Task-based Learning

“Task-based learning combines the best insights from communicative language

teaching with an organised focus on language form” (J.Willis, 1996 A

Framework for Task-based Learning, Longman)

Explain what you understand by the term “task-based learning” and describe

and evaluate a lesson or a series of lessons which you have planned and

taught using the principles of task-based learning.

I – Introduction

One of the most invigorating things about teaching is that we - teachers - never stop learning (Brown, 1994). We learn about our practices by analysing the principles that govern our class preparation and teaching and by evaluating observable aspects of our classes (Nunan, 1989, and Brown, 1994). The conclusions we reach are based on examining our own rules, the students’ roles and performance, and objective evidence.

In this assignment I examine the definition of the word “task” and the designing of tasks, discuss the basic elements and principles that underlie a task-based learning framework and then go on to describe and evaluate a lesson I have planned and taught using the principles of task-based learning.

II – Definition of Task

When planning a task-based lesson, it is essential to have in mind the meaning of task and the implications it may have in designing the task itself. Below are five definitions of task:

Source/Researcher Definition

Collins COBUILD English Dictionary

“an activity or piece of work which you have to do, usually as a part of

a larger project”

Breen, M. P. (1987:23)

“Any structured language learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a

specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who

undertake the task”

Prahbu, N. S., cited in Long and Crookes, (1993)

“An activity which required learners to arrive at an outcome from given information through some process of thought, and

which allowed teachers to control and regulate that process”

Nunan, D (1993)

“ A piece of classroom work which involves learners in

comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the

target language while their attention is principally focused on

meaning rather than form”

Willis, J. and Willis, D. ( 1999 )“Activities where the target

language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose

( goal ) in order to achieve an outcome”

Although there might be “ little likelihood that those who use this term (task) will agree on what they mean by it” (Crookes, Graham, and Gass, 1993), there seem to be some common grounds in researchers’ definitions. They focus on:

- the learners’ actions involved in negotiating - Crookes (1993) discusses negotiation opportunities as giving learners more involvement in the learning process. “Successful communication is dependent on attentiveness and involvement” ( Crookes, Graham, and Gass, 1993 )

- language manipulation and outcome – Language is the tool for negotiating meaning and the assumption is that language acquisition will be facilitated through the exercise of the cognitive capacity of the learners (Willis, J and Willis, D., 1999 ).

Bearing in mind the definitions above, it is possible to say that tasks “serve as compelling and appropriate means for realising certain characteristic principles of communicative language teaching and learning, as well as serving as a testing-ground for hypotheses in pragmatic and second language acquisition” (Candlin, 1987: 5)

It is time now to turn our eyes to the design of tasks.

III – Designing Tasks

Willis (1999) discusses the following aspects that should be taken into account when designing tasks: - Goals and outcomes - all tasks should have an outcome. The focus

is on understanding and conveying meanings in order to complete a task successfully. It is within the challenge of achieving an outcome that lies much of the motivation in the classroom.

- Meaning before form – learners need to feel free to experiment with language and to take risks. “Fluency in communication is what counts” (Willis, 1999:24).

- Tasks and skills practice – in designing a task the teacher should aim at a “combination of skills” that should not be practised “in a vacuum” but should form an integral part of the process of achieving the task goals.

She also suggests six basic task types:

1. Listing2. Ordering and sorting3. Comparing4. Problem solving5. Sharing personal experiences and opinions6. Creative tasks or projects

which involve the following processes:

a. brainstormingb. fact-findingc. sequencing itemsd. ranking items according to personal values or specified

criteriae. categorisingf. classifyingg. matchingh. finding similarities/differences.

She also proposes that tasks can have five starting points:

- personal knowledge and experience – tasks based on the learner’s personal and professional experience and knowledge.

- problems – statement of a problem and the discussion of possible solutions

- visual stimuli – tasks based on pictures, photographs, tables or graphs

- spoken and written texts – tasks based on recordings of spoken English, extracts from video recordings and reading texts

- children’s activities – action games, miming and guessing amongst others.

and that they can be classified as:

- closed – highly structured tasks with very specific goals- open – more loosely structured tasks with a less specific goal

A question needs to be posed: “ Is doing one task after another enough to guarantee that learners will gain in accuracy and fluency?”

IV – The Task-Based Learning (TBL) Framework For the task to promote constant learning and improvement, we should see it as just one component in a large framework (Willis, 1999:40). Willis proposes a TBL framework, which consists of three phases ( http://langue.hyper.chubu.ac.jp/alt/pub/tlt/98/jul/willis.html ):

Pre-task

It is in this phase that the topic and the task are introduced. The teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, and helps learners understand task instructions and prepare. Learners may hear a recording of others doing a similar task, or read part of a text as a lead-in to a task.

Task Cycle

It consists of three parts:

- Task – students do the task, in pairs or small groups. Teacher monitors from a distance, encouraging all attempts at communication, not correcting. Since this situation has a “private” feel, students feel free to experiment. Mistakes don’t matter.

- Planning – students prepare to report to the whole class (orally or in writing) how they did the task, what they decided or discovered.

Since the report stage is public, students will naturally want to be accurate, so the teacher stands by to give language advice.

- Report – some groups present their reports to the class, or exchange written reports, and compare results. Teacher acts as a chairperson, and then comments on the content of the reports.

Learners may now hear a recording of others doing a similar task and compare how they all did it. Or they may read a text similar in some ways to the one they have written themselves, or related in topic to the task they have done.

Language Focus

- Analysis - students examine and then discuss specific features of the text or transcript of the recording. They can enter new words, phrases and patterns in vocabulary books.

- Practice – teacher conducts practice of new words, phrases, and patterns occurring in the data, either during or after the Analysis.

