table of contents · global poverty, while goal 3 focused on ensuring gender equality. 2010, safe...
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Table of Contents
Introduction from the Chairs 2
Topic A: The Rights of Women and Girls in Cities 3
Introduction to Topic A 5
History of Topic 4
Discussion of Topic 7
Bloc Positions 9
Points a Resolution Should Address 12
Further Reading 12
Bibliography 13
Topic B: Tackling homelessness and slum upgrading in cities 14
Introduction to Topic B 14
Understanding the topic 15
Discussion of Topic 17
Bloc Positions 24
Points a Resolution Should Address 28
Further Reading 29
Bibliography 29
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Introduction from the Chairs
Dear delegates,
Welcome to UN-Habitat at YorkMUN 2019. As the UK’s first Human Rights City, York is
the perfect place to be simulating UN-Habitat, a committee which focuses on ensuring human
rights and sustainability in urban areas!
UN-Habitat is a committee which takes a very specific look at urban human rights and
sustainability. As chairs we hope to provide you with a unique committee experience and
unusual topics. The two topics we’ve picked are both very pertinent and, hopefully, will
stimulate interesting debate!
Topic A explores the intersection between the urbanisation and feminisation of poverty,
which shows how urban living can impact human rights. Topic B explores the issue of
homelessness and slum upgrading in cities. The two issues are interlinked and both explore
very pertinent urban rights issues.
We hope you enjoy discussing these issues at YorkMUN and we look forward to a weekend
of debating, discussions and fun socials!
Anna, Ashvini and Shama
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Introduction to the Committee
UN-Habitat is the United Nations programme working towards a better urban future. Its
mission is to promote socially and environmentally sustainable human settlements
development and the achievement of adequate shelter for all.
In October 2016, at the UN Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development –
Habitat III – member states signed the New Urban Agenda. This is an action-oriented
document which sets global standards of achievement in sustainable urban development,
rethinking the way we build, manage, and live in cities. Through drawing together
cooperation with committed partners, relevant stakeholders, and urban actors, including at all
levels of government as well as the private sector, UN-Habitat is applying its technical
expertise, normative work and capacity development to implement the New Urban Agenda
and Sustainable Development Goal 11 – to make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and
sustainable.
Mandated by the UN General Assembly in 1978 to address the issues of urban growth, it is a
knowledgeable institution on urban development processes, and understands the aspirations
of cities and their residents. For forty years, UN-Habitat has been working in human
settlements throughout the world, focusing on building a brighter future for villages, towns,
and cities of all sizes. Because of these four decades of extensive experience, from the
highest levels of policy to a range of specific technical issues, UN-Habitat has gained a
unique and a universally acknowledged expertise in all things urban.
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Topic A: The Rights of Women and Girls in Cities
Introduction to Topic A
Urbanisation provides women and girls both with new opportunities and new problems.
While women can certainly benefit from increased and, potentially, easier access to
healthcare, to public spaces and to community and public leadership roles, there are also
several key issues they face, as outlined by UN-Habitat.
These issues include the intersection between the feminisation and urbanisation of poverty
and the effects of poverty on women living in cities. Another key issue is the safety of
women and girls in cities, which can be threatened by things like sexual harassment and
violence against women and girls. This topic guide will explore these issues and consider
how the benefits of cities for women and girls can be reconciled with the problems
urbanisation can pose. It will take an intersectional approach and consider issues of gender
together with issues surrounding urbanisation as well as other factors women might be
affected by, like socioeconomic status, age etc.
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History of Topic
● 1979, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women -- often considered as the basis for the UN’s commitment to women’s rights,
CEDAW set an important precedent in terms of clearly laying out the rights women
should have. While it doesn’t specifically address the issue of urbanisation, it is
relevant in any discussion of international women’s rights.
● 1985, Nairobi Conference -- for the first time since its creation in 1978, the United
Nations Centre for Human Settlements recognised the need to importance of gender
as a factor when considering the human settlements agenda, thus setting an important
precedent for the rights of women and girls in cities.
● 1995, Beijing Platform -- another key precedent in terms of international women’s
rights, the Beijing Platform established a set of goals for women’s rights and
development. The issues addressed include violence against women and girls and the
feminisation of poverty, both of which are key issues faced by women living in cities.
