτό μοι δοκεΐ οκεπτέον είναι όπωο ώο έλάχιοτα μέν τραύματα λάβωμεν, ώο έλάχιοτα δέ οώματα 5 άποβάλωμεν.

9 οκεπτέον πότερον δίκαιον έμέ ένθένδε πειράοθαι έξιέναι μή άφιέντων 'Αθηναίων ή ού δίκαιον.

10 Α. είπέ μοι, έοτι οοι άγρόο ; Β. ούκ έμοιγε. 11 καί /)1ήν εί ύφηοόμεθα καί έπί βαοιλεΐ γενηοόμεθα, τί

οίόμεθα πείοεοθαι; όο καί τοΰ όμομητρίου άδελφοΰ καί τεθνηκότοο ήδη άποτεμών τήν κεφαλήν καί τήν χείρα άνεοταύρωοεν* ήμάο δέ, οίο κηδεμών μέν ούδείο πάρεοτιν, έοτρατεύοαμεν δέ έπ' αύτόν ώο δοΰλον άντί βαοιλέωο 5 ποιήοοντεο καί άποκτενοΰντεο εί δυναίμεθα, τί άν οίόμεθα παθεΐν; άρ' ούκ άν έπί πάν έλθοι ώο ήμάο τά έοχατα αίκιοάμενοο πάοιν άνθρώποιο φόβον παράοχη τοΰ οτρατεΰοαί ποτε έπ' αύτόν; άλλ' όπωο τοι μή έπ' έκείνω γενηοόμεθα πάντα ποιητέον. 10

Notes 1 (i) ούδέν adverbial acc. (20.1/5). (ii) ποιοΰ 2nd s. pres. imp.

mid.; κέχρηται < χράομαι; πρότερον here an adverb (cf. οί νΰν, 5.1/3) but trans, by an adjective, (ν) πορευθώ (aor. subj. of πορεύομαι) deliberative subj. (14.1/4<z(ii)) in indirect speech (cf. δώ in (vi)). (vii) θάρρει (< θάρρε-ε) pres. imp.; κρύψω is here aor. subj. (lA.Hlh). (viii) έφ' ω 16.1/1 note 4. (x) έμποδών sc. ecu; because the construction appropriate after a negated verb of hindering, preventing etc. (μή ού) is used here, we know that the question expects the answer nothing and so counts as a virtual negation, (xi) μέγιοτα adverb (17.1/2). (xii) καθέξειο < κατέχω, (xiv) ού μή + fut.

ind., 17.1/1. (xv) άντάκου'(ε) imp. (xvi) κρέδ acc. pi. of Kpeac (13.1/lfc(iii)).

2 έοτί is very often omitted with verbal adjectives and must be supplied with each example here.

3 A murder trial is being described. /.I ό φόβοο is the subject of άγει (/.3); take πέρι with αίματοο (see note on 11.2.4 Ll). 1.2 καταοτάο intr. aor. pple. of καθίοτημι. //.3f. Take άνθρώπων with οτόμ'(α) and νουν.

4 δπωο ... φανήοεοθε (2nd pi. fut. pass, of φαίνω) see 24.1/6; φυλάξαιοθ'(ε) άν potential optative (19.1/2).

5 κείνται is used here as the perf. pass of τίθημι (18.1/2 note 4); έξειν fut. act. inf. of έχω.

6 μή = δπωο μή. 7 The passage has many dual forms (24.1/4). l.l έωρακώο

perf. act. pple. of όράω. 1.2 μέντοι emphatic, not adversative (13.1/3c(v)). /.3 χά ομΤκρά ... τά μεγάλα acc. of respect with οοφώ in 1.3 (20.1/5). /.7f. παρέργοιο here predicative with αύτοιο, them (amolc) [as] subordinate issues. 1.9 θαυμάοαο coincidental use of the aor. pple. (12.1/1), marvelling; άν ... ε'ίη potential opt. (19.1/2), lit. would be, but trans, must be. l . l l ε'ίπετόν 2nd dual aor. imp. act. /.13 κάλλιοτ'(α) άνθρώπων καί τάχιοτα lit. most excellently and speedily of men, i.e. as excellently and speedily as is humanly possible. 1.14 οίον exclamatory (21.1/3); ήν δ' έγώ said I (18.1.1#). 1.16 ώο τό πολύ (= ώο έπί τό πολύ) for the most part, 22.1/ltf(vii); τοΰτο (acc. of respect with δεινοιν (20.1/5)) anticipates έν ... μάχεοθαι; δεινοιν όντοιν agrees with ύμών in 1.15, although the latter is plural, not dual (note that Socrates somewhat illogically goes on to use the dual pronoun οφων).

8 ούτω anticipates the following sentence, lit. I think (γιγνώοκω) thus; each τοΰτο anticipates the δπωο clause which follows it and need not be translated; ώο + supl. 17.1/4 J .

9 Supply έοτί with both οκεπτέον (see note on 2 above) and δίκαιον; άφΐέντων gen. pi. of the pres. act. pple. of άφίημι.

10 έμοιγε 24.1/1 b. 11 ll.Iff. καί μήν and further; ύφηοόμεθα fut. mid. of ύφίημι; τ ι

etc. what do we think we shall suffer (cf. 8.1/3<z); oc lit. who (the antecedent is βααλεΐ) but trans, he (the relative pronoun is often used to join a sentence with what precedes); καί (before τοΰ and before τεθνηκότοο) even, but trans, the second by and that too for variety; take ήδη with τεθνηκότοο. //.4ff. ήμάο is the subject of παθειν in 1.7; oic .

πάρεση, ν lit. for whom there is no protector at hand; before έοτρατεύοαμεν we must supply the relative οί from the preceding oic, and the two adjectival clauses can be translated who have no protector at hand but (δέ) who campaigned against him (έπ' αύτόν); ώο + fut. pple. (12.1/2a(v)); ει δυναίμεθα indefinite construction in historic sequence (14.1/4c(iii)), lit. if ever we could; άν ... παθεΐν represents άν πάθοιμεν in direct speech (potential opt., 19.1/2), and the subject of the infinitive (ήμάο in 1.4) is, quite irregularly, inserted in the acc. although it is the same as the subject of οίόμεθα - trans, what do we think we would suffer. II.Hi. άρ' ούκ (10.1/2a); έπί πάν lit. to everything, i.e. to any lengths; ώο introduces a purpose clause (22.1/lfc(ii)); τά έοχατα acc. of respect (20.1/5), lit. in respect of the worst things, i.e. in the worst [possible] ways; take τοΰ οτρατεΰοαι ... as objective gen. (23.1/lc) with φόβον, fear of campaigning; the clause όπωο ... γενηοόμεθα is governed by ποιητέον (έοτίν) - όπωο + fut. is used to express purpose (the normal construction with όπωο in this context would be the subjunctive, 14.14c(i)).

/ 24.3 Extra reading

255 c 3

The Think Tank Old Comedy is the term given to the form of comic drama which flourished in Athens during the fifth century BC. Two of its main characteristics, comic situations and unbridled criticism of contemporaries, can be seen in the following passage from Aristophanes' Clouds, which was a stinging attack on Socrates and what were popularly supposed to be his intellectual interests. In this scene Strepsiades, a stupid and uneducated Athenian of the older generation, has just gained admittance to Socrates' Φροντιοτήριον (Think Tank) in order to improve himself.

ΟΙΤΕΨΙAAHC - MA0HTHC CT· πρόο τών θεών, τί γάρ τάδ' έοτι; είπέ μοι. ^Α· άοτρονομία μέν αύτηί. CT. τουτί δέ τί; ^Α· γεωμετρία. CT. τοΰτ' ούν τί έοτι χρήαμον; u ' όναμετρεΐοθαι. CT. πότερα τήν κληρουχικήν;

ούκ, άλλά τήν ουμπαοαν. CT. άοτειον λεγειο. 5 τό γάρ οόφιομα δημοτικόν καί χρήαμον.

256

Β

ΜΑ. αύτη δέ coi yfjc περίοδοο πάσηο. oppc; αϊδε μέν 'Αθήναι. CT. τί ού λέγειο; ού πείθομαι, έπεί δικαοτάο ούχ όρώ καθημένουο.

ΜΑ. ώο τούτ' άληθώο 'Αττικόν τό χωρίον. CT. φέρε τίο γάρ ούτοο ούπί τηο κρεμάθραο άνήρ; ΜΑ. αύτόο. CT. τίο αύτόο; ΜΑ. Οωκράτηο. CT. ώ C<OKp0^c.

ίθ' ούτοο, άναβόηοον αύτόν μοι μέγα. ΜΑ. αύτόο μέν ούν ού κάλεοον* ού γάρ μοι οχολή. CT. ώ €ώκρατεο,

ώ €ωκρατίδιον. CQKPATHC

τί με καλεΐο, ώ 'φήμερε; CT. πρώτον μέν δτι δραο, άντιβολώ, κάτειπέ μοι. CQ. άεροβατώ καί περιφρονώ τον ήλιον. CT. έπειτ' άπό ταρρού τούο θεούο ύπερφρονεΐο,

άλλ' ούκ άπό τηο γήο, ε'ίπερ; CΏ. ού γάρ άν ποτε έξηύρον όρθώο τά μετέωρα πράγματα, εί μή κρεμάοαο τό νόημα καί τήν φροντίδα.

Notes The Φροντιοτήριον of Aristophanes' play (he seems to have coined the word himself) was a school where various sciences were both investigated and taught. In the opening lines a pupil shows Strepsiades pieces of equipment, which, for humorous effect, are given the names of the sciences (astronomy and geometry) for which they are used. l.l γάρ explains why Strepsiades has used the exclamation πρόο τών θεών (in the name of the gods) but should not be translated. 1.2 αύτηί, τουτί emphatic forms of αύτη, τούτο with the suffix I, before which a final short vowel is dropped. 1.3 ούν well, so; τί lit. in what respect. IA When the pupil replies that the purpose of geometry is to measure land, Strepsiades, who is unable to rise above self-interested parochialism, asks if the land involved is for κλήροι, which were allotments of foreign land confiscated by the state and given to poorer Athenian citizens. The term for this allocation was κληρουχίδ cleruchy. πότερα introduces alternative questions (10.112a) but the second, ή ού or not, is omitted; κληρουχικήν sc. γήν land for cleruchies. ll.Si. Strepsiades finds the idea of measuring the whole earth attractive because he supposes that this would mean distributing it to needy Athenians. 1.7 coi ethic dat. (23.1/2f). 1.9 Large juries were a prominent feature of the Athenian legal system, which was often the butt of Aristophanes' humour. 1.10 A main clause meaning I assure you must be supplied, l . l l At this point Socrates appears overhead suspended

f r o m the end of a crane (see note on /.18); φέρε 17.1/1 note 7; = ό έπί. /.12 αύτόο was used to mean the master (cf. Irish use

of himself); ω Οοκράτηο (nom. not voc.) an exclamation Ah, [it's] Socrates. /. 13 ίθ'(ι) 2nd s. pres. imp. of έρχομαι (18.1/3); ούτοο you thereI (see note on 20.2.12 1.4). 1.15 Οωκρατίδιον 24.1/3; ώ 'φημερε i.e. ώ έφ- (initial elision of this type (prodelision) is poetical). 1.16 ότι indirect form of τί, 10.1/lb note 1. //.17f. Socrates, who is comically represented as some sort of divine being, says he is thinking about (περιφρονώ) the sun but Strepsiades perversely takes περιφρονώ in its other meaning despise and replies with the unequivocal ύπερφρονείο; από ταρροΰ from your mat although Strepsiades speaks of a basket in / . l l -Socrates is apparently sitting on a mat which is suspended at each corner from the gib of the crane and so resembles a basket. 1.19 άλλ'(ά) trans, and as there is no strong contrast; εϊπερ if indeed [that's what you're really doing] Strepsiades expresses himself cautiously because he cannot understand what Socrates is up to; ού γάρ άν ... lit. for I would not ... i.e. yes, for I would not... (24.1/1). /.21 εί μή κρεμάοδο except by (lit. if not) suspending (εί is here followed by a phrase, not a clause).

/

25.1 Grammar

25.1/1 Homeric Greek The language of the Iliad and Odyssey is an older version of Ionic (1.3) with elements from other dialects. It differs to some extent from Attic in phonology (the individual sounds of words), morphology (the different forms which some words can take), and syntax (grammatical constructions and uses). Listed below are the main differences which occur in the passages in 25.2, together with examples from them. A good introduction to Homer is G.S. Kirk Homer and the Epic (Cambridge UP).

25.1/2 Differences in phonology and morphology (a) Vowels and diphthongs

(i) Contraction is not always observed, e.g. αίδέομαι (1 /.3 in 25.2).

(ii) 8 becomes η after ε, ι and p, e.g. κρατερή (1 1.19). (iii) Diphthongs are sometimes broken up into two vowels, e.g.

έϋμμελίω (1 /. 10, = εύ-); χήτεϊ (1 /.24, = χήτει). (iv) Homeric Greek sometimes has cc where the Attic has c,

e.g. occov (1 /.15)

(b) Case endings (i) -εω, -ω (= Attic -ου) for the gen. s. of first declension

masculines, e.g. έϋμμελίω (1 LlO). (ii) -οιο (= Attic -ου) for the gen. s. of the second declension,

e.g. πολέμοιο (1 1.4).

(iii) -ά®ν (= Attic -ων) for the gen. pi. of the first declension, e.g. ροδών (2 /.8).

(iv) —8cci (= Attic -ci) for the dat. pi. of some third declension nouns, e.g. Τρώεοα (1 1.6).

(ν) -flci (= Attic -ate) for the dat. pi. of the first declension, e.g. κονίηα (1 /.14)

(vi) πολύο has an irregular nom. pi. m. πολέβο (1 /.13). (vii) The gen. s. of cv is οεΰ (1 /.15). (c) Verbal endings

(i) -ηα(ν) (= Attic -η ) for the 3rd s. subj. act., e.g. εϊπηαν (1 120).

(ii) -ατο (= Attic -ντο) for the 3rd pi. mid. and pass, of certain tenses (cf. 16.1/3 note), e.g. ήατο (2 1.2).

(iii) -εν (= Attic -^cav) for the 3rd pi. of the aor. ind. pass, and root aorists in -ην, e.g. έφανεν (2 1.5).

(iv) -έμεν (= Attic -ειν) for the pres. (and strong aor.) inf. act., e.g. μενέμεν (4 /.16).

(ν) The pres. inf. of ειμί is έμμεναι (1 /.5), not είναι.

(d) Verbal stems (i) The Augment is frequently omitted, e.g. μάθον (1 1.5, =

έμαθον). (ii) The aor. ind. stem of ειπον (< λέγω) is given a syllabic

augment, προοέειπε (1 /. 1, = προοεΐπε). (iii) The pres. pple. of ειμί is έών, έοΰοα, έόν (see 1 1.17) (e) A few words have a different form, e.g. αί (1 /.4, = εί if);

ήμαρ (1 /.9, = ήμέρδ).

25.1/3 Differences in syntax (a) What became the definite article in Attic is a third person

pronoun in Homer, e.g. την (1 l.l) her (= αυτήν). A relic of this use survives in Attic in the idiom οί μέν... οί δέ (5.1/3).

(b) The future tense exists in Homer (e.g. eccexax 11.9), but the future can also be expressed by the subjunctive with or without άν or κε (an equivalent of άν which Homer often uses), e.g. κεν... άγηται (1 ll.lSi.) will lead; άν όλώλη (11.9) will be destroyed (the perfect expresses a future state, lit. will be in a state of having perished); εϊπηαν (1 1.20) will say. Further, the optative with άν (or κε) does not always have a strong future potential sense as in Attic, and is sometimes to be translated by a simple future, e.g. κεν ... ύφαίνοιο you will weave (1 1.17).

259 c 3 A1

£

260 c 3 ΙΟ ΟΙ

25.2 Readings from Homer The Attic equivalent of certain Homeric words and endings is given in the ri^ht-hand margin. The Homeric forms so explained (e.g. Τρη, 1 1.9) are not listed separately in the vocabulary. The Homeric poems are written in hexameters (Appendix 9). 1 Hector talks with his wife Andromache

την δ' αύτε προοέειπε μεγαο κορυθαίολοο Έκτωρ· ή καί έμοί τάδε πάντα μέλει, γύναν άλλα μάλ' αίνώο αιδέομαι Τρώαο καί Τρφάδαο έλκεοιπέπλουο, αι κε κακόο ωο νόοφιν άλυοκάζω πολέμοιο* ούδέ με θυμόο άνίογεν, έπεί μάθον έιχιιεναι έοθλόο αίεί καί πρώτοιοι μετά Τρώεοοι μάχεοθαι, άρνυμενοο πατρόο τε μέγα κλέοο ήδ' έμόν αυτού, εΰ γάρ έγώ τόδε οιδα κατά φρένα καί κατά θυμόν · έοοεται ήμαρ ότ' άν ηοϊ όλώλη Ίλιοο ίρή καί Πρίαμοο καί λαόο έϋμμελίω Πριάμοιο. άλλ' ού μοι Τρώων τόοοον μέλει άλγοο ότήοοω, ούτ* αύτηο Έκάβηο ούτε Πριάμοιο άνακτοο ούτε κααγνήτων, οί κεν πολέεο τε καί έοθλοί έν κονίηοι πέοοιεν υπ' άνδράοι δυομενέεοοιν, occov οεύ, δτε κέν τιο 'Αχαιών χαλκοχιτώνων δακρυόεοοαν άγηται, έλεύθερον ήμαρ άπούραο· καί κεν έν "Αργεί έούοα πρόο άλληο ίοτόν ύφαίνοιο, καί κεν ύδωρ φορέοιο Μεοοηΐδοο ή Ύπερείηο πόλλ' άεκαζομένη, κρατερή δ' έπικείοετ' άνάγκη. καί ποτέ τιο εΐπηοιν ίδών κατά δάκρυ χέουοαν* Έκτοροο ήδε γυνή, oc άριοτεύεοκε μάχεοθαι Τρώων ίπποδάμων, δτε Ίλιον άμφιμάγοντο. ώο ποτέ τιο έρέει· οοί δ' αύ νέον έοοεται άλγοο χήτεϊ τοιούδ' άνδρόο άμύνειν δούλιον ήμαρ. άλλά με τεθνηώτα χυτή κατά γαία καλύπτοι, πρίν γέ τι οηο τε βοήο οού θ' έλκηθιιοΐο πυθέοθαι.

-ειπε

5 έμαθον, είναι Τρωοί

έοται, ιερή (= -ά) 10 -ίου,-ου

τόοον, όπίοω -ου πολλοί -ίαιο, δυομενέαν

15 ocov, οού

ούοα φοροίηο (= φεροιο)

20 είπη

αμφεμαχοντο έρει, έοται

25 τεθνεώτα -ου

2 The Trojans camp on the the plain outside Troy oi δέ μέγα φρονέοντεο έπί πτολέμοιο γεφυραο ήατο παννυχιοι, πυρά δέ οφιοι καίετο πολλά, ώο δ' ότ' έν ούρανφ άοτρα φαεινήν άμφί οελήνην φαίνει άριπρεπέα, ότε τ' έπλετο νήνεμοο αίθήρ· έκ i έφανεν πάοαι οκοπιαί καί πρώονεο άκροι καί νάπαν ούρανόθεν δ' άρ' ύπερράγη άοπετοο αίθήρ, πάντα δέ εΐδεται άοτρα, γέγηθε δέ τε φρένα ποιμήν τόοοα μεοηγύ νεών ήδε Ξάνθοιο ροάων Τρώων και όντων πυρά φαίνετο Ίλιόθι πρό.

-ουνιεο, πολέμου ήντο, έκαίετο

Λ έφάνηοαν

τοοα, -ου, ροών έφαίνετο, Ιλίου

10 χίλι' άρ' έν πεδίφ πυρά καίετο, παρ δέ έκάοτφ ίίατο πεντήκοντα ςέλςι πυρός αίθομένοιο. ίπποι δέ κρι λευκόν έρεπτόμενοι καί όλύραο έοταότες παρ' ογεοφιν έΰθρονον Ήώ μίμνον.

The beginning of the Odyssey άνδρα μοι έννεπε, Μούςα, πολύτροπον, oc μάλα πολλά πλάγγθη, έπεί Tpoigc ιερόν πτολίεθρον έπερςε* πολλών δ' ανθρώπων ΐδεν άςτεα καί νόον έγνω, πολλά δ' ό γ' έν πόντω πάθεν άλγεα δν κατά θυμόν, αρνύμενοο ήν τε ψυχήν καί vocxov έταίρων. ! άλλ' ούδ' ως έτάρουο έρρύοατο, ίέμενός περ· αυτών γάρ ςφετέρηαν άταςθαλίηαν ολοντο, νηπιοι, οι κατά βούς Ύπερίονος Ήελίοιο ήοθιον αύτάρ ό τοΐαν άφείλετο νόοτιμον ήμαρ.

The Lotus-eaters ένθεν δ' έννημαρ φερόιιην όλοοις άνέμοιοι πόντον έπ' ίχθυόεντα* άτάρ δεκάτη έπέβημεν yainc Λωτοφάγων, οί 4 άνθινον ειδαρ έδουαν. ένθα δ' έπ' ηπείρου βήμεν καί άφυςςάιιεθ' ύδωρ, αιψα δέ δείπνοι έλοντο θοης παρά νηυαν έταιροι.

αύτάρ έπεί οίτοιό τ* έπαςςάαεθ' ήδέ ποτητος, δή τότ' έγων έτάρους προΐειν πεύθεςθαι ίόντας οί τίνες άνέρες ειεν έπί χθονί ςιτον έδοντες, άνδρε δύω κρίναο, τρίτατον κήρυχ' άμ' όπάςς ac. οί δ* αιν/ οίχόμενοι ιιίγεν άνδράοι Λωτοφάγοιοιν ούδ' άρα Λωτοφάγοι μήδονθ' έτάροιςιν δλεθρον ήμετεροις, άλλα ςφι δόςαν λωτοιο πάςαςθαι. τών δ' OCTIC λωτοιο φάγοι μελιηδέα καρπόν, ούκέτ7 άπαγγειλαι πάλιν ήθελεν ούδέ νέεοθαι, άλλ' αύτού βούλοντο μετ' άνδράςι Λωτοφάγοιςι λωτόν έρεπτόμενοι μενέμεν νόοτου τε λαθέςθαι. τούς μέν έγων έπί νηαο άγον κλαίοντας άνάγκη, νηυςί δ' ένί γλαφυρηαν ύπό ζυγά δήοα έρύςς ac.

αύτάρ τούο άλλους κελόμην έρίηρας έταίρους επερχόμενους νηών έπιβαινέιιεν ώκειάων, μή πώς τις λωτοιο φαγών νόοτοιο λάθηται. οι δ* al\j/ ειςβαινον καί έπί κληιςι καθιζον, έξης δ' έζόμενοι πολιήν άλα τυπτον έρετμοις.

10

εκαιετο, παρα ήντο, -ου

έςτώτες, δχεςιν, έμιμνον

έπλάγχθη, -ac ειδεν, άςτη, νουν έπαθεν, άλγη

καίπερ -aic, -αις, ωλοντο Ήλιου

261

εφερομην γης

έβημεν,ήφυςάμεθα 5 είλοντο,-αις,

ναυςίν -ου, έπαςάμεθα

άνδρες όπάςας έμίγηςαν έμήδοντο έδοςαν, -ου -ού, μελιηδή νειςθαι

15 έβούλοντο μενειν ήγον ναυςί, -αΐς,

20

έδηςα, έρύςας έκελόμην νεών,-βαίνειν,-ων -ού, -ου είςέβαινον . πολιάν, έτυπτον

C 3

Κ

Notes 1 1.1 τήν = αύτην (25.1/3tf). L2 ή indeed; τάδε is the subject of μέλει. 1.4 αί κε = έάν (άλυοκάζω is subj.); κακόο ώο like a coward (ώο is accented when it follows the word it qualifies); take νόοφιν with πολέμοιο. l.S με ... άνωγεν order me [to do this]. 1.7 The genitives are to be translated for; έμόν αύτοΰ = έμοΰ αύτοΰ, lit. of me myself. 1.9 δτ^ε) when; translate άν... όλώλη (strong perf. subj. of όλλϋμι) as a future (IS.Hib). 1.11 TOCCOV (= normal Attic τοοοΰτο) agrees with άλγοο (which is the subject of μέλει) and is balanced by occov in /.15 (21.1/3e). L12 Έκάβηο, Πριάμοιο (together with κααγνήτων (/. 13) and οεύ (1.15)) are objective genitives (23.1/lc) with άλγοο (/ . l l) , grief for ... ll. 13f. κεν ... πέοοιεν fut. potential (19.1/2) but trans, may fall; ύπ'(ό) + dat. (= gen. in Attic) by, at the hands of. ll. 15f. κεν ... άγηται lit. will lead for himself (25.1/3b); έλεύθερον ήμαρ lit. free day a regular Homeric expression for freedom, trans, day of liberty (similiar expressions occur in 1.24 below and in 3 1.9). ll. 17f. The two examples of κε + opt. are potential (Hector is stating something that may possibly happen), but are better translated will weave ... and carry (25.1/3b); πρόο at the command of; Μεοοηΐδοο ή Ύπερείηο gen. of separation (20.1/4) from M. or H. 1.19 πόλλ' (i.e. πολλά) adverbial acc. (20.1/5) much; έπικείοετ'(αι). 1.20 ε'ίπηα (subj., 25.1/2c(i)) will say (25.1/3b); κατά δάκρυ χέουοαν = καταχέουοαν δάκρυ (tmesis, 12.3.91.6 note). /.22f. Take Τρώων Ιπποδάμων with άριοτεύεοκε (= ήρίοτευε) was best of the, etc. /.23 ωο (= ούτωο) thus. 1.24 χήτεϊ (= χήτει) + gen. because of the lack (dat. of cause 23.1/2/); δούλιον ήμαρ cf. έλεύθερον ήμαρ (1.16). L25 κατά... καλύπτοι tmesis as in L20 - the opt. expresses a wish for the future (21.1/1). 2 1.1 The embankments of war apparently means the places where battles were normally fought. 1.2 παννύχιοι is an adj. (staying all night) but trans, all night long; οφιοι (= αύτοιο) is not here reflexive. 1.3 ώο ... δτ'(ε) as when introduces a simile. UAi. φαίνετ^αι); aorists such as έπλετο and έφανεν are often interspersed among presents in Homeric similes and should be translated by the present; έκ ... έφανεν tmesis (see on 1 1.20 above). 1.6 ύπερράγη root aor. of ύπορρήγνϋμι. 1.7 τε is often used to mark similes and has no connective force; φρένα acc. of respect (20.1/5). l.S τόοοα agrees with πυρά (1.9) and brings out the point of the simile. L9 Τρώων καιόντων gen. abs. (12.112b); Ίλιοθι πρό = προ Ιλίου (the suffix -θι , which denotes place from which, is used as the equivalent of the genitive ending). 1.11 cελα

- ςέλαι dat. s. of ceXac (cf. 13.1/lfc(iii)). /. 14 The ending of όχεοφιν (< οχοο) is peculiar to Homer and is generally the equivalent of the dat. pi., as here. 3 /.I πολλά much (20.1/5). 1.2 πλαγχθη 3rd s. aor. ind. (without augment) of πλάζομαι. IΑ ό γ'(ε) he (25.1/3α; γε is often added to ό in this use and is not to be translated); ov not the relative but a 3rd person reflexive possessive adjective, oc, ή, δν (his, her, its), which did not survive in Attic - take with θϋμόν, lit. his own heart but trans, simply by his heart (but ήν ... ψΐΣχήν (/.5) his own life because of the contrast with vocxov έταίρων). 1.5 άρνύμενοο trying to win. 1.6 ώο so, thus (cf. 1 1.23 above); Γεμενόο (< ίημι) περ lit. although striving. 1.7 αυτών ... ΰφετέρηϋΐν their own (αυτών lit. of them is added for particular emphasis); άταοθαλίηαν plural for singular. ll.Si. νήπιοι fools in apposition to the subject of ολοντο (1.7). /.8f. κατά ... ήοθιον tmesis; ό he, i.e. Helios; τοΐαν (= αύτοΐο) from them, dat. of disadvantage (23.H2d). 4 1.2 δεκάτη sc. ήμερρ. 1.3 οί τ^ε) who, not and who - in Homer τε is added to the relative when the antecedent is a class (here the Lotus-eaters), y.5 έλοντο lit. took for themselves (the mid. of αίρέω does not here have the meaning choose). 1.6 έπαοοάμεθ'(α) < πατέομαι. 1.7 δή here not postpositive as in Attic; προίειν 1st s. impf. ind. act. of προΐημι; ιόνταο (<ειμι) here fut. pple. (18.1/3) to express purpose (12.1/2<i(v)). /.8 οίτινεο indirect interrogative (10.1/2b note 1); ειεν opt. in historic sequence (14.1/4*/). 1.9 άνδρε acc. dual, 24.1/4; τρίτατον κήρυχ' άμ' (= κήρυκα άμα) lit. a third together (i.e. with them) [as] herald. 1.12 οφι = αύτοιο; λωτοιο partitive gen. (23.1/1 d) with δόοαν, lit. gave of lotus, i.e. gave some lotus (cf. λωτοιο φαγών eating some lotus '.21 below). /.13 τών = αυτών; ocnc... φάγοι indefinite adj. clause (14.1/4c(iii)), whoever ate. /.15 αύτοΰ (adv.) there. 1.17 άγον ... ανάγκη I brought by force (the impf. here and in the following lines is used for vividness and should be translated by a simple Past). /.21 μή πώο xic ... lest somehow (πωο) anyone ...

263 c 3 S·' 8

For suggestions for further study see the Internet website http://tyancientgreek.org

302 Appendix 5

Conjugation of λύω loosen

pi.

Pres. Indicative λύ-ω I loosen, etc.

ACTIVE Impf. Future Aorist Perfect Pluperfect

λϋ-eic λύ-ει λύ-ομεν λύ-ετε

έλϋ-ον λύο-ω I was I will loosening, loosen etc ελϋ-εο λύο-ειο έλϋ-ε(ν) λύο-ει ελύ-ομεν λύο-ομεν έλύ-ετε λύο-ετε

έλϋο-α λελυκ-α I loosened I have

loosened

έλϋο-αο λελυκ-ac έλΐ£-ε(ν) λελυκ-ε(ν) έλύο-αμεν λελυκ-αμεν έλύο-ατε λελυκ-ατε

3 λύ-ουα(ν) έλϋ-ον λύο-ουοι(ν) έλΰο-αν λελύκ-δα(ν)

έλελύκ-η I had loosened

ελελυκ-ηο ελελυκ-ει(ν) έλελύκ-εμεν έλελυκ-ετε έλελύκ-εοαν

Subjunctive s. 1 λύ-ω

2 λύ-flc 3 λύ-η

ρ/, ί λύ-ωμεν 2 λύ-ητε 3 λύ-ωοι(ν) Optative

s. 2 λύ-οιμι 2 λύ-oic

3 λύ-οι

pi 1 λύ-οιμεν 2 λύ-οιτε 3 λύ-οιεν

Imperative 5. 2 λύ-ε

3 λϋ-ετω Ρί 2 λύ-ετε

3 λϋ-όντων Infinitive

λύ-ειν Participle

λύ-ων λύ-ουοα λύ-ον

λύο-ω λελύκ-ω1

λύο-ηο λελυκ-ηο λύο-ρ λελυκ-η λύο-ωμεν λελύκ-ωμεν λύο-ητε λελύκ-ητε λύο-ωα(ν) λελύκ-ωα(ν)

λύο-αιμι λελυκ-οιμι1

λύο-ειαϋ λελύκ-oic (λύο-αιο) λύο-ειε(ν) λελύκ-οι (λύο-αι) λύο-αιμεν λελυκ-οιμεν λύο-αιτε λελυκ-οιτε λύο-ειαν λελύκ-οιεν (λύο-αιεν)

λύο-ον λελυκοχ; ίοθι λϋο-άτω λελυκωο έοτω λύο-ατε λελυκότεο έοτε λΰο-άντων λελυκότεο δντων

λΰο-ειν λΰο-αι λελυκ-εναι

/ λύο-οιμι λϋο-οιο

λύο-οι

λύο-οιμεν λύο-οιτε λύο-οιεν

λύο-ων λύο-ουοα λΰο-ον

Xtc-Gc Xtc-Gca λϋο-αν

λελυκ-ioc λελυκ-υΐα λελυκ-oc

1 See also 16.1/4 note 1.

Pres. Indicative

pi.

pi.

1 λϋ-ομαι 2 λό-η(-ει) 3 λϋ-εται 1 λΰ-όμεθα 2 λϋ-εοθε 3 λύ-ονται Subjunctive 1 λϋ-ωμαι

λϋ-η λϋ-ηται λϋ-ωμεθα λσ-ηοθε λϋ-ωνται

Impf.

έλϋ-όμην ελϋ-ου ελύ-ετο έλϋ-όμεθα ελό-εοθε έλύ-οντο

MIDDLE Future Aorist Perfect Pluperfect

Optative

pi.

pi.

λϋ-οιμην 2 λύ-οιο 3 λϋ-οιτο 1 λϋ-οίμεθα 2 λύ-οιοθε 3 λϋ-οιντο Imperative 2 λύ-ου 3 λϋ-εςθω 2 λύ-εοθε 3 λϋ-εοθων Infinitive

λύ-εςθαι Participle

λΐ5-ομενοΰ, -ομενη, -όμενον

λϋο-ομαι ελϋς-αμην λελυ-μαι λύΰ-η (-ει) ελύο-ω λελυ-cai λύΰ-εται έλύς-ατο λελυ-ται λΰΰ-όμεθα έλϋς-άμεθα λελύ-μεθα λόΰ-εοθε έλΐκχχςθε λελυ-οθε λύς-ονται έλύς-αντο λέλυ-νται

έλελύ-μην ελελυ-co έλέλυ-το ελελύ-μεθα ελελυ-€θε έλελυ-ντο

λελυμενος ώ λελυμενος fjc λελυμενος TJ

λός-ωμαι λύς-η λύς-ηται λΰο-ωμεθα λελυμενοι ώμεν λύς-ηςθε λελυμενοι ήτε λύο-ωνται λελυμενοι ώοι(ν)

λϋΰ-οιμην λύς-οιο λύς-οιτο λΟο-οίμεθα λύς-οιοθε λύς-οιντο

λΰς-αιμην λύς-αιο λύς-αιτο λϋΰ-αίμεθα λϋς-αιςθε λός-αιντο

λύΰ-αι λϋς-άςθω λύς-αςθε

λελυμένος ειην λελυμενος εϊηο λελυμενος εϊη λελυμενοι είμεν λελυμενοι ειτε λελυμενοι ειεν

λέλυ-co λελύ-οθω λελυ-ςθε

λϋς-κχςθων λελυ-€θων

λϋο-εςθαι λύς-αςθαι λελύ-ςθαι

λϋΰ-όμενος, λϋς-άμενος, λελυ-μενοο, -ομενη, -αμενη, -μενη, -όμενον -άμενον -μενον

Note In all forms of the perfect which are made up of a perfect participle and είμι the participle must agree with the subject of the verb in number and gender.

PASSIVE The forms for the present, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect are the same as for the middle; for the future perfect passive see 16.1/4 note 2.

Future Indicative

1 λυβηο-ομαι Optative λυ&ηο-οίμην

λυθηο-ρ (-ει) λυθηο-οιο λυθηο-εται

pi. 1 λυθηο-ομεθα λυθηο-εοθε λυθηο-ονται

λυθηο-οιτο λυθηο-οίμεθα λυθης-οιοθε λυβηο-οιντο

Infinitive Participle

λυθηο-εοθαι λυθηο-όμενοο, -ομένη, -όμενον

Aorist Indicative

s. 1 ελυθη-ν 2 ελυθη-c 3 ελυθη

pi. 1 έλυβη-μεν 2 ελυθη-τε 3 έλύθη-cav

Subjunctive λυθ-ώ λυθ-fjc λυθ-η λυθ-ωμεν λυθ-ήτε λυθ-ώα(ν)

Optative λυθ-είην λυθ-είηο λυθ-είη λυθ-ειμεν λυθ-ειτε λυθ-ειεν

Imperative

λύβη-τι λυθη-τω

λύβη-τε λυθε-ντων

Infinitive λυθη-ναι Participle λυθ-είο, λυθ-εΐοα, λυθ-εν

267 ω Ό

3 α δ

305 Appendix 5

Conjugation of contracted verbs (present and imperfect)

τιμάω honour

ACTIVE Present Imperfect

Indicative s. 1 ιΤμώ ετίμων

2 ιΤμςϊο ετίμσο 3 τίμα έιίμδ

pi. 1 τΓμώμεν έχΓμώμεν 2 τΓμάτε ειΤμάτε 3 ΐΓμώα(ν) έτίμων Subjunctive

s. 1 τΤμώ 2 τΤμφο 3 Ήμα

pi 1 χίμώμεν 2 τΤμάτε 3 ΐΓμώα(ν) Optative

5. 1 τΤμφην 2 τΤμωηο 3 τΤμωη

pi. 1 ΊΤμωμεν 2 ΐΓμφχε 3 ιΤμώεν Imperative

5. 2 ιΤμσ 3 τΓμδχω

pi 2 Άμαχε 3 ιΤμώντων Infinitive

ΐΓμάν Participle

ιΤμών, τΐμάκια, τΤμών

MIDDLE/PASSIVE Present Imperfect

τϋμώμαι τΓμρ τιμάται ιΤμώμεθα τΤμάοθε ιΤμώνται

τΓμώμαι τΤμςϊ τΤμαται ιΤμώμεθα τΓμάοθε τΓμώνται

ιΤμωμην τΤμωο τΤμωχο τΤμωμεθα τΧμωοθε χΓμωνχο

ιΤμώ τΤμάοθω τΤμάοθε τΤμδοθων

τΧμάοθαι

τΓμωμεν-oc, -η, -ον

ειΤμωμην ετΓμώ έτΧμάτο έτΤμώμεθα έτΤμάοθε έΐΤμώντο

ποιέω make, do

ACTIVE Present Imperfect Present

Indicative s 1 ποιώ εποίουν ποιούμαι

2 ποιειο έποίεις ποιη (-ει) 3 ποιεί έποίει ποιείται

pi ι ποιούμεν εποιούμεν ποιούμεθα 2 ποιείτε έποιειτε ποιειςθε 3 ποιούα(ν) έποίουν ποιούνται Subjunctive

5. 1 ποιώ ποιώμαι 2 ποιήο ποιή 3 ποιη ποιήται

pi 1 ποιώμεν ποιώμεθα 2 ποιήτε ποιήοθε 3 ποιώα(ν) ποιώνται Optative

s. 1 ποιοίην ποιοίμην 2 ποιοίης ποιοιο 3 ποιοίη ποιοιτο

pi 1 ποιοιμεν ποιοίμεθα 2 ποιοιτε ποιοΐςθε 3 ποιοΐεν ποιοιντο Imperative

s. 2 ποίει ποιού 3 ποιείτω ποιείΰθω

pi 2 ποιείτε ποιειςθε 3 ποιούντων ποιείςθων Infinitive

ποιεΐν ποιειςθαι Participle

MIDDLE/PASSIVE Imperfect

εποιουμην εποιού εποιειτο εποιούμεθα εποιεΐςθε έποιούντο

ποιων, ποιουςα, ποιούν ποιουμεν-ος, -η, -ον

270 ω Ό ϊ 3 α 8 (Λ

δηλόω make clear, show

ACTIVE Present Imperfect

Indicative s. 1

2 3

pi. 1 δηλούμεν

δηλώ δηλοΐς δήλοι

δηλοΰτε 3 δηλούα(ν) Subjunctive 1 δηλώ 2 δηλοΐΰ

δήλοι pi. 1 δηλώμεν

2 δηλώτε 3 δηλώα(ν) Optative

5. 1 δηλοίην 2 δηλοίης

δηλοίη pi. 1 δηλοΐμεν

2 δηλοΐτε 3 δηλοιεν Imperative

5. 2 δήλου 3 δηλούτω

pi. 2 δηλούτε 3 δηλούντων Infinitive

δηλούν Participle

δηλών, δηλοϋοα, δηλούν

MIDDLE/PASSIVE Present Imperfect

έδήλουν έδήλου€ έδήλου εδηλούμεν έδηλούτε έδήλουν

δηλούμαι δήλοι δηλούται δηλούμεθα δηλούςθε δηλούνται

δηλώμαι δήλοι δηλώται δηλωμεθα δηλώοθε δηλώνται

δηλοίμην δηλοΐο δηλοίτο δηλοίμεθα δηλοιοθε δηλοΐντο

δηλού δηλούΰθω δηλοϋοθε δηλούςθων

δηλούςθαι

δηλούμεν-oc, -η, -ον

έδηλούμην έδηλού έδηλούτο έδηλούμεθα έδηλούοθε έδηλούντο

308 Appendix 5

Conjugation of ειμί be, έρχομαι (and είμι) come/go, φημί say, οίδα know (the last is perfect in form but present in meaning; it has been classified below according to its meaning)

ειμι be

Present indicative s. 1 ειμί

2 εΐ , 3 έοτί(ν)

pi 1 εομεν 2 έοτε 3 είά(ν) Present subjunctive

s. 1 ω 2 fjc

3 fl pi 1 ωμεν

2 ήτε 3 ώα(ν) Present optative

s. 1 εϊην 2 εϊηο 3 είη

pl· 1 ειμεν 2 είτε 3 ειεν Present imperative 2 ιοθι 3 εοτω 2 εοτε 3 έοτων or όντων Present infinitive

είναι Present participle ών, ούοα, ov

έρχομαι come/go (18.1/3)

έρχομαι ερχη (-ει) έρχεται έρχόμεθα έρχεοθε έρχονται

ΐω ir\c 'in ϊωμεν ϊητε ΐωα(ν)

ΐοιμι IOIC ϊοι ϊοιμεν ϊοιτε ϊοιεν

ϊθι ϊτω ιτε ιόντων

Φημί say

φημι φηο φηά(ν) φαμεν φατε φαοί(ν)

φώ φηο Φη φωμεν φήτε φώα(ν)

φαίην φαίηο φαίη φαιμεν φαΐτε φαιεν

φαθί φάτω φάτε φόντων

ιεναι φαναι

ιών, ίοΰοα, ιόν # φδο, φάοα, φάν

οιδα know (19.1/3 α)

οιδα οίοθα οίδε(ν) ϊομεν ΐοτε icGci(v)

είδώ ειδηο είδη είδώμεν είδήτε είδώα(ν)

ειδείην ειδείηο είδείη εΐδειμεν ειδειτε είδειεν

ιοθι ΐίοτω ιοτε ϊοτων

εϊδέναι

ειδώο, είδυΐα, είδόο

272 Q> Ό Ό Φ 3 α ο φ (Α

Imperfect indicative s. 1 ή or ήν η

2 ήοθα 3 ήν

pi. 1 ήμεν 2 ήτε 3 ήςαν Future indicative

s. 1 έςομαι 2 ecr\ (-ει) 3 icxai

pi 1 εςόμεθα 2 έςεΰθε 3 έοονται

11° ήεΐΰθα ήει(ν) ήμεν ήτε ήεςαν or ήςαν

ειμι ει εία(ν) ϊμεν ίτε 'iSci(v)

έφην ήδη έφηοθα or έφηο ήδηςθα εφη έφαμεν έφατε έφαςαν

φήοω φήοειο φήοει φήςομεν φήοετε φήοουα(ν)

ήδει(ν) ήομεν ήςτε ήδεςαν or flcav

εϊςομαι eicr\ (-ει) εΐοεται είςόμεθα είοεοθε

The other parts of the future are regular, ειμί, φημί and οιδα do not exist in other tenses. For the other parts of έρχομαι see Principal parts of verbs. The optative, infinitive and participle of ειμι may also have a future meaning (18.1/3).

310 Appendix 5

Root aorists (11.1/1) έβην (βαίνω) and έγνων (γιγνώοκω) are conjugated:

Ind. s. 1 έβην

βάν

έβηο έβη

pi 1 εβημεν εβητε

έβηοαν

s. 1 έγνων 2 έγνωο 3 έγνω

pi. 1 έγνωμεν 2 έγνωτε 3 έγνωοαν

Subj. βώ βήο Μ βωμεν βήχε

γνω γνωο γνω

Opt. βαίην βαίηο βαίη βαιμεν βαιτε

βώα(ν) βαιεν

γνοιην γνοίηΰ γνοίη

γνωμεν γνοιμεν γνώτε γνοΐτε γνώα(ν) γνοιεν

Imp.

βήθι βήτω

βήτε

βάντων

γνώθι γνώτω

γνώτε γνόντων

Infinitive βήναι

Participle βόκα,

Infinitive γνώναι

Participle yyovc, γνούοα, γνόν

274 Ό ϊ 3 α 8

Appendix 5

Conjugation of δίδωμι give, τίθημι put, place, ΐημι let go, send forth, ϊοτημι make stand (for full details of which tenses of ϊοτημι are transitive and which are intransitive see 19.1/1). Many of the forms of Ιημι occur only in compounds.

δίδωμι τίθημι ίημ ι ϊοτημι

ACTIVE

Present indicative 5. 1 δίδωμι

διδωο δίδωα(ν)

pi 1 δίδομεν διδοτε διδόδα(ν)

τιθημι Ιημι τίθηο Τηο τίθηα(ν) Τηα(ν) τίθεμεν Τεμεν τίθετε Τετε τιθε5α(ν)"Γάα(ν)

Present subjunctive s. 1 διδώ τιθώ

διδφο τιθηο τιθή τιθώμεν

διδώτε τιθητε διδώα(ν) τιθώοι(ν)

2 3

pi. 1 διδώμεν 2 • " 3 Present optative 1 διδοίην 2 διδοίηο

διδοίη p i 1 διδοιμεν

διδοιτε διδοιεν

τιθειην τιθείηϋ τιθείη τιθειμεν τιθειτε τιθειεν

Τω Τηο ft Τώμεν Τήτε ίώα(ν)

Τείην ίείηο Τείη Τειμεν ίεΐτε "Γεΐεν

Present imperative s. 2 δίδου τίθει Τει

3 διδότω τιθετω ίέτω pi 2 δίδοτε τίθετε ΐετε

3 διδόντων τιθέντων Τεντών Present infinitive

διδόναι τιθέναι ίέναι Present participle

διδοιχ: τιθείο Τείο διδούοα τιθειοα teica διδόν τιθεν ΐέν

ϊοτημι ϊοτηο ϊοτηα(ν) ΐοταμεν ϊοτατε ίοτάοι(ν)

ιοτω ionic ίστη ΐοτώμεν ίοτητε ίοτώα(ν)

ίοταίην ίοταίηο ίοταίη ΐοταιμεν ίοταιτε ίοταιεν

ιοτη ίοτάτω ϊοτατε ίοτάντων

ιοταναι

icxGc icTOca icxav

Imperfect indicative 1 έδίδουν ετίθην 2 έδίδοιχ: 3 έδίδου

vl \ έδίδομεν ν ' 2 έδίδοτε

3 έδίδοΰαν Future indicative

s I eoiccoetc. θηοωεκ:. iicoetc. cnicioetc.

The other parts of the future active are formed regularly with the same stems (δωο-, θης-, ήο-, c^c-).