According to Willis (1999) this framework offers:

- exposure to rich but comprehensible input of real spoken and written language in use.

- use of language to do things.- motivation to listen and read the language and to speak and write

it.- instruction in language ( i.e. chances to focus on form).

IV – A lesson using the TBL framework

Sexual HarassmentClass and course background

Upper-Intermediate, Portuguese-speaking learners of roughly the same ability, aged between early-twenties and late-thirties. Used to the PPP framework and very willing to speak. The course students have enrolled in covers the first half of Headway Upper Intermediate ( Soars and Soars, 1987). They come together for two fifty-minute lessons three times a week. They are in unit 3 of the book and the topic of the unit is work. They have already talked about the dos and don’ts of relationships at the workplace and the topic of sexual harassment has been briefly mentioned.

Starting lesson

Teacher (T) explains this is an extra-activity on the topic of relationships at the workplace. There will be two task cycles. They will lead into examining real cases of sexual harassment as if they were members of a jury and comparing their verdict with the ones given by judges in the USA.

Sample lesson outline for text-based tasks

Lesson Plan for extra reading to be used in Unit 3 of Headway Upper-Intermediate

Pre-task 1: T explains the task: in trios students will read about two cases of sexual harassment and will give their verdict on each case.

Task 1 Trios read the cases (Appendix A) and give the verdict. (Dictionaries

are available)Planning 1 Trios rehearse how to report and

justify their verdict to the group. T stands by to give language advice

Report 1 Trios report to the group and justify their verdict and group

listen and choose the most convincing verdict. T acts as

chairperson.

Task 2: T gives out text with the verdicts (Appendix B) given by American judges and students list possible

reasons for the differences or similarities between the verdicts

given by the American judges and the verdicts students have given. T

stands to give language advicePlanning and report 2: Students tell each other possible

reasons for similarities and/or dissimilarities between the

verdicts. Group listen and choose

the best arguments. T acts as chairperson.

Language focus Find 5 phrases /clauses that report events in cases 1 and 2. What

would have been the real words that were said in those events?

Find the phrase one of the crowd in case 1. Use a dictionary to find

this use of crowd. What other phrases with crowd can you find?

Choose two to teach your partners.Go over cases 1 and 2 again and circle all words that have to do with life at the workplace and divide them into two or three

categories.

V- Evaluation

I felt the TBL framework easy to adapt to because I already partook of many of its principles. I was worried students would react negatively to the order of events in the TBL framework, but they seemed very confident and showed no signs of anxiety. In reality, during the task phase they seemed quite pleased to be able to try to grope with things without much interference from the teacher. On the other hand, they also felt it reassuring to have the teacher as, one of them put it, a “language advisor” in the planning phase. They found the language focus phase very interesting although some of them had some difficulties in categorising words. However, they could count on their partners for help and this helped them overcome any feelings of frustration that may have surfaced.

VI – Conclusion

In this assignment I tried to examine the definition of the word task and tried to analyse the designing of tasks. I also discussed the elements and principles that underlie a task-based learning framework. I described and evaluated a lesson I had planned and taught.

I believe that getting in touch with the way a lesson can be organised in a TBL approach and understanding the underlying principles that are involved gave me a chance to rethink the way I prepare my lessons and the way I help others do the same.

Appendix A

CASE #1The Securities and Exchange Commission office was a sociable place to work - sociable, that is, if you were one of several employees, including supervisors, having romantic affairs with each other, holding frequent parties and leaving the office during the day to go drinking.But one female attorney who did not participate in the carousing found her co-worker’s behaviour repulsive. She claimed she was harassed by the environment in which she had to work. Moreover, she said, women who had affairs with male supervisors were rewarded with bonuses and promotions. The woman conceded that no one had pressured her for sex or denied her any promotions because she wasn’t one of the crowd.Was she being too touchy?

CASE #2Few things are as boring as most corporate meetings. In an attempt to liven up the presentations, an oil company brought a barely clad woman on a motorcycle to a regional meeting, according to a sexual-harassment complaint filed by a female supervisor for the company.Moreover, she charged, when the corporation held a sales meeting at a restaurant, the entertainment was provided by strippers. And at a slide show held for employees, one slide featured the female supervisor’s clothed rear end.Was the woman harassed?

Appendix B

Decision #1Although the woman wasn’t harassed on a quid pro quo (give something to get something) basis, a judge ruled that the “pervasive” behaviour in the SEC office had created an offensive work environment. She was awarded back pay, a promotion and her choice of two jobs. The SEC also agreed to an outside review of its personnel practices.

Decision #2

The federal judge presiding over this case noted that the incidents were without question inappropriate but weren’t “sufficiently severe or pervasive to constitute a hostile environment”. That noted, he found that no harassment had taken place.

References

Breen, M.P. 1987. “Learner Contributions to Task Design”. In Lancaster Practical Papers in

English Language Education Volume 7. Prentice Hall International Teaching.

Brown, H.D. 1994. Teaching By Principles. Prentice Hall Regents

Candlin, C. 1987. “Towards Task-based Language Learning”. In Lancaster Practical Papers in

English Language Education Volume 7. Prentice Hall International Teaching.

Long, M. and Crookes, G. 1993. “Units of Analysis in Syllabus Design – The Case for Task”.

In Task in a Pedagogical Context (eds: Graham Grookes and Susan M. Grass). Multilingual Matters.

Nunan, D. 1993. “Task-based Syllabus Design: Selecting, Grading and Sequencing Tasks”. In

Task in a Pedagogical Context ( eds: Graham Grookes and Susan M. Gass). Multilingual Matters.

Willis, J. and Willis D. 1999 A Framework for Task-based Learning. Longman