● 2000, the Millenium Development Goals -- the eight goals set out by the UN to
improve human rights and to end poverty by 2015. Goal 1 specifically addressed
global poverty, while Goal 3 focused on ensuring gender equality.
● 2010, Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces -- the UN launched an anti-violence
against women and girls in cities campaign. The initiative now works in over 20 cities
and has led to action, such as Egypt considering gender more carefully within their
urban planning and Quito (capital of Ecuador) strengthening local laws to prevent
sexual harassment in public spaces.
● 2014-2019, UN-Habitat’s Strategic Plan -- UN-Habitat identifies gender as a key
factor when considering urban issues and aims to take a gender-sensitive approach
throughout its work. This includes consulting with women living in cities when
considering new policies as well as running gender equality programmes.
● 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals -- similar to the Millennium
Development Goals, the Sustainable Development Goals are a set of 17 goals. These
include Goal 1, which is No Poverty, Goal 5, which focuses on Gender Equality and
Goal 11, which is to ensure Sustainable Cities and Communities. The inclusion of
Goal 11 is a testament to the increasing rate (and, thus, importance) of urbanisation
and also addresses the need for inclusivity in cities, which includes factors like
gender.
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Discussion of Topic
Violence and Harassment
Women are at the intersection of urban violence and crime and gender-based violence,
meaning they experience issues like violence and crime in a different way to others, say
living in more rural areas or to men. It is thought that rapid urbanisation, when combined
with preconceived ideas of gender identity can fuel gender-based violence. As ActionAid
(2011) acknowledges, “[w]omen fear and experience violence that falls in two main
dimensions: violence against women and violence arising from urban insecurities.”1
These two factors can be interlinked -- for example, a woman may experience violence or
harassment then struggle to access appropriate healthcare due to poverty. The need for
intersectionality in this example comes from the fact that this very specific combination of
factors is something that a man living in urban areas or a woman living in rural areas might
not experience in the same way. Exploring the specific ways in which urban women might
experience violence, therefore, highlights the need for specific solutions to the problems they
face.
It has been found that violence severely
limits women’s mobility, which can
have effects on how they travel, where
they go and, ultimately, how they
interact with the cities they live in.
Instances of harassment or abuse on,
say, public transport or one routes home
can have this impact. According to
World Bank statistics, a staggering 80%
of women worry about harassment
occurring in public spaces, hence their
assertion that “transport is not gender-
neutral”.
Female-only carriages, which could be one potential solution, are currently employed in
transport systems, such as the Tokyo Metro (right), the Rio de Janeiro Metro and the Cairo
Metro. According to 2014 data, 70% of women from a variety of countries said they’d feel
safer travelling in female-only carriages.2
1Actionaid.org. (2011). Women and the City. [Online] Available at:
http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/actionaid_2011_women_and_the_city.pdf. 2 Reuters. (2014). Does single-sex public transport help or hinder women?. [Online] Available
at:https://www.reuters.com/article/women-poll-carriages/exclusive-poll-does-single-sex-public-transport-help-
or-hinder-women-idUKL6N0S42MD20141029.
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However, there is very little data to support the idea that this would actually lead to greater
safety for female passengers. This is for several reasons -- the main one being that it is hard
to measure rates of female safety and also to show a causal link between the two. It is also
thought that introducing these can be seen as a “quick fix” and can prove counterproductive.
According to one report, it “does not address the underlying issue [and confirms] that women
should not be allowed to travel freely”.3
The Feminisation and Urbanisation of Poverty
Due to what has been termed the
“feminisation” of poverty, women
in cities experience poverty in a
fairly specific way. As Habitat for
Humanity explains, “women are
often more than just the bread-
winners for these urban poor
families. They find themselves
playing an indispensable role in
running their own household,
holding their families together, raising children besides their work-roles outside their homes.4
This idea of “time poverty” -- that women are often expected to perform unpaid labour, such
as childcare, shows the way in which entrenched gender roles and poverty and urbanisation
can all be seen as intertwined.