Aorist indicative

Την έτίθεκ Teic ετίθει Χει έτίθεμεν Τεμεν έτίθετε Χετε έτίθεΰαν Τεοαν

Τΰτην Icnic Τΰτη Τοταμεν Τοτατε Tcxacav

5. 1 έδωκα 2 έδωκαΰ 3 έδωκε(ν)

pi 1 έδομεν 2 έδοτε 3 έδοΰαν

έθηκα ήκα έθηκαο ήκαο έθηκε(ν) ήκε(ν) έθεμεν ειμεν έθετε ειτε έθεοαν ειοαν

Transitive εοτψα ecxr\cac έΰτηοε(ν) έΰτηΰαμεν έΰτηςατε ecv(\cav

Intransitive έΰτην έΰτης έΰτη έοτημεν έΰτητε έΰτηοαν

On the alternative forms for the plural of έδωκα and έθηκα see 18.1/2 note 3. Aorist subjunctive

s. 1 δω δφο δω

pi 1 δώμεν δώτε

3 δώα(ν)

Aorist optative 5. 1 δοίην

2 δοίηΰ δοίη

θώ θηΰ % θώμεν θητε θώα(ν) ώα(ν)

ψ ωμεν ήτε

pi. 1 δοιμεν δοιτε δοιεν

θείην θειηΰ θείη θεΐμεν θειτε θειεν

Aorist imperative s. 2 δόΰ Qec

3 δότω θέτω pl 2 δότε θέτε

3 δόντων

ειην εϊηο εϊη ειμεν είτε ειεν

ec ετω έτε

ΰτηΰω ΰτω CnjCflC CTflC ΰτηΰη CTfl ΰτηΰωμεν ΰτώμεν €τηοητε οτητε ctf|C(DCi(v) ΰτώα(ν)

ΰτι^αιμι ΰταίην ΰτηοειαΰ (-aic) ΰταίηΰ ΰτηΰειε(ν) (-αι) ΰταίη ΰτηΰαιμεν οταΐμεν ΰτηΰαιτε οταϊτε cxi\ce ιαν (-αιεν) ΰταιεν

θέντων έντων Aorist infinitive

δούναι θειναι Aorist participle

δοιχ: θείΰ δοΰοα θεΐΰα δόν θέν

eic elca εν

cnicov οτηοάτω ΰτηΰατε ΰτηΰάντων

ccr\cai

ccr|cflc ccfjcSca caicav

ΰτηθι ΰτητω οτητε οτάντων

ΰτηναι

cxGc cxaca cxav

276 0) Ό Ό Φ 3 α ο φ ω

Perfect and pluperfect The perfect and pluperfect active of δίδωμι, τίθημι, Ιημι are formed regulark from the stems δεδωκ, τεθηκ-, είκ-. The perfect and pluperfect active of ϊοτημι (which are intransitive —see 19.1/1) are conjugated as follows:

pi.

Perfect Indicative εοτηκα έοτηκαο έοτηκε(ν) εοταμεν εοτατε έοτάα(ν)

Subjunctive έοτώ εοτηο εοτη έοτώμεν έοτήτε έοτώα(ν)

Optative έοταίην έοταίηο έοταίη έοταιμεν εοταιτε έοταΐεν

Imperative

έοταθι έοτάτω

εοτατε έοτάντων

Infinitive έοτάναι Participle έοτώο, έοτώοα, ecxoc On alternatives for forms in έστηκ- see 19.1/1

Pluperfect s. είοτηκη (I stood), είοτηκης, είστηκει, pi έοταμεν, έοτατε, έοταοαν.

Present indicative s. 1 δίδομαι τίθεμαι

2 δίδοοαι τίθεοαι 3 δίδοται τίθεται

pi 1 διδόμεθα τιθέμεθα 2 δίδοϋθε τίθεοθε 3 δίδονται τίθενται Present subjunctive

s. 1 διδώμαι 2 διδω 3 διδωται

pi. 1 διδώμεθα 2 διδώοθε 3 διδωνται Present optative

s. 1 διδοίμην 2 διδοιο 3 διδοιτο

pi 1 διδοίμεθα 2 διδοΐοθε 3 διδοιντο Present imperative

s. 2 δίδοοο τίθεοο 3 διδόοθω τιθέοθω

pi 2 δίδοοθε τίθεοθε 3 διδόοθων τιθεοθων

MIDDLE

Τεμαι ϊοταμαι Τεοαι ίοταοαι Τεται ϊοταται ίέμεθα ίοτάμεθα Τεοθε ίοταοθε Τενται ϊοτανται

ίώμαι ίοτώμαι

ft ίστη ίηται ίοτηται Τωμεθα ίοτωμεθα Τήοθε ίοτηοθε Τώνται ίοτώνται

Τείμην ίοταίμην Τειο ίοταίο Τεΐτο ίοταΐτο Τείμεθα ίοταίμεθα Τειοθε ίοταιοθε Τεΐντο ίοταιντο

Τεοο ϊοταοο Τεοθω ίοτάοθω Τεοθε ϊοταοθε ΐέοθων ίοτάοθων

τιθώμαι τιθη τιθηται τιθωμεθα τιθηοθε τιθώνται

τιθείμην τιθειο τιθειτο τιθείμεθα τιθειοθε τιθειντο

Present infinitive δίδοοθαι τίθεοθαι Τεοθαι icxacGai

-η, - ο ν

έτιθεμην ίέμην Τοτάμην έτίθεΰο Τεοο Tcxaco ετίθετο Τετο Tcxaxo ετιθεμεθα Τεμεθα Τοτάμεθα έτίθεοθε Τεΰθε Τοταΰθε έτίθεντο Τεντο Tcxavxo

θηοομαι etc. ήΰομαι etc. ϋτηΰομαι etc.

Present participle διδομεν-oc, -η, -ov τιθεμεν-oc, -η, -ov ίέμεν-oc, -η, -ov ίοτάμεν-οΰ,

Imperfect indicative s l έδιδόμην

2 έδίδοΰο 3 έδίδοτο

pi 1 έδιδόμεθα 2 εδίδοοθε 3 έδίδοντο Future indicative

5. 1 δώοομαι etc.

The other parts of the future middle are formed regularly with the same stems (δωο-, θηο-, ήο-, cxt\c-). Aorist The only aorist middle of ιοτημι is weak (and transitive), έΰτηΰάμην, conjugated in exactly the same way as έλΐ3οάμην (see Appendix 1). The aorist middle of the other verbs are conjugated as follows:

Aorist indicative s. 1 έδόμην

2 έδου 3 εδοτο 1 έδόμεθα 2 έδοΰθε 3 εδοντο Aorist subjunctive

s. 1 δώμαι

pi.

δώται pl> 1 δώμεθα

2 δώοθε 3 δωνται Aorist optative

s· 1 δοίμην 2 δοιο 3 δοΐτο

Ρί 1 δοίμεθα 2 δοΐϋθε 3 δοΐντο Aorist imperative 2 δού 3 δόΰθω

Pi. 2 δόοθε 3 δόςθων

έθέμην έθου εθετο έθεμεθα έθεϋθε έθεντο

θώμαι ®0 θηται θωμεθα θηοθε θώνται

θείμην θειο θειτο θείμεθα θεΐοθε θειντο

θού θεςθω θέΰθε θεοθων

ειμην ειοο είτο είμεθα εκθε είντο

ωμαι

ήται ώμεθα ήϋθε

ειμην είο είτο είμεθα είΰθε είντο

ου έοθω εΰθε έΰθων

278 •ο Ό Φ 3 α

Aorist infinitive δόοθαι θεοθαι έοθαι

Aorist participle δόμεν-oc, -η, -ov θέμεν-oc, -η, -ov έμεν-oc, -η, -ov

Perfect and pluperfect The perfect and pluperfect middle/passive of δίδωμι and Ιημι are formtc regularly from the stems δεδο- and εί- (e.g. perfect middle/passive indicate δέδομαι, δέδοοαι etc., είμαι, είοαι etc). Similar forms exist for τίθημι (τεθειμαι τέθεκαι etc.) but on the perfect passive of this verb see 18.1/2 note 4. The perfect middle/passive forms of ϊοτημι are rare.

PASSIVE As with other verbs, the forms for the present, imperfect, perfect and pluperfect are the same as for the middle. The future and aorist passive follow λϋω (see Appendix 1): Future indicative

δοθηοομαι τεθηοομαι έθηοομαι οταθηοομαι Aorist indicative

έδόθην έτεθην εϊθην έοτάθην

316 Appendix 5

Conjugation of δείκνυμι (present and imperfect) For the other tenses of δείκνϋμι see 20.1/1.

ACTIVE Imperfect

εδείκνϋν εδείκνϋο εδείκνϋ εδείκνυμεν εδείκνυτε

3 δεικνύδα(ν) έδείκνυοαν

Present Indicative

5> 1 δείκνϋμι 2 δείκνί)θ 3 δείκν15α(ν)

pi. 1 δείκνυμεν 2 δείκνυτε

Subjunctive s. 1 δεικνύω

2 δεικνυηο δεικνυη

pi 1 δεικνυωμεν 2 δεικνυητε 3 δεικνυωα(ν) Optative

s. 1 δεικνυοιμι 2 δεικνύοιο

δεικνύοι pi 1 δεικνυοιμεν

δεικνυοιτε δεικνύοιεν

Imperative s. 2 δείκνϋ

3 δεικνύτω pi 2 δείκνυτε

3 δεικνύντων Infinitive

δεικνύναι Participle

δεικνόο, δεικνύοα, δεικνύν

MIDDLE/PASSIVE Present Imperfect

δείκνυμαι δείκνυοαι δείκνυται δεικνύμεθα δείκνυοθε δείκνυνται

δεικνυωμαι δεικνυη δεικνυηται δεικνίΜΰμεθα δεικνυηοθε δεικνύωνται

δεικνυοίμην δεικνυοιο δεικνυοιτο δεικν\κ)ίμεθα δεικνυοιοθε δεικνυοιντο

δείκνυοο δεικνυοθω δείκνικθε δεικνυοθων

δείκνυοθαι

δεικνυμεν-oc, -η, -ον

έδεικνυμην εδείκνυοο εδείκνυτο εδεικνυμεθα εδείκνυοθε έδείκνυντο

317 Appendix 5

Numerals Cardinals

For the declension of eic, δύο, xpeic, xercapec see 7.1/5a. διδκόαοι, τριΟκόαοι etc. follow the plural of καλός (3.1/3).

1 eic 20 eiKoci(v) 2 δύο 30 τριάκοντα 3 τρειο 40 τετταράκοντα 4 τετταρεο 50 πεντήκοντα 5 πέντε 60 έξήκοντα 6 εξ 70 έβδομήκοντα 7 επτά 80 ογδοήκοντα 8 οκτώ 90 ένενηκοντα 9 έννέα 100 έκατόν

10 δέκα 200 διδκόαοι 11 ένδεκα 300 τριΟκόοιοι 12 δώδεκα 400 τετρακόοιοι 13 τρείο καί δέκα 500 πεντακόαοι 14 τέτταρες:καί δέκα 600 εξακόσιοι 15 πεντεκαίδεκα 700 έπτακ<κιοι 16 έκκαίδεκα 800 όκτακόαοι 17 έπτακαίδεκα 900 ένακόοιοι 18 όκτωκαίδεκα 1,000 φίλιοι 19 έννεακαίδεκα 10,000 μύριοι

The cardinals two thousand, three thousand etc. are compounds of the appropriate numeral adverbs and φίλιοι, e.g. διοχίλιοι, τριο^ΐλιοι etc.; likewise we have διομύριοι twenty thousand, τριομύριοι thirty thousand etc.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10

Ordinals πρώτος δεύτερος τρίτος τεταρτοο πέμπτος έκτος έβδομος ογδοος ένατος δέκατος

Adverbs άπαξ δίο χρί° τετράκις πεντάκις έξάκις έπτάκιο όκτάκις ένάκις δεκάκιc

The ordinals are normal first and second declension adjectives (3.1/3), except that the feminine of όγδοος is όγδοη (not -fl).

318 Appendix 5

Accentuation The basic features of Greek accentuation are described at 1.1/2, and information given there is not repeated below. The following terms are used to describe words according to their accent: Oxytone - a word with an acute on its final syllable, e.g.

ποταμόο. Paroxytone - a word with an acute on its penultimate (i.e. last

syllable but one), e.g. λόγοο. Proparoxytone - a word with an acute on its last syllable but

two, e.g. άνθρωποο. Perispomenon - a word with a circumflex on its final syllable,

e.g. ποταμού. Properispomenon - a word with a circumflex on its penultimate,

e.g. δώρον. Barytone - a word with a grave on its final syllable, e.g. ποταμόν

ειδον I saw a river. These are the only places in which each accent can occur (we cannot, for example, have an acute on the last syllable but three, or a circumflex on the last syllable but two). For purposes of accentuation a syllable is long if it contains a long vowel or diphthong (1.1/1 b,c), and short if it contains a short vowel, except that all endings in -α ι and -oi , apart from those of the optative, are counted as short.1

The length of the final syllable of a word and, to a lesser extent,' of its penultimate is important for accentuation because: • a word can only be proparoxytone if its final syllable is

short, e.g. άνθρωποο. • a word can only be properispomenon if its final syllable is

short; as a circumflex must in any case stand on a long vowel or diphthong, a word so accented must end in - - , or be a disyllable consisting of - - , e.g. πολΐται, γλώττα. Conversely, if such a word is accented on its penultimate, the accent must be a circumflex, and this is why we get the change of accent from πολίτηο to πολιται (the reverse in γλώττα/γλωττηο).

For purposes of accentuation words are divided into five categories:

(a) Nouns, adjectives and pronouns There are no overall rules about the position of the accent in the nominative singular of nouns or in the nominative masculine 1 The rules in verse are different· see AnnenHi-v 9

singular of adjectives and pronouns, and we must simply learn that ποταμός is oxytone but λόγος is paroxytone. There are some rules for certain small groups which can be learnt by observation, e.g. nouns in -ευς are always oxytone (as βαςιλεύς); the accent of comparative and superlative adjectives is always as far from the end of the word as possible (ςοφός but ςοφώτερος, ςοφώτατος). Once, however, we know where a noun, adjective or pronoun is accented in the nominative (masculine) singular, it is easy to deduce how its other forms will be accented because the accent stays on the same syllable as far as this is allowed by the rules given above for proparoxytones and perispomenons. In λόγος, for example, the accent remains unchanged (λόγε, λόγον, λόγου, λογω, λόγοι, λόγουο, λόγων, λόγοις), but in άνθρωπος the accent must become paroxytone when the ending is long: άνθρωπε, άνθρωπον, άνθρωπου, άνθρώπω, άνθρωποι, ανθρώπους, άνθρώπων, άνθρώποις (άνθρωποι because -οι does not count as long—see above). In many third declension nouns the genitive singular is a syllable longer than the nominative singular, e.g. ςώμα (properispomenon, not paroxytone, because it is a disyllable of the form - - ; see above): ςώματος, ςώματι, ςώματα (the accent must change to an acute because the added short syllable makes all three forms proparoxytone), ςωμάτων (the added syllable is long and therefore the accent must become paroxytone), ςώμαςι. We must, however, note:

(i) Where a first or second declension word has an acute on its final syllable in the nominative singular, this becomes a circumflex in the genitive and dative (in both singular and plural, cf. 2.1/2 note 3), e.g. from ποταμός we have ποταμέ, ποταμόν, ποταμού, ποταμώ, ποταμοί, ποταμούς, ποταμών, ποταμοΐς.1 For an example of an adjective so accented see καλός (3.1/3).

(ii) All first declension nouns are perispomenon in the g e n i t i v e plural (2.1/2 note 4), e.g. χωρών (< χώρα), νεδνιών (< νεδνίδς). This does not apply to the gen. f. pi. of adjectives when this form would not otherwise differ from the masculine, e.g. μεγάλων is both gen. m. pi. and gen. f. pi. of μέγας. Where, however, the masculine and feminine f o r m s differ, the rule holds, e.g. χαρίεις, gen. m. pi. χαριέντων, gen. f. pi. χαριεςςών.

(iii) In the third declension, monosyllabic nouns are accented on the final syllable of the genitive and dative, in both singular and plural, e.g. α'ίξ, αίγα, αίγός, αίγί, αίγες, αίγας, α ι γ ώ ν , αίξί. An exception is the gen. pi. of παίς (παίδων). Οι

1 The Attic declension (13.1/1<ϊ) is an exception.

polysyllabic nouns γυνη also follows this pattern (γυνη, γύναι (5.1/1 note 1), γυναίκα, γυναικός, γυναικί, γυναικεο, γυναΐκαο, γυναικών, γυναιξί), and άνηρ, μήτηρ and πατήρ follow it in the gen. s., dat. s., and gen. pi. (6.1/1 b). For the accentuation of πάο see 10.1/3b.

(iv) The accent in the genitive (s. and pi.) of third declension nouns with stems in ι and of some with stems in υ (8.1/4) is quite irregular: πόλεωο, πόλεων (< πόλιο); πηχεωο, πήχεων (< πήχυο).

(ν) Contracted nouns and adjectives (6.1/2) follow the same rules as for contracted verbs (below b(i)).

(b) Verbs With verbs the accent falls as far from the end of a word as possible (here too final -αι and -οι count as short, except in optative endings). In forms such as άκουετε, άκουουοι, κελευεοθαι, έκελευοαν the final short syllable shows that they must be proparoxytone: άκουετε, άκουουοι, κελευεοθαι, έκελευοαν (in disyllabic forms such as έλε and λϋε the accent goes back to the penultimate but becomes properispomenon in λϋε because of its long 13: έλε but λΰε). In κελεύω, προφερει, έλυθην, where the final syllable is long, the accent is paroxytone: κελεύω, προφέρει, έλύθην. We must, however, note:

(i) In the forms of contracted verbs where contraction occurs, the accent follows that of the original uncontracted form according to the following rules: • If the accent is on neither of the syllables to be contracted

it remains unchanged, e.g. έποίει (< έποίε-ε). • If the accent is on the first of the two syllables to be

contracted it becomes a circumflex on the contracted syllable, e.g. ποιεί (< ποιέ-ει); νΐκώμεν (< νΓκά-ομεν).

• If the accent is on the second of the two syllables to be contracted it stays as an acute on the contracted syllable, e.g. έτΓμώμεθα (< έτΓμα-όμεθα); τΓμωην (< τίμα-οίην).

(ii) Certain forms of uncontracted -ω verbs and of -μι verbs are in origin contracted and for this reason the first syllable of their endings is always accented. These are: • the aorist subjunctive passive of all verbs, e.g. λυθώ,

λυθηο, λυθη, λυθώμεν, λυθητε, λυθώοι. • the subjunctive and optative of both present (act.,

mid./pass.) and aorist (act., mid.) of δίδωμι, τίθημι, ϊημι and their compounds, e.g. διδώ, διδοΐμεν, αποδώ, άποδοιμεν.

283 ω Ό 3 α δ" Φ 0)

284 ω TJ Ό Φ 3 α ο φ (Λ

(iii) In all strong aorists the first syllable of the ending always carries the accent in the active participle (e.g. λαβών, λαβοΰοα, λαβόν), the active and middle infinitives (λαβείν, λαβέοθαι), and the 2nd s. imperative middle (λαβοΰ).

(iv) The first syllable of the ending also carries the accent in participles in -ειο, -ουο and -(oc, e.g. λυθείο, λυθεΐοα, λυθέν; τιθείο, τιθεΐοα, τιθέν; διδούο, διδοΰοα, διδόν; λελυκώο, λελυκυΐα, λελυκόο.

(ν) In certain participles and infinitives the accent is always either paroxytone or properispomenon, depending on whether it stands on a short or long syllable. These are: • infinitives in -cat (weak aorist active ), e.g. λΰοαι,

νΤκήοαι, αίνέοαι. • infinitives in -ναι (perf. act., aor. pass., root aor. act., and

certain active infinitives of -μι verbs), e.g. λελυκέναι, λυθηναι, γνώναι, διδόναι.

• the infinitive and participle of the perf. mid./pass., e.g. νενΤκήοθαι, λελυμενοο.

(vi) In compound verbs the accent cannot fall further back than the augment, e.g. άπηγον (< απάγω), παρέοχον (< παρέχω), or the last vowel of a prepositional prefix, e.g. παpάδoc (< παραδίδωμι).

(c) Adverbs, conjunctions, interjections, particles, prepositions These have only one form and therefore their accent does not vary, e.g. οοφώο wisely; όταν whenever; εύ well, except for oxytones becoming barytones (1.1/2). A few words which would otherwise be included here are enclitic or atonic and so come under categories (d) or (e).

(d) Enclitics An enclitic combines with the preceding word for pronunciation, and can affect its accentuation. When quoted by themselves (in paradigms, dictionaries, etc.) monosyllabic enclitics are written with no accent (e.g. γε), disyllabics as oxytone (e.g. ποτέ), except for τινών. The total number of enclitics is small and consists of:

(i) The present indicative of ειμί I am and φημί say; with the exception in both cases of the 2nd singular.

(ii) The unemphatic forms of the personal pronouns, viz με, μου, μοι; οε, οου, coi; έ, ού, οί.

(iii) All forms of the indefinite τιο (10.1/1). (iv) The indefinite adverbs ποτέ, που, πω, πωο. (ν) The particles γε, νυν, περ, τε.

The rules for enclitics are: (vi) An enclitic has no accent when it follows a word accented

on its final syllable, e.g. ποταμών τίνων. If this word has a final acute (i.e. is oxytone), this accent is kept, e.g. ποταμόο TIC.

(vii) If the preceding word is paroxytone a monosyllabic enclitic has no accent but a disyllabic enclitic keeps the accent on its final syllable, e.g. ϊπποο τιο, ίπποι τι νέο.

(viii) If the preceding word is proparoxytone or properispomenon, an enclitic, whether monosyllabic or disyllabic, has the effect of adding an acute to the final syllable, e.g. άνθρωπόο TIC, άνθρωποι τινεο, δώρόν τι, δώρα τι να.

(ix) In groups of two or more enclitics all are accented except the last, e.g. ήμεΐο γέ ποτέ πού τι εϊδομεν we at any rate once saw something somewhere.

(χ) έοτί is accented on its first syllable (έοτι) when: it denotes existence, e.g. Ιππόλυτοο ούκέτ' έοτι ν Hippolytus

is no longer alive. it stands for έξεστι (21.1/4 note 1) it follows άλλά, εί, καί, ούκ, μή, τρΰτο, ώο it begins a clause.

(e) Atonies Atonies are monosyllables which have no accent unless followed by an enclitic. These are: • the nom. m. and f. (s. and pi.) of the article (ό, ή, oi, αί), εί,

ο ύ , (DC • the prepositions είο, έκ, έν. Of these, however, ού is accented if it occurs as last word of a clause (ex. at 5.2.21 /. 1), and <oc if it occurs after word it qualifies or is used in the sense of thus (exx. at 25.2.1 //.4, 24) Notes 1 A few words which we would expect to be

properispomenon are in fact paroxytone: ούτε, μήτε, είθε, ώςτε and compound demonstratives and relatives whose second element is -δε, -περ and -τιο (οϊδε, αϊπερ, ήτιο etc.).

2 τίο and τί never become barytone (10.1/1). 3 Certain disyllabic prepositions throw their accent back on

to their first syllable when they follow the noun they govern (example at 11.2.4/. 1).

286 ω Ό Ό Φ 3 α 8

Appendix 9

Greek verse (a) The nature of Greek verse, long and short syllables Greek poetry was composed on an entirely different principle from that employed in English. It was not constructed by arranging stressed syllables in patterns, nor with a system of rhymes. Greek poets employed a number of different metres, all of which consist of certain fixed arrangements of long and short syllables. In English verse, whether rhymed or not, the length and rhythm of a line is determined by the number and arrangement o i its stressed syllables:

They told me, Heraclitus, they told me you were dead; They brought me bitter news to hear and bitter tears to shed. I wept, as I remembered how often you and Γ Had tired the siin with talking and sent him down the sky. And now that thou art lying, my dear old Carian guest, A handful of grey ashes, long long ago at rest, Still are thy pleasant voices, thy nightingales, awake, For death he taketh all away, but them he cannot take.

In this translation of a poem of Callimachus (12.3.9) the poet, William Johnston Cary, has changed the position of stressed syllables in some lines for purposes of rhythm and emphasis. No comparable variation is possible in Greek poetry because its structure is much more formal. Every line of verse consists of a succession of long and short syllables whose number and order are prescribed by the metre used; word accent, which in any case is different from that of English (1.1/2), plays no part. To scan a line (i.e. indicate its metre) syllables are marked with a macron C) when long and a micron 0 when short (to avoid a confusion, accents and breathings are omitted and capitals are not used for vowels when marking long and short syllables):

εΤπ£ ftc ηρδκλεΤτ£ τ£δν μΟρΟν £c δ£ μ£ δδκρϋ (first line of 12.3.9)

The rules for determining the length of syllables are: (i) Vowels are classified as short (α, ε, ι, ο, υ) or long (δ, η, Τ, ϋ,

ω). For metrical purposes all diphthongs are long (this is not true for accentuation - see Appendix 8).

(ii) A short syllable must contain a short vowel followed by either a single consonant or no consonant at all.

(iii) A syllable is long if it contains: either a long vowel or diphthong. When, however, either occurs at the end of a word and the following word does

not begin with a consonant, the long vowel or diphthong is shortened, μοΌ εννβπβ.1

or a short vowel followed by two consonants (ζ, ξ, ψ count as double consonants but θ, φ, χ do not; breathings have no metrical value). When a short vowel occurs before certain combinations of two consonants where the second is λ, μ, ν, ρ, the syllable may be long or short,

(iv) In counting consonants after a final short vowel of a word no account is taken of word division, hence τεδν μορον, τΰ όχημα.

(b) Metrical feet, the hexameter, pentameter and iambic trimeter A metrical foot is made up of certain combinations of long and short syllables. Of the numerous possibilities only the following need concern us:

Dactyl - w ~ Iamb w — Spondee — — Trochee — w

The metre used for epic and pastoral was the hexameter; the combination of one hexameter and one pentameter forms an elegiac couplet (see below). The hexameter (< έξ + μέτρον) consists of six feet. The first four can be either dactyls or spondees, the fifth is almost always a dactyl and the sixth can be either a spondee or trochee. This can be represented as follows:

The upright lines show the syllable division between one foot and the next. They do not necessarily coincide with word division. The first two lines of the Odyssey (25.2.3) are scanned: Gv-δρα μοι I δν-νε-τce I Μοϋ-οα II πΟ-1 λϋτ-ρΟ-πΟν I δο μβ-λα I πδλ-λα πλαγ-χ&η e-1 πε! TpoT-1 f\c II ΐ-ε-1 ρϋν πτό-λχ-1 Εθ-ρΟν 1 π£ρ-ο€. It was felt that the rhythm of a hexameter would be impaired if there were a break between words at the end of the third foot as a line so composed would fall into two equal halves. To avoid this, there is always a break between words (caesura cut or break ) either (a) after the first syllable of the third foot (as in the second line above), or (b) after the second syllable of the third foot when a dactyl (as in the first line above), or (c) after the first syllable of the fourth foot. The caesura is marked by two vertical lines, as in the above examples.

1 Epic correption (i.e. shortening). It occurs in hexameters and pentameters but is completely avoided in iambic trimeters (on these terms see below).

A pentameter following a hexameter makes up an elegiac couplet, and is by convention indented (e.g. 12.3). It does not occur by itself. The elegiac couplet was the metre of elegiac poetry, a broad literary genre which included epigram and certain narrative, didactic, and occasional poetry. The pentameter consists of two halves of two and a half feet each; the division between the two is marked by a break between words (here called diaeresis, not caesura, because it occurs at the end, not in the middle of a metrical unit; it also is marked by two vertical lines). The metrical pattern of the pentameter is:

Examples (from 12.3.1 and 3) are: 5v λΐ-π£ν I οϋχ εϋ- I ρύδν II ff-ψβν σν I εϋ-ρ£ βρσ- I χΟν eic α-γα- I G<5c Kt-vt>- I pffc II κατ Kt-vt>- I ρηο δε Kt- I λτξ

The iambic trimeter is the chief metre used for dialogue and speeches in drama because it was considered the metre which came closest to the rhythm of normal speech. It consists of three pairs of iambs but more variation was allowed than in the hexameter or pentameter. Its basic form is:

A caesura occurs after either the fifth or seventh syllables. Examples of iambic trimeters (from 15.2.4) are:

CHtftv-xec Ec- I μ£ν II eic τό νοϋ- I θβ-τεΤν cO-φοΙ αϋ-τοΤ δ α-μδρ-Ι τα-νδν- x£c II οϋ\ γϊγ-ν®ο- κό-μ£ν

Included in the reading are poems in some of the many other metres used by Greek poets (an example occurs at 12.2.18, which is written in anapaests).

Explanations and more literal interpretations are given in round brackets. Some words which have no specific equivalent in the Greek original but which must be supplied in English are enclosed in square brackets. Translations from Greek authors are generally as literal as possible and should not be taken as reflecting the style of the original. When God is written with an initial capital letter, the Judeo-Christian deity should only be understood in passages from the Bible. Elswhere the Greek original (θεόο) does not indicate what particular divinity is meant. References are given for longer prose passages, for whole poems and for extracts from verse of more than two lines. In these references Roman numerals refer to books (e.g. of Thucydides), Arabic to chapters in prose works but in poetry to lines. Fragments of the Greek tragedians are given the number assigned to them in Nauck's edition (Fragmenta Tragicorum Graecorum). A.P. is the abbreviation of Anthologia Palatina, an enormous collection of shorter Greek poems whose present form dates from Byzantine times; it has a supplement entitled App(endix) Plan(udea). In both the latter works the reference is first to book (Roman), then to poem number (Arabic).

1.2 1 Aristoteles (Aristotle), Aristophanes, Demosthenes, Herodotos (Herodotus), Theokritos (Theocritus), Kallimachos (Callimachus), Pindaros (Pindar), Plat>n (Plato). 2 akme, anathema, analusis, antithesis, asbestos, automaton, aphasia, bathos, genesis, diagnosis, dogma, drama, zone, ethos, echo, idea, klnema, kllmax, kosmos, krisis, kolon, metron, miasma, nektai; nemesis, orchestra, pathos, skene, stigma, hubris, hupothesis, chaos, charakter, psuche. 3(a) Agamemn0n, Achilleus (Achilles), Hektor (Hector), Helene (Helen), Odusseus (Odysseus), Patroklos (Patroclus), Penelopeia (Penelope) (all are characters in Homer). V>) Athenai (Athens), Argos, Thebai (Thebes), Korinthos (Corinth), ^Parte (Sparta), Krete (Crete), Rhodos (Rhodes), Samos (all are places in Greece).

290

S 3 a * </> _ Φ Ο w <3

Φ ΡΓ

ω α 5* <α

2.2 (1) Odysseus has come from Troy, but Poseidon destroys his ship on (or at) Scheria. (2) Odysseus flees out of (or from) the sea and hides himself beneath [an] olive-tree near the shore. (3) In a dream Athena says to (or tells) the princess Nausicaa that she must (it is necessary [for her] to) wash the clothes on the shore. (4) At daybreak (or dawn) Nausicaa brings the clothes in [a] wagon from her house to the sea. (5) In the wagon there is also food for Nausicaa and her companions. (6) The girls quickly wash the clothes near the olive-tree where Odysseus is sleeping. (7) Then (or next) the girls throw the clothes on to the shore. (8) They wash themselves and eat the food which they have in the wagon. (9) While they are playing on the shore, Nausicaa throws [a] ball but the ball falls into [a] whirlpool. (10) The girls' shouts (the shouts of the girls) awaken Odysseus and frighten him. (11) Odysseus wonders where in the world he has come to, and suddenly creeps from the olive-tree. (12) He frightens Naucisaa and her companions. (13) But Nausicaa stays on the shore because Athena puts courage into her heart. (14) Odysseus says to (or tells) Nausicaa that he has come from Ogygia. (15) Nausicaa says to (or tells) her companions that they must (it is necessary [for them] to) provide Odysseus with food and clothes (provide food and clothes to Odysseus). (16) She wishes (or is willing) to bring Odysseus to her father's house (the house of her father) but she fears (or is afraid of) the citizens' blame (the blame of the citizens) if they see her with Odysseus. (17) So Nausicaa and the girls bring the clothes back to the house in the wagon, but Odysseus waits outside. In 2, 4 and 9 the indefinite article, which does not exist in Greek, has to be supplied in the English. Analysis of sentence 13 (according to the steps given in 2.2) άλλ' ή Ναυΰΐκάσ έν τη άκτη αναμένει διότι ή 'Αθηνά την άνδρείσν sic την καρδίδν εμβάλλει. (α) άλλ' (= αλλά) conjunction but; ή feminine nominative singular of the definite article (2.1/2); NaDCiKaG can be either nominative or vocative singular but, as ή precedes, it must be the former (the voc. would normally be preceded by ώ (2.1/3), never by the article) - note that the article must agree in number^ gender and case with the noun it qualifies (2.1/2 note 1; cf. τη άκτη, ή 'Αθηνά, την άνδρείδν, την καρδίδν); έν preposition governing the dative in, on, among, and we would expect the following words to be in this case, which they are: τη άκτη dative singular of ή άκτη the shore; άναμένει 3rd person singular present indicative active of άναμένω wait, stay (the corresponding form of λύω would be λύει); διότι conjunction because; η 'Αθηνά nominative singular (the same reasoning applies as for ή Ναιχ^ικάδ); την άνδρείδν accusative singular of ή άνδρείδ lit. the courage; εκ: preposit ion governing the accusative to, into, and we would expect the following words to be in this case, which they are: την καρδίδν accusative singular of ή καρδιδ the heart; εισβάλλει 3rd person present indicative active of εισβάλλω throw into, invade. (b) There are two finite verbs, άναμένει and εισβάλλει; therefore we have two clauses. .(c) Because άλλ'(ά) stands as first word it must link this sentence with the previous one. As we have two clauses and διότι comes after the first finite verb, this conjunction must introduce the second clause. (d) In the first clause ή Να\χ;ικάα is nominative and therefore must be the subject of άναμένει (we note that the verb agrees with Ή NOOCIKOG in the

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way prescribed at the beginning of 2.1/4). έν τη άκτη on the shore (on seems more appropriate with shore than in or among) must be an adverbial phrase qualifying the verb. The clause therefore means but Nausicaa (the g g" definite article can be used with proper names in Greek (2.1/2 note l(iii)), § ^ but is never so employed in English) stays (or waits) on the shore. In the « ο second clause ή 'Αθηνά, which is nominative, must be the subject of g $ εισβάλλει (note the agreement as in the previous clause), την άνδρείδν is § accusative and is not preceded by a preposition; therefore it must be the object of the verb as it can have no other grammatical function in the clause. We may translate because Athena throws courage (the definite article is not to be translated - 2.1/2 note l(i)) into; the other meaning of εΐοβάλλω, invade, makes no sense in this context, exc την καρδίσν into the heart must be an adverbial phrase qualifying the verb but we have one too many in/into - the problem is solved by reference to the note on (7) and we can translate because Athena throws courage into the heart (ίο, the other meaning of eic, does not seem appropriate here). (e) The conjunction διότι shows that the second clause gives the reason for the first and we can put both together as but Nausicaa stays on the shore because Athena throws courage into the heart. English idiom requires that we specify whose heart is involved (obviously Nausicaa's, as otherwise the reason introduced by διότι would have no point - on this use of the Greek definite article see note on (1)). Also put seems more in accordance with English idiom than throw (all possible translations of some words cannot be given in either vocabularies or dictionaries). We now have: But Nausicaa stays on the shore because Athena puts courage into her heart.

3.2 (1) Millionaires (the very rich) are not good. (2) A large city is [a] large desert (or wilderness). (3) Poverty stimulates skills (i.e. necessity is the mother of invention). (4) [A] corpse does not bite (i.e. dead men tell no tales). (5) (/) Many [are] friends of [the] table, not of truth, (ii) Good fortune has many friends ([is] many-friended), (iii) Man [is] [a] political animal, (iv) Death [is] immortal (or deathless), (v) Slaves have no leisure ([there is] not leisure to/for slaves), (vi) Without health life [is] no life (or unlivable). (vii) Flattery [is a] disease of friendship, (viii) [A] wicked man [is] long-lived. (6) Fortune's great gifts involve (have) fear. (7) Wicked friends bear wicked fruit. (8) The sowing (procreation) of children is a self-inflicted (self-chosen) grief. (9) Gifts persuade [the] gods. (10) Neither [a] drin king-party without company nor wealth without virtue is pleasurable (»*. has pleasure). (11) For [a] human being the unexamined life [is] not worth living. (12) (i) A large number of (lit. many) frogs send messengers to the son of Cronos (i.e. Zeus) because they desire [a] monarch, (ii) The messengers say to the son of Cronos on behalf of the frogs, " J u s t son of Cronos, you are master of the gods. Are you willing to provide the frogs pwh [a] master?" (lit. provide [a] master to the frogs), (iii) The son of ylOT\os *s very surprised and hurls [a] large log into the frogs' marsh, (iv)

ne log frightens the frogs and they quickly run away, but they begin to be Suspicious, since the log does not move (lit. is motionless), (v) Later they ?teP o n to the log without fear and say "Stranger; are you [a] god or [a]

uman being or [an] animal?" (vi) Since it says nothing at all, they consider a t l t is despicable that they have such a master and they send messengers

t 0 ^ s o n Cronos about [a] new monarch, (vii) The messengers say the son of Cronos, "Master, you must (it is necessary [for you] to) send

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the frogs (to the frogs) another monarch since the first is motionless and idle, (viii) The master of the gods is angry with the frogs and sends [a] great hydra. (/*) The hydra is pitiless and eats the frogs, (JC) The fable makes [it] clear that one (or we) must (it is necessary [for one/us] to) bear (i.e. put up with) idle masters since active masters often bear (i.e. bring) hardships. Analysis of sentence 10 (according to the steps given in 2.2) ούτε ςυμπόςιον χωρίς ομιλ ία ούτε πλούτος χωρίς αρετής ήδονην έχει. (α) ούτε ... ούτε conjunctions neither ... nor; ςυμπόςιον, which is neuter, could be either nominative or accusative singular (the vocative is virtually ruled out by the meaning of the word, drinking-party); χωρίς preposition governing the genitive without; όμΤλίας could be either genitive singular or accusative plural of όμίλίσ company, companionship, but as it is preceded by a preposition governing the genitive it must be the former; πλούτος nominative singular wealth; χωρίς as before; αρετής genitive singular of αρετή courage, excellence, virtue; ήδονην accusative singular of ηδονή pleasure; έχει 3rd person singular present indicative active of έχω have. (b) and (c) The one finite verb, έχει, indicates that we have only one clause. (d) and (e) ούτε ... ούτε (like neither... nor in English) join elements of equal grammatical weight. Therefore, since πλούτος is nominative, ςυμπόςιον is also nominative, and both are the subject of έχει (the verb is singular just as it would be in a similar construction in English, e.g. neither my wife nor my dog was waiting for me). As the accusative ήδονην is not preceded by a preposition it must be the object of έχει. We may now translate: neither drinking-party without company nor wealth without virtue has pleasure (of the possible meanings of αρετή courage and excellence are not appropriate as a combination of either with wealth would hardly seem to produce pleasure). English, however, would normally put the indefinite article (which does not exist in Greek) before drinking-party. Also, is pleasurable or is enjoyable would be more idiomatic than has pleasure. Our final version then could be: neither a drinking-party without company nor wealth without virtue is pleasurable.

4.2 (1) Pleasures [are] mortal, virtues immortal. (2) The beggar did not have bread, and was buying cheese. (3) Praise [is the] reward of virtue, and (or but) censure of wickedness. (4) [The] Egyptians [are] clever at contriving ways and means. (5) Necessity [is] law for slaves, but law [is] necessity for free men. (6) Once long ago [the] Milesians were brave. (7) [An] eagle does not hunt flies. (8) (/) You are spitting into [the] sky. (ii) You are plaiting [a] rope out of sand, (iii) You are sowing [the] sea. (iv) You are teaching [a] horse to run on to [a] plain, (v) You have come after [the] feast, (vi) You are whipping [a] corpse, (vii) You are shearing [an] ass. (viii) You are singing the victory-song before the victory, (ix) You are kicking against [the] pricks (i.e. of a goad), (x) You are bringing the war-engines after the war. (9) Croesus, the Lydian king (king of the Lydians), wanted to destroy the Persian empire (empire of the Persians). For; according to the Delphic oracle (lit. oracle at Delphi), he was destined to put an end to a mighty empire. But finally he put an end to his own empire, but not that (lit. the [empire]) of the Persians. After the Persians' victory Cyrus, the Persian king (lit. king of the Persians), made Croesus go up on to [a] great pyre, and Croesus began to consider the words of Solon the Athenian: no-one of men [is, i.e. can be considered] happy before his death. So he quietly awaited his

death. But because Croesus was both pious and good, Cyrus ordered his soldiers to bring him down from the pyre and spoke as follows, "Croesus, w ho among (lit. of) men persuaded you to make an expedition [as anj enemy instead of [as a] friend against my land?" But Croesus said, "Cyrus, I (lit. I on the one hand) made an expedition against you, but the god (lit. but on the other hand the god) at Delphi persuaded me to make the expedition. For I am not foolish nor do I wish to have war instead of peace. For in peace-time the young men bury the old, but in war-time the old [bury] the young. But this was the god's pleasure (lit. this thing was dear to the gods)." So Cyrus set him free and made [him] sit nearby. And Croesus spoke once more, "Cyrus, what are your soldiers doing?" "They are plundering your city," said Cyrus, "and carrying off your wealth." "They are not plundering my city," said Croesus, "nor my wealth. For I have nothing (lit. nothing is to me). [It is] you [whom] they are plundering." After this he (i.e. Croesus) was dear to him; for Cyrus respected his wisdom. (Based on Herodotus i. 86-88.) Analysis of sentence 5 (according to the steps given in 2.2) xoic μέν δούλοιο ή ανάγκη νόμοο, xoic δέ έλευθέροιο άνθρώποιο ό νόμοο ανάγκη. (α) μέν ... δέ on the one hand... and/hut on the other hand indicate that we have two balanced grammatical elements (4.1/3); xoic ... δούλοιο dative plural to/for the slaves (on the meaning of the dative with living things see 2A/3e); η ανάγκη nominative singular the necessity but to be translated necessity in view of 2.1/2 note l(i); νόμοο nominative singular law; xoic ... έλευθέροιο άνθρώποιο dative plural to/for the free men; ό νόμοο nominative singular the law; άνάγκη nominative singular necessity. (b) There are no finite verbs! However, even without the hint given in the note on (1), we learn from 3.1/3b and 3.1/6 that ειμί is often omitted in clauses where something is predicated of something else. The fact that in each half of the sentence we have two nominatives suggests that this is what we have here. Since we have two balanced elements the appropriate part of ειμί (viz έοχί) is to be supplied in each. Therefore we have two clauses. (c) The comma after νόμοο shows the division between clauses. (d) In xoic ... νόμοο the definite article with άνάγκτη shows that this is the subject; the absence of the definite article with νόμοο shows that it is the predicate. The basic meaning (leaving aside μέν) is therefore for the slaves (the other meaning of the dative, to, is not appropriate) necessity is law. In TOIC ... άνάγκη we realize that ό νόμοο must be translated by law and not the law because it is parallel with άναγκη and must mean the abstract concept of law, not a particular law. We then have for the free men law is necessity. (e) We can translate μέν... δέ by but with the second clause. However; when w e put both halves together we realize that we are dealing with a proverb and that the general class of slaves and the general class of free men are meant. We must, therefore, omit the definite article with each in English (2.1/2 note l(ii)), and we have: Necessity is law for slaves, but law is necessity for free men.

5.2 W j u n e educates the wise. (2) Silence has many fine [points] (i.e. silence is golden). (3) Human beings have many troubles, strangers (lit. there are m*ny troubles to human beings). (4) [One] must not (it is not necessary to)

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keep former evils in mind (lit. bear ... in memory)., (5) (i) Quietness (or peace and quiet) [is] a fine [thing], (ii) Fine [things] [are] difficult, (iii) Moderation [is] best, (iv) [A] big book [is] [a] big evil, (v) The property (lit. the [things]) of friends [is] shared, (vi) Hermes [is] shared, (vii) [A] small evil [is] [a] big blessing, (viii) Different [things] [are] beautiful to different [people] (i.e. some people like one thing, others another). (ix) The tongue [is] [the] cause of (or responsible for) many troubles, (x) Doing [is] difficult, giving the order (sc. to do it) [is] easy, (xi) Getting drunk (or drunkenness) [is] [a] bad remedy for (i.e. way to get rid of) woe. (xii) One learns by experience (lit. sufferings [are] lessons), (xiii) [A] bad egg comes from (lit. [is] of) [a] bad crow, (xiv) Trust the land, mistrust the sea (lit. [the] land [is] [a] trustworthy [thing], [the] sea [an] untrustworthy [thing]), (xv) Even an ant can get angry (lit. [there is] bile (anger) even in [an] ant). 6 (/) One must find a wife amongst one's own class (lit. it is necessary [sc. for a person] to marry from among those who are similar, (ii) [A] fool speaks foolish [things], (iii) You have your feet out of trouble (lit. foot outside mud), (iv) [The] pot boils, friendship lives, (v) You are shaving (or bearding) [a] lion. (vi) You are weeping on [your] step-mother's tomb (i.e. being hypocritical). (7) Alas, alas, greatness (lit. great things) also suffers great evils. (8) [The] roughness of [the] road tests [the] serviceability of [the] ass. (9) Man is only (or nothing but) breath and shadow. (10) Fortune guides art, not art fortune. (11) Money [is] responsible for many evils for men. (12) Woman, silence is becoming (lit. brings decoration) for women. (13) Even for [an] old man, [it is] [a] fine [thing] to learn wisdom (lit. wise things). (14) The Athenians sent Thucydides the [son] of Olorus to the general of those in Thrace. (15) One should seek neither companionship (or company) from [a] corpse nor [a] favour from [a] miser. (16) Victory is sufficient for the free. (17) Even among rustics there is love of culture. (18) The wolf changes his coat (lit. hair), not his mind. (19) Money finds friends for men. (20) [A] mob [is] [a] poor judge of [a] fine matter. (21) To some of the Egyptians, therefore, crocodiles are sacred, to others [they are] not, but they treat [them] as enemies. Those around Thebes and [those around] the swamp of Moeris strongly believe that they are (lit. them to be) sacred. Both groups keep (or rear) one crocodile and train [it], and put rings made of glass in its ears and anklets round its front feet, and provide special food and offerings. So while the crocodiles are alive, they are treated very well, and after their death the Egyptians embalm them and bury them in sacred tombs. But those around the city [of] Elephantine actually eat them; for they do not consider [them] to be sacred. (Adapted from Herodotus ii.69)

6.2 From this point on the definite and indefinite articles which must be supplied for translation are no longer bracketed. (1) (i) The guards guarded the Persians (φυλάττω). (it) Did you hide the golden horse? (κρύπτω), (iii) The Athenians and the Spartans joined in an expedition (σιχπρατεύω). (iv) He wrote many things on the rock (εγγράφω). (ν) The gods will do many great things (πράττω), (vi) Socrates t a u g h t us (διδάςκω). (vii) They damaged the house of Pericles (βλάπτω), (viii) We fought a sea-battle in the harbour (ναυμαχέω). (2) Bronze is the mirror or form (i.e. of the body), wine of the mind. (3) Hand washes hand, fingers [wash] fingers. (4) Speech is silver, silence is golden. (5) Ο God, how mortals have no escape from evils [which are] innate or (or and) sent by the

gods! (lit. how there is not to mortals [an] escape...). (6) (/) You are writing on (lit. into) water, (ii) You are building on (lit. into) sand, (iii) [You are bringing] an owl to Athens (cf. coals to Newcastle), (iv) You are measuring the waves, (v) You are looking for bird's milk, (vi) You are teaching iron to float (lit. sail), (vii) You are lending light to the sun. (viii) You are pouring wine for frogs, (ix) You are beating the air. (x) He is making an elephant out of a fly (i.e. a mountain out of a molehill). (7) (/) The mind is a great check (lit. bit) of the soul, (ii) The Greeks [are] always children, an old Greek does not exist, (iii) For a mother (or for mothers) children are the anchors of [her] life, (iv) Lions at home, but foxes (i.e. cowards) in battle. (v) The mind sees and the mind hears, (vi) The arms (lit. hands) of tyrants [are] long, (vii) Ares (War) [is] a friend of falsehood (lit. friendly to false things), (viii) Athens [is] the Greece of Greece, (ix) You are comparing a bee with a cicada, (x) A daughter [is] a difficult possession. (8) The wind [kindles] fire, intimacy kindles love. (9) According to Socrates no-one errs willingly. (10) The wise man should not think after (i.e. repent) but before (lit. it is necessary for the wise man not to...). (11) The Athenian ambassadors withdrew to the army, but the generals built a wall around the Melians. Later, a small garrison of the allies remained there and continued to besiege (lit. was besieging) the place, while the rest of the soldiers withdrew by land and by sea. Afterwards the Melians pulled down the Athenians' blockading wall, since not many of the guards were present. But later the Athenians sent out another army from Athens, and they now vigorously prosecuted the siege. There was treachery (or treachery broke out) among the Melians, and they capitulated to the Athenians. And they (i.e. the Athenians) killed the men among (lit. of) the Melians, and enslaved the women and children. And later they sent out many settlers and colonised the place. (Adapted from Thucydides v.114-116.)