There is also a gendered aspect to the issue of slums and housing settlements (which will be
discussed in more depth in Topic B). Issues such as the lack of sanitation, access to secure
food and health care, affect those living in slums. However, it is thought that women are
affected more than men are, due to the expectation that women should stay at home and
perform domestic tasks.
Women living in slums are also more affected by these issues than women living in more
secure accommodation. According to UN-Habitat, for example, women living in urban slums
are more likely to contract HIV/AIDS than women living in rural areas. Similarly, studies
show that women in urban areas of Bengal, Indian have a disproportionately low level of
access to healthcare.5 While we often consider poverty as an issue of human rights,
3 Fiafoundation.org. (2016). Safe and Sound: International Research on Women's Personal Safety on Public
Transport. [Online] Available at: https://www.fiafoundation.org/media/224027/safe-and-sound-report.pdf. 4 Habitat for Humanity GB. (2018). Gender Discrimination: Women's Rights & Lives in Slums. [Online]
Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2018/09/women-poverty-slums/.
5 ARCHIVE Global. (2018). Women, Slums and Health - ARCHIVE Global. [Online] Available at:
http://archiveglobal.org/women-slums-and-health/.
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considering it as an issue of women’s rights can help us to take a more gender sensitive
approach and acknowledge the gender-specific issues women in cities might face.
Possible Solutions
There are, of course, several solutions to this complex issue. ActionAid (2011) provides an
excellent summary of such solutions and groups them into the following categories6:
Raising Awareness Through Advocacy
This solution recommends empowering girls and
women to become active citizens and to speak
out about issues they face, as well as
strengthening advocacy networks. There are
currently initiatives in place to do this. Plan
International, for instance, has worked with UN-
Habitat to create the Safer Cities for Girls
initiative, which helps empower girls to have
their voices heard. One of their success stories is
that of Faridah, an 18 year old living in Kampala
(capital of Uganda), who leads a group of young
women dedicated to raising awareness of the
issues they face.7
Similarly, women in favelas (slums) in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) are using technology to help
flag up safety risks they face (such as badly lit roads).8 Initiatives like these ones show the
importance of involving women in efforts to make cities safer, as well as the importance of
acknowledging the differing struggles that women in different places might have.
Increasing Governments’ Commitments to Urban Women’s Rights
Government commitment is an important aspect to improving women’s rights in cities. This
can include legislation, better policing for women’s safety and improving women’s access to
healthcare and maternal / reproductive facilities. Efforts to engage with both national and
local governments have had some success. UN Women, for instance, has helped local
governments in Metropolitan Manila (a metropolitan area in the Philippines) to incorporate
6 Actionaid.org. (2011). Women and the City. [Online] Available at:
http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/actionaid_2011_women_and_the_city.pdf. 7Plan International. (2018). Girls Work Towards Fear Free Cities. [Online] Available at: https://plan-
international.org/ending-violence/girls-work-towards-fear-free-cities. 8 Bachelet, M. (2013). Making Cities Safe for Women and Girls. [Online] The Guardian. Available at:
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/feb/21/making-cities-safe-women-girls.
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gender into their urban planning initiatives. This then prompted the municipal government to
start the Women’s Safety Audit research project in 2015.9
However, there are several potential issues with this approach. Firstly, it relies on
governments’ willingness to engage with the issue. Moreover, there are fundamental issues
with policy implementation. Many of the problems faced by women in cities are underpinned
by social norms. While legislation can be seen as having a normalising effect, it has to be
reinforced by meaningful social change, which can be difficult to achieve.
Changing Social Norms
As discussed above, policy change has to be combined with social
change. Changing social norms, therefore, is key to this issue. One key
issue is how to engage men in this issue. Working with men can be a
useful way of strengthening women’s rights and safety. However, it
can be difficult to do so and must be done using a grassroots approach
that is specific to the country, or even society, in question.
Building Institutional Capacity
Specifically, this includes things like providing training to relevant institutions, such as the
example of Metropolitan Manila. This also includes strengthening research into the issue of
women’s urban safety and developing codes of best practice (or effective policies).
According to ActionAid’s recommendations, research should be carried out in an
intersectional way and should acknowledge the different ways in which women living in
urban areas might be marginalised.
Bloc Positions
European Union:
The EU supports women’s rights as part of its commitment to ensuring the upholding of
human rights. It aims to empower women and strengthen women’s rights advocacy networks.
The EU’s High-level group on gender mainstreaming, which focuses on ensuring the EU
follows up on the Beijing Platform for Action, is one such example.
USA
The US has a mixed record on international women’s rights. Michelle Obama’s recent Let
Girls Learn initiative, for instance, showed the US’ commitment to improving accessibility of
education and the safety of girls and young women internationally. However, Trump has
claimed he will scrap the scheme. It is also important to note that the US has still not ratified
CEDAW, despite signing it in 1980. This is seen as a conspicuous oversight.
9 UN Women | Asia and the Pacific. (2018). UN Women helps Metro Manila authorities as they design women-
friendly public spaces. [Online] Available at: http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/news-and-
events/stories/2018/08/un-women-helps-metro-manila-authorities.
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Latin America
Latin America is the world’s most urbanised region10, thus very relevant to this debate.
According to a report 11, Bogota (capital of Colombia) is the most dangerous city for women
and girls in terms of experiencing sexual harassment in public spaces. The same report found
that Lima (capital of Peru) is the most unsafe city for a girl to go outside alone or to use
public transport. Moreover, the issue of slums and poverty is prominent in South America,
especially in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil).
Africa
According to the Plan report mentioned above, Cairo (capital of Egypt) is the city with the
least effective legislation on women and girls’ safety. It also found that Kampala (capital of
Uganda) is the city where girls are most at risk of murder and kidnap, while Johannesburg
(South Africa) is the most dangerous city for theft, robbery and sexual assault.
Asia
The issue of urbanisation and women’s rights is pertinent to Asia, particularly South Asia.
With major cities in Asia, such as Dhaka (capital of Bangladesh), Colombo (capital of Sri
Lanka) and Mumbai (India) being home to large slums, the feminisation of poverty is a key
issue in the region.
10 Center, A. (2014). Urbanization in Latin America. [Online] Atlantic Council. Available at:
http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/publications/articles/urbanization-in-latin-america. 11 Plan International. (2018). Girls Work Towards Fear Free Cities. [Online] Available at: https://plan-
international.org/ending-violence/girls-work-towards-fear-free-cities.
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Points a Resolution Should Address
1. How can UN-Habitat ensure countries take a gender-sensitive and intersectional
approach to urban planning?
2. How can we ensure women feel safe enough to fully engage with their cities?
3. How can public transport be made safer for women?
4. Should all-female carriages be used more?
5. How can the effects of urban poverty on women’s rights (eg lack of access to
maternal healthcare) be mitigated?
6. How can legislative or government change be supported by social change?
Further Reading
1. Executive Summary -- https://actionaid.ie/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Women-and-
the-City-Examining-the-Gender-Impact-of-Violence-and-Urbanisation-1.pdf
2. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/feb/21/making-cities-safe-
women-girls
3. https://plan-uk.org/act-for-girls/make-cities-safer-for-girls
4. https://plan-international.org/news/2016-10-14-girls-voices-crucial-make-cities-safe#
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Bibliography
Actionaid.org. (2011). Women and the City. [Online] Available at:
http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/actionaid_2011_women_and_the_city.pdf.
Transport for Development. (2018). Gender-Based Violence. [Online] Available at:
http://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/category/tags/gender-based-violence
Reuters. (2014). Does single-sex public transport help or hinder women?. [Online] Available
at: https://www.reuters.com/article/women-poll-carriages/exclusive-poll-does-single-sex-
public-transport-help-or-hinder-women-idUKL6N0S42MD20141029.
Fiafoundation.org. (2016). Safe and Sound: International Research on Women's Personal
Safety on Public Transport. [Online] Available at:
https://www.fiafoundation.org/media/224027/safe-and-sound-report.pdf.
Habitat for Humanity GB. (2018). Gender Discrimination: Women's Rights & Lives in Slums.
[Online] Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2018/09/women-poverty-
slums/.
ARCHIVE Global. (2018). Women, Slums and Health - ARCHIVE Global. [Online]
Available at: http://archiveglobal.org/women-slums-and-health/.