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7.2 (1) The proverb bids us not to move the immovable (lit. unmovable [things]) (2) [It is] altogether not easy to find what is right (or justice). (3) Ischomachus said, "Socrates, in winter a house should be well exposed to the sun, but in summer well-shaded." (4) We do not have either weapons or horses (or we have neither weapons nor horses). (5) No falsehood spreads for long (a length of time). (6) So for one day the Athenians encamped there. But on the following day Alcibiades called an assembly and ordered them to fight both at sea, on land and against the fortifications. "For," he said, "we have no money, whereas the enemy have plenty." (7) All human beings die (lit. no-one of human beings does not die). (8) (/) One swallow does not make a spring, (ii) Old men [ are] children for a second time, (iii) You see three things in two. (iv) One man [is] no man. (v) One day does not make (a man) wise, (vi) The tongue leads many [people] to destruction, (vii) In war it is not possible to make a mistake twice, (viii) It l s possible to recognize a lion from his claw-marks (i.e. to judge a person

° m a characteristic mark). (9) Cyrus marched forth three stages (or days' larches) through Lydia, [a distance of] twenty-two parasangs, to the river Maeander. Its breadth was two plethra. (10) The world [is] a stage, life an p rance : you come, you see, you depart. (11) Someone said to Socrates,

Megacles speaks ill of you." And he replied, " Yes, for he does not know (lit. has not learnt) to speak well." (12) Callicratidas held the right

lng of the Peloponnesians. His steersman, Hermon, said, "It is a good

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[idea] to retreat (lit. sail away); for the Athenian triremes are very strong." But Callicratidas said, "It is shameful to flee." The triremes fought [for] a long time, at first in close order, and then scattered. When Callicratidas fell overboard into the sea and was killed and Protomachus the Athenian and his men (lit. those with him) defeated the left wing with [their] right wing, thereupon the Peloponnesians fled (lit. there was a flight of...) to Chios and Phocaea, while the Athenians sailed back to Arginousae. And so of the Athenians the Spartans sank 25 triremes, whereas of the Peloponnesians the Athenians [sank] nine Laconian [triremes], and of their allies as well about 60. (Adapted from Xenophon Hellenica i. 6. 32.) (13) For, when Simon came to my house at night, he forced (lit. knocked out) the doors and entered the women's apartments, where my sister and nieces were. At first the men in the house ordered him to go away, but he refused. Then they forcibly pushed him out. But he discovered where we were dining and did a thing most extraordinary and incredible. He called me out from inside, and as soon as I had come out, he immediately attempted to strike me; and when I pushed him away, he began to pelt me with stones (or throw stones at me). Although he missed me, he hit Aristocritus with a stone and gashed his forehead. (Adapted from Lysias Against Simon 6-8.)

8.2 (I) God and Nature do nothing without reason. (2) [It is] not easy to change a wicked nature. (3) Wicked slander wipes out whole cities. (4) Jesus Christ, son of God, Saviour (the symbol is the fish, ιχθύς being an acronym of the phrase). (5) Gold does not tarnish (lit. is not stained). (6) Do you think that others will save Greece, but you will run away? (7) As a result of looking at [someone] people fall in love. (8) The possession of virtue alone is secure. (9) Alas, alas, how true the old saying is: we old men are nothing but (no other thing except) noise and [outward] appearance; we creep along [as] copies of dreams; there is no sense in [us] but we think we are sane. (Euripides, fragment 25.) (10) An elephant does not bite a mouse. (II) For most people the search for truth [is pursued] without taking pains, and they turn rather to what is ready to hand. (12) The L a c e d a e m o n i a n s sent a herald and carried across the corpses (or had the corpses carried across). (13) It was wonder which made men begin to pursue p h i l o s o p h y both now and originally (lit. because of the fact of wondering men both now and at first began...). (14) The mountain laboured, and then gave birth to a mouse. (15) Hunger is (lit. becomes) the teacher of many [things]. (16) The Scythians do not wash with (or in) water. (17) (i) In the beginning God made the heaven and the earth. And the earth was invisible and u n f o r m e d , and darkness [was] upon the abyss, and the spirit of God moved u p o n the water. And God said, "Let there be (lit. be born) light. And there was light (lit. light came into being). And God saw that the light was beautiful. And God made a division between the light and the darkness. And God called the light day and the darkness he called night. (Genesis 1.1-5.) (ii) I turned about and I saw beneath the sun that the race [is] not to the nimble, nor war to the strong, nor bread to the wise, nor wealth to the intel l igent. (Ecclesiastes 9.11.) (18) Zenothemis contrived a wicked c r i m e m collaboration with Hegestratus. They went around borrowing (lit. were borrowing) money in Syracuse. When they got the money, they used to send it home to Marseilles, and they loaded (lit. brought into) nothing on board (lit. into) the ship. Since the contract stipulated repayment of (lit. was to

repay) the money after the arrival in port of the ship, they plotted to sink the ship; for they wished to defraud their creditors. Accordingly, when they were two or three days out from land (lit. had sailed away a voyage of ... days), Hegestratus began to cut through the bottom of the ship during the night, while Zenothemis passed the time on deck (lit. above) with the other passengers. But when a noise was heard (lit. happened), those on the ship perceived that some mischief was taking place down below, and went to the rescue. As Hegestratus was being caught and assumed that he would be badly treated, he took to his heels (lit. fled) and jumped into the sea. In this way then, as he deserved, a bad man, he came to a bad end (lit. he died badly). ([? Demosthenes] Against Zenothemis 4-6, slightly adapted.)

9.2 (1) Death [is] beautiful [for those] to whom life brings humiliation. (2) The wise man carries round his substance within (lit. in) himself. (3) Mighty in war [was] Timocritus, whose tomb this [is]; Ares spares not the brave, but the cowardly. (A.P. vii. 269). (4) Cleon said that not he himself but that man was general. (5) The same [people] [say] the same [remarks] about the same [subjects] to the same [people]. (6) You are telling me my [own] dream (i.e. nothing I don't already know). (7) Then that man said, "Well, if there is need of anything else (lit. another thing) in addition to what (lit. these things which) Xenophon says, it will be possible to do it immediately." After this Xenophon spoke as follows: "[It is] clear that we must march where we will have supplies; and I hear that there are fine villages which are twenty stades away." (Xenophon Anabasis iii. 2. 33-34.) (8) A friend is another self (or alter ego). (9) Pythagoras was the first to name philosophy and himself a philosopher. (10) [We] must compare them with each other; for thus we will consider if they will differ from each other. (11) The Greeks mistrust each other (lit. are mistrustful towards themselves). (12) After dinner Cyrus asked, "Tigranes, where then is that man who used to hunt with us? You seemed to me to admire him very much." "My father here put him to death," he said. "For he said that he was corrupting me. And yet, Cyrus, he was a fine man, for even when he was about to die, he summoned me and said, Tigranes, you must not be angry because your father is putting me to death; for he does this not because of malice, but because of ignorance. And what (lit. which things) men do wrong through ignorance, I believe [they do] this against their will'." (Xenophon Cyropaedia, iii.1.38, adapted.) (13) Demosthenes, who saw that the Lacedaemonians intended to attack by land and by sea (lit. both with ships and with infantry), began to make his own preparations (lit. make preparations himself also), and hauled up under the fortification the triremes which remained to him, and armed the sailors from them with shields of poor quality and mostly made

osier; for it was impossible to procure arms in [this] deserted place, and even these (sc. which they had) they got from a thirty-oared pirate-ship and a Pinnace belonging to (lit. of) [some] Messenians, who were there. Of these jessenians there were about forty hoplites. Accordingly, he posted the

ajority of his own men at the strong points of the place facing the ^ainiand, while (lit. and) he himself picked out sixty hoplites and a few the anC* ^egan to go outside the wall (sc. of the fortification) towards me S\Ca' ' t 0 P o i n t ] w ^ e r e h e particularly expected the enemy (lit. those besH attempt to land. So he posted his hoplites at this point right

lcJe the sea (lit. towards the sea itself). (Thucydides iv. 9, adapted.)

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10.2 (1) A fat belly does not generate a fine mind. (2) How sweet [it is] to look at the sea from the land. (3) Time will explain everything to posterity (lit. those [who come] later). (4) Happiness is an activity of the soul. (5) Ο Menander and life, which one of you then imitated which? (6) Who knows if life is death, and [if] down below death is considered life? (7) Life [is] short, art long (i.e. the art of medicine is extensive and requires a long time to master), opportunity fleeting (lit. swift), experiment perilous, and judgement difficult. (8) Wickedness [is] quick, virtue slow. (9) Where a man fares well, there [is his] native-land. (10) Whoever of mortals wishes to arrive at (lit. go/come into) hateful old age, does not reckon well; for a long life begets countless woes. (11) How sweet [it is] for slaves to get decent masters and for masters [to get] a well-disposed slave in [their] house. (12) Everything [is] burdensome except to rule over the gods. For no-one is free except Zeus. (13) Ignorant [people] are carried along in life as if on the high sea and in darkness. (14) The woman said, "My husband's virtue is sufficient adornment for me." (15) Where a man has a pain, there he applies (lit. has) his mind too. (16) (/) I hate a drinking-companion who remembers (lit. a mindful drinking-companion). (ii) Hostile [is] the eye of neighbours, (iii) Even a sheep bites an unlucky man. (iv) An unskilled man is a slave of (lit. to) everyone, (v) War [is] sweet to the inexperienced, (vi) Time decides everything (lit. everything is decided by time), (vii) Bright in darkness, but useless in daylight, (viii) Hands wash each other, (ix) Under every stone sleeps a scorpion, (x) Everything [is] easy for God (or a god). (xi) Every hedgehog [is] prickly, (xii) The whole of time cannot whiten the man (lit. this [man]) whom Fate paints (lit. will paint) black. (17) (/) Diogenes was once begging [alms] from a statue. [When he was] asked why he was doing this, he said, "I am practising failure (lit. to fail to obtain)." (ii) [When he was] asked what kind of wine he liked to drink (lit. drank gladly), he said, "Someone else's", (iii) He was begging [alms] from a miser. When he hesitated (lit. was slow), Diogenes said, "Fellow, I'm begging [alms] from you for food, not for burial." (iv) [When he was] asked where he was from, he said, "[I am] a citizen of the world", (v) When someone said that life was bad, he said, "Not life, but a bad life".

10.3 For, gentlemen of Athens, I have this reputation for no other reason (lit. on account of nothing else) than a certain wisdom. What sort of wisdom [do I say] this [is]? [Just that] which is perhaps human wisdom. For in reality I am likely to be (or I am probably) wise in this wisdom. But these men, whom I was just now mentioning, are wise in a sort of s u p e r h u m a n wisdom, which I am unable to describe. For I, at any rate, do not understand it, and (lit. but) whoever says [that I do], is lying and speaking to arouse prejudice against me. I hope, men of Athens, that you will not interrupt me, even if I seem to you to be saying something extravagant (Ut. big). For the story which I will tell is not mine, but I will refer [you] to someone who is worthy of credit. For I shall furnish you with the god or (lit. at) Delphi [as] witness of my [wisdom], [as to] whether it is actuals some sort of wisdom and of what sort it is. Chaerephon was familiar to you, I think. He was a comrade of mine from youth and a partisan or the democracy. And it is well-known to you what sort [of a person!

Chaerephon was, how impetuous in all respects. As a matter of fact, he actually went to Delphi once and dared to ask the oracle if anyone was wiser than I. The Pythian [priestess] answered that no-one was wiser. (Plato Apology 20d-21a, slightly adapted.)

11.2 From this point on the relevant part of the verb to be which must be supplied for translation is not normally bracketed, (1) Tyranny is the mother of injustice. (2) The dice of Zeus always fall luckily (lit. well). (3) There is some degree (lit. measure) of pleasure even in troubles. (4) And the story is not mine, but [comes] from my mother, that heaven and earth were one shape; but when they were separated apart from each other, they brought forth everything and sent up to the light trees, winged creatures, wild beasts and [the creatures] which the sea nourishes and the race of men. (Euripides, fragment 484.) (5) Concealment (lit. the act of hiding) is wicked and not the mark of a well-born man. (6) Someone said to Socrates, "The Athenians condemned you to the death," and he said, "And Nature [is condemning] them [to death]." (7) The wagon pulls the ox. (8) (/) An old woman is dancing, (ii) You are graciously giving a mirror to a blind man. (iii) You are hunting the wind with a net. (iv) You are throwing stones at the sun (lit. pelting the sun with stones), (v) The/a tortoise is calling the oxen slow-footed, (vi) You are striking a peg with a sponge, (vii) You knocked out a peg with a peg (i.e. in solving one problem you created another), (viii) You are blocking up (i.e. repairing) the chamber-pot with a sandal, (ix) You are driving out wine with wine, (x) You yourself are striking your own door with a stone. (9) For, for all mankind, not only for us, either straightaway or in [the course of] time, God trips up [one's] life, and no-one is happy throughout (or forever). (Euripides, fragment 273.) (10) For none of these things will distress me. But if you do not do this (lit. these things), you will inflict (lit. throw) grief upon all the Argives (i.e. Greeks). For if we do not get this man's bow (lit. this man's bow will not be taken), it is not possible for you to ravage the land of Dardanus. (Sophocles Philoctetes 66-69.) (11) Thus the venture (lit. things) of the Greeks came to naught (lit. was destroyed). And out of many a few made their way through Libya to Cyrene and were saved, but most were killed. Egypt again came (lit. became) under the control of the King [of Persia], except Amyrtaeus, the king in the marshes. They (i.e. the Persians) were unable to capture him both because of the extent of the marsh and at the same time [because] the marsh-people are particularly warlike. Inaros the Libyan king (lit. king of the Libyans), who had conducted (lit. done) the whole Egyptian venture (lit. everything with respect to Egypt), was captured by treachery and impaled. Fifty triremes from Athens and the rest

the confederacy sailed [as a] relieving [force] to Egypt and put in at the Mendesian arm [of the Nile]. But foot-soldiers attacked them from the land

Η Λ ^C e t Phoenicians from the sea and destroyed most of the ships. So ended the great expedition (lit. the [things] with respect to the great xpedition) of the Athenians and their allies against (lit. into) Egypt.

Uhucydides i.110, adapted.) (12) When we had transferred to the other and HvT e g a n t o d r i n k . i s c l e a r that Herodes disembarked from the ship fro k n o t · r e~e mhark (lit. go on board again). I did not disembark at all be ς1 , ship that night. On the following day, when the man was not to

een, he was looked for in no way more [vigorously] by the others than

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by me (i.e. I looked for him as vigorously as anyone); and if it (his disappearance) seemed serious to any of the others, [it did so] equally to me (i.e. if anyone considered it a serious matter; I did). Not only (lit. both) was I responsible for a messenger being sent to Mytilene, but (lit. and), since no-one else was willing to go, either of those on (lit. from) the ship or of the companions of Herodes himself, I was prepared to send my own servant. But when the man did not appear either in Mytilene or anywhere else, and the wind was fair (lit. sailing [time] was coming into being) for us and all the other ships were putting out to sea, I too departed. (Antiphon Murder of Herodes 23-24, slightly adapted.)

12.2 Where participial phrases have been expanded into subordinate clauses (e.g. in 1-5; see 12.1/2a) the words added in English have not been enclosed in square brackets. (I) The man who runs away will also fight again (or lives to fight another day). (2) When a bear is present (or around) one need not look for tracks. (3) If you love yourself too much you will not have a friend. (4) Although he does not feed himself, he feeds his dogs. (5) The person who does not marry has no troubles. (6) In trying to flee (lit. fleeing) the smoke you fell into the fire. (7) A man who is running away does not wait for the sound of the lyre. (8) It is said that dogs burnt just once are afraid of fire (lit. dogs ... are said to fear ...). (9) For I have come to bury Caesar, not to praise [him]. (10) No-one who is hungry sings sweet songs (lit. beautiful things). (II) Am I a bumpkin (lit. boorish) if I call a trough a trough? (12) The man who has been bitten by a serpent fears even a little rope. (13) The man who is illiterate (lit. inexperienced in letters) sees nothing although he has sight (lit. does not see [although] seeing). (14) It is difficult to speak to [one's] belly, since it does not have ears. (15) Prometheus: "You behold [this] spectacle, [me] this friend of Zeus, with what woes I am bent by him." Ocean: "I see, Prometheus, and I wish to give you the best advice (lit. advise the best things to you), subtle (or ingenious) as you are (lit. though being)." (Aeschylus Prometheus Bound 304ff.) (16) From there Cyrus marched out though Lycaonia five stages, [a distance of] thirty parasangs, and he allowed the Greeks to plunder this country on the grounds that it was hostile. (17) Once when turning a book of Hesiod beneath my hands I suddenly saw Pyrrha approaching; and throwing the book to the g r o u n d with my hand I shouted this, "Why do you give me trouble, old Hesiod?" (A.P. ix.161.) (18) Child of Phoenician-born Europa and great Zeus, ruling over Crete of a hundred cities, I have come leaving sacred (lit. very holy) temples ... And we have led a chaste life since I became a mystic of Idaean Zeus,and, having conducted feasts of raw flesh as a herdsman of night-roaming Zagreus and held up torches for the mountain-wandering mother with the Curetes, I was sanctified and called an initiate of Bacchus . (Euripides, fragment 472.)

12.3 (1) A man, finding [some] gold, left a noose; but the man who did not f ind the gold which he had left, fastened the noose (i.e. to hang himself) w h i c h he had found. (A.P. ix.44.) (2) The Cyprian, seeing [the statue of] the

Cyprian (i.e. of herself) in Cnidos, said, "Alas, alas, where did Praxiteles see me naked?" (App. Flan. 162.) (3) All Cilicians are bad men; but among the Cilicians [there is] one good man, [viz] Cinyres, but even Cinyres is Cilician. (A.P. xi· 236.) (4) Once Antiochus laid eyes on (lit. looked at) Lysimachus' cushion, and Lysimachus never again (lit. no longer) laid eyes on his cushion. (A.P. xi. 315.) (5) Although he produced twenty sons, Eutychus the painter has no likeness even among (lit. from) his children (i.e. he has as little success in producing lifelike paintings as in fathering children from a faithless wife). (A.P. xi. 215.) (6) You [with] the roses, you have a rosy charm. But what are you selling, yourself, or the roses, or both together? (A.P. v. 81.) (7) As I was kissing Agathon, I checked my soul at [my] lips; for it had come, poor wretch, with the idea of crossing over. (A.P. v. 78.) (8) I who laughed haughtily at Greece, I, Lais, who kept the swarm of young lovers in [my] porch, [dedicate] [my] mirror to the Paphian; since such [as I am now] I do not wish to see myself, and such as I was formerly I am unable [to see myself]. (A.P. vi. 1.) (9) Someone told [me], Heraclitus, of your death, and brought tears (lit. a tear) to me, and I remembered how often both of us laid the sun to rest in conversation. But you, I suppose, my friend from Halicarnassus, are ashes long, long ago. But your nightingales (i.e. poems) live on, upon which Hades, the ravisher of all things, shall not lay his hand. (Callimachus epigram 2.)

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13.2 (1) [It] is a fine [thing] indeed to be master of one's belly and one's desire [s]. (2) Both common-sense and proper deliberation (lit. deliberating on what it is necessary [to do]) are accustomed to accompany old age. (3) This is bravery (lit. the brave thing), [that is to say] forethought. (4) Everywhere the land which feeds [you is your] native-land. (5) Old age, you know, has a certain wisdom (lit. something wise) indeed with respect to deliberation (or planning), since indeed it has seen and experienced much (lit. as having seen and experienced many things). (6) Ο unfortunate virtue, you were [a mere] word then; yet I practised you as something real (lit. a fact, i.e. as though you really existed). But you were a slave to chance after all. (7) Oedipus, the son of Laius, is my father (lit. father for us), and Iocaste, the daughter of Menoeceus, bore me; and the Theban people call me' Polyneices. (Euripides Phoenissae 288-290.) (8) There is no temple of Persuasion other than speech, and her altar is in the nature of man. (9) He who chases two hares catches neither. (10) Cyrus, inasmuch as he was a child and liked elegance and distinction, was pleased with his clothes. (11)

o t e v e n the gods fight against necessity. (12) Obedience to one's stomach Js a necessary evil. (13) In escaping Charybdis you have fallen into (lit. in with) Scylla. (14) A hungry ass pays no heed to the cudgel. (15) No-one

e^ l r e j life as much as the man who is growing old. (16) Death alone of the does not desire gifts. (17) The man who does no wrong needs no law

w . to protect him). (18) Sailors (or those who sail) are [only] four fingers cjWa£ fr°m death. (19) You have a need of spring since you have an old clok I a nd n o t winter] is the right season for the threadbare Att r ° U a r e w e a r i n 8) · (20) The Spartan [woman] Gorgo, asked by an y

l c Athenian) [woman], "Why do you Spartan [women] alone rule m e n k u s b a n d s ) ? " said, "Because we alone also give birth to [real] a n c j * (21) In reply to a certain lad who was intending to attend his classes A n t l - q u l r e d what he needed (lit. of what things there is a need to him),

s nenes the philosopher said, "A new book and a new pencil and a new

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writing-tablet", stressing the nous. (The pun on καινού and και-νοΰ ts virtually untranslatable, although in American pronunciation it comes across in 'new' and 'nous'.) (22) The black earth drinks, and the t-ees drink it (i.e. from it); the sea drinks the streams, the sun the sea, and the moon the sun. Why do you fight with me [my] friends (or comrades), when I myself also wish to drink? (Anacreontea 19)

13.3 (/) I was making my way from the Academy straight to the Lyceum along the [road] outside the wall, close under the wall (lit. beneath the wall) itself. When I came to (lit. was in the region of) the postern gate where the spring of Panops is, there I fell in with Hippothales, the [son] of Hieronymus, and Ctesippus of Paiania, and [some] other young men [who were] with them. Seeing me approach, Hippothales said, "Socrates, where are you going and where [have you come] from?" "From the Academy," I said, "on my way (lit. I'm making my way) straight to the Lyceum." "[Come] over here", he said, "straight to us. Aren't you going to come over (lit. do you not come near)? Yet it's worthwhile." "Where do you mean," I said, "and who are you to whom [I am to come]?" "Over here," he said, showing me right opposite (lit. in the [spot] right opposite) the wall a sort of enclosure and door. "We spend our time here," he said, "both we ourselves and a lot of other fine [fellows]." "And what is this [place] then, and how do you spend your time (lit. what is [your] manner of spending time)?" "A new wrestling-school," he said. "And we usually spend our time in discussions, in which we wish you to share." "That's very kind of you (lit. doing well indeed)," I said. "And who teaches here?" "Your own friend," he said, "and admirer, Miccus." "My goodness (lit. by Zeus)," I said, "he's not unimportant (lit. the man [is] not insignificant), he's a competent teacher." "Well then, do you want to follow [me]," he said, "and to see those who are here?" (Plato Lysis 203a-204a.) (ii) Eucleides. Just [in] from the country, Terpsion, or [did you arrive] some time ago? Terpsion. Quite some time ago. I was looking for you in (lit. throughout) the agora and was surprised that I could not find [you]. E. [No you couldn't], for I was not in the city. T. Where [were you] then? E. As I was going down to [the] harbour I met Theaetetus being carried to Athens from the camp at (lit. from) Corinth. T. Alive or dead? E. Alive, but only just (lit. and very hardly). For he's in a bad way actually because of some wounds, but more [than that] the disease which [has broken out] in the army is afflicting him. T. You don't mean dysentery, do you? E. Yes, I Τ. What a man [this is who] you say is in danger. E. A real gentleman {lit-fine and good), Terpsion, and (lit. since), you know, just now I was listening to some [people] singing his praises (lit. praising him very much) in

connection with the battle. T. And [that's] not at all strange. But how [is that] he did not stay (or lodge) here in Megara? E. He was hurrying [to get] home. I asked him and advised him [sc. to stay], but he refused. In fact, as I escorted [him home] I recalled with admiration how propheticall> Socrates had spoken in particular about him (lit I recalled and m a r v e l l e d at Socrates how prophetically he had spoken both other things indeed an about this man). For I think that (lit. he seems to me to...), a little b e f o r e his death, he (Socrates) met him when he was a lad, and after being wit

ihiml and conversing [with him], greatly admired his character. (Plato Theaetetus 142a-c.)

14.2 the abbreviations P.S. (Primary sequence) and H.S. (Historic sequence) are used in defining the uses of the subjunctive/optative here. (I) For there is a certain pleasure even in words, if (lit. whenever) they create a forgetfulness of [one's] existing troubles (indefinite, P.S.). (2) How then am I, a [mere] mortal (lit. being mortal), to fight against divine fortune (or fortune sent by the gods)? (deliberative subjunctive). (3) [It is] the mind [that one] must look at, the mind; what advantage [is there] in (lit. of) bodily beauty, if (lit. whenever) a person does not have a beautiful (i.e. noble) mind? (indefinite, P.S.). (4) Whoever is shipwrecked twice, blames Poseidon without reason (i.e. he should have taken Poseidon's hint the first time) (indefinite, P.S.). (5) Socrates said that most men live in order that they may eat, whereas he himself ate in order that he might live (purpose, subjunctive retained in H.S.). (6) Let us eat and drink; for tomorrow we die (jussive subjunctive.). (7) God plants (lit. produces) a fault (lit. blame) in mortals whenever he wishes to ruin a family completely (indefinite, P.S.). (8) What a charming creature (lit. how charming) is a man when (lit. whenever) he is a [real] man (indefinite, P.S.). (9) A. Who is this man? B. A doctor. A. What a bad state every doctor is in if (lit. if ever) no-one [else] is in a bad state! (indefinite, P.S.). (10) Our life is very like wine: whenever what remains (or the remains) is small, it becomes vinegar (indefinite, P.S.). (II) Those who are afraid that they may go into exile from their native-land and those who, being about to fight, are afraid that they may be defeated are not able to take (lit. get) either food or sleep because of their fear; but those who are already in exile or (lit. and) already defeated can eat and sleep even more (or better) than those blessed with good fortune (fear for the future, P.S.). (12) A monkey is a monkey even if it has golden sandals Iindefinite, P.S.). (13) The Greeks were afraid that the Persians might advance agains the wing and, outflanking them on both sides, might cut them to pieces (fear for the future, H.S.). (14) When the man whom they had seized was asked from what country he came (lit. was; indirect question, H.S.), he said that he was a Persian, and that he was proceeding' i ° m ^*r*bazos' army in order that he might get provisions (purpose clause, H-S.).(lS) When Diogenes saw an archer with no natural skill, he sat down beside the target saying, "In order that I may not be hit" (purpose clause in direct quotation, hence notH.S.). (16) Through inexperience of death every m a n i s afraid to leave the light of this sun (lit. this light of the sun). (17) A n l a n w a s running so as not to get wet, and was drowned in a hole (purpose ° ausey H.S.). (18) When the generals assembled at daybreak, they were urprised that Cyrus neither sent someone else to tell [them] what to do (lit.

th He c e s s a ry t o do> n o r appeared himself (indirect statement, H.S.). So ami t o Pack up what they had and put on their full (έξ-) armour su mov

1f forwards. When they were already on the point of starting, at T a

n r , s e i{}ere c ame Procles, the ruler of Teuthrania, and Glus, the [son] of the"]?8]' sported that Cyrus had been killed, but that Ariaeus was at would 8 · r e s t barbarians and was saying that they

d W a i t for them throughout this day (indirect statement, H.S.).

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Ι Γ Τ Ί (Xenophon Anabasis ii. 1. 2-3, slightly adapted.) (19) If ever he saw the soldiers going in good order; he praised [them] (indefinite, H.S.). (20) If you

Φ fear the law (lit. fearing the law) you will not be troubled by the law. Φ <

15.2 φ jjj (1) [While] avoiding [the] ashes I have fallen into [the] fire (i.e. out of the o> frying-pan into the fire). (2) No-one does wicked [deeds] without the gods' 5s knowing (lit. no-one escapes the notice of the gods doing wicked things).

(3) A crab has not learned (i.e. does not know how) to walk straight. (4) We are all wise in giving warnings (lit. with respect to warning), but we do not realize when we ourselves make mistakes. (5) The trap has caught the mouse. (6) For the man who takes pleasure in constantly speaking does not realise (lit. escaped his own notice) that he is wearisome to his companions (lit. those who are with [him]). (7) He has eaten scorpions. (8) Whoever devises treachery (lit. crafty things) against another is doing this against himself unawares (lit. escapes [his own] notice doing this himself against himself). (9) The hoplites happened to be sleeping in the agora. (10) It was clear that Menon desired (lit. Menon was obvious desiring) to be exceedingly rich. (11) So they took Jesus; and carrying his own cross (lit. the cross for himself) he went forth to the so-called Place of a Skull, which in Hebrew is called Golgotha, where they crucified him, and with him two others one on each side (lit. from this side and from this side), and Jesus in the middle. Pilate also wrote a title (or inscription) and placed [it] on the cross, JESUS OF NAZARETH THE KING OF THE JEWS. Many of the Jews read this title, because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city. Accordingly, the chief priests of the Jews said to Pilate, "Do not write 'The King of the Jews', but 'He claimed to be the King of the Jews' " (lit. but that, "he said, Ί am the King .. . '"). Pilate replied, "What I have written, I have written.'' (John 19.16-22.) (12) For all seven days during which they were marching through [the territory of] the Kurds they continued to fight. (13) When Clearetus had encouraged his soldiers, he began to lead them against the place, but day broke while he was still marching (lit. day happening anticipated him marching). (14) When Archimedes was washing himself, so the story goes (lit. as they say), he discovered from the overflow (sc. of the water-level in his bath) how to measure (lit. the measuring of) the crown, and as if possessed or inspired (lit. just as from some possession or inspiration), he jumped out shouting, "I've found [it]," and went about saying this over and over again (lit often). But we have heard neither of any glutton shouting so pass ionately . "I have eaten," nor of any lover [shouting] "I have kissed," though countless sensualists existed in the past and [still] exist [now]. (Plutarch Moralia 1094C.) (15) A. He is married, I believe. B. What are you saying? Is he really married, [the man] whom I left alive and on his feet (lit. living and walking about)? (16) They stopped building the large wall because they feared (lit. fearing) that it would not be sufficient to hold out. (17) I see that for the majority of people former prosperity gives birth to insolence.

15.3 Might. We have come to [this] distant region of the earth, to [this] Scythian tract, to [this] wilderness where no men live. Hephaestus, you must concern

yourself with the commands (lit. it is necessary that the commands be of concern to you) which the Father (i.e. Zeus) enjoined on you, to bind fast this wrong-doer on [these] rocks with lofty cliffs in unbreakable fetters of adamantine bonds. For [it was] your glory, the flame of fire on which all arts depend, [which] he stole and bestowed on mortals. [It is] for such a wrong, you know, [that] he must pay the penalty to the gods, in order that he may be taught (or learn) to accept the sovereignty of Zeus, and cease from his man-loving ways. Hephaestus. Might and Violence, for you two the command of Zeus has indeed fulfilment (or has been fulfilled) and nothing is still in [your] way, but I lack the heart to bind by force to [this] stormy ravine a god [who is my] kinsman. Yet for all that, I must (lit. there is necessity for me to) get the heart for this; for [it is] a grievous [matter] to disregard the words of the Father. Ο lofty-minded son of straight-counselling Themis, against your will and mine (lit. you being unwilling I being unwilling) will I fasten you in (or with) inextricable brazen bonds to this rock far from men, where you will perceive (lit. see) neither the voice nor the shape of anyone of mortals, but grilled by the sun's radiant flame you will alter the bloom of your skin; and you will be glad when (lit. to you being glad) night with her embroidered cloak will hide the light and [when] the sun will scatter the morning frost again; the burden of your present suffering (lit. the present trouble) will continually distress you; for the one who will relieve [it or you] is not yet born. (Aeschylus Prometheus Bound 1-27)

16.2 (1) When they had come to their tents, the rest (sc. of the soldiers) were busy about the provisions, while generals and captains met together. And at this point there was much despondency. For on one side there lay (lit. were) very high mountains, and on the other side the river was so deep (lit. of such a size) that not even their spears were above [the water] when they tested the depth. (2) When Diogenes was asked why athletes were stupid, he said, "Because they have been built up with pork and beef." (3) One must marry [only] after making a [proper] choice. (4) We are involved in constant (lit. we continue being in) dangers throughout all our life, so that those who talk about security do not realize (lit. have escaped their own notice) that they are preparing for war for the whole of time. (5) You are flaying a flayed bitch (i.e. you are flogging a dead horse). (6) The Potideans, waiting for the Athenians, were camped on the isthmus on the side towards Olynthus, and they had established a market outside the city. And the allies had chosen Aristeus [as] general of the whole infantry and Perdiccas of the cavalry. (7) When the barbarians had left their land, the Athenians began to make preparations to rebuild their city. For of the houses most had collapsed, although a few survived, in which the chief men of the Persians had themselves lodged. (8) The goat has come to knives [already] sharpened

one is asking for trouble). (9) They passed the night there. But when ay began to break, they proceeded to march in silence against the enemy, tawn up in battle-order; for a mist had also appeared, so that they came Ρ close without being seen (lit. escaped notice approaching near). (10)

e n a n agreement was made (lit. comes into being (vivid pres.)) with w ^ ? t 0 ° s e w Demosthenes as well, on condition that no-one bo Η \ through violence (lit. violently) or imprisonment (lit.

nds> o r lack of food. (11) Tiribazus said that he wished to make a treaty

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on condition that neither he himself would harm the Greeks nor would they burn the houses but (lit. and) would take the provisions that they needed. These [terms] were accepted by (lit. seemed good to) the generals i.nd they made a treaty on these terms. (12) Nor is it still the time, Socrates, to be deliberating but to have finished deliberating. There is [only] one plan: all this must be completed (or over and done with) within this night. (13) So boldness and courage are not the same thing. Consequently the result is (lit. it results) that the courageous are bold but not that the bold are courageous, for boldness, like strength, comes to men from art and from anger and from madness but courage from nature and proper nurture of the soul (lit. souls). (14) The Spartans considered that the Athenians were first in violation of (lit. to be in a state of having broken) the treaty. (15) The goat has not yet given birth (i.e. don't count your chickens before they're hatched.) (16) Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, wanted (lit. wanting) to capture a strong fort. When his scouts reported that it was difficult in all respects and impregnable, he asked if it was so difficult that not even an ass carrying gold could approach [it].

16.3 I am alive and I behold what I ought to, the sky, the earth and these shafts of sun [light]. But what a terrible turmoil (lit. wave, surf) and confusion of mind I have fallen into (lit. in) and what warm breath I breathe, shallow, not steady from my lungs. Look, why am I sitting anchored like a ship with bonds on (lit. with respect to) my sturdy chest and arms to this stone-carved pillar (lit. chiselled work made of stone) broken in half, sitting next to corpses (lit. having a seat neighbouring corpses)? My winged weapons and bow lie scattered on the ground, which formerly shielded my arms and protected my flanks and were protected by me. Surely I have not descended back to [the house] of Hades again, having [just] completed (lit. having gone) the double course from Hades set by Eurystheus? But neither do I see the stone of Sisyphus or Pluto nor yet the sceptre of Demeter's daughter. I am indeed bewildered. Wherever am I in my helplessness? Help, who is there of my friends near or far who will cure my bewilderment? (Euripides Heracles 1089-1107.)

17.2 (1) (/) If (or when) you are wronged (lit. being wronged), settle your differences, (ii) Keep away from other people's property, (iii) Don't hurry when you undertake something (lit. undertake slowly), (iv) Don't rush into marriage (lit. delay getting married), (v) Know yourself (i.e. your human limitations), (vi) Respect your parents, (vii) Think [only] mortal thoughts (lit. mortal things), (viii) Don't laugh over a corpse. (ix) Know the right moment, (x) Nothing in excess. (*/) When you drink, don't talk too much (lit. prattle many things), (xii) Use your wealth fairly (lit. be wealthy justly). (xiii) Believe in fortune, (xiv) If (or when) you are insulted, avenge yourself. (xv) Don't curse your sons. (2) Train your children; for you will not train [them when they are] men. (3) An army of deer led by a lion is more frightening than an army of lions led by a deer. (4) Fear old age; for it does

not come alone. (5) Choose a good reputation rather than wealth (lit. wish to be well spoken of rather than to be rich). (6) When you have passed a rose do not seek it any longer again. (7) We have two ears but one mouth, in order that we may hear more but speak less. (8) (/) Neighbours have sharper eyes (lit. see more sharply) than foxes, (ii) When you are walking on foot do not fear the waves, (iii) Let a lion eat me, not a fox (i.e. if I come to grief may it be at the hands of a worthy opponent), (iv) Be both a lion where it is required (lit. necessary) and a monkey in turn (i.e. be prepared to assume a role suited to a particular situation), (v) What [ever] bread a man has kneaded, let him eat it as well, (vi) When the general is present, let all the officers stop (sc. giving orders), (vii) The man who desires more is also deprived of what he has (lit. the things which are present), (viii) Don't throw food into a chamberpot, (ix) When you are a foreigner follow the local customs, (x) Don't speak ill of your friend or well of your enemy, (xi) If (or when) you are prosperous, don't despise the poor, (xii) Judge not, that you be not judged, (xiii) Second thoughts are somehow wiser, (xiv) Most people are rogues, (xv) Things last year were always better. (9) One of the Saii exults in my shield, which I left unwillingly, a blameless weapon, by a thicket. But I myself escaped the doom of death; to hell with that shield; I'll get another just as good (lit. once more I shall obtain [one] not worse). (Archilochus 6.) (10) The royal cubit is three fingers greater (or longer) than the standard cubit. (11) (i) When Eudamidas saw Xenocrates, who was now rather old, studying philosophy in the Academy with his students and ascertained that he was searching for virtue, he said, "So when will he [be able to] use it?" (ii) When a certain Argive was saying that the Spartans became worse when they were abroad (lit. during their absences from home), he (i.e. Eudamidas) said, "But you, when you come to Sparta, do not become worse but better." (iii) To a wretch who was asking [him] who the best Spartan was Agis said, "The one who is most unlike you." (iv) When a teacher was about to read out an encomium of Heracles, Antalcidas said, "Well, who's criticizing him?" (v) When Thearidas was sharpening a sword he was asked if it was sharp, and he said, "Sharper than slander." (vi) When a garrulous barber asked Archelaus, "How would you like it, your Majesty (lit. how am I to cut your hair; Ο King)?" Archelaus said, "In silence (lit. keeping quiet)." (12) When Aristotle heard that he was being abused by someone, he said, "Let him also whip me when I'm not there (lit. being absent)." (13) Although they are wise in other respects, the sophists do something extraordinary viz (lit. do an extraordinary thing [viz] this) they claim to be teachers of virtue, yet they often accuse their students of wronging them (lit. that they wrong them), by withholding their fees, although they have been well-treated by them (i.e. if the sophists had really been able to teach their students virtue, the latter would not have failed to pay their fees). (14) Much enmity and mutual hatred is innate in our citizens, on account of which I am always fearful that some disaster too great to bear may fall upon the city. (15) The Lacedaemonians kept sending embassies to the Athenians to make complaints, in order that they might have (lit. there might be to them) as great a pretext as possible for going to War> m case they (the Athenians) did not pay any attention. (16) Cleander ^as tyrant of Gela for seven years, but he was killed by Sabyllus, a man rom Gela. (17) Hope and you, Luck, a long farewell; I have found the

«arbour. There's nothing [more] between you and me. Have your fun with those [who come] after me

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17.3 Hermes. You there, the clever one, bitterly bitter to the extreme, you who offended against the gods by giving honours to mortals, you the thief of fire I mean; the Father orders you to tell [him] of the marriage of which you boast and by which he is [to be] cast out of his power. And what is more, do not [tell] it (lit. these things) in riddling fashion, but explain each detail as it is, and do not inflict a double journey on me, Prometheus. You see that Zeus is not softened by such behaviour. Prometheus. Haughty and full of arrogance is your talk, for a lackey of the gods. New you are and new your power (lit. you [being] new wield new power), and you think indeed that you dwell in citadels free from woe. [Yet] have I not seen two rulers cast out from them? And as the third I shall behold the present lord (sc. cast out) most shamefully and most speedily. You don't imagine, do you, (lit. surely I do not seem to you in some respect) that I am terrified and cower before these new gods? I'm far removed, indeed completely removed, from that. Hasten back along the road you came; for you will find out none of the things which you question me about. (Aeschylus Prometheus Bound 944-963.)

18.2 (1) A man from Cyme was selling honey. When someone tasted it and said, "It's very nice," he said, "[Yes,] for if a mouse had not fallen into it, I would not be selling it." (2) A Spartan woman, in answer to her son who was saying that the sword which he had was short, said, "Add a step" (i.e. take a step closer to your enemy to make up for the shortness of your sword). (3) (/) If the lion-skin does not suffice, put on the fox-skin (i.e. if behaving like a lion doesn't help, behave like a fox), (ii) You are giving a dog bran, and an ass bones (i.e. you are doing things the wrong way), (iii) You keep your love on the tip of your tongue, (iv) If we hate our friends, what shall we do to those who hate [us]? (v) If I had cheese, I would not want a cooked meal (i.e. the small luxury of cheese would be enough—spoken of those who did not indulge themselves overmuch), (vi) [When] a friend [is] in trouble do not betray [him] because of anger, (vii) Gain is sweet, even if it comes from lies, (viii) Give something and take something, (ix) Wandering makes life more reasonable (i.e. travel broadens the mind), (x) [It is] disgraceful to betray one's benefactors, (xi) If we have money, we will have friends, (xii) Let matters proceed as God wills (lit. as is dear to the god). (4) A man came asking the seer Olympicus whether he should sail to Rhodes and how he would sail in safety; and the seer replied, "First, have a new ship, and put out to sea not in winter but in summer; for if you do this, you will go both there and [back} here, unless a pirate captures you at sea." (A.P. xi. 162.) (5) Once an old man had cut some wood and was walking a long road carrying it. Because of fatigue he laid aside the load and called upon Death. When Death appeared and asked for what reason he was calling upon him, the old man said, "So that you may lift up this load and put it on me." (6) Every gift which is given, even if it is small, is very great, if it is given with goodwill. (7) If a snake does not eat a snake , it will not become a dragon (i.e. to rise in the world one must be ruthless) . (8) Naked I set foot upon the earth, and naked I shall go away below the earth; and why do I vainly toil when I see the end naked? (9) (/) When someone was surprised at [the number of] the dedications in S a m o t h r a c e ,

he said, "There would be far more if those who were not saved had also made dedications." (ii) When he came to Myndus and observed that the gates were big whereas the city was small, "Men of Myndus," he said, "Shut the gates lest your city gets out (or escapes)." (iii) He was asking a bad-tempered man [for alms]. When [the latter] said, "[Yes,] if you persuade me", [Diogenes] replied, "If I were able to persuade you, I would have persuaded you to hang yourself." (iv) Lighting (lit. having lit) a lamp in broad daylight, he used to go about saying, "I'm looking for a [genuine] human being." (10) The Syracusan generals trusted the fellow much too incautiously and immediately agreed upon a day on which they would be present and sent him back, while (lit. and) they themselves gave warning to the Syracusans beforehand that they would all go out in full force. When their preparations were complete and the days were at hand on which they had agreed to come, proceeding in the direction of Catana they encamped at the river Symaethus. When the Athenians perceived that they were approaching, they took all their own army and, putting it on board the ships and boats, sailed under cover of night against Syracuse. (Thucydides vi. 65, slightly adapted.)

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18.3 They arrived at the mountain on the fifth day; the name of (lit. to) the mountain was Theches. When the vanguard got on to [the summit οή the mountain and looked down at the sea, much shouting arose. Hearing [this], Xenophon and the rearguard thought that other enemy forces were attacking up in front. But when (or since) the shouting was becoming greater and closer and those who kept coming up in succession were running quickly towards those who were continually shouting and the shouting became much louder in proportion as the numbers increased (lit. they were becoming more), it seemed to Xenophon to be something more serious. He mounted his horse and taking the cavalry set off to the rescue. And very soon they heard the soldiers shouting, "The sea, the sea!" and passing the word along. Thereupon all the rearguard also began to run, and the draught animals and the horses were driven along. When they had all arrived at the summit, they then began to embrace each other in tears, including generals and captains. (Xenophon Anabasis iv. 7. 21-25, slightly adapted.)

19.2 W Heraclitus says somewhere that everything is in motion (or flux) and nothing stays still, and likening existing things (lit. the being [things]) to the stream of a river he says that you could not (or cannot) step twice into the same river. (2) Keep sober and remember to distrust; these (i.e. sobriety and Qistrust) are the limbs of the mind. (3) Pyrrho said that there was no

Terence between life and death (lit. being alive or being dead differed in no way). And when someone said, "Why then do you not die?", he said, ^ecause it makes no difference." (4) Do you think that crimes (or sins) 0

a E u P with wings to the gods, and then someone writes them on the leaves ^eus' tablet, and Zeus looks at them and gives judgements for mortals?