Plan International. (2018). Girls Work Towards Fear Free Cities. [Online] Available at:
https://plan-international.org/ending-violence/girls-work-towards-fear-free-cities.
Bachelet, M. (2013). Making Cities Safe for Women and Girls. [Online] The Guardian.
Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/feb/21/making-cities-
safe-women-girls.
UN Women | Asia and the Pacific. (2018). UN Women helps Metro Manila authorities as
they design women-friendly public spaces. [Online] Available at:
http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/news-and-events/stories/2018/08/un-women-helps-metro-
manila-authorities.
Center, A. (2014). Urbanization in Latin America. [Online] Atlantic Council. Available at:
http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/publications/articles/urbanization-in-latin-america.
Plan International. (2018). Expert Survey: Girls' Safety in Cities Across the World. [Online]
Available at: https://plan-international.org/publications/expert-survey-girls-safety-cities.
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Topic B: Tackling homelessness and slum upgrading in cities
Introduction to Topic B
In an era of rapid globalisation, shared responsibility and development, homeless remains the
least examined and studied areas of inequality. Stemming from lack of access to adequate and
fair housing, unregulated markets and wealth gap, it opens people to many vulnerabilities.
Homelessness and those affected by it are seen as a stigmatized group that face constant
discrimination, social exclusion and inequality. It affects vulnerable groups such as refugees,
lower-income individuals, LGBTQ persons, people with disabilities and women.
Homeless individuals tend to live in slums or shelters, many of which are violate basic
expected standard of adequate sanitation and rights. This topic looks at the various types of
slums and its association with homelessness, the obligations of governments individually and
globally to eradicate homelessness.
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Understanding the topic
International framework
It is estimated that around 1.6 billion individuals around the world live as homeless, squatters
or in temporary shelters, all of which leads to lack of adequate housing and facilities. There
are various international declarations, laws, treaties that place obligations on states to ensure
all basic needs are met. Some of them are mentioned below:
● 10th December 1948, Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 25 states:
“Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his control.”
● International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), adopted by
United Nations General Assembly resolution 2200 A (XXI) on 16 December 1966,
entered into force on 3 January 1976.
Article 11. I states: "The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of
everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including
adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of living
conditions. The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of
this right, recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international
cooperation based on free consent.
● International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
(1965), adopted by General Assembly resolution 2106 A (XX) on 21 December 1965,
entered into force on 4 January 1969.
Article 5 states: "In compliance with the fundamental obligations laid down in article
2 of this Convention, States Parties undertake to prohibit and eliminate racial
discrimination in all its forms and to guarantee the right of everyone, without
distinction as to race, colour, or national or ethnic origin, to equality before the law,
notably in the enjoyment of the following rights: . . . (e) Economic, Social and
Cultural rights in particular: . . . (iii) The right to housing."
● WHO Decade Assessment Report, 1990 recognizes that 1.8 billion people across the
globe live without adequate access to water and sanitation
● International Labour Organisation (ILO) Recommendation No. 115 on Workers
Housing (1961), adopted at the forty-fourth session of the ILO Governing Body on 7
June 1961. Principle 2 states:
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"It should be an objective of national [housing] policy to promote, within the
framework of general housing policy, the construction of housing and related
community facilities with a view to ensuring that adequate and decent housing
accommodation and a suitable living environment are made available to all workers
and their families. A degree of priority should be accorded to those whose needs are
most urgent."
● Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements (1976), adopted by the United Nations
Conference on Human Settlements in 1976.
Section I (8) states
"Adequate shelter and services are a basic human right which places an obligation on
governments to ensure their attainment by all people, beginning with direct assistance
to the least advantaged through guided programmes of self-help and community
action. Governments should endeavour to remove all impediments hindering
attainment of these goals. Of special importance is the elimination of social and
racial segregation, inter alia, through the creation of better balanced communities,
which blend different social groups, occupations, housing and amenities.”
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Discussion of Topic
Slums
A slum is an unplanned settlement.12 UN-Habitat defines a slum through five characteristics:
(1) inadequate access to safe water, (2) inadequate access to sanitation and infrastructure, (3)
poor structural quality of housing, (4) overcrowding, (5) insecure residential status or no
security of tenure.13 According to estimates by UN-Habitat, one in eight people live in slums,
or around one billion people.14 As cited by Habitat for Humanity, it is currently estimated
that by 2030, one in four people will live in a slum.15 In developing countries, one in three
urban residents is a slum dweller: an individual who lives in a slum16. Across the world, slum
dwellers face discrimination and disadvantage, are often unrecognised and neglected by their
government, face eviction, and are vulnerable to crime, disease, and natural disasters. Thus,
the UN Millennium Development Goal 7 Target 7D outlines specifically the need “to have
achieved by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum
dwellers”.17 Depending on the state and city, slums develop due to different reasons.
However, a common trend is rapid urbanisation, particularly in developing countries.
Governments and cities cannot provide housing and infrastructure to the large influx of
people migrating from rural to urban areas to seek economic gain.18 Demand for housing
simply outranks supply.
Slum Upgrading
Slum upgrading is simply improving the conditions of slums, including establishing basic
infrastructure such as clean water and sewage.19 Particularly, utilising slum upgrading as
opposed to slum removal or relocation has become vital in Latin America and the Caribbean 20. As highlighted in UN Millenium Development Goal 11 Target 11.1, slum upgrading is
12 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17
December 2018]. 13 Housing & slum upgrading – UN-Habitat [Online]. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing-
slum-upgrading/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 14 UN Habitat (2016). Slum Almanac 2015-2016: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers.
[Online],pg. 2. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/. 15 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17
December 2018]. 16 ibid. 17 UN Habitat (2016). Slum Almanac 2015-2016: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers.
[Online],pg. 2. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/. 18 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 19 What Is Urban Upgrading? [Online]. Available at:
http://web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/upgrading/whatis/what-is.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 20 Wulfhorst, E. (2016). Mexico’s Ciudad Neza rises from slum to success story. Reuters [Online]. Available
at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-slum-neza-idUSKBN12E1F2 [Accessed: 17 December 2018].
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vital to improving the living conditions of slum dwellers.21 Likewise, improving the
conditions of existing slums is a key focus of UN-Habitat. The agency applies a “twin-track”
methodology, which emphasises both supply and affordability.22 According to UN-Habitat,
upgrading slums in a sustainable manner is best achieved at a local neighbourhood level, such
as through small community projects which can in term develop into larger projects with
time.23 UN-Habitat stresses the importance of understanding lack of secure tenure, issues of
“land management arrangements” and keeping in mind collective housing design.24 Overall,
when upgrading slums, the needs of poor and vulnerable groups -- such as women -- should
be considered first and foremost.25 A key example of slum upgrading by UN-Habitat it the
Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme (PSUP). PSUP was launched in 2008 as a joint
effort between the European Commission, African, Caribbean and Pacific states and UN-
Habitat.26 The programme seeks to improve the living conditions of those living in slums
through upgrading slums, working with the local community and thus utilising the skills of
slum dwellers.27 According to UN-Habitat, the programme has been active in 190 cities -
including 39 African, Caribbean and Pacific nations - and improved the lives of at least 2
million people living in slums.28
Whilst the agency praises its inclusive approach and cites many successes - such as changing
negative stereotypes about slum dwellers and presenting sustainable improvements, the
programme faces numerous obstacles.29 Firstly, the programme has only been implemented
in a slim number of cities and has yet to be active in states most in need of slum upgrading,
such as India. Secondly, high poverty rates, increased employment, urbanisation, and
interests in using land for non-housing purposes pose a challenge to implementing the
programme.30 Thirdly, it is crucial to remember that many states do not recognise the
existence of slums, as slum dwellers are usually not documented or registered to their home.31
Thus, some states will not implement a slum upgrading programme. Lastly, whilst the
programme has help millions, the number of slum dwellers continues to increase yearly.32