0f e w"ole of heaven would not suffice if Zeus were writing [down] the sins mortals nor would he (i.e. Zeus) examining [them] [suffice] to send a

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penalty to each man. No (lit. but), Justice is here somewhere near, if you wish to see. (Euripides, fragment 506.) (5) (/) If you are able to travel (sc. by land), do not go by sea (lit. sail), (ii) You were caught by your own feathers (i.e. hoist with your own petard), (iii) A [statue of] Hermes cannot (lit. could not) be made out of every (or any) log. (i.e. you can't make a silk purse out of a sow's ear), (iv) If you drink water you will (lit. would) produce nothing wise, (v) The man who knows what is useful (lit. useful things), not the man who knows much (lit. many things), is wise, (vi) If God gives [it], you cannot (lit. could not) escape evil (lit. evil things), (vii) All men naturally (or by nature) strive after knowledge (Aristotle), (viii) Whenever you are having a fine voyage, be especially mindful of squalls (lit. a squall), (ix) Give me somewhere to stand (lit. where I am to stand) and I shall move the earth (Archimedes), (x) Much learning does not teach [one] to have wisdom; for (sc. otherwise) it would have taught Hesiod and Pythagoras (Heraclitus). (xi) That which exists naturally does not change. (xii) [One] must bear lightly [one's] present (lit. standing beside) fortunes. (xiii) Despondent men never yet (lit. not yet) set up a trophy, (cf. faint heart never won fair lady.) (xiv) Remember that you are a human being, (xv) If you set a trap, you will be caught in a trap, (xvi) Although he stands far off God sees from near at hand, (xvii) He stands on the razor['s edge] (i.e. he is in a difficult situation). (6) How sweet [it is] for those in distress to forget their present troubles even for a short time. (7) (/') To a man who said, "Except for the fact that you are King you are in no way different from us," Leonidas said, "But I wouldn't be King if I were not better than you." (//) When he arrived at Thermopylae, to a man who said, "Because of the barbarians' arrows it is not even possible to see the sun," he said, "So [it will be] nice, if we fight (lit. will fight) them beneath the shade." (iii) When Xerxes wrote to him, "It is possible for you by not fighting against God but by ranging yourself with me, to be sole ruler of Greece," he wrote in reply, "If you knew (i.e. understood) the fine things of life, you would have refrained from the desire for other people's possessions; for me death on behalf of Greece is better than being sole ruler over my own race (lit. those of the same stock)." (iv) When Xerxes wrote again, "Send (i.e. surrender) your arms," he wrote in reply, "Come and get them!" (v) Stranger, tell the Spartans that we lie here, in obedience to (lit. obeying) their commands (lit-words). (8) I shall not revolt from the people of Athens (lit. of the Athenians) either in any way or means or in word or deed, nor shall I obey anyone who revolts (lit. the revolting man), and if anyone tries to stir up revolt, I shall denounce [him] to the Athenians; and I shall pay to the Athenians whatever tribute I persuade the Athenians [is appropriate]; and I shall be as excellent and just an ally as I am able (lit. I shall be an ally of whatever sort I may be able best and most just), and I shall come to the help of the people of Athens and I shall ward off anyone who (lit. if anyone) does wrong to the people of Athens, and I will obey the people of Athens. (Inscriptiones Graecae i3 40.21-32.)

20.2 (1) Once a young man fell sick and said to his doctor that he was in such pain that he was unable either to sit or lie [down] or stand; the doctor said. "My friend, you have no alternative but (lit. there is no other thing left to you than) to hang". (2) Who knows if what is called death [is] life, and w c

is death? Except, however; [that] those of mortals who are alive (lit. see [sc-the light of day]) fall sick, whereas those who are dead never (lit. not at ai >

fall sick nor suffer ill (lit. possess troubles). (Euripides, fragment 833.) (3) (/) He started to play the flute for a drachma, and stops (sc. playing it) for four, (ii) The camel who conceived a desire for horns lost his ears too. (iii) There is no man who is fortunate in all respects, (iv) Many generals lost Caria (cf. too many cooks spoil the broth), (v) Do not let go what is visible and choose what is invisible, (vi) Time alone shows a just man. (vii) You are in no way different from an elephant, (viii) God does not stand aloof from a just deceit, (ix) A visit from (lit. entrance of) many doctors destroyed me. (x) Your appearance is like a lion's but your life is like an ass's (lit. you are a lion as regards your hair, but an ass as regards your life). (4) I see the nose of hook-nosed Nico, Menippus; however, he himself seems to be still far off; but he'll come, let's wait after all. For if [he is] far [away], he is not, I suppose, five stades from (i.e. behind) his nose. But, as you see, it precedes [him] itself. If we stand on (lit. on to) a high mound, we'll see him too. (A.P. xi. 406.) (5) When he was dyeing his head (i.e. his hair) a man lost his hair itself, and although he was very hairy he has completely become an egg. (6) Thereupon, Cleanor stood up and spoke as follows: "Come, gentlemen, you see the perjury and impiety of the King, and you see the faithlessness of Tissaphernes, since, although he used to say that he was a neighbour of Greece and that he would consider it most important to save us, and although he himself swore an oath to us to confirm this (lit. upon these things) and himself gave pledges, he himself deceived and seized our generals, and he did not even respect Zeus God of Hospitality, but after actually sitting at the same table as Clearchus deceived him by these very means and has [now] destroyed the men." (Xenophon Anabasis iii. 2.4.) (7) Well, Socrates, obey the laws and regard (lit. obeying the laws, regard) neither children nor life nor anything else more highly than justice, in order that, when you go [down] to [the house] of Hades you may be able to plead all this in your defence to those who rule there. (8) Socrates manifestly longed not for those who were naturally sound in body with respect to beauty but for those who were naturally sound in soul with respect to virtue. (9) The daughter of a grammarian, after making love (lit. having mingled in sexual intercourse), produced a masculine child, a feminine [child], [and] a neuter [child]. (10) For Zeus gives thought to the greatest [affairs] of mortals, but leaves unimportant [matters] to other gods and lets them be. (11) While it was summer; the soldiers who were in Chios with Eteonicus supported themselves both from [the produce of] the season and by working for hire around the countryside. But when winter came on, and they had no sustenance and they were badly clothed and without shoes, they began to conspire amongst themselves (lit. with each other) to attack Chios. (12) Polymnestor. Alas, what will you say? Is she really somewhere nearby? Show [me], tell [me] where she is, in order that I may seize [her] m hands and tear [her] apart and bloody [her] flesh. Agamemnon. What's this, what's wrong with you? Po. In the name of the gods I beseech jou> let me lay my raging hand[s] on her. Ag. Stop; cast [this] savagery from Lyour] heart and speak, so that, when I have heard both you and her in Ufn, I may fairly decide for what reason (lit. in return for what thing) you

Seated thus (lit. suffer these things). (Euripides Hecuba 1124-1131.)

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\ut. there from where) it is not possible to rise up for (i.e. to give my

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seat to) an older man. (2) (/) You are stirring the brine before you catch the fish (cf. first catch your hare, then cook it), (ii) A tortoise is not concerned about flies, (iii) May such enemies always pursue me. (iv) One should (lit. it is fitting to) scold children indoors, (v) One's speech reflects one's way of life (lit. of what sort [is one's] way of life, of such a sort [is one's] speech). (vi) Count no man fortunate (lit. consider no-one to be fortunate) until he dies, (vii) Dogs resemble their mistresses (lit. of what sort the mistress, of such a sort also the bitch), (viii) It is fitting for a child to be silent rather than to chatter, (ix) Oh, what a head, and it does not have a brain! (χ) Slaves share their masters' sickness, (xi) May I not have (lit. may there not be to me) what I want but what it is advantageous (sc. for me to have), (xu) May you fall into (lit. in with) Hades' anus! (i.e may you die!) (xiii) Would that (or I wish that) the offspring of wretched men were dumb. (3) Whoever of mortals fears death too much, is by nature stupid; [for] this (lit. these things) is the concern of Chance. But whenever the moment of death chances to come, he could not escape [it] even if he went to the halls of Zeus. (Sophocles, fragment 865.) (4) All who marry above themselves (lit. as many as marry marriages better in race) do not know [how] to marry. (5) A man's character is of necessity affected by the sort of people with whom he spends most of his time (lit. with what sort of [a person] a man associates for the greatest part of the day, of such a sort as regards to character it is necessary for him too to become). (6) Next stood up Thorax the Boeotian, who was struggling with Xenophon about the generalship, and said that, if they got out of the Black Sea, they would have (lit. there would be to them) the Chersonnese, a beautiful and blessed country, so that it was possible for anyone who [so] wished to dwell there, and anyone who did not to go off home. It was ridiculous, when there was much bountiful land in Greece, to be searching for [it] in the [country] of the barbarians. "And until you get (lit. become) there, I too promise you pay." (Xenophon Anabasis v.6.25-26.) (7) Once when Diogenes saw [some] women hanging by nooses from an olive-tree, he said, "I wish that all trees had borne such a fruit." (8) Whoever does (or tries to do) many things if it is possible not to do [them], [is] foolish, if it is possible to live a quiet (lit. free from business) life pleasantly. (9) In deliberation (lit. deliberating) the soldiers decided to reply as follows (lit. the following things) and Cheirisophus was their spokesman (lit. spoke): "We are resolved, if we are allowed (lit. someone allows us) to go off home, to proceed through the country doing the least possible harm; but if anyone [tries to] hinder us from the journey, to fight it out with him as vigorously as possible." (10) Indeed [it is] with difficulty [that] you would bear my ordeals, to whom it is not fated to die (or since it is not fated for me to die); for this (i.e. death) would be a deliverance from [my] woes; but as it is, there is no end of toils appointed for me until Zeus is cast out from [his] sovereignty. (Aeschylus Prometheus Bound 752-756.) (11) When Cyrus had listened to such words from Gobryas he spoke to him as follows. (12) Well, what will you do, [mv] heart? Consider well before you err and make most hateful what is [now] most dear (lit. the dearest things). Wherever did you rush forth, you wretch? Check [your] arrogance and strength hated of the gods. And whv (lit. with a view to what) do I lament like this (lit. these things), seeing mv life desolate and abandoned by those who should least (sc. have a b a n d o n e d

me)? Do we then become cowards when we suffer such evils? Do not betra* yourself, [my] heart, in [the midst of] troubles. Alas, it is decided; children, go away from [my] sight (lit. eyes); for already a new frenzy has entered m^ bloody heart; Ο [my] hands, [my] hands, for what a [terrible] task we are

preparing ourselves; alas, wretched [that I am] because of [my] daring, [I] who go to destroy in a brief moment the [product of] my great labour. (Neophron, fragment 2.) (13) When a man came to Lacedaemon and beheld the respect shown by (lit. of) the young towards the old, he said, "In Sparta alone it is profitable to grow old." (14) We should meet together and (lit. making a meeting) lament over a new-born baby (lit. the one [just] born) for all the troubles it is coming to, and in turn farewell with sounds of triumph the man who has died and is freed from troubles as we send him forth from his house (lit. farewelling [and] shouting in triumph send forth). (Euripides, fragment 449.)

21.3 (1) What life [can there be], what joy without golden Aphrodite? May I die, when these things are no longer my concern (lit. a care to me), [viz] secret love and gentle gifts and bed (or sex), the sorts of things which are the attractive flowers of youth for men and women. But when distressing old age comes on, [old age] which makes a man both ugly and base, evil cares always distress him in his heart (or mind), nor is he glad when he looks upon the rays of the sun, but [he is] hateful to boys and dishonoured by women. So painful did God make old age. (Mimnermus 1.) (2) You, [who are] my star, gaze at the stars. Would I might become the sky, in order that I might see you with many eyes. (3) Formerly you shone among the living [like] the Morning Star; but now you have died you shine [like] the Evening Star among the dead. (4) I am sending you sweet perfume, [thus] doing a favour to the perfume, not to you; for you yourself are able to give fragrance even to perfume. (5) Hail, Messenger of Dawn, Bringer of Light, and may you come [back] quickly [as the] Evening Star, bringing secretly back again [the girl] whom you are [now] leading away.

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22.2 You, Love, ruler of gods and men, either do not teach beauty to appear beautiful or assist lovers (lit. those who are in love) with good fortune, as they suffer the pains of which you are the author. (Euripides, fragment 136.) (2) For it was evening, and someone had come to the prytaneis with the report (lit. announcing) that Elatea had been captured. After this some of them got up immediately in the middle of dinner, cleared out the people in the stalls throughout the market-place, and set fire to the wicker-work, while others sent for the generals and summoned the trumpeter. The city was filled with commotion. On the following day at dawn the prytaneis called the councillors (lit. the council) into the Council-chamber, while you Proceeded to the Assembly, and before they dealt with the matter and framed a draft resolution the whole people was seated on the hill (i.e. the nyx; lit, above). After this, when the Council had arrived and the prytaneis

^ad announced what had been reported to them and had introduced the Messenger (lit. the one who had come) and he had spoken, the herald put

question, "Who wishes to speak?" And no-one came forward, ^emosthenes On the Crown 169-170.) (3) (i) Ask even statues for [your]

any bread (double acc.) (i.e. you're not getting anything from me!). (/'/') e r e is a certain Socrates, a wise man, who speculates on (lit. a deep

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thinker about) the heavens above (lit. things high in the air; accusative of respect) and has investigated everything beneath the earth (direct object). (iii) He has come to take from us even the property of [our] grandfather (double acc.). (iv) He came to the ancient tomb of [his] father (acc. of motion towards). (v) [My] long life teaches me many things (double acc.). (vi) Meletus brought this indictment against me (direct object; cognate acc.). (vii) Cyrus was very handsome in appearance and very humane in spirit (acc. of respect), (viii) [No], by Zeus (acc. in oath), I did not see a woodcutter (direct obj.) better than myself. (ix) They made a treaty and alliance for a hundred years (acc. to express time how long), (χ) I swear by the holy sky, the dwelling of Zeus (acc. in oath).(4) (i) How sweet [a thing] [is] solitude to the man who hates common people (exclamatory adv.). (ii) Hide nothing, for all-seeing (lit. seeing everything) time unfolds everything (causal conjunction), (iii) We bear children for this reason [viz] that we may protect the altars of the gods and [our] native land (conjunction introducing purpose clause), (iv) He seized the acropolis to gain sole power (lit. as for tyranny; adv. introducing prepositional phrase), (v) [We/one] must try to bear the constraints (lit. the necessary things) of life as lightly (lit. easily) as possible (cbc+ supl.). (vi) Effort, as/so they say, is the father of fame (conjunction introducing a parenthetical clause, 22.1/lb(v)). (vii) Alas, alas, how fine a privilege is a just victory (lit. to win just things), but how absolutely evil is an unjust victory (lit. [to win] unjust things) (exclamatory adv.). (viii) How sweet is life, if a man does not understand it (exclamatory adv.). (ix) Give to the poor, in order that you find god a giver (conjunction introducing purpose clause), (x) Time judges friends as fire [judges] gold (conjunction introducing a clause of manner), (xi) When you are young remember that one day you will be old (tic = ότι, indirect statement), (xii) Do we not live as pleasantly as possible if we do not grieve? (CDC + supl.). (xiii) They sailed away from the Hellespont separately according to their cities (22.1/l(v)). (xiv) Really wise men (cbc with positive adv.). (5) At first Oedipus was a fortunate man, [but] then he became the most wretched of mortals. (6) Well, as you know, I have wept for many sufferings, but now I shall speak of one [suffering] such as [I have] not yet [wept for] before. When [my] lord Heracles was setting out on his last journey from home, at that time he left in the house an ancient tablet inscribed with signs, w h i c h he had never brought himself to explain to me like this before, when he went forth on [his] many exploits, but he used to go as one who was about to do something [notable] and not as one about to die. (Sophoc l e s Trachiniae 153-160.) (7) I made war first against the Thracians, driving them from the Hellespont as they wanted to take the country from the Greeks. (8) Ο old age, what hope of pleasure you have, and every single man wishes to live through (lit. come) to you. But when he has made trial [of you], he regrets (sc. that he has; lit. takes regret) because there is no worse evil among the mortal race. (Euripides, fragment 1080.) (9) For I, Cebes, when young, had an enormous desire (lit. desired enormously) for this wisdom which they call the investigation into (lit. of) nature.

22.3 (/) We congratulate you, grasshopper, when on the tops of the trees you sing like a king, after drinking a little dew; for yours are all those things w h i c h you see in the fields, [all those things] which the woods nourish. You [are] held in honour among mortals, sweet harbinger of summer. The Muses love

you, and Phoebus himself loves [you], and gave [you] a shrill power of _ - _ song. Old age does not distress you, ο skilful, earth-born lover of song, and ^ since you know not suffering (lit. [being] unsuffering), ο [creature of] g J" bloodless flesh, you are nearly equal to the gods. (Anacreontea 34.) (ii) My 2 ^ (lit. to us) temples [are] now grey, and my head white, and no longer is §· ο graceful youth at hand, and my teeth are aged. No longer is there left much g ® time of sweet life; for this reason (lit. on account of these things) I weep often in fear of Tartarus. For terrible is the inner chamber of Hades, and painful the path down to him; and further [it is] fixed for the man who has g gone down not to come up [again]. (Anacreon 50.) ~

23.2 (1) (/) Ο sweet charm of sleep (gen. of explanation), ally against sickness (objective gen.), (ii) He wanted to be [one] of those who remained (partitive gen.), (iii) Ο Poseidon, what skill! (gen. of exclamation), (iv) To bear poverty is not [the nature] of everyone, but of a wise man (gen. of characteristic), (v) Pay close attention (lit. apply the mind very much) to this man (dat. of indirect object), I beg you (ethic dat.). (vi) Many treatments have been found by doctors (dat. of agent), (vii) Sleep is naturally a safeguard of the body (lit. of bodies; objective gen.), (viii) [It is the mark] of a wicked man to praise and blame the same person (gen. of characteristic), (ix) Such is tyranny for you, Lacedaemonians (dat. of reference or ethic dat.). (x) Olympian Zeus, dwelling in the sky (dat. of place where), knows this, (xi) They accuse him of theft (verb of accusing, gen. of charge), (xii) Men lie because of their own (subjective/possessive gen.) fear of death (objective gen.), (xiii) They were afraid that the Athenians might attack with a greater force (military dat.). (xiv) They will approach with much shouting (dat. of manner), (xv) The boy's name (lit. the name to the boy; dat. of possession) was Plato, (x vi) Art is weaker by far (dat. of measure of difference) than necessity (gen. of comparison), (xvii) I admire you for [your] intelligence, but I loathe [you] for [your] cowardice (both gen. of cause), (xviii) I tried to steal [some] of the meat (partitive gen.), (xix) In your eyes (dat. of reference) did this man do these things justly? or Did this man do these things justly for you? (dat. of advantage), (xx) They did these things for the gods (dat. of advantage), (xxi) He was loathsome and rough in his voice (dat. of respect), (xxii) The artny arrived at Oenoe in Attica (chorographic gen.), (xxiii) You see the king's perjury (subjective/possessive gen.), (xxiv) I am not disheartened by what has happened (gen. of cause). (2) Diogenes went up to Anaximenes the orator who was fat and said, "Give [some] of your belly to us the poor too; for you will both be lightened yourself and will help us." (3) There was a saymg that wiles are the concern of women, whereas men are of surer aim with the spear. For if the prize of victory were [won] by guiles, we would have sovereignty over men. (Euripides, fragment 321.) (4) And now I advise all younger [men] not to produce children tardily, making delays up to old a8 e (or until they are old). For [this] (i.e. producing children in old age) is no pleasure, and an old man is a hateful thing to (or for) a woman. But [do it] as quickly as possible. For rearing [children] is beautiful and a boy sharing

y°u th with a youthful father is a pleasant [thing]. (Euripides, fragment (5) Meletus. This [is what] I say, that not at all do you believe in the

8°ds. Socrates. You really amaze me in speaking like this, Meletus (lit. ο s

m a z i n 8 Meletus, why do you say this?). Do I not even believe then that the U n or the moon are gods, as the rest of mankind [do]? Me. [No], by Zeus,

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gentlemen of the jury, since he says that the sun is a stone and the moon earth. So. Do you think that you are accusing Anaxagoras, my dear Meletus? And do you so despise these men and think that they ere [so] illiterate (lit. inexperienced in letters) that they do not know that the books of Anaxagoras of Clazomenae are full of such statements? And moreover the youth learn these [doctrines], do they, from me, which they can buy for a drachma in (lit. from) the orchestra and [then] laugh at Socrates if he claims they are his own, especially since they are so absurd? Well, for heaven's sake (lit. Ο by Zeus), is this what you think of me (lit. do I seem thus to you)? Do I not believe in any god? Me. No indeed, by Zeus, not in the very least. So. You are not to be believed, Meletus, and that too, as it seems (lit. you seem) to me, [even] by yourself. For this man appears to me, men of Athens, to be very violent and unrestrained, and simply to have brought this indictment through (or because of) violence and lack of restraint and youthful folly. For he seems like a man making trial [of me] [by] composing a riddle: "Will Socrates the wise recognize that I am joking and contradicting myself, or shall I deceive him and the rest of those who are listening [to me]?" For he appears to me to contradict himself in the indictment, as if he were to say," Socrates is a wrong-doer [by] not believing in the gods, but by believing in the gods." And yet this is the [mark or conduct] of a joker (lit. of [someone] joking). (Plato Apology 26c-27a.)

23.3 (1) I am the tomb of a ship-wrecked [sailor]; and the one opposite [is the tomb] of a farmer; for Hades lies beneath, common to [both] sea and land. (2) Here Saon, the [son] of Dico, of Acanthus, slumbers in holy sleep (lit. sleeps a holy sleep); do not say that the good die. (3) Philip, his father; laid (or buried) here his twelve-year-old son, his great hope, Nicoteles. (4) These men, having invested (lit. placed round) their dear native-land with imperishable glory, put on the dark cloud of death; but they are not dead in death (lit. having died), since from above their valour glorifies them and raises them from the house of Hades. (Simonides 121 D.). (5) This monument hides Aeschylus, son of Euphorion, the Athenian, who died in wheat-bearing Gela; but of his famous valour the grove of Marathon could tell, and the long-haired Mede who knew it. (6) Tears I give to you, Heliodora, even below through the earth, a remnant of love [sent] to Hades, tears sorely wept; and on [your] much-lamented tomb I pour the stream of [my] longing, the memorial of [my] affection. Piteously, piteously I Meleager lament you, my dear (lit. dear you), even among the dead, an empty favour to (or for) Acheron. Alas, where is my flower (lit. shoot or sprout) [sorely] missed? Hades snatched [her], snatched [her], and the dust marred the flower of her youth (lit. the blooming flower). But I implore you, all-nurturing Earth, gently clasp hei; all-lamented (lit. the a l l - lamented [girl]), to your bosom, Ο Mother. (Meleager A.P. vii.476.).

24.2 (1) Where a negative is involved, the relevant subsection of 24.1/2 is given after the appropriate explanatory term, (i) The man who knows n o t h i n g (generic (/)) makes no mistakes (statement (a)), (ii) Consider no-one a friend (prohibition/negative command (a)) until you examine how he has treated

his previous friends, (iii) They do everything so as not to be punished (infinitive (e)). (iv) Nothing (statement (a)) was done because of the fact that the archon was not present (infinitive (e)). (ν) I do not know (statement (a)) whether to travel (lit. I am to travel) or not (deliberative question (a)). (vi) I am afraid that I do not have (noun clause (d)) sufficient [people] to whom I am to give the gold, (vii) Take courage, Cyrus, I shall not hide (strong denial (h)) from you [the person] to whom I wish to go (lit. arrive). (viii) And they said that they would give back the corpses on condition that [they] did not burn (infinitive (e)) the villages, (ix) The deed which is not just (generic (/)) does not escape (statement (a)) the notice of the gods, (x) What is to prevent them from dying? (verb of preventing is virtually negative because the answer nothing is expected (24.1/7)). (xi) He wanted to be a friend of (lit. friendly to) those who were most powerful in order that, when he did wrong, he might not be punished (purpose clause (b)). (xii) If you don't check (conditional clause (b)) your tongue, you will have troubles (lit. troubles will be to you), (xiii) You cannot (lit. could not) be prosperous if you do not toil (participle used conditionally (/)). (xiv) You shall not be hostile to your friends (strong prohibition (g)). (xv) If you say what you want (sc. to say), [then] hear in turn what you don't want (sc. to hear) (general adjectival clause (c)). (xvi) [We/one] must either eat tortoise meat or not eat [at all] (infinitive (e)). (xvii) Can you tell me whether virtue can be taught (lit. is a teachable [thing]) or not? (alternative question (i) -μή is also possible). (xviii) No-one will deny that he knows what is just (lit. just things) (negated verb of denying (24.1/7). (xix) He was afraid that he would not be able to go out of the country (noun clause (d)). (xx) Do not go away until you hear (prohibition/negative command (a)). (2) We must worship the gods, benefit our friends, help the city, try to do good to Greece, cultivate the land, look after the cattle, [and] learn the arts of war. (3) When anyone is brought to (lit. into) a hostile (lit. opposing) trial and is about to speak about bloodshed, fear brings the mouth of men to consternation and hinders the mind from saying what it wishes. (Euripides, fragment 67.) (4) You must beware not to be obviously doing publicly any of things which you would privately guard against. (5) All these laws have been in existence (lit. made) for a long time now, gentlemen of the jury, and no-one ever yet denied that they would be good. (6) Take care not to reveal your low birth (lit. lest you may appear being born lowly). (7) So I greeted the two of them, since I had not seen them for some time (lit. as having seen [them] after a time); and after this I said to Cleinias, "Cleinias, these two men, you know, Euthydemus and Dionysodorus, are skilled not in trivialities (lit. little things) but in important matters. For they know all about (lit. the things about) war." They despised me for saying this (lit. when I said this I was despised by them); so they both laughed, looking at each other, and Euthydemus said, "We do not, Socrates, concern ourselves with these things any longer, but deal with them [as] subordinate issues." And I said admiringly, "Your business must be a fine one, if such important m ? t t e r s haPPen to be subordinate for you; in the name of the gods, tell me what this [fine] business is." "Virtue," he said, "Socrates, [is what] we

nk w e are able to deliver as excellently and speedily as is humanly Possible." "Zeus," I said,"what a [splendid] affair. Where (lit. from where) a y°u find this treasure. I was still thinking about you, as I said just now,

s tor the most part being clever at this, [i.e.] fighting under arms, and this [ls w"at] I was saying about you; for when you visited [us] before, I

Member that this [is what] the pair of you professed." (Plato Euthydemus fo l ]

c-e ;) (8) After him (lit. this man) Xenophon said, "And I am of the owing opinion (lit. think thus). If it is necessary [for us] to fight, we

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must make preparations to fight as vigorously as possible; but if we wish to cross as easily as possible, I think we should consider how we may receive as few wounds as possible and lose as few lives as possible." (9) We must consider whether it is right or not (lit. just.. . or not just) for me to try to leave from here without the permission of the Athenians (lit. the Athenians not letting [me] go). (10) A. Tell me, do you have a field? B. No, I don't. (11) And further if we submit and come into the power of the king, what do you think we shall suffer? He cut off the head and hand of even his brother by the same mother and [that too] when already dead, and impaled them. As for us, who have no protector and [who] made an expedition against him with the intention of making him a slave instead of a king and of killing him if we could, what do you think we would suffer? Surely he would go to any lengths so that, by inflicting the worst outrages on us, he might instill in all men fear of ever campaigning against him? But everything must be done so that we do not come into his power. (Xenophon Anabasis iii. 1.17f.)

24.3 Strepsiades. In the name of the gods, what is this (lit. these things)? Tell me. Student. This is astronomy. Str. And what's this? St. Geometry. Str. So what's it (lit. this thing) useful for? St. To measure out land. Str. [Do you mean land] for cleruchies? St. No, [land] as a whole. Str. What you say is attractive (lit. you say an attractive [thing]). For the device is democratic (or popular) and useful. St. And this, notice, is a map of the whole world. Do you see? Here is Athens. Str. What do you mean? I don't believe [you], for I cannot (lit. do not) see [any] jurymen sitting [there]. St. [I assure you] that this area is truly Attic (or Attica). Str. Come now, who's this man in the basket? St. The master. Str. Who's the master? St. Socrates. Str. Ah, [it's] Socrates. You there, go [and] call him loudly for me. St. No, you call [him] yourself. I don't have the time. Str. Socrates! Dear little Socrates! Socrates. Why do you call me, creature of a day? Str. In the first place, tell me, I pray, what you are doing. So. I tread the air and my thoughts centre round the sun (lit. I think about the sun). Str. Then you're looking down on the gods from [your] mat, and (lit. but) not from the earth, if [indeed that's what you're doing]. So. [Yes] for I would never have correctly d i scovered heavenly phenomena, except by suspending [my] perception and thought. (Aristophanes Clouds 200-209, 218-229.)

25.2 (1) Again mighty Hector of the gleaming helmet addressed her: "Indeed all this is my concern, [my] wife; but I am terribly afraid of the Trojans and the Trojan women with their trailing robes, if, like a coward, I shrink away far from the fighting. Nor does my spirit [so] order me, since I have learned always to be brave and to fight among the foremost [ranks of the] Trojans, winning great glory both for my father and for myself. For I know this wel l in my heart and in my soul: there will come (lit. be) a day when holy Ilium will be destroyed, and Priam and the people of Priam of the fine ash-spear. But [it is] not so much grief for the Trojans hereafter [which] troubles me, neither for Hecuba herself nor for lord Priam nor for [my] brothers, who, many and brave, may fall in the dust at the hands of the enemy (lit. hostile

men), as [grie£] for you, when one of the bronze-clad Achaeans will lead vou away in tears, taking away [your] day of liberty; and living (lit. being) in Argos you will weave a web at the command of another [woman] (i.e. a mistress), and carry water from [the spring] Messeis or Hypereia, much unwi l l ing , but strong necessity will be upon [you]. And one day a man seeing you shedding tears will say: "This is the wife of Hector who was the best of the horse-taming Trojans at fighting [at the time] when they (i.e. the Greeks) besieged Ilium." Thus one day will someone speak; and for you it will be a fresh grief because of the lack of such a husband to ward off the day of slavery. But may earth heaped up cover me in death before I hear your scream when you are taken away by force (lit. both your scream and your being carried off)." (Iliad vi. 440-465.) (2) All night long they sat with high thoughts (lit. thinking big) along the embankments of war; and their fires blazed in great numbers (lit. many). Just as when in the sky the stars are seen conspicuous[ly] around the bright moon, when the air becomes windless; and there appear all the lookout-places and the tops of the headlands and the glens; and from heaven the boundless air is rent beneath, and all the stars are seen, and the shepherd rejoices in his heart. So many shone the fires as the Trojans lit [them] in front of Ilium, between the ships and the streams of Xanthus. A thousand fires then were blazing in the plain, and beside each one sat fifty [men] in the gleam of the blazing fire. And the horses, feeding on white barley and wheat, stood beside the chariots and waited for fair-throned Dawn. (Iliad viii. 553-565.) (3) Tell me, Muse, of the man of many wiles, who wandered far and wide (lit. very much), after he had sacked the holy citadel of Troy. He saw the cities of many men and came to know [their] minds, and on the sea he suffered many griefs in his heart, striving to win his own life and the home-coming of [his] companions. But not even so did he save [his] companions, strive as he might, for they perished by their own presumptuousness, fools, who devoured the cattle of Hyperion the Sun [God]; and he took from them the day of [their] homecoming. (Odyssey i.1-9.) (4) From there I was carried along for nine days by baneful winds over the sea full of fish; but on the tenth [day] we stepped on to the land of the Lotus-Eaters, who feed on [that] flowery food. There we set foot on the mainland and drew water, and [my] companions quickly took their meal beside the swift ships. But when we had partaken of food and drink, then I sent ahead [some of my] companions to go and find out what sort of men were living (lit. eating food) in [this] land, choosing two men and sending a third with [them] as herald. They went off and quickly fell in with the Lotus-Eaters (lit. the Lotus-eating men]. Nor did the Lotus-Eaters plot destruction for our companions, but gave them [some] lotus to taste. Whoever of them ate the honey-sweet fruit of the lotus was no longer willing to report back [to us] or return, but wished to remain there with the Lotus-Eaters, feeding on lotus, and to forget [his] home-coming. Forcibly I brought them [back] in tears to the ships, and I dragged [them] and bound [them] under the benches in the hollowed ships. Then I ordered the rest of my trusty companions to embark with haste (lit. hurrying) on the swift ships, lest any

them might somehow eat of the lotus and forget their home-coming. I hey went quickly on board and sat down at the benches, and sitting in 0rder they smote the grey sea with the oars. (Odyssey ix. 82-104.)

319 2 % S 3 3.S Φ ο

present Future

αγγελλω announce άγω lead (έπ-) αίνέω praise αίρέω take; mid. choose αϊρω raise αίοθάνομαι perceive αΐοχύνω dishonour ακούω hear άλίοκομαι be captured άμαρτάνω err άμύνω wwif off άναλίοκω spend άνοίγνΰμι open αποκρίνομαι answer άρχω begin, rw/e άφικνέομαι arrive

άγγελώ

άξω

αινεοομαι (αίνέοω) αίρήοω

αρω

αίοθηςομαι

αίοχυνώ

άκοΰοομαι

άλωοομαι

άμαρτηοομαι

άμυνώ

άνδλωοω

ανοίξω

άποκρινοΰμαι

άρξω

άφίξομαι

βαίνω

βάλλω throw βλάπτω Wf, m/ttre βοάω shout βούλομαι wish

Υαμεω γαμώ έγημα (with man as subject)

Υαμεομαι γαμοϋμαι έγημάμην (with woman as subject)

Υελαω γελάοομαι έγέλαοα laugh

βήοομαι

βαλω

βλάψω

βοήοομαι

βουλήοομαι

Aorist Perfect Perfect Aorist mid. pass. passive

ήγγειλα ήγγελκα ήγγελμαι ήγγέλθην

ήγαγον ήχα ήγμαι ήχ&ην

ήνεεα ήνεκα ήνημαι ήνέθην

ειλον ήρηκα ήρημαι ήρέθην

ήρα ήρκα ήρμαι ήρφην

ήοθόμην ήοθημαι

ήοχΰνα ήοχύνθην

ήκουοα άκήκοα ήκούοθην

έδλων έδλωκα

ήμαρτον ήμάρτηκα ήμάρτημαι ήμαρτηθην

ήμΰνα

άνήλωεα άνήλωκα άνηλωμαι άνηλώθην

άνέωξα άνέωχα άνέωγμαι άνεωχθην

άπεκρίνάμην άποκέκριμαι

ήρξα ήργμαι ηρχβην

άφΤκόμην άφϊγμαι

έβην βεβηκα

έβαλον βέβληκα βεβλημαι έβλήθην

έβλαψα βεβλαφα βέβλαμμαι έβλάφθην έβλάβην

έβόηοα

321

βεβούλημαι έβουλήθην

γεγαμηκα

γεγαμημαι

έγελάοθην CF ω

Present Future Aorist

γίγνομαι γενηςομαι έγενόμην become γιγνώοκω γνώοομαι έγνων know γράφω γράψω έγραψα write

δάκνω δήξομαι έδακον bite δει δεήεει έδέηςε impers. it is necessary δείκνϋμι δείξω έδειξα show δέομαι δεήοομαι need, ask δέχομαι δέξομαι έδεξάμην receive, aw/art δέω (A) δεήοω έδέηοα want, /acfc δέω (Β) δήοω έδηοα bind διαλέγομαι διαλέξομαι converse διδάοκω διδάξω έδίδαξα teach δίδωμι δώοω έδωκα give

έδιωξα διώκω διώξομαι έδιωξα pursue δοκέω δόξω έδοξα seem, think δύναμαι δυνηοομαι be able, caw

έάω έδοω εΐδοα a//ow/, let alone έγειρω εγερώ ήγειρα arouse έθέλω έθελήοω ήθέληοα wish, fee willing ε'ίργω εΐρξω ειρξα imprison, prevent έλαύνω έλώ (= αω) ήλαοα drive έλέγχω έλέγξω ήλεγξα examine, confute έλκω έλξω ε'ίλκυοα Jrag, draw; έπίοταμαι έπιοτηοομαι understand έπομαι έψομαι έοπόμην follow

Perfect Perfect mid. pass.

Aorist passive

γέγονα γεγένημαι

έγνωκα έγνωομαι έγνώοθην

γέγραφα γέγραμμαι έγράφην

δέδηγμαι έδηχθην

δέδειχα δέδειγμαι έδείχθην

δεδέημαι έδεήβην

δέδεγμαι έδέχθην

δέδεκα δέδεμαι έδέθην

διείλεγμαι διελέχθην

δεδίδαχα δεδίδαγμαι έδιδάχθην

δέδωκα δέδομαι έδόθην

δεδίωχα

δέδογμαι

έδιώχ&ην

δεδύνημαι έδυνηθην

εΐδκα ειδμαι είδθην

έγρήγορα (intr.) I am awake ήθέληκα

ειργμαι εϊρχθην

έλήλακα έλήλαμαι ήλάθην

έλήλεγμαι ήλέγχθην

εϊλκυκα είλκυςμαι είλκύοθην

ήπιοτηθην

present Future Aorist

εργάζομαι έργάοομαι ήργαοάμην work έρχομαι ειμι ήλθον come, go ερωτάω έρωτηςω (ήρώτηοα) ask a question έρηοομαι ήρόμην έοθίω έδομαι έφαγον eat εύρίοκω εύρήοω ηύρον find έχω έξω έοχον have οχήςω ζάω ζήοω/ζήοομαι live βιώοομαι

ήδομαι ήοθηοομαι be pleased

θάπτω θάψω bury θαυμάζω θαυμάοομαι wonder (άπο-)θνηοκω θανούμαι die θύω θύοω sacrifice

Τημι ήοω send ίοτημι ςτηοω place, make stand

καίω καύοω burn καλέω καλώ call κελεύω κελεύοω order, bid κλαίω κλαύοομαι weep κλέπτω κλέψω steal κομίζω κομιώ convey,, bring κρίνω κρινώ judge κτάομαι κτηοομαι acquire (άπο-)κτείνω κτενώ kill

Perfect Perfect Aorist mid. pass. passive

ε'ίργαομαι ήργάοθην

έλήλυθα

ήρώτηκα ήρώτημαι ήρωτη&ην

έδήδοκα έδήδεςμαι

ηύρηκα ηϋρημαι ηύρέθην

έοχηκα έοχημαι

βεβίωκα

ήοθην

τέθαμμαι έτάφην

τεθαύμακα τεθαύμαομαι έθαυμάοθην

τεθνηκα

τεθυκα τεθυμαι έτύθην

είκα είμαι ε'ίθην

έετηκα (intr.) έοταμαι έοτάθην

κέκαυκα κέκαυμαι έκαύθην

κέκληκα κέκλημαι έκλήθην

κεκέλευκα κεκέλευομαι έκελεύοθην

κέκλαυμαι

κέκλοφα κέκλεμμαι έκλάπην

κεκόμικα κεκόμιομαι έκομίοθην

κέκρικα κέκριμαι έκρίθην

κέκτημαι έκτηθην possess

έκτονα

έβίων

έθαψα

έθαύμαοα

έθανον

έθ13οα

ήκα

έοτηοα (tr.) έοτην (intr.)

έκαυοα

έκάλεςα

έκέλευοα

έκλαυοα

έκλεψα

έκόμιοα

έκρΤνα

έκτηςάμην

έκτεινα

Present Future Aorist Perfect Perfect Aorist mid. pass. passive

λαγχάνω λήξομαι έλαχον εΐληχα εΐληγμαι έλήχθην obtain by lot λαμβάνω λήψομαι έλαβον εΐληφα εΐλημμαι έλήφθην take λανθάνω λήοω έλαθον λέληθα escape the notice of, lie hidden (έπι-) λανθάνομαι λήοομαι έλαθόμην λέληομαι forget λέγω (A) λέξω έλεξα λέλεγμαι έλέχθην say έρώ ειπον είρηκα εΐρημαι έρρήθην λέγω (Β) λέξω έλεξα εΐλοχα ε'ίλεγμαι έλέγην pick up, gather (λέλεγμαι) λείπω λείψω έλιπον λέλοιπα λέλειμμαι έλείφθην leave

μανθάνω μαθηοομαι έμαθον μεμάβηκα learn μάχομαι μαχοϋμαι έμαχεοάμην μεμάχημαι fight μαχήοομαι μέλει μελήοει έμέληοε μεμέληκε impers. it is a care (επι-) μελέομαι μελήοομαι μεμέλημαι έμελήθην care for μέλλω μελλήοω έμέλληςα intend μένω μενώ έμεινα μεμένηκα remain (άνα-)

έμνηοθην μιμνηςκω μνηςω έμνηοα μέμνημαι έμνηοθην remind remember remembered

νέω νεύοομαι ένευοα νένευκα swim νομίζω νομιώ ένόμιοα νενόμικα νενόμιομαι ένομίοθην think

οιδα εϊοομαι ήδη (19.1/3) know οίομαι οίήοομαι ώήθην (also οιμαι) think (άπ-) όλλϋμι όλώ ώλεεα όλωλεκα (tr.) destroy, lose όλωλα (intr. I am ruined ) (άπ-) όλλυμαι όλοΰμαι ώλόμην be lost, perish

ώμό(ο)θην όμνϋμι όμοΰμαι ώμοοα όμώμοκα όμώμο(ε)μαι ώμό(ο)θην swear όράω όψομαι ειδον έόρδκα έώρδμαι ώφ&ην see έώρδκα ώμμαι

ώργίςθην οργίζομαι όργιούμαι ώργιομαι ώργίςθην become angry

Present

οφείλω owe

πάοχω suffer πείθω persuade πέμπω send πίμπλημι fill πίνω drink πίπτω fall πλέω sail πράττω do πυνθάνομαι ascertain πωλέω sell

ρήγνϋμι break ρίπτω throw

οκεδάννΰμι scatter οπείρω sow οτέλλω send, equip οφάλλω trip up οωζω save

Future

όφειλήοω

πείοομαι

πείοω

πέμψω

πλήοω

πίομαι

πεοούμαι

πλεΰοομαι

πράξω

πεύοομαι

άποδώεομαι

ρήξω

ρίψω

οκεδώ (= άω)

οπερώ

οτελώ

οφαλώ

εώεω

Aorist

ώφείληοα ωφελον (21,

έπαθον

έπειοα

έπεμψα

έπληοα

έπιον

έπεοον

έπλευοα

έπρδξα

έπυθόμην

άπεδόμην

έρρηξα

έρρίψα

έοκέδαοα

έεπειρα

έοτειλα

έοφηλα

1/1)

Perfect

ώφείληκα ) πέπονθα

Perfect mid. pass.

πέπεικα (tr.) πέπειομαι πέποιθα (intr. trust) πέπομφα πέπεμμαι

πεπληκα

πέπωκα

πέπτωκα

πέπληομαι

πέπομαι

πέπλευκα πέπλευομαι

πέπρδχα (tr.) πέπρδγμαι πέπρδγα (intr. have fared )

πέπυομαι

πεπρδκα

έρρωγα (intr. am broken )

έρρίφα έρρΤμμαι

εοπαρκα

έοταλκα

Aorist passive

έπείοθην

έπέμφθην

έπλήοθην

έπόθην

έπρδχθην

πέπρδμαι έπρδθην

έοκέδαομαι

έοπαρμαι

έοταλμαι

έεφαλμαι

ςέοωομαι

ερραγην

έρρίφθην

έοκεδάοθην

έοπάρην

έετάλην

έοφάλην

έοώθην

τελέω finish

τελώ έτέλεοα τετέλεκα τετέλεομαι έτελέοθην

τέμνω cut

τεμώ έτεμον τέτμηκα τέτμημαι έτμήθην

τιθημ! Place, put

θηοω έθηκα τέθηκα τέθειμαι έτέθην

^κτω . „ „ beget

τεςομαι ετεκον τέτοκα ητΡώςκω wound

τρώςω έτρωοα τέτρωμαι έτρώθην τΡεπω τρέψω τέτροφα turn τρέψω έτρεψα τέτροφα τέτραμμαι έτράπην

325 Ό 2. 3 Ο

Ι •ο ω & ο φ I

ετρεφθην

326 Ό 3. 3 Ο Ι Ό ω *

a 3 3-<Λ

Present Future Aorist Perfect Perfect Aorist mid. pass. passive

τρέφω θρέψω έθρεψα τέτροφα τέθραμμαι έτραφην nourish έθρέφθην τρέχω δραμούμαι έδραμον δεδράμηκα

τυγχάνω τεύξομαι έτυχον τετύχηκα happen

τύπτω τυπτηοω έτύπτηοα strike

ύπιοχνέομαι ύποοχήοομαι ΰπεοχόμην ύπέοχημαι promise

φαίνω φανώ έφηνα πέφαγκα πέφαεμαι έφάνθην show (tr. I have (/ was shown

shown ) [to be]) πέφηνα έφάνην (intr. I have (intr. I

φέρω appeared) appeared)

φέρω OICO) ήνεγκον ένηνοχα ένηνεγμαι ήνέχθην bring, carry

φεύξομαι πέφευγα φεύγω φεύξομαι έφυγον πέφευγα flee

φηοω φημί φηοω έφηοα say (έφην impf.) φθάνω φθηοομαι έφθαεα anticipate έφθην (like έοτην)

έφθάρην (δια-)φθείρω φθερώ έφθειρα έφθαρκα έφθαρμαι έφθάρην destroy, corrupt

πεφόβημαι έφοβήθην φοβεομαι φοβηοομαι πεφόβημαι έφοβήθην fear

φύεω φύω φύεω έφΰοα (tr.) πεφΰκα (intr. am by nature, am ) produce έφϋν (intr. grew, was )

χαίρω χαιρήοω κεχάρηκα έχάρην rejoice

έχρήοθην χράομαι χρήοομαι έχρηςάμην κέχρημαι έχρήοθην use ΧΡΆ χρήοται χρήν, έχρήν (both impf.)

impers. it is necessary (έπριάμην) έωνηθην ώνεομαι ωνηεομαι (έπριάμην) έώνημαι έωνηθην

In using the vocabulary the following should be noted: (a) In addition to the abbreviations explained on pp.xiif the sign f is

used: (i) before a simple verb whose principal parts are given on

pp.32 Iff. (ii) after a compound verb whose simple form is included in the

same list. (b) The feminine and neuter forms of adjectives and the genitive of

nouns are nearly always abbreviated and will not necessarily have the same accent as the form given in full, e.g. the genitive of apuccoc is apuccou, but these are listed below as aPuccoc, -ου ; in these cases the accent of the abbreviated form must be deduced from the rules for accentuation given in Appendix 8.

(c) The form of the article which accompanies each noun indicates its gender.

άβατος, -ov impassable apioc, -ov unlivable,

unsupportable appotoc, -ov without men, ># deserted by men apuccoc, -ου, ή abyss αγαγ- aor. stem of άγω αγαθός -η, -όν good, noble,

brave άγαθά λέγω speak well of (+acc., 22.1/2/iii)) αγαθά ποιέω do good to (tacc., 22.1/2^(ii))

Αγαθών, —covoc, ο Agathon , (,tragic poet) αγαλλομαι %lory, exult in (+dat.) ?γαμαι (aor. ηγάςθην) admire Αγαμέμνων, -ovoc, ό

Agamemnon (Greek „ commander at Troy) αγ°ν (adv.) too much, , excessively ^ανακτέω be annoyed αΎαπαω love

Ιάγγέλλω report, announce άγγελος, -ου, ο messenger άγγος, -ouc, το vessel, urn TAyic, -i6oc, ό Agis (IGng of

Sparta) άγκϋρα, HXc, ή anchor άγνοέω not to know, fail to

understand άγνοια,-Oc, η ignorance άγνόΰ, -η, -όν chaste αγορά, -ac, ή place of assembly,

market-place; agora αγοράζω buy in the market αγορεύω speak (in assembly);

proclaim άγριος, -δ, -ov fierce, cruel άγροικος, -ov from the country,

rustic, boorish αγρός, -οΰ, ό field, country,

farm άγρυπνέω lie awake, pass

sleepless nights +άγω lead, bring

άγω καί φέρω plunder

άγών, -CDVOC ό contest, trial, competition, exploit

αδαμάντινος -ov adamantine, of steel

αδελφή, - η ς ή sister αδελφιδή, - η ς ή niece αδελφός -ού, ό brother άδεώο (adv.) fearlessly άδηλος -ov unclear άδικέω be unjust, commit a

crime; wrong, injure (+acc.) αδίκημα, -ατος τό crime, wrong αδικία, -<Zc, ή injustice, wrong-

doing άδικος -ov unjust, dishonest άδίκωο (adv.) unjustly "Αδμητος -ου, ό Admetus (king

of Pherae, husband of Alcestis) άδολεοχηο, -ου, ό idle talker,

babbler; (as. adj.) garrulous άδύνατοο -ov impossible;

incapable φδω sing αεί (adv.) always, continually;

in succession αείδω = ήδω άεικής -ec shameful άείμνηοτοο, -ov not to be

forgotten #άεκαζόμενος -η, -ov

unwilling(ly) #άεροβατεω tread the air

αετός -ού, ό eagle αηδών, - ό ν ο ς ή nightingale αήρ, - έ ρ ο ς ό air αθάνατος -ov immortal 'Αθηνά, -ac, ή Athena Ά θ ή ν α ζ ε (adv.) to Athens 'Αθήναι, -ων, αί Athens 'Αθηναίος -G, -ov Athenian Άθηνηθεν (adv.) from Athens 'Αθήνηα(ν) (adv.) at Athens άθλητης -ού, ό athlete άθλιος - δ , -ov urretched,

miserable άθλον, -ου, τό prize άθλος -ου, ό contest; ordeal αθροίζω gather together (tr.) αθρόος -G, -ov all together, all

at once, in a body άθϋμεω be despondent

#αί = εί #αίάζω bewail, lament #αΐαι (exclamation) alas!

Αίγινα, - η ς ή Aegina (island in the Saronic Gulf near Athens)

Αιγινήτης -ου, ό man of Aegina Αιγύπτιος -G, -ov Egyptian Αίγυπτος -ου, ή Egypt αίδέομαι respect; feel pity for;

stand in awe of, fear "Αιδης -ου (also # Άΐδηΰ), ό

Hades (god of the underworld) eic "Αιδου to the house of Hades, to the underworld (23.1/1 a)

αιδώς -ους ή sense of shame, modesty, respect (13.1/l6(i))

#αίεί = αεί #αίέν = αεί

αίθήρ, -ερος ό upper air, sky α'ίθομαι burn, blaze αίκίσ, -Oc, ή suffering, misery αίκίζομαι maltreat αίμα, -awe, τό blood; bloodshed,

murder Αίμων, -ωμος ό Haemon (son of

Creon) |αίνέω praise

αίνιγμα, ^-ατος τό riddle αίνικτηρίωο (adv.) riddlingly, in

riddling fashion αίνίττομαι speak in riddles

#aivoc, -ου, ό tale, story αίνώο (adv.) terribly αϊξ, αίγός ό/ή goat

#αίπυμήτης -ου (adj.) with high thoughts, lofty-minded

αίρέομαι choose, elect |αίρέω take, capture; convict

v (18.1/4) |αϊρω lift, raise up; set sail; exalt ίαίΰθάνομαι perceive, notice,

realize (+gen. or acc.,13.1/2tf(iii)) Αίοχίνης -ου, ό Aeschines

(Athenian orator) aic%poc, -ά, -όν ugly (of people);

base, shameful, disgraceful (compar. aic^Tcov, supl. aic icTOc)

Αίςχυλος -ου, ό Aeschylus (tragic poet)

αίοχϋνη, - η ς ή shame, disgrace αίοχύνομαι be ashamed

(15.1 /2c); feel shame before taic^tfvco dishonour, disgrace

αίτεω ask (for) (+double acc., 22A/2f(ii)); ask alms of (+acc.)

αιτία, -Oc, ή reason, cause; responsibility, blame; charge, accusation; fault

αίτιάομαι accuse

a'inoc, -a, -ov responsible (for), guilty (of) (+gen.)

#αιψα (adv.) quickly, forthwith αιών, -ωvoc, ό life, lifetime; age Άκαδήμεια, -ac, ή the Academy

(park and gymnasium in Athens) Άκάνθιος, -α, -ov of Acanthus

(city in Macedonia) aKaxacK£\)acxoc, -ov unformed άκηκοα perf. ind. of ακούω ακίνητος, -ov motionless,

immovable #άκμαιος, -a, -ov in full bloom, at

the prime ακμή, -fjc, ή prime, zenith άκολαάσ, -ac, ή lack of restraint άκόλαςχος, -ov undisciplined,

unrestrained, licentious άκολουθέω follow, accompany

(+dat.) ακόλουθος, -ου, ό servant, slave ακολούθως (adv.) in accordance

with (+dat.) ακονάω sharpen δκούςιος, -ov against one's will,

involuntary Ιάκούω hear, listen (to) (+gen. of

person, gen. or acc. of thing, 13.l/2tf(iii)); be spoken of

f (17.1/5) άκρΤβως (adv.) accurately,

exactly, carefully άκρον, -ου, τό peak, summit ακρόπολις, -εως, ή acropolis,

citadel άκροΰ, -α, -ov high; top of

(18.1/6) Άκταίων, -«voc, ό Actaeon , (mythological character) ακτη, ^ c , ή shore, coast Οκων, δκουςα, άκον unwillingly) αλγέω feel pain, be in pain; v grieve; suffer άλγος, -ους, τό grief, pain, , suffering ρλγϋνω grieve, distress (+acc.) Αλέξανδρος, -ου, ό Alexander , (the Great, of Macedon) αλήθεια, -Gc, ή truth αληθεύω tell the truth αληθής, -ες true , χά άληθη (τάληθη) the truth αληθινώς (adv.) truly, really αληθώς (adv.) truly, really

®c αληθώς in very truth

'Αλικαρναςςεύς, -έως, ό man from Halicarnassus

|άλιςκομαι be caught; be convicted (18.1/4)

αλκή, -ης, ή valour, bravery "Αλκηςτις, -i6oc, ή Alcestis (wife

of Admetus) 'Αλκιβιάδης, -ου, ό Alcibiades

(Athenian general and statesman)

άλκιμος, -ov brave άλλά (conj.) but; well, now άλλάχτω change άλλήλους, -ac, -<x (reciprocal

pron.) each other, one another (9.1/4b)

άλλοθι (adv.) elsewhere άλλομαι (aor. ήλάμην) leap άλλος, -η, -ο (9.1/3) other, the

rest of; as well, besides (7.2.12 /. 11) άλλοΰ . . . άλλον one . . . another

(cf. note on 5.2.5(viii)) άλλοτε (adv.) at other times αλλότριος, -α, -ov someone

else's; alien άλλως (adv.) otherwise; in vain

άλλως τε καί especially άλμη, -ης, ή sea-water, brine; sea άλογος, -ov speechless; irrational aXct άλόο, ή sea αλςος, -ους, τό grove άλυςκάζω shun, shrink away άλφιτα, -ων, τά barley-groats;

daily-bread αλωπεκή, -ης, ή fox-skin άλωπηξ, -εκος, ή fox ctoxoctc, -εως, ή capture άμα (adv.) at the same time;

(prep.+dat.) at the same time as, together with άμα μεν ... άμα δέ partly ... partly άμα ηλίω άνέχοντι at sunrise άμα (τη) ήμερςι at dawn

αμαθής, -ες ignorant άμαθία, -ac, ή ignorance,

stupidity άμαξα, -^c, ή wagon άμαρτ- aor. stem of άμαρτάνω άμαρτάνω err; do wrong; make a

mistake; (+gen.,13.1/2<*(iv)) miss, fail to achieve

άμαρτία, -ac, ή fault, wrong, sin

αμείβω change, alter άμείνων, -ov better (compar. of

αγαθός) άμηχανέω be at a loss/helpless άμίς, -ίδος, ή chamber-pot άμμος, -ου, ή sand

|άμϋνω keep I ward off\ (acc. of person kept off and dat. of person defended); in mid., defend oneself against (+acc.)

'Αμυρταιος, -ου, ό Amyrtaeus άμφί (prep.+acc.) about, around

#άμφίαλος, -ov sea-girt άμφιβάλλομαι! throw around,

put on άμφιδέα, -tfc, ή bracelet, anklet

#άμφψάχομαι| besiege άμφοτερος, -G, -ov both άμφοτερωθεν (adv.) from/on both

sides άμ<|>ω, -οιν, τώ (dual) both άμώμητος, -ov blameless άν untranslatable particle: in a

main clause (+ind. or opt.) with a potential/conditional sense (19.1/2,18.1/5); in a subordinate clause (+subj.) with an indef. sense (14.1/4c(iii))

#ν = έάν άνά (prep.+acc.) up, up along;

throughout, over αναβαίνω! go up; come up;

mount αναβιβάζω make go up άναβοάω| call upon αναβολή, -ης, ή putting o f f ,

delaying άναγιγνώςκω| read, read aloud αναγκάζω force, compel αναγκαίος, -G, -ov necessary,

constraining άνάγκη, -ης, ή necessity,

compulsion, force άνάγκη έςτί it is necessary (+dat. and inf.)

άνάγω| bring up, raise; (mid.) set sail, put out to sea

άναδίδωμι| give forth, send up άναζητεω investigate άνάθεμα, -ατος, τό anything

dedicated (especially to evil); an accursed thing

ανάθημα, -ατος, τό dedication άναίδεια, -Gc, ή shamelessness

#άναιμόςαρκος, -ov with bloodless flesh

άναιρέω| pick up; give a response (of an oracle)

άναίςθητος, -ov without feeling, stupid

αναίτιος,-ov innocent άναλαμβάνω| take up, take with

one Ιάνσλίςκω spend

άνάλΰςις, -εως, ή loosening, releasing; resolution (of a problem)

άνάλωτος, -ov not able to be captured, impregnable

αναμένω! wait, stay, wait for (+acc.)

άναμετρεομαι measure carefully άναμιμνήΰκω| remind; (pass.)

recall to mind, remember #άναξ, -ακτος, ό lord, king

Άναξαγόρδς, -ου, ό Anaxagoras (philosopher of Clazomenae in Asia Minor)

Άναξιμενης, -ους, ό Anaximenes (early philospher)

άνάξιος, -ov unworthy άναπτυςςω unfold, disclose άναςπάω (aor. -εςπαςα) haul up;

tear up, pull down άνάςςω rule over (+gen.,

13.1/2a(i)) #άναςταλύζω weep, sob

άναςταυρόω impale άνατίθημι! dedicate, make a

declication άναφερωΙ bring back, refer άναχωρέω withdraw, retreat,

retire άνδρ- stem of άνήρ άνδραποδίζω enslave άνδράποδον, -ου, τό captive;

slave άνδρείσ, -Gc, ή manliness,

courage άνδρειος, -p., -ov manly, brave άνδριάς, -άντος, ό statue άνεμος, -ου, ό wind άνεξέταςτος, -ov without enquiry

or investigation άνερ - = άνδρ -άνερωτάω| ask questions άνευ (prep.+gen.) without άνεχοΐ hold up, lift up; intr. rise

tP . . . . αμα ηλιω ανεχοντι at sunrise

άνήρ, άνδρός, ό man, husband άνθινος, -η, -ov flowery

άνθίστημι! (mid. and intr. tenses of act.) withstand, resist, oppose (+dat.)

av0oc, -ους, τό flower, bloom; glory

άνθρώπινος,-η,-ov human άνθρωπος, -ου, ό/ή human being,

person; man; fellow #v0powioc crasis for ό άνθρωποΰ άνιάω distress, vex άνίδρωτος, -ov without raising a

sweat άνίςτημι! raise up; restore; cause

to migrate, expel, uproot; (mid. and intr. tenses of act.) rise up, stand up; migrate, go away (19.1/1)

άνιςτορέω make enquiry about, ask about, (+double acc.)

ανόητος -ov foolish |άνοίγνϋμι open

άνοικοδομεω build up; rebuild άνόμοιος, -ov (also -a , -ov)

unlike, dissimilar (+dat.) άνταγορεύω (aor. άντεΐπον, 18.1/4

note 2) speak against, deny ανταγωνίζομαι struggle against,

vie with (+dat.) άντακούω hear in turn 'Ανταλκίδας, -ου, ό Antalcidas

(Spartan general) άντειπον aor. of άνταγορεύω άντεχω! hold out, withstand αντί (prep.+gen.) instead of, in

return for αντιβολέω entreat, beseech αντιγράφω write in reply αντιδίδωμι! give in return αντίθεας, -εως, ή opposition,

antithesis αντιλέγω! argue against, oppose ρντίον (adv.) opposite 'Αντίοχος, -ου, ό Antiochus Αντιςθένης, -ους, ό Antisthenes , (philosopher) ανυποδηςίσ, -Oc, ή going , barefoot ανυποδητος, -ov without shoes ανω (adv.) above, up above

#ανωγα (perf. with pres. sense, , 19.1/3a) command, order ανωφελής, -ες useless αξιόπιςτος, -ov worthy of credit, „ trustworthy ^ o c , -a, -ov worthy (of),

deserving (+gen.), worthwhile

άξιόω think worthy of αορΟτος, -ov unseen, invisible απαγγέλλω! announce, report απαγορεύω forbid (18.1/4 note 2) άπάγχομαι hang oneself άπαγχονίζω hang by a noose απάγω! lead/take away απαθής, -ες not suffering άπαίρω! sail away, depart απαλλαγή, -ης, ή deliverance απαλύνω make tender!delicate απάνθρωπος, -ov far from men,

desolate άπανίςτημι! withdraw απαντάω go to meet, meet

(+dat.,13.1/2fc(iii)) άπαξ (adv.) once only, once απαραίτητος -ov unmoved by

prayer, inexorable άπαρνέομαι deny άπας, άπδςα, άπαν all, the whole , of. απαταω deceive απάτη, -ης, ή deceit άπέθανον aor. of άποθνήςκω άπεικάζω liken, compare άπειλεω threaten (+dat, 13.1/2fe(i)) άπειμι be absent άπείργω| hinder, prevent άτιειρια, -ας, ή inexperience άπειρος, -ov ignorant of,

inexperienced in (+gen.) άπείρως έχω be without experience

άτιενθής, -ες free from grief/woe ατιεριςκέπτως (adv.) incautiously απέρχομαι! go away, depart άπεχω! be distant from (+gen.);

(mid.) keep one's hands o f f , keep away from (+gen.)

άπιςτεω distrust άτηςτία, -ας, ή faithlessness άπιςτος, -ov incredible;

untrustworthy, not to be believed; mistrustful άπίςτως έχω be mistrustful

άπλετος, -ov boundless, immense απλούς, -η, -ούν simple (6.1/2) άπό (prep.+gen.) from, away

from αποβαίνω! land άποβάλλω! throw away, lose άποδημία, -ac, ή being abroad or

away from one's country άποδιδράςκω (fut. -δράςομαι aor.

-έδρΟν) run away, escape, flee

332 < Ο Ο ω σ c ω

άποδίδωμι! give back, return, repay; (mid.) sell

άποθαν- aor. stem of άποθνηςκω άποθνηςκω! die, be killed

(17.1/5; for the perfect see 19.1/3*)

άποικος, -ου, ό settler, colonist !άποκρ!νομαι answer

άπόκριςις, -εως, ή answer, reply αποκρύπτω hide from sight;

(mid.) conceal for one's own purposes

αποκτείνω! kill άποκωλύω hinder from άπολέγομαι pick out άπολες- aor.stem of άπόλλϋμι άπόλλϋμι! kill, ruin, destroy,

lose (20.1/1 note 2) άπωλόμην I was killed άπόλωλα I am lost/dead/ruined

'Απόλλων, -covoc, ό Apollo (acc. either -ova or -ω)

άπολογέομαι defend oneself, speak in one's defence; plead in one's defence (+acc.)

άπολογίδ, -flc, ή speech in one's defence

απολύω free, release άπομΤμέομαι imitate, copy άποπίπτω! fall overboard <χποπλεω| sail away άποπνίγομαι choke, suffocate, be

drowned άπορέω be at a loss, be in

difficulty απορία, -ac, ή lack of provisions,

want; perplexity, difficulty άποςτατεω stand aloof from (+gen.) άποςτέλλω! send, send away άποςτερέω deprive of, rob,

defraud, refuse payment of άποςτροφη, -ης, ή turning away

from, escape άπότακτος, -ov set apart for

special use άποτειχίζω wall off άποτέμνω! cut off άποτίθημι! put away, bury;

(mid.) lay aside άποτρέχω! run away, run off αποτυγχάνω! fail to obtain

#άπούρας (epic aor. pple. of άπαυραω) having taken away

άποφαίνωί reveal, show αποφέρω! carry away

αποφεύγω! flee, run off; be acquitted

άποχωρέω go away, depart άποχώρηας -εως, ή privy, public

toilet άπραγμόνως (adv.) without trouble άπράγμων, -ονος free from

business, not meddling in public affairs

άπτω fasten, fix; light (a lamp); (mid.) touch (+gen.)

άπωθέω (aor. άπέωςα) push away άπώλεςα aor. of άπόλλϋμι άρα* (inferential particle) then,

consequently, after all άρα interrog. particle (10.1/2j) άργαλέος, -α, -ov painful,

troublesome 'Αργεΐοι, -ων, oi Argives; (poet.)

Greeks 'Αργεΐος, -α, -ov Argive; (poet.)

Greek 'Αργινούςαι, -ων, αί Arginousae

(islands) (scene of Athenian naval victory)

"Αργός, -ODC, τό Argos άργός, -όν idle, lazy άργύριον, -ου, τό silver, money άργυρούς, -α, -ούν made of

silver, silver άρετη, -ης, ή courage; excellence,

virtue "Αρης, -ου ό Ares (god of war) άρθρον, -ου, τό joint, limb 'Αριαιος, -ου, ό Ariaeus άριθμός, -ού, ό number, amount,

total #άριπρεπης, -ές very bright,

conspicuous άριςτάω have breakfast 'Αριςτεύς, -έως, ό Aristeus άριςτεύω be best, be best at

(+inf.) 'Αριςτόκριτος, ^ου, ό Aristocritus όριςτον, -ου, τό breakfast άριςτος, -η, -ov best; bravest

(supl. of άγαθός) 'Αριςτοτέλης, -ους, ό Aristotle

(philosopher) 'Αριςτοφάνης, -ους, ό

Aristophanes (comic poet) 'Αρίφρων, -ovoc, ό Ariphron άρκτοΰ, -ου, ή bear άρμόζει (impers.) it is fitting, it

suits

"Αρνη, ή Arne (place in Thessaly)

άρνυμαι win αρπάζω seize, plunder; snatch άρπακτης, -ού, ό robber, ravisher

#άρπαλεοο, -α, -ov attractive, alluring

άρρηκχος, -ov unbroken, unbreakable

άρρητοΰ, -ov unspoken, unmentioned

0pceviKOc, -ή, -όν male, masculine

'Αρταφέρνης, -ovc, ο Artaphernes "Αρτεμις, - i 5oc , ή Artemis

(goddess) άρτημα, -axoc, χό ear-ring άρχι (άρχίαχ:) (adv.) newly,

recently, just now apxoc, -ου, ό bread άρχαΐος, -a, -ov ancient, old;

former 'Αρχέλαος, -ου, ό Archelaus

(King of Sparta) άρχή, -ης, ή beginning; rule,

power; empire; office, magistracy, board of magistrates, magistrate, officer

άρχιερεύς, -έως, ό high priest 'Αρχιμήδης, -ους, ό Archimedes

(Syracusan mathematician and inventor)

ίάρχω rule, rule over, command (+gen., 13.1/2j(i)) (+pple.) begin (of something continued by others); (mid.) begin (of something continued

„ by oneself) αΡχων, -ovxoc, ό archon , (magistrate) αοαφής, -ec obscure, unclear αςβεςχος, - o v (also -η , -ov )

unquenchable, inextinguishable, , imperishable

α°έβεια, -ας, ή impiety, , irreverence (to gods) αεεβέω commit impiety ^θενεια, -ας, ή weakness, illness αεθενέω be weak/ill «εθενής, -ές weak, ill α^ινεςχαχα (supl. adv.) most/very , harmlessly αοττεω be without food ?CKeo) practise, exercise, train αεμενος, -η, -oV glad, pleased

άςπάζομαι greet Άςπαςία, -ας, ή Aspasia (mistress

of Pericles) άςπεχος, -ov enormously great,

boundless άςπίς, -ίδος, ή shield άςχειος, -α, -ov charming,

attractive άςτήρ, -ερος, ό star άςχρονομία, ή astronomy άςχυ, -εως, χό city, town άςφάλεια, -ας, ή safety,

security άςφαλής, -ες safe, secure άςφαλως (adv.) safely άχαλαίπωρος, -ov without taking

pains, not painstaking άχάρ (conj.) but άxαcθαλία, -ac, ή presumptuous

sin, wickedness άτε (particle) as i f , as; (causal) in

as much as, since, seeing that, because, as (+pple. 12.1/2tf(ii))

άχελής, -ες incomplete #άχερ (prep.+gen.) without

αχεχνος, -ov unskilled άτεχνώς (adv.) simply, just αχη, ^ης, ή ruin ατΤμάζω dishonour άΐίμαςτος, -ov dishonoured άιΤμία -ας, ή dishonour; loss of

citizen rights άτΤμος, -ov dishonoured;

deprived of citizen rights άχολμος, -ov not daring, lacking

the heart to άχοπος,-ov out of place,

extraordinary, strange, absurd Άτχικός, -ή, -όν Attic, Athenian

Άχχική (sc. γη), -ης Attica άχυχής, -ες unlucky, unfortunate αΰ (adv.) again, moreover αυγή, -ης, ή ray, beam

#αϋδάω speak, say, utter, tell αύθαίρεχος, -ov self-chosen, self-

inflicted αΰθις (adv.) again; in turn, next,

on the other hand αύλεω play the flute αυλή, -ης, ή courtyard, hall αύλίζομαι encamp αύριον (adv.) tomorrow

#αϋτάρ (conj.) but, then αυτάρκης, -ες sufficient

#αύχε (adv.) again, in turn

αύτίκα (adv.) at once, immediately

αυτόθι (adv.) on the spot, here αύτόματον, -ου, τό accident αύτόν, --ην, -ό (pron.) him, her, it

(4.1/2^ 9.1/3c) αύτόο, -η, -ό self (9.1/3 λ)

ό αύτόο stfwe (9.1/36) αύτόο crasis for ό αύτοο αύτού (adv.) f/jere, on the

spot άφαιρέω! take away (from),

remove; (mid.) deprive (of) (+ double acc., 22.1/2/(ii))

άφανηο, -ec unseen, vanished, not to be seen

αφανίζω make unseen, wipe out, destroy

άφαάα, -Oc, ή speechlessness άφειναι aor. inf. of άφίημι άφθονος, -ov abundant, plentiful;

bountiful άφίημι! send forth; discharge; let

!αφικνεομαι arrive, come άφΤκόμην aor. of άφικνέομαι άφίοτημι! remove; make to

revolt; (mid. and intr. tenses of act.) withdraw; revolt (19.1/1)

'Αφροδίτη, -^ης, ή Aphrodite (goddess of love)

άφρων, -ov senseless, foolish άφυής, -ec without natural

talent/skill #άφύςςομαι draw (a liquid) for

oneself άφωνοο, -ov dumb, speechless Άχαΐοι, -ων, οί Achaeans,

Greeks Άχέρων, -οντος, ό Acheron (river

in the underworld) άχθηδών, -όνος, ή burden άχθομαι be annoyed/displeased

at (+dat.) Άχιλλεύς, -έως, ό Achilles (hero

in Iliad) άχυρα, -ων, τά chaff, bran

βαδίζω (fut. βαδιούμαι) walk, go βάθος, -ους, τό depth βαθύς, -εια, -ύ deep

#βαθυχαιτηεις, -εςςα, -εν long-haired

t βαίνω go, come; walk Βάκχος, -ου, ό Bacchus (another

name for Dionysus)

#βάκχος, -ου, ό person initiated into the rites of Bacchus

f βάλλω throw, hit, pelt; inflict βάπτω dip; dye βάρβαρος, -ov barbarian, foreign βαρύνομαι be weighed down βαρύς, -εια, - ύ heavy; wearisome βαςίλεια, -ας, ή princess, queen βαςιλείσ, -ας, ή kingship βαςίλειος, -a, -ov royal βαςιλεύς, -έως, ό king βαςιλεύω be king, rule (+gen.,

13.1/2tf(i)) #βαςτάζω lift up, carry

βάτραχος, -ου, ο frog βέβαιος, -ov (also -α, -ov) secure,

steady βέβρωκα perf. of βιβρώςκω βέλος, -ους, τό missile βέλτιςτος, -η, -ov best (supl. of

άγαθός) βελιΤων, -ov better (compar. of

άγαθός) βημα, -ατος, τό step βία, -ας, ή force, violence

προς βίαν by force βιάζομαι use force, force one's way βιαίως (adv.) violently βιβλίον, -ου, τό book βίβλος, -ου, ή book βιβρώςκω (perf. βέβρωκα) eat βίος, -ου, ό life; means of life;

livelihood #βίοτος, -ου, ό life

βιόω live βιωτός, -όν to be lived, worth

living βλάβη, -ης, ή damage

t βλάπτω hurt, injure; damage βλέπω see, look (at); see the light

of day, be alive βληθείς, -ειςα, -έν aor. pple. pass,

of βάλλω #βλώςκω (fut. μολούμαι, aor. έμολον.

perf. μέμβλωκα) go |βοαω shout

βόειος, -α, -ov of beef βοή, -ης, ή shout, shouting βοήθεια, -ac, ή help, aid βοηθέω (run to) help (+dat.,

13.1/26(i)) βόθρος, -ου, ό hole, pit Βοιωτία, -ας, ή Boeotia (state in

north central Greece) Βοιωτός -ού, ό a Boeotian βοςκήματα, -ων, τά cattle

βόςκω feed, nourish βουλευτηριον, -ου, τό council-

chamber βουλεύω plan, resolve, determine,

deliberate; (mid.) discuss, deliberate, consider; plot

βουλή, -ηο, ή pfow, counsel, advice; council

f βούλομαι wish, want #βουνός, -ού, ό hill, mound

βούς, βοός, ό/ή οχ, COM/ #βούτηο, -ου, ό herdsman

βραδέως (adv.) slowly βραδύνω be slow, hesitate

#βραδύπουο, -πουν (gen. -ποδοο) slow-footed

βραδύο, -εια, - ύ (compar. βραδίων, supl. βράδιςτος) slow

βρα^Γων, -ovoc, ό drra βραχύς, -εία, - ύ short, brief;

small, little βρέχω M/ef (tr.)

#βροτός, -ού, ό mortal man βρόχος, -ου, ό woose βρώμια, -ατος, τό food βωμός, -ού, ό tf/tar

#γαΐα, -ας, ή = γη γάλα, -ακτος, το milk

Ιγαμέω (+acc.) marry (with the man as subject); (mid., +dat.) marry (with the woman as subject)

γάμος, -ου, ό marriage γάρ* (connecting particle) for, as γαςτήρ, -τρός, ή stomach, belly

(6.1/16) γαςτρίμαργος, -ov gluttonous γε* (particle) at least; at any

rate, certainly, indeed (13.1/36) γεγένημαι perf. of γίγνομαι γεγενημενα, -ων, τα events,

, occurrences, the past #Υεγηθα ( p e r f . with pres. sense,

Λοπιγηθέω) rejoice γεγονα perf. of γίγνομαι

*γεγως = γεγονώς (perf. pple. of Τ^γνομαι)

Υειτων, -ovoe, ό neighbour; (as adj .+dat.) neighbouring

J -ac, ή Gela (city in Sicily) 'Υελαω laugh Κλοιός (also γελοίος), -α, -ov

funny, ridiculous ;?λφος,-<Χ,-κ>ν of Gela Axoc, ^ iaughter

γέμω be full of (+gen.) γεν- aor. stem of γίγνομαι γένεςις, -εως, ή birth, coming

into being γενναίος, -α, -ov noble, well-

born, noble-minded γενναίως (adv.) nobly γεννάω beget, produce γένος, -ους, τό race; kind γεραιός, -ά, -όν old γέρας, -ως, τό prize, privilege

(13.1/1 b( iii)) γέρρα, -ων, τά wicker-work γέρων, -οντος, ό old man γεύομαι taste γέφϋρα, -ας, ή bridge,

embankment γεωμετρία, -ας, ή geometry γεωργός, -ού, ό farmer γη, -ης, ή land, earth, ground

κατά γην by land πού (της) γης; where on earth f

γηγενής, -ες earth-born γημ- aor. stem of γαμέω

#γηράλεος, -α, -ov aged, old γήρας, -CDC, τό old age (13.1/1

b[ iii)) γηρΟςκω grow old γίγας, -αντος, ό giant

Ιγίγνομαι become, be, be born; happen, take place

Ιγιγνωςκω get to know, recognize, realize; think, resolve, decide

γίνομαι = γίγνομαι Γλαύκος, -ου, ό Glaucus γλαύξ, -^αυκρς, ή owl

#γλαφυρός, -ά, -όν hollow, hollowed

Γλούς, -ού, ό Glus γλυκερός, -ά, -όν sweet γλυκύς, -εια, - ύ sweet γλώττα, -ης, ή tongue γνάθος, -ου, ή jaw γνούς, γνούςα, γνόν aor. pple. of

γιγνωςκω γνώθι 2nd s. imp. of έγνων γνώμη, -ης, ή judgement,

opinion, mind, purpose γνώριμος, (-η), -ov well-known,

familiar γονεύς, -έως, ό parent γόνυ, -ατος, τό knee (5.1/5 note

1) , Γοργώ, -ούς, ή Gorgo

#γουνόομαι implore, entreat

γράμμα, -axoc, τό written character; letter

γραμματικός, -ού, ό grammarian γραμματιςτης, -ού, ό

schoolmaster γραύς, γραός, ή old woman

(11.1/4) γραφειον, -ου, τό pencil γραφή, —fjc, ή writing, drawing;

indictment, charge, case Ιγράφω write; draw; paint; (mid.)

indict, charge γρϋπός, -η, -όν hook-nosed,

aquiline Γύλιππος, -ου, ό Gylippus

(Spartan general) γυμνάζω exercise, train γυμνός, -η, -όν naked;

lightly/poorly clad γυναικωνΐτις, -ιδος, ή women's

apartments γυνη, -αικός, ή woman, wife

(5.1/5 note 1) γύψ, ypnoc, ο vulture Γωβρύας, -α, ό Gobryas (Persian

general)

δαιμόνιοο, - α -ov miraculous, supernatural

δαίμων, -ovoc, ό god, deity δαίς, δαιτός, ή feast δακ- aor. stem of δάκνω δάκνω bite; worry δάκρυ see δάκρυον δακρυόεις, -ecca, -εν weeping, in

tears δάκρυον, -κ>υ, τό tear (alternative

nom. δάκρυ 13.1/lc) δακρύω weep δακτύλιος, -ου, ό ring δάκτυλος, -ου, ό finger δανείζω lend; (mid.) borrow δανειςτης, -ού, ό creditor Δάρδανος, -ου, ό Dardanus

(founder of Troy) δδρεικός, -ού, ό daric (Persian

gold coin) δφο, δςιδός, ή torch δαςύς, -εια, - ύ hairy, shaggy δε* (connecting particle) and,

but δ* οΰν* be that as it may (13.1/3 c)

δέδαρμαι perf. mid./pass. of δέρω δέδοικα I fear, am afraid

(19.1/3 a)

#δέδορκα see, look upon (perf. of δέρκομαι)

| δ ε ί (impers.) it is necessary (+acc.and infin.); there is a need of (+gen., 21.1/4 note 3)

#δείδω be alarmed Ιδείκνϋμι show (20.1/1 and

Appendix 6) δείλια, -ac, η cowardice δειλός, -η, -όν miserable,

wretched, cowardly δειμαίνω (+acc.) be afraid of,

fear δεινός, -η, -όν terrible, serious,

strange; clever at (+inf.) δειπνέω dine, have dinner, dine

on (+acc.) δεΐπνον, -ου, τό dinner δέκα (indecl. adj.) ten δεκατός, -όν tenth δέλτος, -ου, ή writing-tablet δελφίς, -ινος, ό dolphin Δελφοί, -ων, οί Delphi δένδρον, -ου, τό tree (13.1/1 c) δένδρεον, -ου, τό tree δεξιά, -^ας, ή right hand

δεξιάν δίδωμι give a pledge δεξιός, -ά, -όν on the right hand;

clever Δεξιππος, -ου, ό Dexippus

tδέομαι need, implore, ask (+gen., 13.1/2^(ii))

δέον' (acc. absol.) it being necessary (21.1/5)

δέος, -ους, το fear #δέρκομαι see, behold

δέρω (perf. mid./pass. δέδαρμαι) flay

δεςμος, ού, ο (alternative pi. δεομα. τά) bond

δεςμωτηριον, -ου, τό prison δέςποινα, -ης, ή mistress δεςπότης, -ου, ό master δεύρο (adv.) here, over here δεύτερος, -α, -ov second

t δέχομαι receive δέω (A) need, want, lack (+gen.)

πολλού δέω I am far from πολλού δει far from it!

| δέω (Β) bind, tie δη * (particle) indeed, certainly

(13.1/3 b) δήλος, -η, -ov visible, clear,

obvious δηλάω make clear, show, reveal Δημέας, -ου, ό Demeas

δημηγορέω make a public speech Δημητηρ, -τρος, ή Demeter (corn-

goddess, mother of Persephone) δημιουργός, -ου, ό craftsman;

maker, author δήμ<^, -ου, ό the people;

democracy; deme Δημocθέvηc, -ovc, ο Demosthenes

(fifth-century Athenian general; fourth-century orator)

δημόαος, -δ, -ov public, of the state

δημοάςι publicly δημοτικός, -η, -όν democratic,

popular δήξομαι fut. of δάκνω δήπου* (particle) I presume, I

should hope, doubtless δήτα* (particle) indeed; then

(13.1/3 a) δηχθ- aor. pass, stem of δάκνω Δία acc. of Ζευς (11.1/4) διά (prep.+acc.) because of, on

account of; (+gen.) through, across διά τί; why?

διαβαίνω! cross, cross over διαβάλλω! slander διαβατέον one must cross

(24.1/5) διαβολή, —ης, ή slander διάγνωςις, -εως, ή [act of]

distinguishing, deciding διαγω| carry over; pass, spend

(of time); live, pass one's life διάδοχος, -ov succeeding,

relieving διαθρύπτω enervate, pamper διάκειμαι (+adv.) be in certain

state/mood διακλέπτω! steal and secrete,

appropriate διακομίζομαι! carry across διακόπτω cut through διδκόςιοι, -αι, -α 200

["διαλέγομαι converse with (+dat.) διαλλαττομαι reconcile one's

differences διαμελλω! delay διανοέομαι intend, plan; think,

suppose διανοια, -σς, ή intention, plan ^απειράομαι make trial of ^απιμπλημι! fill with (+gen.) όι«πολεμεω fight it out (with

someone, dat.)

διαπορεύομαι march/proceed through (+acc.)

διαρπάζω plunder διαςπάομαι (aor. -εςπαςάμην)

tear apart διατελέω! accomplish; continue διατίθημι! dispose; put in a

certain state of body or mind διατριβή, -ης, ή way/manner of

spending time διατρίβω pass/waste (time) δίαυλος, -ου, ό double course

(i.e. the race up the stadium and back)

διαφέρω! differ from (+gen.); make a difference; be superior to (+gen.)

διαφθείρω! destroy; corrupt διαχωρίζω separate, divide διδακτός, -ή, -ov able to be

taught διδάςκαλος, -ου, ό teacher

!διδάςκω teach, train -διδρδςκω see άποδιδράςκω δίδωμι give, offer, grant (18.1/2) διελαύνω! ride through διεξέρχομαι! go through, relate διέχω! be separated!distant from

(+gen.) διηγεομαι explain, relate,

describe δικάζω be a juror; judge, give

judgement δίκαιος, -σ, -ov just, honest,

upright δικαιοςύνη, -ης, ή justice,

honesty δικαίως (adv.) justly δικαςτήριον, -ου, τό law-court δικαςτής, -ού, ό juror, dicast,

judge δίκη, -ης, ή lawsuit; (legal)

satisfaction; justice; penalty; (personified, with cap.) Justice δικην δίδωμι be punished, pay the penalty δίκην λαμβάνω punish, exact one's due from (παρά+gen.)

δίκτυον, -ου, τό net, hunting-net Δίκων, -ωνος, ό Dico δίνη, -ης, ή whirlpool Διογένης, -ους, ό Diogenes

(philosopher) διόλλϋμι! destroy utterly Διονϋςόδωρος, -ου, ό

Dionysodorus

337 ο ο ω σ c ΕΓ 3

338 ο ο ω σ c ω 3

Διόνϋςος, -ου, ό Dionysus (god of wine)

διότι (conj.) because διπλούς, -η, -ούν double δίο (adv.) twice διττός (διςςός), -η, -όν two-fold,

two δίφροο, -ου, ό stool δίχα (adv., or prep.+gen.) apart,

apart from διψάω be thirsty (5.1/2 note 4)

|διωκω pursue, chase, prosecute #δμώς, -ωός, ό slave taken in war

(13.1/16(i)) δόγμα, -ατος, τό opinion, belief;

decision, judgement |δοκέω seem, seem good; be

thought; consider (self) to be; think; δοκεΐ (impers., +dat. and inf.) it

seems a good idea; so δοκει μοι I decide (21.1/4*)

#δόλιος, -G, -ov crafty, deceitful #δόλος, -ου, ό trick, guile #δόμος, -ου, ό house, home

δόξα, -ης, ή reputation, fame; opinion

δόξαν (acc. abs.) it having been decided (21.1/5)

δόρυ, —ατος, τό spear δοτέον one must give (24.1/5) δότης, -ου, ό giver δουλεία, -ας, ή slavery δουλεύω be a slave

#δούλιος, -α, -ov of slavery δούλος, -ου, ό slave δουλόω enslave δούς, δούςα, δόν, aor. pple. of

δίδωμι δράκων, -οντος, ό dragon, serpent δράμα, -ατος, τό play, drama δραμειν aor. inf. of τρέχω δραςτηριος, -ov active δραχμή, -ης, ή drachma (coin) δράω do, act δρόμος -ου, ό race; δρόμφ at a

run, at full speed δρόςος, -ου, ή dew

f δύναμαι be able (19.1/3b); be powerful μέγα δύναμαι be very powerful

δύναμις, -εως, ή power, ability, force, strength

δυνατός, -η, -ov able, possible; strong, powerful οί δυνατοί the chief men

δύο two (7.1/5*) #δύρομαι (= οδύρομαι) lament

δύςγνοια, -ας, ή ignorance, bewilderment

#δυοδάκρϋτος, -ov sorely wept δυςεντερία, -ας, ή dysentery δύςθϋμος, -ov disheartened,

despondent δύοκολος, -ov bad-tempered

#δύςλυτος, -ov indissoluble, inextricable

δυςμενης, -ες hostile δυοπετως (adv.) with difficulty δυςςεβης, -ές impious, ungodly,

profane #δύοτηνος, -ov wretched

δυςτυχέω be unlucky/unfortunate δυςτυχής, -ές unlucky,

unfortunate δυςτυχία, -ας, ή misfortune δύςφορος, -ov hard to bear δυς^είμερος, -ov wintry, stormy

#δυςωνυμος, -ov having an ill name, hateful

δύω (A) enter, get into δύω (Β) = δύο two δώδεκα (indecl. adj.) twelve

#δωδεκέτης, -ου twelve years old #δώμα, -ατος, τό house; family

δωρέομαι present, give Δωριεύς, -έως, ό Dorieus (half-

brother of Spartan king Cleomenes)

δωροδοκία, -ας, ή bribery δωρον, -ου, τό gift, bribe

έ (indir. refl. pron.) him, her, it (9.1/4*)

έάλων aor. of άλίςκομαι έάν (conj., +subj.) i f , if ever v (14.1/4c(iii)) έαρ, ήροο, τό (the season of)

spring έαυτόν, ^ην, -ό (refl. pron.)

himself, herself, itself (9.1/4*) |έάω allow, permit; let alone, let

v be έβην aor. of βαίνω έβραϊοτί (adv.) in Hebrew έγγελάω| laugh at (+dat.) έγγίγνομαι| be born in, appear

among έγγράφω| write in/on, inscribe;

enrol, enlist έγγύη, -ης, ή pledge, surety έγγυθεν (adv.) from nearby

έγγύο (adv., or prep.+gen.) near; nearby

•(•εγείρω arouse, awaken (perf. έγρήγορα = 1 am awake)

έγενόμην aor. of γίγνομαι έγκέφαλοο, -ου, ό brain έγκλημα, -axoc, τό accusation,

complaint έγκλημα ποιέομαι make a complaint

#έγκονέω be quick, hasten έγκωμιάζω praise έγκώμιον, -ου, τό encomium,

eulogy; victory-song έγνων aor. of γιγνωςκω έγρήγορα perf. of έγείρω έγχειρέω attempt, fry; attack

(+dat.) έγ^ος, -ους, τό weapon, spe^r έγω (pron.) I (4.1/2) έγωγε I at least; I for my part έγφμαι = εγώ οίμαι

#έγων = έγώ έδαφος, -ους, τό bottom έδόθην aor. pass, of δίδωμι εδομαι fut. of έςθίω

#εδω eat έδωδή, -ης, ή food έδωκα aor. of δίδωμι εζομαι seat oneselfsit

Ιέθέλω am willing, wish έθηκα aor. of τίθημι έθνος, -ους, τό nation, tribe, race έθρεψα aon of τρέφω ει (conj.) if

εί γάρ or εϊθε would that, I wish that (to introduce wishes, 21.1/1) εί δέ μή but if not, otherwise

ει 2nd s. of ειμί be or είμι shall cornel go

εϊδςα aor. of έάω #ειδαρ, -ατος, τό food

είδείην opt. of οιδα είδέναι inf. of οιδα

#ειδομαι be seen, appear είδον aor. of όράω είδος, -ους, τό form, shape,

appearance; beauty ειδως, είδυια, είδός knowing

τ (pple. of οιδα) ειεν (particle) well, well then εϊθε see εί εικοα(ν) (indecl. adj.) twenty εικω give way, yield

(+dat.,13.1/2fc(ii))

είκώς, -υια, -ός like, resembling (+dat.,19.1/3 a)

είληφα perf. of λαμβάνω είλόμην aor. of αίρέομαι ειλον aor. of αίρέω ειμί be (3.1/6 and Appendix 3) είμι shall cornel go (inf. ίέναι;

impf. ήα, 18.1/3 and Appendix

#είν = έν είναι to be (inf. of είμί) ε ίπ- aor. act./mid. stem of λέγω or

of αγορεύω in compounds ε'ίπερ (strengthened form of εί)

if indeed εϊπον aor. of λέγω and of άγορεύω

in compounds (18.1/4 note 2) Ιείργω shut up, imprison; prevent,

hinder, exclude εϊρηκα perf. act. of λέγω ε'ίρημαι perf. mid./pass. of λέγω ειρήνη, -ηΰ, ή peace

είρήνην άγω live inlbe at peace είρήνην ποιέομαι make peace

είΰ (prep.+acc.) to, into, on to; with regard to, in relation to εις τοςούτο/τούτο (+gen., 23.1/1 d) to such a pitchlpointl degree of

εις, μία, έν one (7.1 /5a) #είς 2nd s. of ειμί or είμι

είςάγωΙ introduce #είςαθρέω look/gaze at

είςακούω| give ear, pay attention είςβαίνωΙ go into, go on board εΐςβάλλω| throw into; invade εϊςβολή, -ης, ή invasion εΐςέρχομαι | enter, go inside εΐςοδος, -ου, ή entrance; visit ειςομαι fut. of οίδα είςοράω| behold, look at ειςπί^ωί sail in είςφέρωί bring/carry into είτα (adv.) then, next είτε . . . είτε whether . . . or είχον impf. of έχω ειωθα I am accustomed είωθώς, -υια, -ός customary,

usual έκ (prep.+gen.; before vowel έξ)

out of, from Εκάβη, -ης, ή Hecuba (wife of

Priam) έκαςτος, -η, -ov each, every

ώς έκαςτος each individually (22.1/1 *(v))

340 < Ο ο ω σ c ω

έκάοτοτε (adv.) on each occasion έκάτερος -Q -ov each (of two)

coc εκάτεροο each (of two) individually (22.1/l*(v))

#έκατι (prep.+gen.) on account of, for the sake of (usually comes after word it governs)

#έκατομπτολίεθρος -ov with a hundred cities

εκατόν (indecl. adj.) 100 έκβαίνω! step out, go forth;

disembark έκ βάλλω t throw out, expel (into

exile) #έκδίκωο (adv.) unjustly

εκεί (adv.) there εκείθεν (adv.) from there έκείνος -η, -ο (pron. and adj.

9.1/1) that έκείοε (adv.) (to) there έκκαίω! kindle έκκαλέω! call (someone) out έκκληάα, -Oc, ή assembly έκκόπτω knock out έκκρούω knock out εκλεγώ pick out (18.1/4 note 1) έκμανθάνω! learn thoroughly έκουοίωο (adv.) willingly εκπέμπω! send out

#έκπέρθω destroy utterly εκπίπτω! fall out; be thrown out;

be banished, be sent into exile (17.1/5)

έκπλέω! sail out/off έκπληξις -εcoc, ή panic,

consternation έκπλήττω strike with panic,

frighten; amaze έκπρδττω! bring to pass,

accomplish έκτόο (adv., and prep.+gen.)

outside έκτροφη, -f\c, ή bringing up,

rearing Έκτωρ, -opoc, ό Hector (Trojan

hero in Iliad) έκφαίνομαι! appear, shine

outlforth έκφέρω! carry out εκφεύγω! escape έκών, -ouca, -όν willing(ly),

wittingly ελ- aor. act./mid. stem of αίρέω έλάο, -Oc, ή olive-tree έλαβον aor. of λαμβάνω

έλαθον aor. of λανθάνω Ελάτεια, -Oc, ή Elatea (town in

Phocis) έλάττων, -ov smaller; fewer; less

Ιέλαύνω drive (tr. and intr.); drive out; march

έλαφοο, -ού, ό/ή deer έλάχιοτοο, -η, -ov smallest, least·,

fewest έλαχον aor. of λαγχάνω

έλέγχω test, examine έλείν aor. inf. act. of αίρέω έλειοο, -ov living in the marshes Ελένη, -r\c, ή Helen έλευθερίδ, -Oc, ή freedom ελεύθερος, -0, -ov free έλευθερόω set free Έλεφαντίνη, -ηο, ή Elephantine

(city in Egypt) έλέφΟο, -αντοο, ό elephant έλήλυθα perf. of έρχομαι έλήφθην aor. pass, of λαμβάνω έλθ- aor. stem of έρχομαι έλιπον aor. of λείπω έλίοοω turn

#έλκεάτιεπλοο, -ov with trailing robes

#έλκηθμόο, -ού, ό [act of] being carried o f f , seizure

|έλκω pull, drag Έλλάο, -άδοο, ή Greece ελλείπω! be lacking in, fall short

of(+gen.) Έλλην, -ηνοο, ό a Greek Ελληνικός -η, -όν Greek Έλλήοποντοο, -ου, ό the

Hellespont έλος -ους τό marsh ελπίζω hope, expect έλπίς - ίδος ή hope έμαθον aor. of μανθάνω έμαυτόν, -ην (refl. pron.) myself

(9.1/4 a) έμβαίνω! step on/into, embark,

board εμβάλλω! throw in, put in εμολον aor. of βλώοκω έμόο, -η, -όν (poss. adj.) my,

mine έμπειρος -ov experienced, skilled έμπίμπλημι! fill έμπίμπρημι burn, set on fire εμπίπτω! fall into/on/upon έμπνους -ουν alive έμποδών (adv.) in the way (+dat.)

έμπροοθεν (adv.) in front, ahead έμπρόςθιος, -ov in front, fore εμφανής, -ες open, obvious έμφυτοο, -ov inborn, innate έν (prep.+dat.) in, on, among

έν τούτω meanwhile έναγκαλίζομαι take in one's

arms, clasp έναντίον (+gen.) opposite, facing;

(as adv.) face to a face έναντιόομαι oppose, withstand

(+dat.) ενάντιος, -<X, -ov opposite,

facing, opposed to ένδεεςτέρως (compar. adv.) in a

more/rather deficient/inadequate way

ένδεια, -&c, ή lack ένδίδωμι| give in, surrender ένδικος, -ov just, legitimate ένδοθεν (adv.) from inside ένδον (adv.) inside

#ένδυτα, -ων, τά clothes ένεγκ- aor. act./mid. stem of φέρω ένεδρεύω lie in ambush ένειμι be in (+dat.)

ένεςτι (impers.) it is possible (+dat.)

ένεκα (prep.+gen.) because of, for the sake of (usually follows its noun)

ενέργεια, -(Χς, ή activity, operation ένθα (adv.) thereupon ένθάδε (adv.) here ένθεν (adv.) from there;

thereafter ένθεν μέν . . . ένθεν δέ on one

side . . . on the other #ενί = έν

εννέα (indecl. adj.) nine #εννέπω (and ένέπω) tell, tell of #έννημαρ (adv.) for nine days

εννοέω consider, understand; discover

ένοικέω dwell in, inhabit ενταύθα (adv.) here, there, at this

point εντεύθεν (adv.) from then; from , here/there; thereupon εντολή, -ης, ή order, command εντός (prep.+gen.) within, inside

*εντος, -ους, το weapon εντυγχάνωί fall in with, meet

with, come upon (+dat.,13.1/2fc(iii))

έξ = έκ εξ (indecl. adj.) six έξαγορεύω (fut. έξερώ, 18.1/4 note

2) make known, speak of; speak out, utter aloud

έξαγω| lead, bring out έξαιρέω! take out, remove εξαίρω rush forth εξαίφνης (adv.) suddenly έξακόςιοι, -αι, -α 600 έξάλλομαι (aor. έξηλάμην) jump

out έξαμαρτάνω| make a mistake; do

wrong against (εις+acc.) έξανί^τημι| (mid. and intr. tenses

of act.) stand up from, get up from (a table)

εξαπατάω deceive, trick έξαπίνης (adv.) suddenly έξαρκέω be quite enough, suffice

#έξαύτις (adv.) once more, anew έξείργωΐ shut out from, drive

out έξελαύνω| drive out, expel,

exile; (intr.) march out εξέρχομαι! go out, come out

#έξερώ fut. of έξαγορεύω έξεςτι (impers.) it is

allowed/possible (+dat. and inf., 21.1/4a)

εξετάζω examine έξευριςκω| find out, discover εξήκοντα (indecl. adj.) 60 έξηκοςτός, -ή, -όν sixtieth έξηλάμην aor. of έξάλλομαι εξής (adv.) in order, in a row έξικνέομαι (principal parts as for

άφικνέομαι) suffice έξόν (acc. absol.) it being

permitted/possible (21.1/5) έξοπλίζομαι arm oneself

completely έξω (+gen.) outside έξω fut. of έχω έξωθέω push out έοικα resemble, seem

(+dat.,13.1/2fc(iv)), (19.1/3*) έοικε (impers.) it seems

εορτή, -ης, ή feast, festival επαγγέλλομαι! profess, make

profession of έπαθον aor. of πάςχω επαινετής, -ου, ό admirer έπαινέωΐ" praise, commend έπαινος, -ου, ό praise

342 s s σ c a> 3

επανέρχομαι! return έπανορθόω remedy (a situation) επάνω (prep.+gen.) upon έπαχθή c, -ες burdensome έπεγείρω! awaken, rowse «ρ έπει (conj.) smce, έπείγομαι hurry, hasten; etfger έπειδόν (conj.+subj.) (ei/er,) έπειδή (conj.) when, since,

because έπειδή τάχιςτα as soon as

έπειμι! be upon έπειτα (adv.) then, next έπεξάγω! lead out against επέρχομαι! go against, attack

(+dat.); come on, approach έπερωτάω! ask (a question) έπέχω| hold back, check έπί (prep.) (+acc.) on to, to,

against; (+gen.) on; in the direction of; in the time of; (+dat.) at, on, upon; with a view to; in the power of

έπιβαίνω| step on to (+gen. or dat.)

έπι βάλλω! throw upon, impose upon

έπιβάτης, -ου, ό passenger επιβιβάζω put on board έπιβουλεύω plot against έπιβουλή, -ης, ή plot έπιγίγνομαι! come after Έπίδαμνος, -ου, ή Epidamnus

(town on the east coast of Adriatic)

Επίδαυρος -ου, ή Epidaurus (town in southern Greece)

έπιδείκνϋμι! prove, show, demonstrate; exhibit, display

έπιδημέω come to stay in a place, visit

έπιδίδωμι! give in addition επιεικής, -ec reasonable,

moderate, fair επιεικώς (adv.) fairly, quite έπιθόμην aor. of πείθομαι έπιθϋμέω desire, yearn for

(+gen.,13.1/2*(ii)) έπιθϋμίσ, -Oc, ή desire,

passion έπικαλέομαι! call upon, summon έπίκειμαι lie upon, be upon έπικουρέω help, remedy (+dat.) έπίκουροο, -ου, ό helper, ally;

(pi.) mercenaries

έπιλανθάνομαι! forget (+acc. or gen., 13.1/2^(iii))

επιμέλεια, HXc, ή concern, care !έπιμελέομαι care for

(+gen.,13.1/2<i(ii)), take care έπιμελητέον one must take care % o^+^en.) (24.1/5) έπιορκισ, -Oc, ή perjury επιπίπτω! fall upon, attack (+dat.) έπίπνοια, -Oc, ή inspiration Έπιπολαί, -ων, αί Epipolae

(plateau above Syracuse) έπιπονέω labour on έπιςκοπέω inspect, examine,

observe !έτιίςταμαι know how to;

understand (19.1/36) έπιςτέλλω! send to έπιςτήμη, -ης, ή understanding,

knowledge έπιςτολή, -ης, ή order, command;

(pi.) letter, epistle έπιςτρέφω! turn about επιτήδεια, -ων, τά necessities of

life, provisions επιτήδειος, -O, -ov suitable,

useful for; friendly έπιτίθημι! put/place upon

(+dat.); (mid.) attack (+dat.) έ τ ί ΐ ^ ά ω censure (+dat.) επιτρέπω! entrust; allow (+dat.) έπιτρέχω! overrun έπιφέρομαι! move (intr.) έπίφθονος, -ov burdensome έπιφράττω block up έπιχαίρω! rejoice at (+dat.) έίαχειρέω attempt, take in hand

(+dat., 13.1/26(iii)) έπιχώριος, -ov (also -O, -ov) of

the country, local #έπλετο 3rd s. aor. of πέλομαι

έπομαι follow (+dat., 13.1/26(iii))

#έπορον (aor., no pres. exists) give, furnish

έπος, -ους, τό word ώς έπος ειπείν so to speak (22.1/la(vi))

έπριάμην aor. of ωνέομαι έπτά (indecl. adj.) seven έραοτής -ού, ό lover έράω love, desire passionately

(+gen.,13.1/2*(ii)) !έργάζομαι work, perform,

do

έργον, -ου, τό task, labour, job, deed, action; fact, achievement; field έργω in fact, indeed έργα παρέχω g/t/e trouble

#έρέπτομαι / m i ow (+acc.) #έρετμόν, ού, τό o*r

έρέω fut. of λέγω έρημία, -^c, ή solitude, desert,

wilderness έρημοο (also έρημος), -ov empty,

deserted, desolate, devoid #έρίηροο, -ov (m. pi. nom. έρίηρες,

acc. έρίηρας) trusty, faithful έρι^ -i5oc, ή strife (acc. έριν) έρμαιον, -ου, τό godsend,

windfall, treasure έρμηνεύς, -έως, ό interpreter Έρμης, -ού, ό Hermes Έρμων, -ωνος, ό Hermon έρπω creep, crawl; move about,

spread; go έρρω go to one's harm, go to hell

#έρύω drag Ιέρχομαι come, go (18.1/3 and

Appendix 3) έρως, -ωτος, ό love, desire;

(personified, with cap.) Love Ιερωτάω ask (aor. ήρόμην)

έρωτικόΰ, -η, -όν amorous, in love

ec = eic έΰθίω eat

#έΰθλόΰ, -η, -όν brave εςμός, -ού, ό swarm έςομαι fut. of ειμί (be) (3rd s.

έςται) εςοράω see είςοράω έςπαρμαι perf. mid./pass. of

Οίείρω εςπερα, -ας, ή evening εςπερος, -ov of/at evening; (as m. t noun with cap.) the Evening Star εοπομην aor. of έπομαι εςται 3rd s. fut. of ειμί (be) εΰτηκακ:, -υια, -oc standing (perf.

pple. of ίίσυαμαι) (or έοτά;, -6ca, „ -oc) (19.1/1) εΰτι it is possible (21.1/4 notel);

there is εοχατος, -η, -ov furthest, last; „ worst (18.1/6) ^χον aor. of έχω εταίρα, -ac, ή female companion;

prostitute, courtesan

έταΐροΰ (epic also έταροΰ), -ου, ό companion, comrade

ΈτεόνΤκος, -ου, ό Eteonicus (Spartan commander)

έτεροΰ, -α -ον (pron. and adj.) one or the other of two

έτέρως (adv.) in the other way ώς έτερως quite otherwise

έτι (adv.) still, yet; further έτι καί νυν even now

ετοιμάζω get ready, prepare έτοιμος, -η, -ov ready, ready to

hand, prepared; fixed, certain έτος, -ους, τό year έτραπόμην aor. of τρέπομαι έτυχον aor. of τυγχάνω εύ (adv.) well

εύ λέγω speak well of (+acc., 22A/2f(n))

εύ ποιέω treat well, do good to (+acc., 22A!2f(\\)) εύ πράττω fare well, be prosperous

εύγενης, -ές noble, well-born; generous

ευγνωςτος, -ov well-known εύδαιμονέω prosper, thrive; be

happy εύδαιμονία, -ας, ή prosperity,

happiness εύδαιμων, -ov blessed with good

fortune; happy; rich Ευδαμίδας, -ου, ό Eudamidas εύδόκιμος, -ov famous, glorious εύδω sleep εύελπις, - ι hopeful (stem

εύελπιδ-) εύεργεςία, -ας, ή kindness,

service εύεργετέω do good to, benefit ευεργέτης, -ου, ο benefactor εύεργετητέον one must benefit

(24.1/5) εύηλιος, -ov sunny, with a sunny

aspect #εύθρονος (epic έΰ-), -ov fair-

throned ευθύ (+gen.) straight towards Εΰθύδημος, -ου, ό Euthydemus εύθύς (adv.) at once,

straightaway εύκλεια, -ας, ή fame, glory Ευκλείδης, -ου, ό Eucleides εύλαβέομαι be cautious, beware,

take care

343 § ο fi> σ c ω

344 ο ο ω σ c ω «2

εύλογος, -ov reasonable, sensible ευμενής, -ες well-disposed,

kindly, favourable #εύμμελίης (epic έύ-), -ου armed

with a good ash spear εύμορφία, -Gc, ή beauty of form

or body εύνή, -ης, ή bed; marriage; sex εύνοια, -Gc ή good will ευνους, -ουν well-disposed

#εύπλοέω have a fine voyage εύπορία, -ας, ή abundance,

means εύπραξία, -ac, ή prosperity ευρ- aor. act./mid. stem of εύρίςκω εύρηκα perf. of εύρίςκω ΕύρΤπίδης, -ου, ό Euripides

(tragic poet) +εύρ^κω find; get; invent

ευροΰ, -ους, τό breadth ευρύς, -εια, - ύ broad, wide Εύρυςθεύς, -έως, ό Eurystheus

(King of Mycenae) Ευρώπη, -ης, ή Europa (character

in mythology) εύclαoc, -ov well-shaded εϋςτοχος, -ov aiming well εύτάκτως (adv.) in good order εϋτροφία, -ας, ή proper nurture εύτυχεω be fortunate/lucky ευτυχής, -ές fortunate, lucky εύτυχία, -ας, ή good fortune Εύτυχος, -ου, ό Eutychus ευτυχώς (adv.) with good fortune εύφημέω shout in triumph Εύφορίων, -<DVOC, ό Euphorion

(father of Aeschylus) εύχαρις, - ι charming (stem

εύχαριτ-) εύχή, -ης, ή prayer εύχομαι pray εύωνυμος, -ov of good name or

omen; euphemistically for left, on the left hand (the side of a bad omen)

#ευωριάζω disregard, neglect εύωχεομαι have a jfeast/party έφ' = έπί

εφ' ωτε on condition that (+inf. or fut. ind., 16.1/1 note 4)

έφάνην aor. of φαίνομαι έφήμερο^ -ov living but a day;

mortal έφην impf. of φημί (7.1/2) έφίημι+ send; set on, send against;

allow; (mid.) aim at, long for, desire (+gen.)

έφίςτημι| set over, appoint έφοράω| oversee, observe, watch έφυγον aor. of φεύγω έφϋν be naturally, was naturally

(see φύω) #έχθαίρω hate

έχθές (adv.) yesterday έχθιςτος supl. of έχθρός έχθος, -ους, τό hatred έχθρα, -ας, ή enmity, hostility έχθρός, -ά -ov hostile (supl.

έχθιςτος) έχθρός, -ού, ό (personal) enemy έχΐνος, -ου, ό hedgehog έχρήν impf. of χρή έχυρός, -ά, -όν strong, secure

| έ χω have, hold, check; (intr.) land, put in; (+adv.) be in a certain condition; (+inf.) be able

έώος, -α, -ov of the morning έωρακα perf. of όράω έώρων impf. of όράω έως (conj.) (+av~subj.) until;

(+opt.) until; (+ind.) while, until (21.1/2)

έακ:, έω (acc. έω), ή dawn (13.1/1*)

Zαγpεύc, -έως, ό Zagreus (another name of Dionysus)

#ζάθεος, -α, -ov very holy, sacred ζάλη, -ης, ή squall, storm

Ί"ζάω be alive, live, pass one's life ζεύγνϋμι yoke, bind, join Ζεύς, Aioc, ό Zeus (poetical also

Ζήνα, Ζηνός, Ζηνί) ζέω boil ζηλόω admire, envy, emulate ζημία, -ας, ή fine, penalty, loss ζημιόω fine, punish Ζηνόθεμις, -ιδος, ό Zenothemis ζητέω look for, seek (+acc.) ζήτηςις, -εως, ή search, inquiry,

investigation ζυγόν, -ού, τό yoke; bench (of

ship) ζώγραφος, -ου, ό painter ζωγρέω take prisoners (alive) ζώνη, -ης, ή belt, girdle ζώον, -ου, τό animal, creature ζωός, -ή, -όν alive, living ζώω = ζαω live, pass one's life

ή or; than ή (particle) indeed, really ή 1st s. impf. of ειμί (be) ή δ' oc said he (see note on 13.3(i)

1.7) ή (adv.) where ηα impf. of ερχομαι/ειμι ήβάω be a young man ήβη, -ηο, ή youth ήγαγον aor. of άγω ήγεμών, -όνος, ό leader, guide ήγέομαι lead (+dat.); think,

consider Ήγέοτρατος, -ου, ό Hegestratus

#ήδε (conj.) and ήδει 3rd s. past of οίδα (19.1/3

and Appendix 3) ήδεςαν 3rd pi. past of οίδα (19.1/3

and Appendix 3) ήδέως (adv.) with pleasure,

gladly, sweetly, pleasantly ήδη (adv.) (by) now, already,

from now on ήδη 1st s. past of οίδα (19.1/3 and

Appendix 3) Ιήδομαι enjoy, be pleased with

(+dat.) ηδονή,-ης, ή pleasure ηδύς, -εια, -ύ sweet, pleasant,

enjoyable (supl. ήδιςτος) J10.1/3*) ήε(=ή) or

#ηελιος = ήλιος ήθος, -ους, τό custom, usage,

character; (in pi.) manners, customs

ήκιςτα (adv.) least of all, no, not at all

ήκονημενος, -η, -ov perf. mid./pass. pple. of άκονάω

ήκω have come (fut. ήξω will come)

ήλθον aor. of έρχομαι/ειμι ήλικία, -ας, ή time of life, age Ήλιοδώρα, ΗΧς, ή Heliodora ήλιος, -ου, ό sun; (personified,

with cap.) Sun-god ήμαι be seated, sit

#ημαρ, -ατος, τό day ήμεις (pron.) we (4.1/2) ήμερα, -<Χς, ή day

άμα (τη) ήμέρρ at dawn καθ' ήμέραν daily, by day

ήμέτερος, -α, -ov (poss. adj.)

#ήμίθραυςτος, -ov half-broken, broken in half

ήμιςυς, -εια, -υ half #ήμος (conj.) when

ήν = έάν ήν 3rd s. impf. of ειμί be ήν δ ' έγώ said I (see note on

13.3(i) /. 6) ήνεγκον aor. of φέρω ήπαρ, -ατος, τό liver ήπειρος -ου, ή mainland;

continent ήπιςτάμην impf. of έπίςταμαι "Ηρα, -ας, ή Hera (consort of

Zeus) 'Ηράκλεια, -ac, ή Heraclea (town

on Black Sea) 'Ηράκλειτος, -ου, ό Heraclitus Ηρακλής, -κλέους, ό Heracles

(=Hercules) ήρέμα (adv.) gently, softly Ηρόδοτος, -ου, ό Herodotus

(historian) ήρό|χην aor. of έρωτάω Ηρώδης, -ου, ό Herodes ήρως, -ωος, ό hero (13.1/l6(i)) ήςαν 3rd pi. impf. of ειμί be ήςθα 2nd s. impf. of ειμί be ηςθην aor. of ήδομαι ήςθόμην aor. of αίςθάνομαι Ήςίοδος, -ου, ό Hesiod (early

Greek poet) ήςυχάζω be quiet, keep quiet ήςυχρ quietly, gently ήςυχια, -ας, ή peace, quiet ήςυχος, -η, -ov quiet, peaceful ήττάομαι be defeated ήττων, ήττον (compar. adj.) lesser,'

weaker, inferior (17.1/2 note 3) ηύρον aor. of εύρίοκω "Ηφαιςτος, -ου, ο Hephaestus

(god of fire) ή^ω, ^-ούς, η echo (13.1/16(ii))

#ήως, ήούς, ή dawn; (personified, with eap.) Dawn

θακέω sit θακος, -ου, ό seat θάλαττα, -ης, ή (Ionic θάλαςςα)

sea Θαλής, -ού, ό Thales

(philosopher from Miletus) #θάλος, -ους, τό shoot, sprout

our θαμά (adv.) often

345 § ο ω σ c

346 ο ο ω σ c Οί 3

θάμνοο, -ου, ό bush, thicket θαν- aor. stem of θνήςκω θάνατος, -ου, ό death

|θάπτω bury, honour with funeral rites

θαρραλέος, -α, -ov bold θαρρέω be of good courage, take

courage, be confident θάρςος (Attic θάρρος), -ους, τό

boldness θάτερος, -α, -ov = ό έτερος θάττων, θάττον quicker (compar.

of ταχυο,17 Λ/lb) θαύμα, -ατος, τό wonder; marvel;

astonishment Ιθαυμάζω wonder; marvel at

(+gen.); be surprised; admire (+acc.)

θαυμάςιος, - α -ov wonderful, strange; extraordinary

θαυμαςιως (adv.) marvellously, wonderfully θαυμαςιως ώς exceedingly,

prodigiously (22.1/l*(iii)) θαυμαςτώς (adv.) marvellously,

wonderfully θαυμαςτώς ώς marvellously (22.1/l*(iii))

θε- aor. act./mid. stem of τίθημι θέα, -ac, ή s/gfo θεά, -ac, ή goddess Θεαίτητος, -ου, ό Theaetetus θέαμα, -ατος, τό sight, spectacle θεάομαι watch, gaze at, look at,

observe Θεαρίδας, -ου, ό Thearidas θεατής, -ού, ό spectator θεήλατος, -ov sent by the gods θειος, -a , -ov divine, of the gods θέλγητρον, -ου, τό charm, spell θέλω wish, be willing (Ionic for

έθέλω) θέμενοΰ, -η, -ov aor. pple. of

τίθεμαι θέμις, -ιδος, ή that which is meet

and right; justice; right θέμις έςτί it is right θέμις, -ιδος, ή Themis (mother

of Prometheus) Θεμιςτοκλής, -κλέους, ό

Themistocles (Athenian statesman)

Θεόκριτος, -ου, ό Theocritus (pastoral poet)

θεομαχέω fight against (a) god

θεος, -ού, ό'η goc/,,/. προς θεών m theZ ·, gods ·'...·.

#θεοςτυγής, -ές hated ,· . θεραπεία, -ας, η s e r i "

treatment θεραπευτέον one mn.>

after/worship (24.1 > θεραπεύω look after, / ,·<

after the interests <•> \ #θεράπων, -οντος, 6 seri μ^

Θερμοπύλαι, -ών, αι Thermopylae

θερμός, -ή, -όν hot θέρος, -ους, τό summei θές place! put! (2nd s aor - -

act. of τίθημι) θέςθαι aor. inf. of τίθεμα-Θετταλός, -ού, ό a Thessaluw θέω run Θηβαι, -ών, αί Thebes Θηβαίοι, -ων, οί Thebans Θηβαίος, -α, -ov of Thehes.

Theban θήκη, -ης, ή tomb θηλυκός, -η, -όν female, femur,* θήλυς, -εια, -υ female θήρ, θηρός, ό wild beast θηράω hunt θηρεύω hunt θηρίον, -ου, τό Θηχης, -ου, ό

j-θνηςκω die θνητός, -ή, -όν θοίμάτιον crasis for τό ι μα τι

#θοός, -ή, -όν quick, swij'* θορυβέω make a disturbs < θόpυβoc, -ου, ό noise, dm

clamour; commotion Θουκυδίδης,-ου, ό V m ^ ' ^

(historian) Θρςίκη, -ηΰ, ή ThraCt Θρφξ, Θρςικός, ό θράςος, -ους, το .. t θραςύς, -εια, -ύ bold, ^^ θρεψ- aor. act./mid. stem θρηνέω bewail, lament ι θρίξ ,τριχό^ή θυγάτηρ, -τρος, η a a u * '

(6.1/lb) θϋμός,-ού,ό spiritJn- · θύρα,-ας, ή door θυςία,-ας ,ή sacrifice

|θύω (A) sacrifice θύω (Β) rage

wild beast (Mt.) Thecht

mortal

-CXOC, Ο • I'V

trunk, chest (of

Thorax (a

heal, cure ού ο doctor, healer icr./mid. stem of οραω I^-ov of Mt. Ida (in . Idaean

- η form> shaPe> adv.) privately -a. -ov private, personal,

;:ne ^ου, ό private individual; ,i\man 01. (adv.) look! here! hey!

.an inf. of έρχομαι/είμι (18.1/3 and Appendix 3)

t pa. -ών, τά n'tes, sacrifices i pria. -ων, τά offerings iPtOC,-έωο,ό pries? . pov, -οϋ, τό temple, sanctuary , poc, -ά, -όν sacred, holy Ιι ρωνυμοο, -ου, ό Hieronymus w let go, launch, /οτΐ& .20.1/2); (mid., poet.) he eager; strive

hu>ic, -οϋ, ό Jesus '°ακη, -ης, ή J ^ c a (island

Home of Odysseus) 2nd s. imp. of έρχομαι/είμι

' 18.1/3 and Appendix 3) •^οο,-ή,-όν sufficient; competent, capable (+inf.) ^υω beg, supplicate ^c.-ου,ό suppliant

:'c!)Q ~ων Propitious (13Λ/1α) - - δ ο ο , ή Iliad (epic poem

TjBl epic equivalent of gen. of

" ίλιον - 01 · -ου, τό Ilium, Troy

Ilium, Troy

^•M^subj.oropt.) i„

. V^p0 ,0 W o s (King of

" l ? c a s t a (mother ι . ^ e of Oedipus)

' Ionic, Ionian

Ιουδαίος -ου, ό Jew innevc, -έως, ό horseman,

cavalry; rider ιππεύω ride

#ίππόδαμος -ov horse-taming Ίπποθαλης, -ους, ό Hippothales Ιπποκράτης, -ου, ό Hippocrates Ιππόλυτος, -ου, ό Hippolytus ΊππόνΤκος, -ου, ό Hipponicus Ιπποπόταμος, -ου, ό

hippopotamus ίππος, -ου, ό horse; ή cavalry

άπο (άφ') ίππου from horseback

icGci 3rd pi. of οίδα (Appendix 3) ίςθι 2nd s. imp. of ειμί and οίδα

(Appendix 3) ίςθμος, ού, ό isthmus ίςμεν 1st pi. of οίδα (Appendix 3) ίςος, -η, -ov equal to (+dat.)

Ι'ίςτημι make to stand; (mid. and intr. tenses of act.) stand (19.1/1)

ίςτορίσ, -ας, ή enquiry, investigation

ίςτός, -ού, ό loom; web "Ιςτρος, -ου, ό Danube

#ίςχε (2nd s. imp. of ίςχω, a form of έχω) stop!

Ίςχόμαχος, -ου, ό Ischomachus ΐςχϋρός, -ά, -όν powerful, strong ίςχϋρώς (ad.) very much,

exceedingly ιςως (adv.) perhaps Ιταλία, -ας, η Italy

#'ίχθυόεις, -εςςα, -€ν full offish ιχθύς,-ύος,ό fish ίχνος, -ους, τό track, footstep ίω subj. of έρχομαι/είμι (Appendix

Ίωλκιος, -α, -ov of Iolcus (city at east of Thessaly)

ίων, ίούοα, ιόν pple. of έρχομαι/είμι (Appendix 3)

κάγώ crasis for καί έγώ Καδμείος, -α, -ov Cadmean (i.e.

Theban) καθαιμάττω make bloody, stain

with blood καθαιρέω| take down, destroy καθαιρώ! cleanse, purify καθαρός, -ά, -όν free from

guilt/defilement, pure καθεύδω sleep κάθημαι be seated (19.1/36)

θάμνος, -ου, ό bush, thicket θαν- aor. stem of θνηςκω θάνατοο, -ου, ό death

tθάπτω bury, honour with funeral rites

θαρράλεοο, -α, -ov bold θαρρέω be of good courage, take

courage, be confident θάρςος (Attic θάρρος), -ους, τό

boldness θάτερος, -α, -ov = ό έτερος θάττων, θάττον quicker (compar.

of ταχύς, 17.1/26) θαύμα, -ατος, τό wonder; marvel;

astonishment tθαυμάζω wonder, marvel at

(+gen.); be surprised; admire (+acc.)

θαυμάςιος, - α -ov wonderful, strange; extraordinary

θαυμαςιως (adv.) marvellously, wonderfully θαυμαςιως ώς exceedingly,

prodigiously (22.1/l*(iii)) θαυμαςτώς (adv.) marvellously,

wonderfully θαυμαςτώς ώς marvellously (22.1/Miii))

θε- aor. act./mid. stem of τίθημι θέα, -Gc, ή sight θεά, -ac, ή goddess Θεαίτητος, -ου ,ό Theaetetus θέαμα, -ατος, τό sight, spectacle θεάομαι watch, gaze at, look at,

observe Θεαρίδσς, -ου, ό Thearidas θεατής, -ού, ό spectator θεήλατος, -ov sent by the gods θειος, -a , -ov divine, of the gods θέλγητρον, -ου, τό charm, spell θέλω wish, be willing (Ionic for

έθέλω) θέμενοΰ, -η, -ov aor. pple. of

τίθεμαι θέμις, -ιδος, ή that which is meet

and right; justice; right θέμις έςτί it is right Θέμις, -ιδος, ή Themis (mother

of Prometheus) Θεμιςτοκλής, -κλέους, ό

Themistocles (Athenian statesman)

Θεόκριτος, -ου, ό Theocritus (pastoral poet)

θεομαχέω fight against (a) god

θεός, -ού, ό/ή god(dess) προς θεών in the name of the gods

#θεοςτυγής, -ές hated by the gods θεραπεία, -ας, ή service,

treatment θεραπευτέον one must look

after/worship (24.1/5) θεραπεύω look after, tend; look

after the interests of, protect #θεράπων, -οντος, ό servant

Θερμοπύλαι, -ων, αί Thermopylae

θερμός, -ή, -όν hot θέρος, -ους, τό summer θές place! put! (2nd s. aor. imp.

act. of τίθημι) θέςθαι aor. inf. of τίθεμαι Θετταλός, -ού, ό a Thessalian θέω run Θηβαι, -ών, αί Thebes Θηβαίοι, -ων, οί Thebans Θηβαίος, -α, -ov of Thebes,

Theban θήκη, -ης, ή tomb θηλυκός, -ή, -όν female, feminine θήλυς, -εια, - υ female θήρ, θηρός, ό wild beast θηράω hunt θηρεύω hunt θηρίον, -ου, τό wild beast Θηχης, -ου, ό (Mt.) Theches

Ιθνηςκω die θνητός, -ή, -όν mortal θοίμάτιον crasis for τό ίμάτιον

#θοός, -ή, -όν quick, swift θορυβέω make a disturbance/dm θόρυβος -ου, ό noise, din,

clamour, commotion Θουκυδίδης, -ου, ό Thucydides

(historian) Θρςικη, -ης, ή Thrace Θρφξ, Θρςικός, ό Thracian θράςος, -ους, τό boldness θραςύς, -εια, - ύ bold, brave θρεψ- aor. act./mid. stem οί tpt·. θρηνέω bewail,lamentover• θρίξ,τριχο^,η hair (5. lh ^ θυγατηρ, -τροο, η dangler

(6.1/1 b) , , „f θΰμόΰ, -ού ,ό spirit, hearts* θύρα, -ac, ή door θ υ ^ α , -ac , ή sacrifice

+θύω (A) sacrifice θύω (Β) rage

θώραξ, -SKOC, ό trunk, chest (of body)

Θωραξ, -SKOC, Ο Thorax (a Boeotian)

τάομαι heal, cure TGxpoc, -ού, ό doctor, healer ίδ- aor. act./mid. stem of όράω Ίδαίος, -α, -ov of Mt. Ida (in

Crete), Idaean ιδέα, -ας, ή form, shape, type ίδί<? (adv.) privately ίδιος, -α, -ov private, personal,

one's own ιδιώτης, -ου, ό private individual;

layman ιδού (adv.) look! here! hey! ίέναι inf. of έρχομαι/είμι (18.1/3

and Appendix 3) ιερά, -ών, τά rites, sacrifices ίερεία, -ων, τά offerings ιερεύς, -έως, ό priest ιερόν, -ού, τό temple, sanctuary ίερόο, -ά, -όν sacred, holy Ιερώνυμος, -ου, ό Hieronymus

+Τημι let go, launch, send forth (20.1/2); (mid., poet.) be eager, strive

Ίηςούς, -ού, ό Jesus 'Ιθάκη, -ης, ή Ithaca (island

home of Odysseus) ιθι 2nd s. imp. of έρχομαι/είμι . (18.1/3 and Appendix 3) ικανός, -η, -όν sufficient; . competent, capable (+inf.) ικετεύω beg, supplicate ^ετης, -ου, ό suppliant ^εως, -ων propitious (13.1/1 a) ^iac, -αδος, ή Iliad (epic poem

by Homer) ίλιοθι epic equivalent of gen. of ,7 ΙλιοςΛϊλιον Uiov, —ου, τό Ilium, Troy

Ilium, Troy

"^wsa i tssT i Ubya)^'6 I war os (King of

anH?' ·^* ^ l°casta (mother i C o c ^ e o f Oedipus)

* ' -°v Ionic, Ionian

Ιουδαίος, -ου, ό Jew ίππεύς, -έως, ό horseman,

cavalry; rider ιππεύω ride

#ίππόδαμος, -ov horse-taming Κπποθαλης, -ους, ό Hippothales Ιπποκράτης, -ου, ό Hippocrates Ιππόλυτος, -ου, ό Hippolytus ΊππόνΤκος, -ου, ό Hipponicus ιπποπόταμος, -ου, ό

hippopotamus ίππος, -ου, ό horse; ή cavalry

άπο (αφ') ίππου from horseback

icQcx 3rd pi. of οίδα (Appendix 3) ίςθι 2nd s. imp. of ειμί and οίδα

(Appendix 3) ίοθμος, ού, ό isthmus ίςμεν 1st pi. of οίδα (Appendix 3) ϊςος, -η, -ov equal to (+dat.)

Ιίςτημι make to stand; (mid. and intr. tenses of act.) stand (19.1/1)

ίςτορία, -Cfc, ή enquiry, investigation

ίςτός, -ού, ό loom; web "Ιςτρος, -ου, ό Danube

#ίςχε (2nd s. imp. of ίςχω, a form of έχω) stop!

Ίςχόμαχος, -ου, ό Ischomachus ίςχϋρός, -ά, -όν powerful, strong ίςχϋρώς (ad.) very much,

exceedingly ίςως (adv.) perhaps Ιταλία, -ας, η Italy

#ίχθυόεις, -εςςα, -εν full of fish ιχθύς,-ύος,ό fish ίχνος, -ους, τό track, footstep ϊω subj. of έρχομαι/είμι (Appendix ,3)

Ίώλκιος, -α, -ov of Iolcus (city at east of Thessaly)

ίων, ίούοα, ιόν pple. of έρχομαι/είμι (Appendix 3)

κάγώ crasis for καί έγώ Καδμείος, -α, -ov Cadmean (i.e.

Theban) καθαιμάττω make bloody, stain

with blood καθαιρέω| take down, destroy καθαίρω| cleanse, purify καθαρός -ά, -όν free from

guilt/defilement, pure καθεύδω sleep κάθημαι be seated (19.1/36)

347 S ο to σ c

καθίζω sit down (tr. and intr.); (mid.) sit down (intr.)

καθίοτημιΙ set down; put in a certain state; appoint; establish; (mid. and intr. tenses of act.) settle down; come into a certain state; be appointed; be established

κάθοδος, -ου, ή way down καθοράω| see, catch sight of,

look down on καθυπερθεν (adv.) from above καί (conj.) and; (adv.) also; even;

actually, in fact καί . . . καί both . . . and τε* . . . καί both . . . and και γάρ in fact; yes, certainly καί δή and really, moreover; as

a matter of fact; look!; let us suppose (13.1/3c)

καί δή καί and especially, and in particular καί μήν what's more; look!

καινός, -ή, -όν fresh, new, novel καίπερ although (+pple.

12.1/2a(iii)) καιρός, -ού, ό right time;

opportunity; time; crisis Kaicap, -apoc, ό Caesar καίτοι (particle) and yet,

however (13.1/3c(iv)) |καίω burn, kindle, set fire to

κακηγορίσ, -flc, ή slander κακία, -ας, ή wickedness κακίζω abuse κακίων, -ov worse (compar. of

κακός) κακοδαίμων, -ov unlucky,

unfortunate κακόνοια, -Qc, ή malice KOKOC, -ή, -όν bad, evil, wicked;

cowardly; mean, lowly; (neuter used as noun) trouble κακά (κακώς) λέγω speak ill of

(+acc., 22A/2f(ii)) κακά (κακώΰ) ποιέω treat

badly; do harm to (+acc., 22.\!2f(\\))

κακόω ruin; wrong, maltreat κακώς (adv.) badly, wickedly

κακώc έχω be in a bad state!condition

καλεο- aon act./mid. stem of καλέω

καλέω call, summon; name

Καλλικρατίδας -ου, ό Callicratidas

Καλλίμαχος -ου, ό Callimachus (Alexandrian poet)

κάλλιοτος -η, -ov most beautiful (supl. of καλόο)

καλλίων, -ov more beautiful (compar. of καλόΰ)

κάλλος TOUC, τό beauty καλός, -ή, -όν beautiful, good,

fine; honourable Καλυψώ, -ούς ή Calypso (nymph

who detained Odysseus on the island Ogygia) (13.1/lfc(ii))

καλώς (adv.) well, rightly καλώς έχω be in a good

statelcondition κάμηλος, -ου, ό/ή camel κάμνω (aor. έκαμον) toil, labour κάμπτω bend κάν crasis for καί αν and καί έάν κάν crasis for καί έν καπνός -ού, ό smoke καρδίδ, -<Χς ή heart Καρδούχοι, -ων, οί Kurds

#κάρη, -ητος τό head Κσριδ, -ac, ή Carta (region in

S.W. Asia Minor) καρκίνος -ου, ό crab καρπός, -ού, ό fruits, harvest καρτεράς, -ά, -όν strong,

mighty #καςίγνητος, -ου, ό brother

κατά (prep.) (+acc.) in, on, at; in the region of; by, according to; down, throughout, during; in relation to, with respect to κατά γην καί κατά θάλατταν by land and by sea (+gen.) below, down from; against

καταβαίνω! go down, come down

καταβιβάζω make go down, bring down

καταγελάω| laugh at, mock (+gen.)

καταγιγνώςκω| condemn (acc.of the charge, gen. of the person, 23.1/lk(i))

καταγορεύω (fut. κατερώ, 18.1/4 note 2) denounce

κατάγω| take/lead down; bring back/restore (from exile)

καταδουλόω enslave

καταδύω make to sink, lay to rest #καταθνήςκω! die

κατακαλύπτω cover over κατακειμαι lie down κατακόπτω cut to pieces κατακρίνω! give sentence against

(acc. of penalty, gen. of person, 23.1/l*(i))

καταλαμβάνω! overtake, come across; seize, catch, capture

καταλέγω pick, choose; recount (18.1/4 note 1)

καταλείπω! leave behind, bequeath

κατάλυςις, -εως, ή overthrow, destruction

καταλύω bring to an end, destroy; finish; (intr.) stay, lodge

καταμείγνϋμι! mix in, combine Κατάνη, -ης, ή Catana (city in

Sicily) καταντικρύ (prep.+gen.) right

opposite καταπαύω put an end to (+acc.) καταπίπτω! fall down καταπλέω! sail down/back κατάπλους, -ου, ό arrival in port καταράομαι call down curses on

(+dat.) # καταςκευάζω prepare, arrange κατάςκοπος, -ου, ό scout, spy;

inspector καταςτρέφομαι subdue, subject

to oneself καταστροφή, -ής, ή overthrowing;

conclusion #καταφθίμενος, -η, -ov dead

καταφρονέω despise, look down on (+gen.)

καταχέω pour down, shed καταψηφίζομαι vote against

(acc. of penalty, gen. of person, 23.1/lk(i))

κατέλιπον aor. of καταλείπω κατεπείγω press hard κατέρχομαι! g° down/back;

return from exile κατεςθίω! eat UP> devour κατέχω! hold back, check κατηγορέω accuse (acc. of

charge, gen. of person, 23.1/l*(i))

κατίςχω hold back, check κατόπιν (adv., and prep.+gen.)

after

κάτοπτρον, -ου, τό mirror κατοχή, -ής, ή possession (by a

spirit) κάτω (adv.) below, down καυς- fut. and aor. 3ς ί . /π^ . stem

of καίω #κε(ν) = άν

Κέβης, -ητος, ό Cebes κειμαι lie; be placed (19.1/3b) κείνος, -η, -ο = έκεΐνος κείρω cut (the hair), shear κειςε = έκειςε κέκρικα perf. of κρίνω κέκτημαι own, possess (perf. of

κτάομαι 19.1/3 a) #κέλευθος, -ου, ή road, path

κελευςτέον one must order (24.1/5)

ίκελεύω order, urge, tell... to, bid

κέλης, -ητος, ό fast-sailing ship, pinnace

#κέλομαι urge, order, command #κενεός, -ά, -ov = κενός

κενός, -ή, -όν empty κέντρον, -ου, τό goad κεραννϋμι mix κέρας, -ατος, τό horn; branch (of

a river); with gen. κέρως, wing of an army/fleet (13.1 lb (iii))

κέρδος, -ους, τό gain; profit #κεύθω hide, conceal

κεφαλή, -ής, ή head κηδεμών, -όνος, ό protector κήρυξ, -υκος, ό herald Κίλιξ, -ικος, ό a Cilician κινδυνεύω be in danger, run a

risk; be likely to (+inf.) κίνδυνος, -ου, ό danger *Τνέω move κίνημα, -ατος, τό movement Κινυρης, -ου, ό Cinyres Κίρκη, -ης, ή Circe (enchantress

in Odyssey on island Aeaea) κίων, -ovoc, ή pillar Κλαζομένιος, -0, -ov of/from

Clazomenae !κλαίω weep; weep for, lament;

(mid.) bewail to oneself κλαυς- aor. 3ς ί . /π^ . stem of

κλαίω Κλέανδροο, -ου, ό Cleander Κλεό^ωρ, -ορος, ό Cleanor Κλεάρετος, -ου, ό Clearetus Κλέαρχος, -ου, ό Clearchus

Κλεινίας, -ου, ό Cleinias κλείω close, shut κλέος, -ους, τό glory κλέπτης -ου, ό thief

tκλέπτω steal Κλέων, -ωνoc, ό Cleon (Athenian

politician) κληθείς -^ειςα, -έν aor. pass. pple.

of καλέω #κληΐς, - ΐδος ή rowing-bench

κληρουχικός, -η, -όν belonging to a cleruchy

κλΐμαξ, -ακος, ή ladder, stairway κλοπή, -ης, ή theft κλύδων, -ωνος, ό wave, surf;

turmoil κλωπεύω steal Κνίδος, -ου, ή Cnidos (city in

Asia Minor) κοιμάομαι sleep, slumber Koivfj (adv.) in common KOIvoc, -η, -όν common, shared,

public κοινωνίδ, -δς, ή association,

intercourse κοινωνός, -ού, ό partner

#κοιρανέω be lord/master of, rule over (+gen.)

κολάζω punish κολακεία, -ας, ή flattery κόλπος, -ου, ό bosom; gulf

f κομίζω carry, convey, bring; (mid.) acquire, recover

κομπέω boast of #κονία, -ας, ή dust #κόνις, -εως, ή dust

Κόνων, -ωνος, ό Conon (Athenian admiral)

κόπος, -ου, ό exertion, fatigue κόπτω cut; knock on κόραξ, -ακος, ό crow κόρη, -ης, ή maiden, girl Κορίνθιοι, -ων, οί Corinthians Κορίνθιος, -α, -ov from Corinth Κόρινθος, -ου, ή Corinth

#κορυθαίολος, -ov with gleaming helmet

κοςμοπολίτης, -ου, ό citizen of the world

κόςμος, -ου, ό decoration, ornament; order; universe; world

κού(κ) crasis for καί ού(κ) κουρεύς, -έως, ό barber

Κουρήτες, -ων, οί Curetes (minor divinities associated with orgiastic rites)

κουφιζω lighten, make light κούφος, -η, -ov light, nimble κούφως (adv.) lightly κρΟνίον, -ου, τό skull

#κρατερός, -ά, -όν hard, strong κρατέω hold sway/power over,

rule, control; defeat (+gen., 13.1/2*(i))

κρατήρ, -ηρος, ό mixing-bowl κράτιςτος, -η, -ov best, strongest

(supl. of αγαθός, κρείττων) κράτος -ους, τό strength, power;

supremacy; (personified) Might κατά κράτος vigorously

κρατϋνω strengthen κραυγή, -ης, ή shouting, din κρέας, -ως, τό meat (13.1/16(iii)) κρείττων, -ov stronger, greater;

better (compar. of αγαθός) κρεμάθρα, -ας, ή hanging basket κρεμάννϋμι hang (tr.); (mid.

κρέμαμαι) hang (intr.) κρήνη, -ης, ή spring Κρητη, -ης, ή Crete

#κρΐ (nom. and acc. s. only), τό barley

f κρίνω judge, decide; select, choose

Kpicic, - εως ή judgement; decision; dispute; trial

κριτής -ού, ό judge Κροιςος, -ου, ό Croesus (King of

Lydia) κροκόδΓλος, -ου, ό crocodile Κρονίδης, -ου, ό son of Cronos

(i.e. Zeus) κρόταφοι, -ων, οί temples (of

forehead) #κρουνός, -ού, ό spring, stream

κρούω strike, knock #κρυπτάδιος, -α, -ov secret,

clandestine κρύπτω keep secret, hide; bury;

cover f κτάομαι acquire, get; (perf.) own,

possess (19.1/3a) |κτείνω kill

κτήμα, -ατος, τό (a) possession Κτηςιππος, -ου, ό Ctesippus κτηςις, -εως, ή possession κτίζω found, build

κτύπος -ου, ό din, noise κυάνεος, -α, -ov dark, black Κυαξάρης, -ου, ό Cyaxares (uncle

of Cyprus) κυβερνήτης, -ου, ό helmsman,

captain κύβος, -ου, ό (a) die; (mostly in

pi.] dice #κϋδαινω glorify

κυκάω stir κύμα, -ατος τό wave Κυμαιος -α, -ov of or from

Cyme (city in Asia Minor) Κύπριο, - ιδος ή the Cyprian

(goddess), Cypris (a name of Aphrodite, from the island of Cyprus)

Κϋρήνη, -ης, ή Cyrene (city in N. Africa)

κύριος, -α, -ov having power!authority

Κύρος, -ου, ό Cyrus (1. founder of the Persian empire; 2. younger son of Darius Π)

κύων, κυνός, ό/ή dog κώλον, -ου, τό limb κωλύω prevent, stop (+acc. and

inf., 24.1/7) κώμη, -ης, ή village

λαβ- aor. act./mid. stem of λαμβάνω

λαγχάνω obtain by lot; win as a portion, get (+gen.)

λαγώς -ώ, ο hare (13.1/1 a) λαθ- aor. act./mid. stem of

λανθάνω λάθρςι (adv.) secretly

#λάθριος -ov secret, secretly #λάινος, -η, -ov of stone

Λάϊος, -ου, ό Laius (father of Oedipus)

Λαΐς, -ΐδος, ή Lais Λάκαινα, -ης, ή Laconian

(Spartan) woman Λακεδαιμόνιος, -ου, ό

Lacediaemonian, Spartan Λακεδαίμων, -ονος, η

Lacedaemon, Sparta λακτίζω kick Λάκων, -ωνος, ό Laconian,

Spartan Λακωνικός, -ή, -όν Laconian,

Spartan

λαλέω talk, prattle, chatter tλαμβάνω take, get, capture

δικην λαμβάνω punish, exact one's due from (παρά+gen.)

λαμπρός, -G, -όν bright, brilliant, famous

λάμπω shine tλανθάνω escape notice of

(15.1/2/); (mid.) forget #λαος, -ού, ό people

Λαςθένης, -ους, ό Lasthenes λαχ- aor. act./mid. stem of

λαγχάνω λέγω speak, say, tell, mean

ούδέν λέγω speak/talk nonsense λείβω pour; let flow, shed

tλείπω leave, abandon λείψανον, -ου, τό remnant λέληθα perf. of λανθάνω λεοντή, -ης, ή lion-skin λεπτός, -ή, -όν subtle, fine;

delicate, thin λέςχη,-ης, ή conversation λευκαίνω (aor. έλεύκανα) make

white, whiten λευκός, -ή, -όν white

#λεύςςω look upon, behold λέων, -οντος, ό lion Λεωνίδας, -ου, ό Leonidas

(Spartan king) λεωργός, -όν villainous; (as

noun) wrong-doer #λεώς, -ω, ό people (13.1/1*)

λήθη, -ης, ή forgetfulness λήθω = λανθάνω ληκύθιον, -ου, τό little oil-flask

#λήμα, -ατος, τό arrogance, audacity

ληςτρικός, -ή, -όν belonging to pirates

ληφθ- aor. pass, stem of λαμβάνω λήψομαι fut. of λαμβάνω λίδν (adv.) very, exceedingly; too

much Λιβύη, -ης, ή Libya Λίβυς -υος ό * Libyan λιγυρός -ά, -όν clear, shrill λίθινος, -η, -ov made of stone

(see also χυτός) λίθος, -ου, ό stone λιμήν, -ένος, ό harbour λίμνη, -ης, ή lake (especially

marshy) λιμός -ού, ό hunger, famine

352 S Ο tt σ c 0) 3

#λίςςομαι beg, beseech λογίζομαι calculate, reckon,

consider λόγος, -ου, ό speech, tale, word,

account; argument; reason, explanation

λόγχη, ^ης, ή spear, javelin λοιδορέω abuse, revile; (mid.,

+dat.) abuse, scold λοιπός, -η, -όν left, remaining λούω wash (the body); (mid.)

wash oneself λόφος, -ου, ό hill λοχαγός, -ού, ό company

commander, captain Λϋδία, -ας, ή Lydia (territory in

west of Asia Minor) Λϋδός, -ού, ό Lydian Λυκαονία, -ας, ή Lycaonia

(country in Asia Minor) Λύκειον, -ου, τό the Lyceum

(park and gymnasium in Athens)

Λύκιοο, -ου, ό Lycius λύκος, -ου, ό wolf Λυκούργος, -ου, ό Lycurgus

(traditional Spartan legislator) λϋπεω cause distress to, annoy,

grieve; (mid.) be distressed, grieve

λύπη, -ης, ή pain, grief λύρα, -ας, ή lyre Λϋςίμαχος, -ου, ό Lysimachus λϋςιτελεΐ (impers.) it is

profitable (+dat. and inf., 21.1/4*)

#λύςςα, ης, ή frenzy, raging madness

λυτήριον, -ου, τό remedy, deliverance

λύχνος, -ου, ό lamp λύω loosen, release; break up;

(mid.) ransom λφςτος, -η, -ov (supl. adj.) best λωτός, -ού, ό lotus Λωτοφάγοι, -ων, οί Lotus-Eaters λωφάω lighten, relieve

μά (particle of asseveration, affirmative or negative) yes by ..., no by ... ! (+acc., 22.1/26))

μάζα, -T|c, ή barley bread μαθ- aor. act./mid. stem of

μανθάνω

μάθημα, -ατος, τό lesson μαθηςομαι fut. of μανθάνω μαθητεον one must learn (24.1/5) μαθητής, -ού, ό student Μαίανδρος, -ου, ό Maeander

(river in Phrygia) μαίνομαι rage, be furious, be

mad μακαρίζω congratulate μακάριος, -α, -ov blessed, happy Μακεδονία, -ας, ή Macedonia μακρόβιος, -ov long-lived μακρός, -ά, -όν long, large, big

μακράν (adv. acc.) far off μακρω by far

μάλα (adv.) very; quite μαλθακίζομαι be softened μαλθακός, -ή, -όν faint-hearted,

cowardly μάλιςτα (supl. of μάλα)

especially, particularly; yes μάλλον (compar. of μάλα) more;

rather f μανθάνω learn, understand;

(+inf.) learn how to μανία, -ac, ή madness μαντεύομαι consult an oracle μαντικώς (adv.) prophetically μάντις, ^εως, ό seer, prophet Μαραθών, -ωνος, ό Marathon (in

Attica) Μαραθώνι at Marathon

Μαραθώνιος, -α, -ov of Marathon

#μαργών, -ωςα, -ων (pple. of μαργάω) raging

#μάρπτω take hold of, seize μαρτυρέω give evidence, bear

witness μαρτυρία, -ας, ή evidence,

testimony μάρτυς, -υρος, ό/ή witness Μαςςαλία, -ας, ή Marseilles μαςτεύω seek, search after μαςιΤγοφόρος, -ου, ό whip-bearer μαςιΤγόω whip, flog μαςτίζω whip, flog μάτην (adv.) in vain; without

reason μάτηρ = μήτηρ μάττω knead μάχαιρα, -ας, ή knife μάχη, -ης, ή battle, fight μάχιμος, -η, -ov warlike

|μάχομαι fight (+dat., 13.1/26(iii)) Μεγακλής, - έ ο υ ς , ό Megacles Μεγαροι (adv.) in/at Megara μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα ( s tem μεγαλ- ;

3.1/3) great, big; tall; important; loud

μ έ γ ε θ ο ς - ο υ ς τό size μέγιοτος -η, -ov greatest (supl. of

μέγαο) μεθΤημι| let go, release; give up;

allow μεθίστημι+ (mid. and intr. tenses of

act.) change, alter (intr.) μεθύω be drunk μείγνϋμι (also μΤγ-, aor. pass,

έμίγην) mix, join; (pass.) be joined, mix with, have sexual intercourse with (+dat.)

Μειδίδς, -ου, ό Meidias μείζων, -ov greater (compar. of

μέγας) #μειλι^ος, -ov gentle, kind

μειρακιον, -ου, τό lad, boy μέλας, -αινα, -αν black (10.1/3

note 2) Μελέαγρος, -ου, ό Meleager

(poet and philosopher) tμέλει (impers.) there is a

care/concern (+dat. of pers. and gen. of thing, 21.1/46)

μελετάω practise Μέλητος -ου, ό Meletus (accuser

of Socrates) μέλι, -ιτος, τό honey

#μελιηδής, - ές honey-sweet μέλιττα, -ης, ή bee

tμέλλω be destined to; be about to, be going to; intend; hesitate

μέλον (acc. absol.) it being a care (21.1/5)

#μέλω (for principal parts see under μέλει) be of concern

μέμνημαι (perf.) remember (+gen., 13.1/2*(iii)) (19.1/3*)

μέμφομαι blame, criticize, find fault with (+dat. or acc.)

μεν* . . . δέ* on the one hand . . . and/but on the other (4.1/3)

μέν ούν no, on the contrary (13.1/3c(iii))

Μένανδρος, -ου, ό Menander (writer of New Comedy)

Μενδηςιος -δ , -ov of Mendes (a town in the Nile Delta), Mendesian

Μενέλδος, -ου, ό Menelaus (brother of Agamemmon, husband of Helen)

Μενέλεως, -ω, ό Menelaus (13.1/1a)

Μένιππος -ου, ό Menippus Μενοικεύς, -έως, ό Menoeceus μέντοι* (particle) really, you

know; however, yet (13.1/3c(v)) Ί"μένω remain, stay, wait (for); be

at rest, be still Μένων, -ωνος, ό Meno μέριμνα, -ης, ή care μέρος, -ους, τό share, part

έν μέρει in turn #μεςηγύ (adv., and prep.+gen.)

between μέςος, -η, -ov middle (of), in the

middle (18.1/6) Μεςςηΐς, -ΐδος, ή Messeis (a

spring) Μεςςηνιος, -δ , -ov Messenian μέτα = μέτεςτι (21.1/4 note 2) μετά (prep.) (+acc.) after; (+gen.)

with; (+dat., poetic,) among μεταβάλλω! change, alter (tn and

intn) μεταβολή, -ης, ή change μεταγιγνώςκωί change one's

mind; repent (of) μεταδίδωμι| give a share of

(+dat. of pers. and gen. of thing) μεταμέλει+ (impers.) there is

repentance (+dat. of pers. and gen. of thing, 21.1/46)

μεταμέλεια, -δς, ή regret μετανοέω think afterwards,

change one's mind, repent μεταξύ (adv.) in the middle;

(+pple.) in the middle of doing something (12.1/2j(i))

μεταπέμπομαι| summon, send for μετάρςιος, -ov superficial,

shallow μετεκβαίνωΙ go from one place

into another, transfer μέτεςτι (impers.) there is a share

(+dat. of pers. and gen. of thing, 21.1/46)

μετέχω! share in (+gen., 13.1/2*(v))

μετέωρος -ov high in the air τά μετέωρα things in the heaven above, astronomical phenomena

354 s ο ω σ c 5Γ 3

μετρέω measure μέτρηςις, -εως, ή measurement μέτριος, -tf, -ov moderate,

reasonable, fair, average; standard

μετρίως (adv.) in moderation μέτρον, -ου, τό measure, due

measure, moderation μέτωπον, -ου, τό forehead μέχρι (prep.+gen.) until, up to,

as far as; μέχρι ού until; (conj.) until (21.1/2)

μή no(t); (+imp. or aor. subj.) don't (17.1/1); (+subj.) lest; inviting a neg. answer (10.1/2**); (on other uses see 24.1/2)

μηδαμώς (adv.) not at all, in no way

μηδέ (conj.and adv.) nor, not even

Μήδεια, -de, ή Medea (wife of Jason)

μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν no, no-one, nothing

Μηδικός, -ή, -όν of the Medes τά Μηδικά (sc. πράγματα) the Persian Wars

#μήδομαι plot, plan, devise Μήδος, -ου, ό Mede; Persian μηκέτι (adv.) no longer μήκος, -ους, τό length Μήλιοι, -ων, οί Melians μήλον, -ου, τό apple μήν * (particle) then, indeed;

further (13.1/3a) τί μην; of course

μήν, -oc, ό month μηνϋτής, -ου, ό informer μηνύω give information μήποτε (adv.) never μήπω (adv.) not yet μήτε . . . μητε neither . . . nor μήτηρ, -^τρός, ή mother (6.1/16) μητρυιά, -ας, ή step-mother μηχανάομαι devise, contrive;

procure for oneself μηχανεύομαι = μηχανάομαι μηχανή, -ης, ή device, plan;

means; engine of war μιαίνω stain, pollute μίαςμα, -ατος, τό stain, pollution Μίκκος, -<>υ, ό Miccus μΤκρός, -ά, -όν small, short, little,

petty

ΜΤλήςιος, -α, -ov of Miletus, Milesian

Μιλτιάδης, -ου, ό Miltiades (Athenian general)

μίμημα, -ατος, τό imitation μιμνήςκομαι remind oneself μίμνω = μένω

#μιν (acc. s. pron. of 3rd pers.) him, her, it

μΤςέω hate μιςθόομαι hire μιςθός, -ού, ό hire, pay, reward μιςθωτός, -ού, ό hireling, hired

servant μΐςος, -ους, τό hatred μνά, μνάς, ή mina (100

drachmas) μνάμα = μνήμα μνήμα, -ατος, τό monument,

tomb; memorial μνήμη, -ης, ή remembrance,

memory μνήμων, -ονος mindful,

unforgetting μοίρα, -<Χς, ή fate, lot, destiny;

death Μοιρις, -εως, ή Moeris (lake in

Egypt) μολιο (adv.) hardly, scarcely, with

difficulty #μολων, -ούοα, -όν having come/

gone (aor. pple. of βλώοκω) μοναρχέω be sole ruler over

(+gen.) μοναρχίσ, -Gc, ή monarchy μόναρχοο, -ου, ό monarch μόνον (adv.) only, merely

ού μόνον ... άλλα καί not only ... but also

μόνος, -η, -ov alone, only #μόρος, -ου, ό fate, destiny, doom;

death μορφή, -ης, ή shape, form Μούςα, -ης, ή Muse μουοική, -ης, ή music (including

poetry) μοχθέω labour, toil μόχθοΰ,-ου, ό toil, hardship μύθος, -ου, ό story, fable μυΐα, -Cc, ή fly Μυκηναι, -ων, αί Mycenae (city

in S. Greece) Μύνδιος, -σ, -ov Myndian Μύνδος, -ου, ό Myndus (city in

Caria)

μυρίζω make fragrant μύριοι, -αι , -α 10,000 μϋρίος, -α, -ov numberless,

countless μύρμηξ, ^ηκοο, ό ant μύρον, ^ου, τό perfume μΰο, μυός, ό mouse μύςτης, -ου, ό initiate Μυτιλήνη, -ης, ή Mytilene (chief

city of Lesbos) μυχός, -ού, ό inner chamber μών; (adv.) surely not? (10.1/2a) μώρος, -α, -ov stupid, foolish

Ναζωραΐος, -α, -ov of Nazareth ναί (particle) yes (22.1/2h,

24.1/1) ναίω dwell, abide νάμα, -ατος τό stream ναός, -ού, ό temple νάπη, γης, ή glen ναυΟγέω suffer shipwreck ναυηγός -όν ship-wrecked ναυμαχέω fight a sea battle ναυμαχία, -ac, ή naval battle vatic, νεώς, ή ship (11.1/4) Ναυοικάα, -ac, ή Nausicaa

(daughter of Alcinous, King of Phaeacians)

ναύτηο, -ου, ό sailor ναυτικόν, -ού, τό fleet ναυτικός -ή, -όν naval νεανίας -ου, ό young man ν ε α ν ι κ ό ς -ου, ό young man νείφει (impers.) it is snowing

(21.1/4c) νεκρός -ού, ό corpse νέκταρ, -αρος τό nectar νέμεοις -εως, ή retribution νέμω distribute, apportion, allot,

assign #νέομαι go back, return

νεος -a , -ov young:; new; strange, unexpected εκ νέου from childhood

νεότης -ητος, ή youthfulness, youthful folly

#νέρθε (adv.) beneath, below νέφος - ο υ ς τό cloud

fveco swim νεώς, -ω, ό temple (13.1/1 a) νή (particle of asseveration) yes

by ... / (+acc.; 22.1/2/;) νήνεμος -ov windless, calm νηπιος, -α, -ov childish, foolish

νηςιώτης, -ου, ό islander vfjcoc, -ου, ή island νήφω be sober (literally or

metaphorically) νΤκάω win, defeat νίκη, - η ς ή victory, conquest νίκητήριον, -ου, τό prize of

victory ΝΓκίας ου, ό Nicias ΝΓκοτέλης -ouc, ό Nicoteles Νίκων, -ωνος, ό Nico

#νιν* (acc.) him, her, it, them νίπτω wash νοέω perceive νόημα, -ατος, τό thought,

perception |νομίζω acknowledge, think,

believe (in); treat as customary; (of a legislator) enact

νόμος, -ου, ό law, convention, observance

νόος = νους νοςέω be sick/ill νόςημα, -ατος, τό a disease,

illness, plague νόςος, -ου, ή disease, illness νοςτέω return

#νόςτιμος, -ov belonging to one's return/homecoming

#νόςτος, -ου, ό homecoming #νόςφι(ν) (adv., and prep.+gen.)

afar o f f , away from νουθετέω warn, rebuke νούς (νόος), νού, ό mind, sense,

intelligence (6.1/2) έν νώ έχω have in mind, intend

#νυκτιπόλος, -ov night-roaming νύν (adv.) now, at present νυν* well then; now then νυνδή (adv.; strengthened form of

νύν) just now νύξ, νυκτός, ή night, darkness

υπό νύκτα under cover of night

Ξανθίππη, -ης, ή Xanthippe Ξάνθος, -ου, ό Xanthus (another

name for river Seamander at Troy)

ξεινος = ξένος ξένιος, -α, -ov belonging to

friendship and hospitality (used as a title of Zeus, as god of hospitality)

355 S ο fi) σ c oT 3

Ξενοκράτης, -ους, ό Xenocrates ξένοο, -ου, ό foreigner; alien,

stranger; guest; host Ξενοφών, -ώντος, ό Xenophon

(Athenian historian and general) Ξέρξης, -ου, ό Xerxes (Persian

king) ξίφος, -ους, τό sword ξυγ- = ςυγ-ξύλον, -ου, τό (piece of) wood,

log ξυμ- = ςυμ-ξύν = ςυν ξυν- = ςυν-ξϋνός, -η, -όν common ξυρέω shave ξυρόν, -ού, τό razor

ό, η, τό the (2.1/2, 3.1/1) ό μέν ... ό δέ the one ... the other; one man ... another (5.1/3) οί μέν ... οί δέ some ... others

(5.1/3) ό δέ and/but he (5.1/3)

όδε, ήδε, τόδε this (pron. and adj., 9.1/1)

οδεύω travel (by land) οδός, -ου, ή road, way, journey οδούς, -όντος, ό tooth οδυνηρός, -ά, -όν painful οδύρομαι lament Όδιχχεύς, -έως, ό Odysseus

(hero of the Odyssey) όθεν (rel. adv.) from where οι (rel. adv.) (to) where οί see έ (9.1/4*)

ίοίδα know (19.1/3 and Appendix 3) χάριν οίδα be grateful to (+dat.)

Οιδίπους, -ποδος, ό Oedipus (son of Laius, king of Thebes)

οϊκαδε (adv.) homewards οικείος, -ff, -ov related,

domestic; private; one's own οικείος, -ου, ό relative οίκέτης, -ου, ό house-slave οίκέω dwell (in), live, inhabit οίκημα, -ατος, τό room ο'ίκηςις, -εως, ή dwelling οίκίσ, -de, ή house οίκίζω colonize οίκοδομέω build a house οικοδόμημα, -ατος, τό building,

structure

οίκοδομίσ, -Gc, ή building, structure

οίκοθεν (adv.) from home οίκοι (adv.) at home οίκος, -ου, ό house, home οικτίρω pity οικτρός, -G, -όν piteous

f οι μαι, οίομαι think #οίμη, -ης, ή way/power of song

οίμοι (interjection) alas! oh dear! #οίμος, -ου, ο tract, strip of land

Οινόη, -ης, ή Oeno'e (town in Attica)

οίνος, -ου, ό wine οίνοχοέω pour wine οίομαι see οίμαι οίον as, just as

#oioc, -G, -ov (note smooth breathing) alone

οίος, -G, -ov what a ..J (exclamation); of what sort, of the kind which (21.1/3) oioc J ειμί be able to (+inf., 21.1/3 note 2)

οίοςπερ strengthened form of oioe οίς- fut. stem of φέρω όΐοτευμα, -ατος, τό arrow οίςύϊνος, -η, -ov made of

osier/wickerwork οίχομαι be o f f , depart, be gone οκτώ (indecl. adj.) eight όλ- aor. stem of όλλυμαι όλβιος, -O, -ov happy, blessed όλεθρος, -ου, ό destruction όλες- aor. stem of όλλϋμι ολιγαρχία, -σο, ή oligarchy ολίγος, -η, -ov small, few, little

ίόλλϋμι destroy, kill, lose (20.1/1 note 2)

#όλοόο, -ή, -όν destructive, baneful "Ολορος, -ου, ό Olorus (father of

Thucydides) όλος, -η, -jov whole, complete Όλυμπικός, -ού, ό Olympicus

(name of a seer) 'Ολύμπιος, -α, -ov Olympian

'Ολύμπια νΤκάω win an Olympic

victory (22.1/2g) Όλυνθος, -ου, ή Olynthus ολυραι, -ών, αί a one-seeded

wheat (used as fodder for horses) #όμαρτέω accompany (+dat.)

Όμηρος, -ου, ό Homer (author of Iliad and Odyssey)

όμΤλέω be in company with, associate with (+dat.)

όμΤλίσ, -Gc, ή company, companionship

ομίχλη, -ης , ή mist, fog #δμμα, -axoc , τό eye | ό μ ν ϋ μ ι swear, swear by (+acc.,

22.1/2/7) όμοιόομαι be like, resemble

(+dat., 13 .1 /26( iv)) όμοιος, -G, - o v similar to

(+dat.) ομοίως (adv.) in the same way,

likewise όμολογέω agree ομολογία, -Gc, ή agreement ομολογουμένως (adv.) in

agreement!conformity with (+dat.) όμομήτριος, -G, -ov born of the

same mother ομόνοια, -Gc, ή agreement,

harmony ομοτράπεζος -ov eating at the

same table with (+dat.) όμοΰ (adv.) together (with)

(+dat.) όμόφϋλος, -ov of the same race

or stock όμως (adv.) nevertheless,

however #όμώς (adv., accompanying t w o

words joined by καί) both ov see ών όναρ (nom. and acc. only) , τό

dream; (as adv.) in a dream όνειδίζω reproach, chide, insult „ < + d a t · )

όνειδος, -ους, τό insult, rebuke όνειρος, - ο υ , ό (also όνε ιρον , - ο υ ,

τό) dream όνομα, -ατος , τό name,

reputation ονόματι in/by name

ονομάζω call, name ονος, - ου , ό/ή ass ονυξ, - υ χ ο ς , ό claw, nail οξος, - ους , τό vinegar °ξυς, -εια, - υ sharp, keen; quick,

r s,wif*

^οπαζω give, bestow; make to follow

(adv.) in what way, how, as ?πιοθε (adv.) behind οπιςθοφύλαξ, -ακος , ό member of

rear-guard

#όπίςω (adv.) hereafter όπλα, -ων, τά weapons, arms

έν όπλοις under arms οπλίζω equip, arm οπλίτης, - ο υ , ό hoplite οπόθεν (rel. adv.) from where δποι (rel. adv.) to where όποιος, -G, -ov of what kind

(10.1/26) όπόςος, -η , - o v how big, how

much; (pi.) how many (10.1/26) οπόταν (conj.+subj.) whenever

(14.1/4c(i i i)) όπότε (conj.) when; (+opt.)

whenever (14.1/4c(iii)) όπου (rel. adv.) where, wherever;

(indir. interrog.) where όπως (adv.) h o w (in answer to

πώς) ; h o w ; (poet.) like, as; (conj.+subj. or opt . ) in order that, to (14 .1 /4c( i ) )

όπωςτιοΰν (adv.) in any way whatever

|όράω see, look at οργή, -ης, ή temperament; anger

εν οργή έχω be angry with (+acc.)

ί όργ ί ζομαι (aor. ώργίςθην) become angry with (+dat., 13 .1 /26( i ) )

ορέγομαι strive after (+gen.) όρειος , - α , - o v of the mountains,

mountain-wandering Όρέςτης , - ο υ , ό Orestes (son of

A g a m e m n o n ) #όρθόβουλος, - o v straight-

counselling, wise ορθός, -ή, -όν straight; correct;

right όρθοω set upright; guide aright όρθώς (adv.) correctly όρκος, -ου, ό oath όρμάομαι set o f f , start out; make

an expedition όρμή, -ης, ή setting oneself in

motion έ ν όρμή ε ίμί be on the point of starting

όρμίζω moor, anchor όρνΤς, -Τθος (acc. όρνιν , 5 .1 /1 note

2), ό/ή bird opoc, -ους τό mountain όρος -ου, ό boundary όρρωδέω fear, dread όρχήςτρσ, - α ς , ή orchestra (the

dancing-space in the theatre

357 < ο ο 0) σ c ω

and also a section of the agora where b o o k s were sold)

oc, ή, δ (rel. pron. , 9 .1 /2) who, which

#oc, ή, δν (refl. poss . adj.) his, her, its

ocioc, -a, -ov holy, sacred; pious, devout

όςιόω sanctify ococ, -η , - o v how

much/many/great! (exclamation); as much/many as (21 .1 /3)

δοοοπερ, δςηπερ, δοονπερ as great as, as many as

δοπερ, ήπερ, όπερ (rel. pron.) the very one who/which

# 0 c c a i a c (interrog. adv.) how often

oct ic , ήτις, δτι (indef. rel. pron. and indir. interrog., 10 .1 /26 ) who(ever), which(ever), what(ever)

όςτούν, -ού, τό bone δοφ (+compar.) the more (lit. by

how much) δταν (conj.+subj.) whenever

(14.1/4c(i i i )) δτε (conj.) when δτι (A) (conj.) that; because

(+supl.) as ... as possible (17 .1 /4 d)

δτι (Β) neuter nom. /acc . s. of oc t i c δτου = ούτινοο δτω = ωτινι ο ύ (ούκ, ούχ) no(t)

ο ύ μόνον ... άλλα καί not only but also

ού see έ (9 .1 /4*) ού (rel. adv.) where ούδαμοϋ (adv.) nowhere ουδαμώς (adv.) in no way; not at

all ούδέ (conj.) and not, nor; (adv.)

not even ούδείς , ούδεμία, ούδέν no, no-

one, nothing ούδέν (adverbial acc.) in no

respect, not at all ούδέποτε (adv.) never ουδέπω (adv.) not yet ούδέτερος, -α, -ov neither of two;

neuter (of gender) ούκ = ο ύ

ούκέτι (adv.) no longer ούκουν (particle) not... therefore

(13.1/3c(i)) ούκουν (particle) therefore,

accordingly (13. l/3c(i)) ούν* (particle) therefore, so, then

οΰν δή well, as you know ούν crasis for ό έ ν ούνεκα = έ ν ε κ α ούποτε (adv.) never ούπω (adv.) not yet

#ούρανόθεν (adv.) from heaven ούρανός, -ού, ό sky, heaven;

(personified, w i t h cap.) Uranus ouc, ώτόο, τό ear oucis, -de, ή property, wealth,

substance, means ούτε ... ούτε neither ... nor ούτις, ούτινος no-one ούτοι (adv.) indeed not ούτος, αύτη, τούτο (pron. and adj.,

9 .1 /1) this; ούτος can express you there! ούτοοί (strengthened form) this man here

ούτω(ς) (adv.) thus, so, in this way; to such an extent, so much

ούτωςί strengthened form of oincoc ο ύ χ = ο ύ ο ύ χ ί emphatic form of ο ύ

οφείλω owe; be bound, ought (see 2 1 . 1 / 1 note)

όφελοΰ, -ouc, τό help, use, advantage

οφθαλμός, - ο ύ , ό eye o<j>ic, -coc, ό serpent όχλος, -ου, ό crowd, mob

#όχμάζω bind fast #δχος,-ους, τό chariot

όχυρόο, -ά, -όν strong, secure όψέ (adv.) late δψις, -εως, ή vision, sight δψομαι fut. of όράω δψον, -ου, τό cooked food, a

made dish; delicacies

πάγη, -ης, ή trap, snare #παγίς, -ιδοο, ή trap, snare

πάγος, -ου, ό crag, rock; frost π α θ - aor. s tem of πάςχω πάθημα, -ατος , τό suffering,

misfortune πάθος, -ους, τό suffering,

experience

Παιανιεύς -έως ό of the deme Paeania

παιδαγωγός -ού, ό tutor παιδεία, -Gc, ή education,

teaching, lesson; culture; childhood

παιδεύω ira/w, educate παιδίον, -ου, τό child; slave παίζω play, make sport of

(+acc.), joke at fapoc+acc.) παις παιδος ό/ή child, boy, girl;

slave πάλαι (adv.) long ago παλαιός, -ά, -όν ancient, (of) old παλαίστρα, -ac, ή wrestling-

school, palaestra παλαίτατος -η , - o v supl. of

παλαιός πάλιν (adv.) back again, again παμπήδην (adv.) entirely,

completely παμπλούςιος, -ov very rich πανδημεί (adv.) in a body, in full

force παννύχιος -ov all night long

#πανόδυρτος -ov all-lamented Πάνοψ, -οπος , ό Panops παντάπαςι(ν) (adv.) in every

respect πανταχόθεν (adv.) from all

directions πανταχού (adv.) everywhere;

absolutely, altogether πανταχώς (adv.) in all ways,

altogether παντελώς (adv.) completely,

outright #πάντεχνος, -ov assisting all the

arts παντοθεν (adv.) from every side

#παντρόφος -ov all-nurturing πάντως (adv.) in all ways,

especially πάνυ (adv.) very (much)

πανυ γε , πάνυ μέν ούν certainly, of course (13.1/3c(iii))

πάππος, -ου, ο grandfather #παρ = π α ρ ά

π<*Ρα = πάρεςτι (21 .1 /4 note 2) π<*ρά (prep.) (+acc.) along,

beside; against, contrary to; compared with; (+gen.) from; (+dat.) with, beside, in the presence of

^Ραβαίνω! transgress

παραβάλλω! compare (+παρά and acc.); (intr.) come near, approach

παραβοηθέω come to help (+dat.); assist

παραγγέλλω! give an order παραγιγνομαι! be present; come

to, arrive at παράγω! bring forward,

introduce παραδίδωμι! hand over, deliver παραδωο- fut. act. /mid. s tem of

παραδίδωμι π α ρ α ι ν έ ω ! advise (+dat.,

13 .1/26( i ) ) παρακαλέω! summon; invite;

encourage παράκειμαι lie/be placed beside

(+dat.) παρακελεύομαι! exhort,

encourage (+dat.) παραλαμβανω! take/receive from παραμελεω (< παρά+άμελέω)

disregard, pay no heed to παραμένω! remain; remain loyal παράπαν (adv.) altogether,

absolutely (also τό παράπαν) παραπλέω! sail by, sail close to παραπλήςιος, (-α), -ov very

similar to (+dat. or καί) παραςάγγης, -ου, ό parasang (a

Persian measure of distance of about 3 0 stades)

παραςκευάζω prepare, equip; (mid.) make one's preparations

παραςκευή, -ης, ή preparation, equipping; force

παραςπίζω bear a shield beside, shield (+dat.)

παραυτίκα (adv.) immediately, straight away

παρεγγυάω pass (the word) along

πάρειμι be at hand; be present; be near (+dat.) πάρεςτι (impers.) it is possible for (+dat. and inf., 21 .1 /4* )

παρελαύνω! drive past παρεμφαίνω! emphasize πάρεργον, -ου, τό subordinate

issue παρέρχομαι! pass, go by; come

forward παρέχον (acc. abs.) it being

possible/allowed (21.1/5)

359 < ο s σ c ST 3

360 ο ο Q) σ c ω 3

παρέχω! &ve to, provide; offer, furnish, cause πράγματα παρέχω cause trouble παρέχει (impers.) it is

possible/allowed (+dat. and inf.) παρθένος, -ου, ή girl, maiden παρίημι| pass over; let pass;

leave,allow, admit παρίοτημι| (mid. and intr. tenses

of act.) stand beside, be near lot hand

παριών, -ούοα, -ov pple. of παρέρχομαι

πάροδος, -ου, ό passage, entrance πάροιθε (adv.) formerly παροιμία, -ac, ή proverb παρόν (acc. absol.) it being

possible (21.1/5) πάρος (adv.) previously; before

(=πρίν) παρών, -ούοα, -όν pple. of πάρειμι

be present πάς, Ttaca, πάν (10.1/36) all,

every ο πάς the whole

ίπάςχω undergo; experience; suffer εύ/κακώς πάςχω be well/badly

treated (17.1/5) #πατέομαι (aor. έπαςάμην) eat of,

partake of (+gen.) πατήρ, -ipoc, ό father (6.1/16) πατριδιον, -ου, το daddy πατρίς, -ίδοο, ή fatherland,

native land Πάτροκλος, -ου, ό Patroclus

(friend of Achilles) πάτταλος, -ου, ό peg παύω (tr.) stop; depose; (mid.,

intr.) stop, cease from (+gen. or pple.)

Παφιος, -α, -ov from Paphos, Paphian; (as fern, noun) the Paphian (sc. goddess, a name of Aphrodite derived from Paphos in Cyprus)

πάχνη,-ης, ή hoar-frost παχύς, -εια, -ύ thick, stout, fat πέ&ρ, -ης, ή fetter πεδίον, -ου, το plain πέδον, -ου, τό ground, land,

region πεζομαχέω fight on foot/land πεζός, -ή, -όν on foot

πεζοί foot soldiers, infantry πεζή on foot

|πείθω persuade; (mid.) believe, trust, obey (+dat., 13.1/26(ii))

πειθώ, -ους , ή persuasion; obedience (13.1/16(ii))

πεινάω be hungry (5.1/2 note 4) πείρα, -Ge, ή attempt,

experiment, trial Πειραιεύς (acc. -αιά, gen. -αιώς,

dat. -αιει), ό Piraeus (port of Athens)

πειράομαι try; test (+gen.) πειρΟτέον one must try (24.115) πειρατής, -ού, ό pirate πείςομαι fut. of παςχω or πείθομαι πέλαγος, -ους, τό sea, high sea πέλας (adv.+gen.) near; nearby Πελαςγοί, -ων, οί Pelasgians

#πέλομαι (έπλετο 3rd s. strong aor.) be

Πελοποννήςιοι, -ων, οί Peloponnesians

Πελοποννηςος, -ου, ή Peloponnese

πέμπτος, -η, -ov fifth fπέμπω send

πένης, -ητος poor (man) πένθος, -ους, τό grief, sorrow,

mourning πενία, -ας, ή poverty πέντε (indecl. adj.) five πεντήκοντα (indecl. adj.) fifty πέποιθα (strong perf. of πείθω)

trust, rely on (+dat.) πέπονθα perf. of πάοχω πεπρωμένος, -η, -ov destined,

fated πέπτωκα perf. of πίπτω πέπυομαι perf. of πυνθάνομαι πέπωκα perf. of πίνω περ* = καίτιερ; -περ at the end of a

word (e.g. όοπερ) is emphatie πέρας, -ατος, τό end

#τιέργαμα, -ων, τά citadel, acropolis

Περδίκκαο, -ου, ό Perdiccas #πέρθω ravage, destroy, sack

περί (prep.) (+acc.) about, around; (+gen.) about, concerning; (+dat.) in, on, about 7ΐερί (+acc.) ειμί be busy with περί πολλού ποιέομαι value

highly (+acc.) (20.1/3) περιάγωί lead round

περιβάλλω! throw round; embrace

περίβολος -ου, ό enclosure περιγίγνομαι! remain over; excel περίειμι survive, remain περιέπω| treat περιεργάζομαι! waste one's

labour περιέρχομαι! go round, walk

round Περικλήο, -κλέους, ό Pericles

(Athenian statesman) περιμένω! wait, wait for (+acc.) περίοδος, -ου, ή chart, map περιοράω! overlook, allow περιπαθως (adv.) passionately περιπατέω walk around περιτίίπτω! fall in with,

encounter (+dat.) περίπλους, -ου, ό

circumnavigation περιπτυςςω outflank περιτειχίζω build a wall round περιτείχιςμα, -ατος, τό wall of

circumvallation, blockading wall περιτίθημι! put around, bestow

on περιφέρω! carry round περιφρονέω think about/around;

despise Πέρςης, -ου, ό Persian πέρυςι (adv.) last year πες- aor. stem of πίπτω

#πετεινός, -η, -όν winged πέτομαι fly πέτρα, -ας, η rock, cliff πέτρος, -ου, ό stone, boulder πευθομαι = πυνθάνομαι πεύςομαι fut. of πυνθάνομαι πεφϋκα be by nature, be

naturally (see φύω) πη (interrog. particle) wheref

how? πηδάω leap, jump πηλός -ού, ό mud

#πήμα, -ατος τό woe, misery, calamity

#πημονη, -ης, ή woe, misery Πηνελοπεια, -ας, ή Penelope

(wife of Odysseus) πη^υς, -εως, ό forearm; cubit πιέζομαι be oppressed/distressed πιθ- aor. act./mid. stem of

πείθομαι πιθανός -η, -όν persuasive

πίθηκος -^ου, ό monkey πικρός, -ά, -όν bitter, harsh,

severe πικρώς (adv.) bitterly Πιλάτος, -ου, ό (Pontius) Pilate

!πίμπλημι fill with (+gen. or dat.) (19.1/1 note 2)

πίμπρημι burn (tr.) (19.1/1 note 2> ,

πινακίδιον, -ου, τό writing-tablet Πίνδαρος, -ου, ό Pindar (lyric

poet) !rttvco drink !πΤπτω fall

πιστεύω trust (+dat., 13.1/26(ii)) πίcτιc, - ε ω ς ή pledge, assurance;

good faith; trust πιςτός, -η, -όν reliable,

trustworthy, faithful #πλάζομαι (aor. επλάγχθην)

wander πλανάομαι wander πλάνη, -ης, ή wandering Πλάτων, -ωνος, ό Plato

(philosopher) πλεθρον, -ου, τό plethron (c. 30

metres) πλεΐΰτος, -η, -ov most (supl. of

πολύς) πλείων, πλέον more (compar. of

πολύς, 17.1/26) πλέκω plait; devise, contrive πλέον (adv.) more πλεύμων, -ονος, ό lung πλευρά, -άς, ή rib, flank πλεύςομαι fut. of πλεω πλέω sail πλέως -α, -ων full of (+gen.)

(13.1/1*) πληγη, -ης, ή blow, stroke, lash πλήθος, -ους, τό number, crowd;

the people πλήν (adv.) but, except; (also

prep.+gen.) except, except for πληρης -ες full πληςιάζω approach (+dat.,

13.1/26(iii)) πληςίος, -α, -ov near, close to

(+gen.) πληςμονη, -ης, ή repletion . πλήττω strike, hit πλοιον, -ου, τό vessel, ship, boat πλούς (πλόος), -ού, ό sailing,

voyage; time for sailing (6.1/2) πλούςιος, -α, -ov rich, wealthy

361 < ο ο ω σ c ω 3

362 s s σ c 5Γ 3

πλουτέω ta πλούτος, -ου, ό wealth Πλούτων, -ωνος, ό Pluto (god of

the underworld) πλϋνω wash (clothes) πνεύμα, -ατος, τό breath πνέω (aor. έπνευςα) breathe πνίγω choke, strangle

έπνίγην (root aor.) choked (intr.) πνοή, -r\c, ό breath ποδαπός, -ή, -όν from what

country? ποθεί voc, -ή, -όν longed for,;

desired πόθεν (interrog. adv.) from

where? πόθος, -ου, ό longing, desire ποι (interrog. adv.) ίο where?

ποι της γής to where in the world?

ποιέω make, do; (mid.) make, think, consider αγαθά (εύ) ποιέω irazf we//, do

good to (+acc., 22.1/2/(ii)) κακά (κακώο) ποιέω iraii

6*rra (+acc., 22A/2f(n)) ποιητέον owe make/do

(24.1/5) ποιητής, -ού, ό poet

#ποικιλείμων, -ov with embroidered coat

ποικίλος, -η, -ov many-coloured; subtle, ingenious

ποιμήν, -ένος, ό shepherd ποιος, -α, -ov; of what sort? πολεμέω w/*r πολεμικός, -ή, -όν military, martial πολέμιοι, -ων, οί the enemy πολέμιος, -α, -ov hostile, enemy πόλεμος,-ου, ό war πολιορκέω besiege

#πολιός, -ά, -όν grey πόλις, j-εως, ή city, city-state πολιτεία, -ας, ή citizenship;

constitution πολιτεύομαι be a citizen πολίτης,-ου, ό citizen πολιτικός, -ή, -όν political πολλάκις (adv.) often πολλός Ionic for πολύο

#πολύκλαυτος, -ov much lamented πολύλογος, -ov talkative πολυμαθία, -ας, ή much learning Πολυνείκης, -ους, ό Polynices

(son of Oedipus)

πολύς, πολλή, πολύ (stem πολλ-; 3.1/3) much ( pi. many); long πολλού δει far from iti πολλού δέω I am far from πολλώ by far πολύ (adv. acc.) very, much οί πολλοί the majority; the

mob (be έπί τό πολύ for the most part

(22.1/l*(vii)) #πολύτροπος, -ov of many wiles

(or much travelled) πολύφιλος, -ov having many

friends πονέω toil, labour πονηρία, -ας, ή wickedness πονηρός, -ά, -όν wicked, bad; of

poor quality; wretched πόνος, -ου, ό toil, labour;

distress, trouble, stress, suffering πόντος, -ου, ό sea; (with cap.) the

Black Sea πορεία, -ac, ή course, passage πορεύομαι march, journey, travel πορθέω destroy, plunder, sack πορίζομαι procure πόρρω (adv.) far away πορών pple. of έπορον Ποςειδών, -ώνος, ό Poseidon

(god of the sea) (acc. Ποςειδώ) πόςος, -η, -ov; how bigf, how

much?; pi. how many? ποταμός, -ού, ό river ποτέ* once, ever πότε; (interrog. adv.) when? Ποτείδαια, -ae, ή Potidea (city in

northen Greece) Ποτειδεάται, -ών, οί Potideans πότερα = πότερον (introducing

alternative questions, 10.1/2*) πότερον ... ή ... whether ... or .J πότερος, -α, -ov; which (of two)?

#ποτής, -ητος, ή drink #πότμος, -ου, ό fate

που* somewhere, anywhere; I suppose

πού; (adv.) where? πούς, ποδος, ό foot πράγμα, -ατος, το thing; business,

negotiation; affair; (in pi.) trouble πράγματα παρέχω cause trouble

Πραξιτέλης, -ους, ό Praxiteles (sculptor)

Ttpffccca = πράττω πράττω do, carry out, get on, fare

εύ (or καλωο) πράττω fare well, be prosperous κακώο πράττω fare badly, be in

distress πρέπει (impers.) it befits, it is

proper for (+dat., 21.1/4*) πρέπον (acc. absol.) it being

fitting (21.1/5) πρέοβεις, -εων, oi ambassadors

(8.1/4 note) πρεςβεύομαι send an embassy πρεςβευτης, -ού, ό ambassador πρεςβύτεροο, -G, -ov older, rather

old Πρίαμος, -ου, ό Priam (King of

Troy) πρίαοθαι aor. inf. of ώνέομαι πρίν (adv.) before, formerly;

(conj.) before, until (21.1/2) πρό (prep.+gen.) before, in front

of. προτού previously

προαγορεύω (aor. προεΐπον, 18.1/4 note 2) proclaim

προάγω! lead on/forward προαιρέομαι! choose in

preference προαιςθάνομαι! perceive

beforehand προβάλλω! Put

f forward; expose πρόβατον, -ου, τό sheep προβουλεύω make a preliminary

resolution (of the Council, for referral to the Assembly)

πρόγονος, -ου, ό forebear, ancestor

προδίδωμι! betray προδοςία, -Gc, ή treachery προειπον aor. of προαγορεύω προέρχομαι! go forward,

advance προθΌμέομαι be ready, eager προθϋμία, -Gc, ή desire,

eagerness, goodwill πρόθυμος, -ov ready, eager,

willing πρόθυρον, -ου, τό porch, front

door προΓημι! send forth προκείμενος, -η, -ov proposed,

appointed Προκλής, -έους, ό Procles προλείπω! leave, abandon

προμάχομαι! fight in defence of Προμηθεύς -έως ό Prometheus

(giver of fire to mortals) προμηθία, -Gc, ή forethought προνοέω think beforehand πρόνοια, -Gc, ή foresight,

providence προπέμπω! escort προπορεύομαι go in front,

precede πρός (prep.) (+acc.) to, towards;

(+gen.) in name of, by; under protection of, at the command of; suiting, befitting, the mark of; (poet.) by (= ύπο), on the side of, towards; (+dat.) near, in addition to

προςαγγέλλω! report to προςαγορεύω (aor. προςεΐπον,

18.1/4 note 2) address προςάγω! bring

towards/forward; (intr.) advance προςαπόλλϋμι! lose in addition προςάπτω fasten on, put on προςαυδάω speak to, address προςβάλλω! attack, assault

(+dat.) προςβλέπω look at προςδέομαι! be in want/need of

besides προςδέχομαι! await, wait for,

expect προοδίδωμι! give in addition προοεθίζομαι accustom oneself πρόοειμι be present/at hand προοειπον aor. of προοαγορεύω προοέρχομαι! go/come towards,

advance, approach προςέχω! bring near, apply to

προοέχω τον νούν pay attention to (+dat.)

προσήκει (impers.) it concerns, it is fitting (+dat. and inf., 24.1/4*)

προσήκον (acc. absol.) it being fitting (21.1/5)

πρόςθε(ν) (adv.) previously; beforej (+gen.) in front of

προΰκαλεω! summon προα>ράω! look at προοπααιαλεύω nail fast to,

fasten προοτΑπτω! fall upon; meet;

attack (+dat.) προσποιέομαι claim, pretend

363

ι n 3

364 S ο ω σ c 5Γ 3

προςτάττω assign to προςτίθημιί put to, add προςτρέ^ωί run towards προςφερης, -EC similar, like

(+dat.) προςφιλης, -ec dear, beloved πρόςω (adv.) far off πρότερον (adv.) formerly,

previously πρότερος -<X, -ov first (of two);

previous προτίθημι| set before προτρέπω! urg? on, impel πρόφαςις, -εcoc, ή pretext, excuse προφέρω! bring forward προφήτης, -ου, ό harbinger πρόχειρος, -ov ready to hand πρυτανείο, -εων, οί prytaneis (the

50 members of the tribe presiding in the Council or Assembly)

πρωκτός, -ού, ό anus #πρών, -ώνος (epic nom. pi.

πρώονες), ό headland Πρωτόμαχος, -ου, ό Protomachus πρώτον (adv., also τό πρώτον)

first, at first πρώτος, -η, -ov first πτερόν, -ού, τό wing πτερωτός, -η, -όν winged #πτολίερθρον, -ου, τό citadel πτυχή, -ης, ή leaf (of book) πτύω spit πτωχός, -ού, ό beggar πυθ- aor. stem of πυνθάνομαι Πϋθαγόρδς, -ου, ό Pythagoras

(philosopher) Πϋθίσ, -Cc, ή the Pythia (the

priestess of Pythian Apollo at Delphi)

πυκνός, -ή, -όν thick, dense πύλη, -ης, ή gate πυλίς, -ιδος, ή postern gate

tπυνθάνομαι inquire, ascertain, learn (+acc. and gen., 13.1/2*(iii))

πύρ, πυρός, τό fire; (pi. πυρά, 13.1/lc) watch-fires, beacons, fire-signals

πυρά, -ας, ή funeral pyre πύργος, -ου, ό tower

#πΟροφόρος, -ov wheat-bearing Πυρρη, -ης, ή Pyrrha (woman's

name) Πύρρων, -ωνος, ό Pyrrho

(philosopher of Elis)

πω* yet πωλέω sell πώποτε* ever yet πως* somehow πώς; how* πώς γάρ ού; of course

ρόδιος, -G, -ov easy ρςιδίως (adv.) easily, lightly ρφςτος, -η, -ov easiest, very easy

(supl. of ρόδιος) ρςκον, -ov easier (compar. of

ρόδιος) ρέω flow; fall/drop off

Ιρήγνϋμι break, shatter, burst ρήμα, -ατος, τό word ρήτωρ, -ορος, ό orator, politician ρίγος, -ους, τό frost, cold

f ρίπτω throw ρίς, ρΤνός, ή nose

#ροδόεις, -εςςα, -εν rosy ρόδον, -ου, τό rose Τόδος, -ου, ή Rhodes ροή, -ης, ή stream ρόπαλον, -ου, τό club, cudgel ρούς (ρόος), -ού, ό stream (6.1/2) ρυθμός, -ού, ό rhythm

#ρύομαι (aor. έρρυςάμην) save, rescue

"Ρωμαίος, -ου, ό Roman Τώμη, -ης, ή Rome ρώμη, - ης, ή strength, force

Οάβυλλος, -ου, ό Sabyllus Caioi, -ων, οί Saii (Thracian

tribe) ςαλπικτής (and ςαλπιγκτής), -ού, ό

trumpeter Οαμοθρςικη, -ης, ή Samothrace

(island in Aegean) Οάμος, -ου, ή Samos (island in

Aegean) ςάνδαλον, -ου, τό sandal Οαπφώ, -ούς, ή Sappho (poetess

of Lesbos) (13.1/lfe(ii)) ςατράπης, -ου, ό satrap (Persian

governor) οαφηνίζω make clear, explain ςαφής, -ές clear, plain, true

τό ςαφές the truth ςαφώς (adv.) clearly Οάων, -ωνος, ό Saon ςεαυτόν, --ήν (also cam-; reflex.

pron.) yourself (9.1/4*) ςέβομαι revere, worship

ςειςμός, -ού, ό earthquake ςέλας, —coc, τό flame, gleam ςελήνη, -ης, ή moon ςεμνός, -η, -όν revered, holy;

august, majestic #ςεμνοςτομος, -ov haughty

ςημα, -ατοο, τό mound, tomb σημαίνω signal, indicate, show σημειον, -ου, τό signal, sign ςθένος, -ους, τό strength, might ςίγάω be quiet, keep silent ςΤγή, -ης, ή silence ςίδηρος, -ου, ό iron (Σικελία, -δς, ή Sicily (Γίκελοι, -ων, οί Sicels

(indigenous Sicilians) Οίμων, -ωνος, ό Simon

#Οιςύφειος, -δ, -ov of Sisyphus ςίτία, -ων, τά provisions, food ςιτος, -ου, ό food (pi. τά ςιτα

(13.1/lc)) ςιωπάω be silent ςιωπή, -ης, ή silence ςκαιός, -δ, -όν clumsy, stupid ςκάφη, -ης, ή trough, tub, bowl

Ιχκεδάννϋμι (fut. ςκεδώ[-άω]) scatter

ςκεπτεον one must consider (24.1/5)

ςκεπτομαι examine, look carefully at, consider

ςκεύη, -ών, τά gear, furniture ςκηνη, -ης, ή tent; stage (in

theatre); stall, booth οκηνόω lodge, take up one's abode ςκήπτρον, κ>υ, τό sceptre, staff CKIO, -ac, Ή shadow, shade οκοπέω consider, examine, take

heed οκοπιδ, -ac, η lookout-place CKOTIOC, -ού, ό mark (at which

one aims), target CKop7cioc, -ου, ό scorpion CKOTOC, -ου, ό (also -ouc, τό)

darkness Οκυθης -ου, ό Scythian (also as

adj. in poetry) Σκύλλα, -ης, ή Scylla (a sea-

monster) Σκύρος, -ου, ή Scyrus (island in

Aegean) εμΤκρός, -δ, -όν small, short,

little °οβαρός, -ά, -όν pompous,

haughty

θόλων, -ωνος, ό Solon (Athenian statesman and poet)

ςός, ση, ςόν (poss. adj.) your (s.) ςοφίδ, -δς, ή wisdom ςόφιςμα, -ατος, τό clever device ςοφιςτης, -ού, ό sophist, thinker,

teacher, sage ςοφός, -η, -όν wise, clever,

brilliant, accomplished Οιάρτη, -ης, ή the city of

Sparta Οιαρτιδτης, -ου, ό Spartiate (a

full citizen of Sparta) Οπάρτωλος, -ου, ή Spartolus (city)

Ιΰπείρω sow (with seed), engender; scatter

croicaceai aor. inf. of ςπενδομαι ςπενδω pour (a drink offering);

(mid.) pour libations; make a treaty

ςπερμα, -ατος, τό seed; offspring #ςπερχομαι hurry, hasten

ςπόγγος, -ου, ό sponge ςποδιδ, -ας, ή heap of ashes,

ashes ςποδός, -ού, ή ashes, embers ςπονδή, -ης, ή libation; (pi.)

treaty, truce ςπορδ, -ας, ή sowing; begetting ςποράς, -άδος (adj.) scattered ςπουδάζω be busy about,

concern oneself about (+acc.) οπουδή, -ης, ή zeal, haste,

seriousness ςτάδιον, -ου, τό (plur. -α and -οι)

stade (c. 200 metres) #ςταθευτός, -η, -όν scorched,

grilled ςταθμός, -ού, ό station, halting-

place; stage, day's march ςτδς, ςτάςα, ςτάν (root aor. pple. of

ίςτημι) ςτάςις, -εως, ή faction, sedition,

discord ςταυρός, -ού, ό stake; cross (for

crucifixion) ςταυρόω crucify ςτεγω contain, hold

|ςτελλω send; equip ςτενάζω groan ςτενω groan ςτεργω love; be content with,

accept ςτέφανος, -ου, ό crown, wreath,

garland

365 § δ σ c ST 3

366 § s CT c Q> 3

ςτίγμα, -axoc, χό tattoo-mark ςτολή, -fjc, ή clothing, clothes ςχόμα, -axoc, χό mouth

#ςτοργη, -ηο, ή love ςτρατείδ, -Gc, ή expedition,

campaign ςτράτευμα, -axoc, χό army;

expedition, campaign ςτρατεύομαι advance with an

army or fleet; wage war ςτρατεύω serve in war; send a

force, make an expedition ςχραχηγέω he general ςτρατηγίδ, -δς, η generalship ςχρατηγός, -ού, ό general,

commander ςχρατιδ, -ac, ή army ςτρατιώτης, -ου, ό soldier ςχραχοπεδεύω make camp,

encamp (also mid.) ςτρατόπεδον, -ου, χό camp, army cxpaxoc, -ού, ό army ςτρεπτός, -ού, ό collar Οχρεψιάδης, -ου, ό Strepsiades ςτυγέω loathe, hate ςχυγνός, -η, -όν hateful,

loathsome ςύ (pron.) yo« (s.) (4.1/2) συγγενής, -ες related to, relative συγγενής, -ούς, ό relation,

kinsman ςυγγίγνομαι! be

intercourse with, have dealings with (+dat.)

συγγιγνωςκω| pardon, forgive (+dat.)

ςυγγνώμη, -ης, ή pardon, forgiveness ςυγγνώμην έχω forgive, pardon

ςυγγραφαί, -ων, ai contract, bond

ςυγκομίζω| bring/gather together

ςυγκρίνω! compare (something with something, acc. and dat.)

συγχωρέω agree to/with; concede, admit; yield to (+dat.)

ςυλλαμβανω| collect; understand; seize, arrest

συλλέγω! collect, gather ςύλλογος, -ου, ό meeting Ουμαιθος, -ου, ό Symaethus

(river in Sicily) συμβαίνω! happen, occur, result;

correspond with, fit

σύμβαςις, -εως, ή agreement, arrangement

ςυμβουλεύω advise, give advice (+dat. and inf.); (mid.) consult, discuss with (+dat.)

ςυμμαχίσ, -δς, ή alliance ςυμμαχίς, -ίδος, ή alliance,

confederacy ςύμμα^ος, -ου, ό ally ςυμμειγνΟμι mix together; (intr.)

meet with (+dat.) ςυμπάρειμι be present together ςύμπδς, ςύμπδςα, σύμπαν (= πάς)

all, all together, the whole ςυμπληρόω fill up ςυμπορεύομαι march in company

with συμπόςιον, -ου, χό drinking-

party, symposium ςυμπόχης, -ου, ό drinking-

companion ςυμφέρει (impers.) it is

useful/expedient (+dat. and inf., 21.1/4*)

συμφορά, -ας, ή event; disaster, mishap

ςύν (prep.+dat.) together with; with the help of

ςυναγορεύω (aor. συνεΐπον, 18.1/4 note 2) advocate (a course of action) with (someone)

ςυναιρέω! to bring together ώς συνελόνχι ειπείν to speak concisely, in a word

ςυναμφόχερος, -G, -ov both together

ςυνδοξαν (acc. absol.) it having seemed good also (21.1/5)

σύνειμι be with, be joined with (+dat.)

ςυνεκπονέω assist (+dat.) ςυνελών see συναιρέω ςυνέρχομαι! come together,

assemble συνεχός, -η, -όν intelligent συνήθεια, -δς, ή acquaintance,

intimacy σύνθημα, -αχος, χό sign συνθηράω hunt with (+dat.) ςυνίημι! understand συνίςχημι! (mid. and intr. tenses of

act.) conspire (+dat.) #ςυννεαζω be young with (+dat.)

συνχάχχω arrange, draw up in battle-order

συντίθημι| put together; (mid.) arrange, agree upon

σύντομος -ov concise, brief συντρίβω smash, gash συντυγ^άνωί meet with (+dat.) CupflKocioc, -G, -ov Syracusan Ουρσκούοαι, -ων, αί Syracuse ουοκευάζομαι up; contrive,

concoct cixrcacic, -εωο, ή composition,

constitution συοτρατεύω join *w expedition,

fight alongside ςφαγη, —fjc, ή slaughter,

slaughtering οφάζω slaughter, sacrifice οφαιρα,-Οο,η ball οφαλερόο, -G, -όν perilous,

precarious |οφαλλω trip up, make to fall;

(pass.) be tripped up, stumble, fall; be baffled /disappointed

οφάο (οφων, c<j>ici) see ε (9.1/4*) #οφε (dat. οφι(ν)) (pron. acc. s. or

pi.) him, her, them οφετεροο, -G, -ov (poss. adj.,

strengthened by αυτών, 25.2.3 /. 7) their own

ΰφόδρα (adv.) very much, exceedingly

οφοδρόο, -G, -όν impetuous οφώ, οφων (pron.) you two (dual

of ού, 24.1/4) οχ- aor. act./mid. stem of έχω οχεδόν (adv.) nearly, near,

almost #οχεθειν poet. aor. act. inf. of έχω

όχερία, ~Gc, ή Scheria (land of the Phaeacians)

ΰχήμα, -moc, τό form, shape, appearance; character

ΰχήοω fut. of έχω οχοινίον, -ου, τό little rope οχολή, -r\c, ή leisure, rest

οχολη in a leisurely way, tardily

"Ι ωζω save, keep safe Οοκράτηο, -ouc, ό Socrates

(philosopher) Οωκρατίδιον, -ου, τό (diminutive)

dear little Socrates co^ia, -<lxoc, τό body, person Οωοιγένηο, -ouc, ό Sosigenes οωτηρ, -fjpoc, ό saviour οωτηρία, -Gc, ή safety

οωφρονέω be discreet/prudent οωφροσύνη, -ηο, ή good sense,

moderation οώφρων, -ov sensible, temperate,

reasonable, moderate, discreet

ταλαιπωρία, -Gc, ή hardship, distress

τάλαντον, -ου, τό talent (= 6,000 drachmas)

#τάλαο, -αινα, -αν miserable, wretched, unhappy (10.1/3 note

ταλλα (or ταλλα) crasis for τα αλλα ταμιειον, -ου, τό storeroom Ταμωο, -ώ, ό Tamos (13.1/1*) ταξιάρχου -ου, ό taxiarch,

brigadier τάξιο, -εωο, ή arrangement, rank,

battle-array #τάραγμα, -ατοο, τό confusion

TapGc, -αντοο, ό Tarentum (town in southern Italy)

ταράττω trouble, disturb ταρβέω be terrified ταριχεύω embalm, mummify ταρροο, -ού, ό mat

#Τάρταροο, -ου, ό Tartarus; the underworld

τάττω station, draw up; appoint, place in order; order, instruct

ταύτη here; by this route; in this way

ταφή, -ηο, ή burial τάφοο, -ου, ό grave, tomb τάχα (adv.) quickly ταχέακ (adv.) quickly, soon τάχιοτοΰ, -η, -ov quickest (supl.

of ταχύο) την ταχίστην the quickest way έπειδή τάχιρτα as soon as

τάχοο, -ouc, τό speed ταχύο, -εια, -ύ quick, fast τε* and τε* ... καί/τε* both ... and τέθνηκα I am dead (perf. of

|άπο]θνήοκω 19.1/3*) τείνω stretch; lead (a life)

#τείρω oppress, distress τείχιομα, -ατοο, τό wall, fort τειχομαχέω fight against

walls/fortifications τειχοο, -ouc, τό wall τεκ- aor. stem of τίκτω τεκμαίρομαι conclude, infer

367 S ο fi> σ c ST

τεκμήριον, -ου, τό evidence, proof

τέκνον, -ου, τό child τεκνόομαι beget, produce τελευταίος, -G, -ov last τελευτάω end, finish; die τελευτη, -ης, ή end, death

+τελέω accomplish, fulfil, complete; conduct

τέλος, -ους, τό ewJ, consummation, fulfilment τέλος (adv. acc., 20.1/5) /«

finally διά τέλους through to the end,

throughout f τέμνω ravage #τέος = ςός #τέρμα, -ατος, τό

τερπνός, -η, -όν delightful, pleasant

τέρπομαι enjoy oneself Τερψίων, -ωνος, ό Terpsion τέταρτος, -η, -ov fourth τέτοκα perf. of τίκτω

#τετράπαλαι (adv.) long, long ago τετταράκοντα (indecl. numeral)

forty τέτταρες, -α four (7.1/5) τέττιξ, -Tyoc, ό cicada,

grasshopper Τευθρανία, ~Gc, ή Teuthrania τέχνη, -ης, ή sfci//, *ri, expertise;

w/tfy, manner, means; ir/cfc, τηδε (adv.) τηλικούτος, -αύτη, -ούτον so

so important #τηλουρός, -όν distant

τημερον (adv.) today τηρέω watch, guard; watch for,

observe τί; what? why? (10.1/1 note 1);

in what respect? Τιγράνης, -ου, ό Tigranes

tτίθημι put, place; render (act. and mid.) (18.1/2) νόμους τίθημι down laws νόμους τίθεμαι make/adopt laws

f τίκτω bear, beget, give birth to τΤμάω honour; value, reckon;

(+dat.) //we ιΤμή, -ης, ή honour, privilege,

respect έν τΤμη έχω respect, honour

τίμιος, -β, -ov ^e/J in honour

ΤΓμόκριτος, -ου, ό Timocritus ιΤμωρεω avenge (+dat.); (3ςΐ. and

mid.) take vengeance on, punish (+acc.)

τΓμωρίσ, -Gc, ή revenge, vengeance

Τιρίβαζος, -ου, ό Tiribazus τις, τι* (indef. pron.) a certain,

someone, something (10.1/1) τι (adv. acc., 20.1/5) to some

extent uc; τί; (interrog. pron.) who?

which? what? (10.1/1) Τιςςαφέρνης, -ους, ό

Tissaphernes (Persian satrap) τίτλος, -ου, ό title, inscription

-(•τιτρώςκω wound #τλαω (aor. έτλην) venture, bring

oneself to do something τλήμων, -ov wretched,

unfortunate; patient, resolute τοι* (particle) in truth, be

assured τοίνυν* (particle) now then, well

now (13.1/3*) #τοιος, -G, -ov = τοιούτος

τοιόςδε, -<Χδε, -όνδε of this sort, of such a sort, such (21.1/3)

τοιούτος, -αύτη, -ούτο(ν) of this sort, of such a sort (21.1/3)

τόκος, -ου, ό offspring τόλμα, -ης, ή daring τολμάω dare, be daring;

undertake τόξον, -ου, τό bow (also in plur.

τόξα, bow [and arrows]); (poetry) ray/shaft (of sunshine)

τοξοτης, -ου, ό archer τόπος, -ου, ό place, region; topic

#τόςος, -η, -ov = τοςούτος τοςόςδε, -ηδε, -όνδε so much, so

large, so great (pi. so many) (21.1/3)

τοςούτος, -αύτη, -ούτο(ν) so much, so large, so great (pi. so many) (21.1/3)

τότε (adv.) then, at that time του = τίνος of

someone/something τού can = τίνος; of whom/what? τουνομα crasis for τό όνομα τούτφ dat.of ouroc

έν τούτφ meanwhile τράπεζα, -ης, ή table; bank τραύμα, -ατος, τό wound

τράχηλοο, -ου, ό neck, throat τραχυο, -εια, -ύ rough, prickly τραχύτηο, -ητοο, ή roughness τρείο, τρία three (7.1/5)

-(•τρέπω cause to turn, put to flight {τρέφω rear, raise, feed, nourish ίτρέ^ω run

τριδκοντα (indecl. numeral) thirty

τριβκόντεροο, -ου, ή (sc. vaOc) thirty-oared ship

τριδκόοιοι, -αι, - a 300 τρίβω rub τριηραρχέω serve as trierarch τριήραρχος -ου, ό trierarch τριήρηο, -ODC, ή trireme τρίο (adv.) three times τριο^Γλιοι, -αι, -α 3,000

#τρίτατοο = τρίτοο τρίτοο, -η, -ov third τρίχεο, αί nom. pi. of θρίξ Τροία, -Qc, ή Troy τροπαιον, -ου, τό trophy τρόποο, -ου, ό way, manner, way

of life; (in pi.) ways, habits, character τίνα τρόπον ; (adv. acc., 20.1/5) in what way?, how? τούτον τον τροπον (adv. acc.) in

this way τούτφ τφ τρόπω in this way

τροφή, -ηο, ή food, nourishment τρύω wear out, distress Τρωάο, -άδοο, ή Trojan woman Τρώεο, -ων, οί Trojans

(13.1/l6(i)) Τρωικός -η, -όν Trojan

τά Τρωικά (sc. πράγματα) the Trojan War

|τυγχάνω (+gen., 13.1/2*(iv)) hit (the mark), succeed; chance/happen upon, obtain; (+pple.) happen to -, be actually -(15.1/2^)

#τύκιομα, -orcoc, τό working or chiselling in stone

τύλη, -T|c, η cushion τύμβοο, -ου, ό tomb τυπείο aor. pass. pple. of τύπτω τύπτω strike, hit, beat τυραννεύω be tyrant τυραννίο, -iSoc, η sovereignty;

tyranny TUpawoc, -ου, ό absolute ruler,

sovereign; tyrant

ttfpoc, -ού, ό cheese τυφλόο, -η, -όν blind τυχ- aor. stem of τυγχάνω τύχη, -^c, ή chance, luck, good

or bad fortune; (personified, with cap.) Chance, Fortune

τω = τι vi to/for someone/something

τφ can = τίνι; to/for whom/what? τω όντι in fact, really

ύβρίζω treat violently/ disgracefully; humiliate

ύβριο, -εωο, ή aggression, violence, insolence, insult, humiliation

ύβριστηο, -ού, ό violent/ insolent person

ύγιεια, -<Xc, ή health ύδρδ, -Gc, ή hydra (water

serpent) ύδωρ, -ατοο, τό water fei (impers.) it is raining

(21.1/4c) ύειοο, -σ, -yov of pigs, pork υίόο, -ού, ό son (13.1/1 c) ΰλη, ^ηο, ή wood, forest ϋλοτόμοο, -ου, ό woodcutter ϋμεΐο (pron.) you (pi., 4.1/2) ήιέτεροο, -Q, -ov (poss. adj.) your . (PL> ύπαρχω| be; begin (+gen.) ύπειμι be beneath (+dat.) ύπέρ (prep.) (+acc.) beyond;

(+gen.) for, on behalf of υπερβαίνω! step over, cross

(mountains) υπερβάλλω! pass over, cross Ύπερεια, -Gc, ή Hypereia (a

spring) ύπερέχω! be above, stick out

above Ύπερίων, -ovoc, ό Hyperion (the

Sun-god) #ύπερμαχέω fight for #ύπέρπικροο, -ov exceedingly

bitter ύπερύψηλοο, -ov very high ύπερφρονέω be overproud, look

down on ύπέρχυοιο, -εωο, ή overflow ύπηρετέω perform a service υπηρέτηο, -ου, ό servant

!ύπιοχνέομαι promise ύπνοο, -ου, ό sleep

370 § s ο· c 5Γ 3

υπό (prep.) (+acc.) under, along under, up under; (+gen.) from under; by, at the hand of; (+dat.) under, beneath; (Homeric) at the hand(s) of

υπόδικα, -axoc, χό sandal ΰποζύγιον, -ου, χό beast of

burden, draught animal ύπόθεcic, -εως, ή proposal,

supposition ύποκαχαβαίνω| descend

gradually ύπολαμβάνωΙ take up, answer,

reply; assume ύπολειπω| leave behind υπόλοιπος -ov remaining ύποπέμπω| send secretly ύποπχεύω suspect, be suspicious ύποπτήττω cower before (+acc.)

#ΰπορρηγνϋμι| burst beneath ΰποχελεω| pay (tribute) ύποχίθημιΙ place under ΰποφαίνωΙ dawn, begin to break uc, υός, ό/ή pig Ύςτάςπης, -ου, ο Hystaspes ύςτεραιος, -α, -ov following, next

τη ΰςτεραίρ on the following day

έτερον (adv.) later, afterwards ύστερος -α, -ov later, last (of

two) ύφ' = υπό ύφαίνω weave ύφαιρέομαι! (aor. act./ mid. stem

ύφελ-) steal, take by stealth ύφίημι+ send; (mid. and intr.

tenses of act.) submit, yield #ύψηλόκρημνος -ov with lofty

, d tff s . , υψηλός -η, -ov high ϋψος, -ους, τό height

φαγ- aor. stem of έςθίω #φαεινός -ή, -όν shining, radiant,

bright φαεςφόρος -ov light-bringing;

(personified, with cap.) the Light-Bringer, i.e the Morning Star

tφαίνω reveal, declare; (pass.) appear, be seen, seem; (+pple.) obviously be; (+inf.) seem to be (15.1/2Λ)

Φάληρον, -ου, τό Phalerum (a port of Athens)

Φαληροΐ at Phalerum φάναι inf. of φημί φανερός, -ά, -όν clear, obvious,

visible φάος, -ους, τό light, daylight φάραγξ, -αγγος, ή chasm, ravine φάρμακον, -ου, το poison; drug;

remedy; potion φάςκω allege, state, declare,

claim φαύλος, -ov (also -η, -ov) mean,

poor, low; trivial, ordinary, indifferent, cheap

Φειδιππίδης, -ου, ο Pheidippides Φειδιππίδιον, -ου, τό (diminutive)

dear little Pheidippides φείδομαι spare (+gen.) φέρε (2nd s. imp. of φέρω) cornel

+φέρω carry, bring; bear, endure; produce; lead (of a road) άγω καί φέρω plunder χαλεπώς φερω be annoyed at

(+acc.) φεύ (interjection) alas!; (+gen.)

alas for tφεύγω flee, flee from, escape

(+acc.); be a defendant, be on trial; be proscribed, be banished, be in exile (17.1/5)

+φη^ί say (7.1/2) Ιφθάνω anticipate (15.1/2f)

φθέγγομαι speak, say, utter Ιφθείρω destroy, ruin #φθίμένος -η, -ov dead

φθονέω feel ill-will/envy/jealousy against, grudge (+dat.,13.1/26(i))

φθονος -ου, ό envy, jealousy φιλάνθρωπος, -ov loving

mankind, man-loving, humane φιλάργυρος, -ov avaricious,

miserly φιλέω love, like, be a friend of;

kiss; be accustomed to (+inf.) φιλητέον one must love (24.1/5) φιλία, -«c, ή friendship Φιλιππιςμός -ού, ό siding with

Philip Φίλιππος, -ου, ό Philip (father of

Alexander the Great) φιλόκαλος, -ov loving beauty,

fond of elegance Φιλοκράτης, -ους, ό Philocrates φίλος, -η, -ov dear, friendly;

pleasing to (+dat.)

φίλος -ου, ό friend φιλοοοφεω pursue/study

philosophy φιλοοοφίσ, -Gc, ή philosophy φιλόοοφος -ου, ό philosopher φιλότης -ητος ή love, friendship;

sexual intercourse φιλόΐΓμος -ov loving distinction,

ambitious φιλοφροούνη, - η ς ή love,

affection φίλτατος -η, -ov most dear (supl.

of φίλοο) #φίλυμνος, —ov loving song

φλόξ, -ογός, ή flame φλυδρεω talk nonsense φλυαρία, -ας, ή nonsense

f φοβεομαι fear, be afraid of φοβεομαι μή fear lest/that

(14.1/4c(ii)) φοβερός -ά, -όν terrible,

frightening φόβος, -ου, ό fear, panic

#φοΐβος, -η, -ov pure, bright, radiant Φοίβος, -ου, ό Phoebus (Apollo)

#Φοινικογενής, -ες Phoenician-born

Φοίνιξ, -ικος, ό Phoenician #φοίνιος, -α, -ov bloody

φοιτάω go regularly to, frequent, resort to (a person as a teacher)

φονευς, -έως, ο murderer φονεύω murder, slay φόνος, -ου, ό murder, slaughter,

homicide φορέω carry, bring φόρος, -ου, ό tribute φορτίον, -ου, τό load, burden φράζω explain, tell, declare

#φρήν, φρένος, ή heart, mind (pi. is used in the same sense)

φρονέω think, consider; be wise, sensible ευ φρονέω be sane μέγα φρονέω be proud, have high thoughts

φρόνημα, -ατος, τό arrogance, pride φρόνιμος, -ov sensible, wise φροντίζω think, ponder, consider,

worry; pay heed to (+gen.) φροντίς, -ιδος, ή thought, care,

concern Φροντιςτήριον, -ου, τό Think

Tank, Thinking shop φροντιςτής, -ού, ο deep thinker

φρούριον, -ου, τό fort φρύγανα, -ων, τά dry wood,

firewood φυγάς, -άδος, ό exile; runaway;

fugitive φυγή, -ης, ή flight φυλακή, -ης, ή guard, guarding,

garrison εν φυλακή είμι be on guard

φύλαξ, -ακος, ό guard φυλάττω (perf. πεφύλαχα) guard,

watch; (mid.) take care, be on one's guard against (+acc.)

φύρω spoil, defile, mar φύςις, -εως, ή nature, character,

temperament |φύω cause to grow, produce

έφϋν was born; am naturally πεφϋκα am naturally, am inclined by nature

Φώκαια, -ας, ή Phocaea (city in Asia Minor)

φωνέω speak φωνή, —ης, ή voice, language,

speech φώς, φωτός, τό light

Χαιρεφών, -ώντος, ό Chaerephon (disciple of Socrates)

Ιχαίρω rejoice χαίρε greetings! hello! farewell! (17.1/1 note 7)

χαλεπαίνω be angry/annoyed at (+dat.)

χαλεπός, -ή, -όν difficult, hard χαλεπώς έχω be in a bad way χαλεπώς φερω be angry I displeased at (+acc.)

χαλινός -ού, ό bit (for a horse's bridle)

#χάλκευμα, -ατος τό anything bronze; (pi.) brazen bonds

χαλκός -ού, ό bronze χαλκούς, -ή, -ούν of bronze

#χαλκοχίτων, -ωνος bronze-clad Χάονες -ων, oi the Chaonians

(tribe in Ejpirus) χάος -ους το chaos χαρακτήρ, -ηρος ό engraved

mark; characteristic, character χαρίεις -ecca, -εν graceful,

elegant, charming, nice χαριεντίζομαι jest, joke χαρίζομαι oblige, do a favour to

(+dat.); give graciously

372 < Ο ο Q) σ c ω

χόριο, -ixoc (acc. χάριν), ή grace, charm; favour; recompense, thanks χάριν οιδα / έχω he grateful to

(+dat.) Χάρυβδις -εως ή Charybdis (a

whirlpool) χείλος -ους τό lip χειμών, -ωνος ό storm; winter χειρ, χειρός ή hand Χειρίοοφος ου, ό Cheirisophus

(Lacedaemonian general of Cyrus)

χείριστος -η, -ov worst (supl. of KCtKOC)

χειροτέχνης -ου, ό craftsman χειρών, -ov worse (compar. of

Kcncoc) χελΤδών, -όνος ή swallow χελώνη, - η ς ή tortoise Χερρόνηοος -ου, ή the

Chersonese (the Gallipoli peninsula)

χή crasis for καί ή χήτος -ους τό want, lack, need χθέο yesterday

#χθών, χθονός ή earth, land χίλιοι, -αι, -α thousand Χίος -ου, ή Chios (island and

city in the Aegean) χιτών, -κονος ό tunic, shirt χιών, -όνος ή snow χολή, - ή ς ή bile, gall; anger χορεύω dance

Ιχράομαι deal with, associate with, treat, use (+dat., 13.1/26(iii))

χρεία, -ac, ή use, serviceability | χρή it is necessary (+acc. and inf.)

χρήζω desire, want, need (+gen.) χρήμα, -ατος τό thing; (pi.)

money, goods χρηματίζω deal with business (in

the Council or Assembly) χρήΰθαι inf. of χράομαι χρήαμος -η, -ov profitable,

useful χρηομός -ού, ό oracle χρηστήριον, -ου, τό oracle χρηοτός -ή, -όν good, fine,

serviceable χρήται 3rd s. pres. of χράομαι χρΤοτός -ή, -ov anointed χροιά, - α ς ή skin

χρόνος -ου, ό time δια χρόνου after a time

χρΐΚ;ίον, -ου, τό a piece of gold, gold

χρϋϋός -ού, ό gold χ ρ έ ο υ ς -ή, -ούν golden

#χρώς -ωτοο (also χρόα, χροός χροΐ), ό skin, flesh

χυτός -ή, -όν poured; melted (with λίθινος made of glass); piled, heaped up

χύτρα, -ac, η pot χω crasis for και ό χώρα, -Oc, ή land, country χωρέω go, come; be in motion χωρίζω separate χωρίον, -ου, τό place, space;

region; farm χωρίο without, apart, separately

(from) (+gen.)

ψάλια, -ων, τά curb-chain of bridle, bridle

ψάμμος -ου, ή sand ψέγω blame, censure ψευδής -έο false, lying ψεύδομαι lie, tell lies; cheat,

deceive ψεύδος -ους τό falsehood, lie ψευδώο (adv.) falsely ψηφίζομαι vote ψήφιομα, -ατος τό decree ψήφος -ου, ή voting-pebble, vote ψΤλοί, -ων, οί light-armed troops ψόγος -ου, ό blame ψόφος -ου, ό noise ψύλλα, - η ς ή flea ψϋχή, - ή ς ή soul, life, spirit ψύχος -ους τό cold, period of

cold weather ψϋχρός ά, -όν cold

ώ what! (+gen.) ώ Ο (addressing someone); ah!

(exclamation of surprise) Ώγυγία, -ac, ή Ogygia (island of

Calypso) ώδε (adv.) thus, as follows;

(poet.) to here, hither ώδΤνω be in labour (of childbirth) ώή (exclamation) help! 'Ωκεανός -ού, ό Ocean (son of

Heaven and Earth)

#ώκύο, -εια, -ύ swift, quick ώλόμην aor. of δλλυμαι ωμην impf. of οιμαι ώμοι (exclamation) ah me, woe

is me, alas #ώμοφάγος, -ov eating raw flesh,

where raw flesh is eaten ών, ουca, όν pres. pple. of ειμί

τό όν reality τω όντι in fact, really

Ιωνέομαι (aor. επριάμην) buy ώόν, -ού, τό egg ώρδ, Hie, ή season (of the year);

time; beauty ώρμίΰμενος -η, -ov perf. mid./pass.

pple. of όρμιζω (DC (for a summary of uses see

22.1/1) (adv.) as; like

(exclamatory) how! (+adj. or adv.)

(•numerals) about, nearly (+pples.) on the grounds

that, under the impression that; with the intention of (fut. pple.) (12.1/2a(ii) and (v))

(restrictive) for, considering that

(+supl.) as . . . as possible (conj.) that (= ότι); in order

that (= ίνα, oncoc); when, as (cbc τάχιcτα as soon as, lit. when quickest, but if this expression is used adverbially it means as quickly as possible, 17.1/4 d); since

(prep.) to, towards, to the house .. of (DC (adv.) thus, so (Dcairccoc (also coc arncoc) (adv.) in

the same way, just so ώαιερ (adv./conj.) like, as, as if ώστε (conj.) so that, that, with

the result that, consequently (+inf. or ind., 16.1/1)

ώτ- stem of ouc ear ωτε see εφ' ωφελεω help, assist, be of use to,

benefit ώφελητεον one must help

(24.1/5)

abbreviations p. ix accents 1.1/2; Appendix 8 accusative 2.1/3c; 22.1/2

absolute 21.1/5 adverbial 20.1/5 cognate 22A/2g double 22.1/2f and infinitive 8.1/3a; cf. 16.1/1 motions towards 2.1/3f; 22.1/2/ in oaths 22.1/2Λ with prepositions 2.1/3f; 3.1/5a of respect or specification 20.1/5 space 7.1 Πό time 7.1/7a

active voice, see verbs adjectival clauses 9.1/2

indefinite 14.1/4c(iii) adjectives

agreement 3.1/3 instead of adverbs 4.2.9 note with article, as noun equivalent

5.1/3 without article, as noun equivalent

5.1/3 note 1 comparison of 17.1/2 declension: 1st and 2nd 3.1/3;

contracted 6.1/2; irregular 3.1/3; two-termination 3.1/3; 3rd 10.1/4; 1st and 3rd 10.1/3

demonstrative 9.1/1; 21.1/3 exclamatory 21.1/3 indefinite 10.1/1 interrogative 10.1/1; 21.1/3;

indirect interrogative 10.1/26

numerals 7.1/5a and b\ Appendix 7

position 3.1/3a and b; attributive and predicative 3.1/3b; 18.1/6

possessive 9.1/5 relative 21.1/3 verbal 24.1/5

adverbial clauses of cause 22.1/1b(iii); cf. 14.1/4d

note 1 of condition 18.1/5 manner 22.1 /1b(v) purpose 14.1/4c(i); 22.1/1b(ii) result 16.1/1 time 14.1/4c(iii); 21.1/2; 22.1/1b(iv)

adverbs adverbial καί 4.1/3 comparison of 17.1/2 emphasized with due 22.1/1a(iii) formation of 3.1/4 indefinite 10.1/25 note 3 interrogative (direct and indirect)

10.1/2 numerals 7.1/5c position of 2.1/6a(i); 3.1/4

agent 11.1/2 agreement

between adjective and noun 3.1/3 between article and noun 2.1/2

note 1 between double subject and verb

11.2.4 note between neuter plural subject and

verb 3.1/1 note 2 between participle and noun

12.1/1 between subject and verb 2.1/4

alphabet 1.1/1 antecedent (in adjectival clauses)

9.1/2 omission of 9.1/2 note 1 attraction of relative pronoun to

case of 9.1.2 note 2

376 3 α s

aorist tense, see tense article 2.1/2; 3.1/1

with abstract nouns 2.1/2 note 1 generic 2.1/2 note 1 neuter plural of + genitive 5.1/3 to create noun equivalent 5.1/3 with proper nouns 2.1/2 note 1 +

genitive of proper nouns 5.1/3 note 2

omitted with predicative noun or adjective 5.1/3

omitted in proverbs and poetry 4.2.3 note

with participles 12.1/2a(vi) equivalent to 3rd person pronoun

5.1/3 aspect 4.1/1

in imperative 17.1/1 in infinitive 7.1/4 in participle 12.1/1; 15.1/2f in subjunctive/optative 14.1/1;

21.1/1a attributive position 3.1/3b; 18.1/6 augment 4.1/1 note 1

double 7.1/1 note 4 irregular 7.1/1 note 4; 15.1/1 optional 12.3.1 note syllabic 4.1/1 note 2(i) temporal 4.1/1 note 2(ii) in perfect tense 15.1/1 in pluperfect tense 16.1/2 and 3 in verbs compounded with

prepositions 6.1/3e in compound verbs with no

prepositional element 6.1/3 note 3

cases basic uses of 2.1/3

commands direct 17.1/1 indirect 7.1/4

comparative meaning of 17.1/3 constructions with 17.1/4a-c

comparison of adjectives 17.1/2 of adverbs 17.1/2 constructions with 17.1/4 meaning of 17.1/3

. conative imperfect 4.1/1 footnote 1 conditional sentences 18.1/5 conjugation, see verbs contracted futures 5.1/2 note 3 contracted verbs, see Tenses (-ω

verbs contracted)

crasis 11.1/5 dative 2.1/3e; 23.1/2

of accompaniment 9.1/3a(ii), 23.1/2/c

of advantage/disadvantage 23.1/2d with adjectives 23.1/25 (cf. 9.1/35) with adverbs 23.1/25 of agent 23.1/2g; 24.1/5 of attendant circumstances 23.1/2/ of cause 23.1/2/ ethic 23.1/2 f with impersonal verbs 21.1/4 of instrument 11.1/2 of manner 23.1/2/ of measure of difference 17.1/45 with nouns 23.1/25 of place where (without preposition)

10.2.11 note; 23.1/2r? of possessor 23.1/2c with prepositions 2.1/3/7 of reference or relation 23.1/2e of respect 23.1/2m of time when 7.1/75 with verbs 13.1/25; 23.1/2a

declension, see adjectives, nouns, pronouns

deponent verbs 8.1/2 deponent futures 8.1/1 note 1 passive deponents 11.1/1 note

dialects 1.3; 25.1/1-2 diminutives 24.1/3 direct ob'ect, see accusative 2.1/3c dual 24.1/4 elision 2.1/65

in verbs compounded with prepositions 6.1/3

enclitics 3.1/6; 4.1/2; 4.1/3; Appendix 8, d

exclamations 22.1/1a(ii), 23.1/1/ fear: constructions after verbs of

fearing 14.1/4c(ii) future tense, see tense gender 2.1/1 genitive 2.1/3d; 23.1/1

absolute 12.1/25 of cause 23.1/1/c(ii) of characteristic 23.1/15 chorographic (geographic

definition) 23.1/1d of comparison 17.1/4 of exclamation 23.1/11 of explanation 23.1/1e objective 23.1/1c partitive 23.1/1d possessive 2.1/3d; 23.1/1 a

with prepositions 2.1/3g; 3.1/55; 11.1/2

of price or value 20.1/3 of separation 20.1/4 subjective 23.1/1c time within which 7.1 /7c with verbs 13.1/2a; 23.1/1/c

gnomic aorist 5.2.10 note historic

endings: of active 4.1/1 note 1; of middle/passive 8.1/1f

optative classed as 14.1/3 sequence 14.1/4c(iii) tenses 4.1/1 note 1

imperative 17.1/1 imperfect tense, see tense impersonal verbs 5.1/2 note 5; 21.1/4 inceptive imperfect 4.1/1 footnote 1 indefinite clauses 14.1/4c(iii); 21.1/2 indirect command 7.1/4 indirect object, see dative 2.1/3e indirect question 10.1/26 indirect speech 7.1/3

virtual indirect speech 14.1/4of note 1

indirect statement 8.1/3 with finite verb 8.1/36 with infinitive 8.1/3a use of optative mood in historic

sequence 14.1/4d with participle 15.1/2a with verbs of hoping, promising,

swearing 8.1/3a note 5 infinitive

-ω verbs (uncontracted) present active 2.1/5 future active 2.1/5 aorist active: weak 4.1/1; strong

7.1/1; root 11.1/1 perfect active 16.1/4 present middle/passive 8.1/1 future middle 8.1/1 aorist middle 8.1/1 perfect middle/passive 16.1/4 future passive 11.1/1 aorist passive 11.1/1 (contracted) 5.1/2 note 1

-μι verbs 18.1/2; 19.1/1; 20.1/1; 20.1/2

articular 5.1/3 as imperative 17.1/1 note 5 in indirect command 7.1/4 in indirect statement 8.1/3a negative with 7.1/4; 8.1/3 in parenthetical phrases 22.1/1a(vi)

in result clauses 16.1/1 (cf. 17.1/4c) subject in accusative 8.1/3a;

16.1/1; 21.1/2 with verbs of knowing/learning how

to 15.1/2a ingressive aorist 20.2.1 note instrument, dative of 11.1/2 intervocalic sigma 5.1/2 note 2;

6.1/1c; 8.1/1e middle voice 8.1/1 motion

from 2.1/3g towards 2.1/3 f

movable nu in nouns 3.1/1 note 3; 5.1/1 in verbs 2.1/5 note 4; 5.1/2 note 6

negatives 24.1/2 accumulation of 7.1/6 in conditional clauses 18.1/5 with deliberative subjunctive

14.1/4a(ii) in direct questions 10.1/2a in indefinite clauses 14.1/4c(iii) in indirect command 7.1/4 in indirect statement 8.1/3 with jussive subjunctive 14.1/4a(i) in noun clauses after verbs of

fearing 14.1/4c(ii) with participles 12.1/2 position of 2.1/6a(i) in purpose clauses 14.1/4c(i) in result clauses 16.1/1 in wishes 21.1/1

nominative 2.1/3a after copulative 3.1/6 with infinitive 8.1/3a (cf. 21.1/2a)

noun clauses after verbs of fearing 14.1/4c(ii) in indirect question 10.1/26 in indirect statement 8.1/36

nouns 2.1/1 1st declension 2.1/2; 3.1/2 2nd 3.1/1; contracted 6.1/2; 'Attic'

13.1/1a 3rd 5.1/1; 6.1/1; consonantal stems

5.1/1; 6.1/1; stems in -ec 6.1/1 c; stems in ι and υ 8.1/4; stems in ευ, αυ and ου 11.1/4; in -ωο, -ω and -ac 13.1/16

declined in two ways 13.1/1c plural place names 4.2.9 note

numerals 7.1/5; Appendix 7 adverbs 7.1/5c cardinals 7.1/5a ordinals 7.1/56; 9.1/3a(i)

377 3 α s

378

α 8

oaths 22.1/2ft oblique cases 2.1/3 optative 14.1/1; 14.1/3;16.1/4 note 1

in adverbial clauses of reason 14.1/4d note 1

in conditional clauses 18.1/5 use of future 14.1/4d in indefinite clauses 14.1/4c(iii) in indirect speech 14.1/4d in potential clauses 19.1/2 in purpose clauses 14.1/4c(i) after verbs of fearing 14.1/4c(ii) in wishes 21.1/1 a

participles 12.1/1; 16.1/4 causal 12.1/2a(ii); 22.1/1a(i) concessive 12.1/2a(iii) conditional 12.1/2a(iv) in genitive absolute 12.1 /2b as noun equivalent 12.1/2a(vi) of purpose 12.1/2a(v); 22.1/1a(i) temporal 12.1/2a(i) with verbs 15.1/2; of beginning,

stopping, continuing 15.1/26; of emotion 15.1/2c ; of knowing, perceiving 15.1/2a

particles 4.1/3; 13.1/3 interrogative 10.1/2a

passive voice, see Verbs patronymics 3.1/2 note 3 perfect tense

meaning of 15.1/1 with present meaning 19.1/3a transitive and intransitive 15.1/1

note 2 pluperfect tense, meaning and use of

16.1/2 possession 9.1/5 postpositives 4.1/3 potential clauses 19.1/2 predicative position 3.1/35; 18.1/6 prepositions (see also website

http://tyancient greek.org) with accusative 2.1/31 3.1/5a with dative 2.1/3/? with genitive 2.1/3g; 3.1/55 placed after noun they govern

11.2.4 note pregnant use of 9.2.13 note on /.

13; 22.2.2 note on /. 3 with pronouns 4.1/2

.present tense, see tense primary

endings: of active 4.1/1 note 1; of middle/passive 8.1/1f

sequence 14.1/4c(iii)

subjunctive classed as 14.1/2 tenses 4.1/1 note 1

prohibitions (negative commands) 17.1/1

pronouns demonstrative 9.1/1; 16.1/1 note 1 emphatic 9.1/3a indefinite 10.1/1 indefinite relative 10.1/25 note 2 interrogative 10.1/1 and 2; 21.1/3;

indirect interrogative 10.1/25 personal: 1st and 2nd person

4.1/2; 3rd 4.1/2; 9.1/3c possessive 9.1/5 reciprocal 9.1/45 reflexive (direct and indirect) 9.1/4a relative 9.1/2; 21.1/3

pronunciation 1.1/1 purpose expressed by

adverbial clauses 14.1/4c(i); 22.1/15(ii)

future participle 12.1/2a(v) questions

alternative 10.1/2a, 24.1/2/ deliberative 14.1/4a(ii) direct 10.1/2a indirect 10.1/25

reason adverbial clause of 14.1/4d note

reduplication 15.1/1 (and note 3) result

clauses and phrases of 16.1/1; 17.1/4c

root aorists imperative 17.1/1 note 2 indicative and infinitive 11.1/1 optative 14.1/3 note 2 participles 12.1/1 note 4 subjunctive 14.1/2 note 2

spatial extent accusative of 7.1/7c/

strong aorist imperative 17.1/1 note 1 indicative and infinitive 7.1/1 optative 14.1/3 note 1 participles 12.1/1 note 3 subjunctive 14.1/2 note 1

strong perfect 15.1/1 with intransitive sense 15.1/1 note

1; 20.1/1 note 2 subjunctive 14.1/1-2; 16.1/4 note 1;

18.1/2 note 1 deliberative 14.1/4a(ii) jussive 14.1/4a(i) in indefinite clauses 14.1/4c(iii)

in negative commands 17.1/1 in purpose clauses 14.1/4c(i) after verbs of fearing 14.1/4c(ii)

superlative constructions with 17.1/4d meaning of 17.1/3

temporal clauses 14.1/4c(iii); 21.1/2 tenses

-ω verbs (uncontracted) indicative active: present 2.1/5;

future 2.1/5; contracted future 5.1/2 note 3; 11.1/3; imperfect 4.1/1; 7.1/1 note 4; weak aorist 4.1/1; strong aorist 7.1/1; root aorist 11.1/1; perfect 15.1/1; pluperfect 16.1/2; future perfect 16.1/4 note 2 indicative middle: future 8.1/1;

aorist 8.1/1 indicative middle/passive:

present 8.1/1; imperfect 8.1/1; perfect 16.1/3; pluperfect 16.1/3

indicative passive: aorist 11.1/1; 11.1/3; future 11.1/1

-ω verbs (contracted) present and imperfect 5.1/2;

14.1/3; 17.1/1 note 3 other tenses 5.1/2 note 2 irregular futures 5.1/2 note 2 irregulars in -αω 5.1/2 note 4 disytlables in -εω 5.1/2 note 5 rules for contraction 5.1 /2a-c

-μι verbs defihition 18.1/1 δίδωμι 18.1/2 ΐημι 20.1/2 ΐοτημι 19.1/1 τίθημι 18.1/2 verbs in -νϋμι and -ννύμι 20.1/1 deponents in -αμαι 19.1/3b

thematic vowel 2.1/5 note 3; 8.1/1d time

adverbial clauses of 14.1/4c(iii); 21.1/2

how long 7.1/7a when 7.1 /7b within which 7.1/7c

tmesis 12.3.9 note transitive and intransitive senses

in aorist 11.1/1; 19.1/1 in perfect 15.1/1 notes 1 and 2

in same tense 11.1/1 οΠοτημι 19.1/1

verbs 2.1/4 aspect 4.1/1; 7.1/4; 12.1/1; 14.1/1;

15.1/2ή 17.1/1 augment, see augment compound with prepositional

prefixes 6.1/3 conjugation 2.1/4 deponent 8.1/2; 11.1/1 of hindering, preventing, forbidding,

denying 24.1/7 moods 14.1/1 oddities 19.1/3 of precaution and striving 24.1/6 principal parts 7.1/1 note 3; from

different roots 18.1/4 stems in palatals, labials, dentals

6.1/4; 11.1/16; 16.1/3; in λ, μ, ν, ρ 11.1/3; 16.1/3

syntax: with dative 13.1/26; with genitive 13.1/2a; with participles 15.1/2

tenses: primary and historic 4.1/1 note 1 relationship: of imperfect and aorist 4.1/1; of present and aorist: infinitive 4.1/1; 8.1/3a note 1; imperative 17.1/1; subjunctive 14.1/1; 17.1/1; optative 14.1/1 ;14.1/4d; participle 15.1/2f

transitive/intransitive 13.1/2; 19.1/1; 20.1/1 note 2

voice: active 2.1/4; middle and passive 8.1/1

active verbs with a middle future 8.1/1 note 1

active verbs with passive sense 17.1/5

vivid present 7.2.13 note on /. 8 vocative 2.1/36 weak aorist 4.1/1 wishes 21.1/1 word order

with adjectives 3.1/3a, 6 with adverbs 2.1/6a(i); 3.1/4; 4.1/3 first person before second 4.1/3 with genitive of unemphatic

personal pronouns 4.1/2- note (See also attributive/predicative

position; postpositives)

yes and no 24.1/1

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teach yourself

ancient greek gavin betts

• Are you a beginner looking for an introduction to Ancient Greek? • Or do you have some previous knowledge of the language? • Do you want to read and enjoy original Greek texts?

Ancient Greek is equally suited to complete beginners or those with some knowledge of the language. Each unit introduces new grammar, followed by Greek sentences and passages. Original texts are studied at an early stage and enable the reader to form an idea of the wealth and extent of ancient Greek literature. A glossary of grammatical terms, revision exercises, further reading and other material are available on a free website.

Gavin Betts and Alan Henry were members of the Department of Classical Studies, Monash University, Victoria, Australia, the former as Associate Professor, the latter as Professor.

Why not try · New Testament Greek · Latin · or visit www.teachyourself.co.uk?

Cover · © Gail Mooney/Corbis · White Masks, Rhodes, Greece

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teach yourself

UK £15.99

ISBN 0-340-86785-X

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