21 UN Habitat (2016). Slum Almanac 2015-2016: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers.
[Online],pg. 2. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/. 22 Housing & slum upgrading – UN-Habitat [Online]. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing-
slum-upgrading/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 23 ibid. 24 ibid. 25 ibid. 26 Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme (PSUP) – UN-Habitat [Online]. Available at:
https://unhabitat.org/urban-initiatives/initiatives-programmes/participatory-slum-upgrading/ [Accessed: 17
December 2018]. 27 Fact Sheet Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme (PSUP) – UN-Habitat [Online],pg. 1. Available at:
https://unhabitat.org/fact-sheet-participatory-slum-upgrading-programme-psup/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018] 28 ibid. 29 ibid. 30 ibid. 31 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17
December 2018]. 32 Fact Sheet Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme (PSUP) – UN-Habitat [Online], p. 1. Available at:
https://unhabitat.org/fact-sheet-participatory-slum-upgrading-programme-psup/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]
19
Homelessness
The United Nations enshrines the right to a “standard of living adequate for the health and
well-being of himself and of his family” in article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.33 In 2009, the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) defined
homelessness under two groups:
(a) Primary homelessness (or rooflessness). This category includes
persons living in the streets without a shelter that would fall within
the scope of living quarters;
(b) Secondary homelessness. This category may include persons with
no place of usual residence who move frequently between various
types of accommodations (including dwellings, shelters and
33 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (2015). [Online]. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/universal-
declaration-human-rights/index.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018].
Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1 Homelessness
statistics and their correlation to national strategies
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20
institutions for the homeless or other living quarters). This category
includes persons living in private dwellings but reporting ‘no usual
address’ on their census form (Economic and Social Council, 2009, p.
3).
In 2016, a United Nations human rights expert called upon nations and
governments to recognize homelessness as a human rights crisis. Homelessness
should be seen as a failure of states to protect its most vulnerable population,
opening them up to discrimination, social stigma and violence.34
Homelessness does not come with one hard and fast definition. There are three
proposed dimensions of definition for homelessness:
(a) The first dimension addresses the absence of home — both the absence of the
material aspect of minimally adequate housing and of the social aspect of a secure
place to establish a family or social relationships and participate in community
life;
(b) The second dimension considers homelessness as a form of systemic
discrimination and social exclusion, recognizing that being deprived of a home
gives rise to a social identity through which “the homeless” is constituted as a
social group subject to discrimination and stigmatization;
(c) The third dimension recognizes those who are homeless as rights holders
who are resilient in the struggle for survival and dignity. With a unique
understanding of the systems that deny them their rights, homeless people must
be recognized as central agents of the social transformation necessary for the
realization of the right to adequate housing.
Much like slum dwellers, people are driven into homelessness due to a variety of complex
issues, including domestic violence, forced eviction, drug or alcohol abuse, poverty, mental
or physical illness, or simply lack of affordable housing.35 Alongside heavy stigmatisation
and facing discrimination, homeless individuals are highly susceptible to violence, crime,
health problems. Furthermore, the homeless often cannot access toilets and sanitation,
education, banking, and government services due to the lack of a permanent address. The
34 Governments Must Commit to Eliminating Homelessness by 2030, UN Rights Expert Urges (2016). [Online].
Available at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2016/03/523512-governments-must-commit-eliminating-
homelessness-2030-un-rights-expert-urges [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 35 Why People Are Homeless | The Salvation Army [Online]. Available at:
https://www.salvationarmy.org.au/en/Who-We-Are/our-work/Homelessness/Why-are-people-homeless/
[Accessed: 17 December 2018].
21
most recent statistic conducted on worldwide homelessness was in 2005 and yielded a
number of 100 million.36
Homeless shelters
Homeless shelters provide homeless people with temporary accommodation. Often, meals
and other services are provided in congruent with shelter.37. They are especially crucial to
protect the homeless from environmental stressors, such as extreme cold weather.
Across the world, there is a drastic shortage of homeless shelters, particularly as subsidised
housing has a long waitlist. Some shelters delegate beds on a nightly basis -- often using a
“lottery system” -- whilst others provide stays of anywhere between a week and 90 days.38
Often, a homeless individual may find themselves on a waiting list to be allocated a bed,
which -- in the most extreme cases -- can take weeks.39
Transitional housing
Transitional housing provides homeless people or individuals in need of housing with
temporary accommodation designed to “bridge the gap from homelessness to permanent
housing”.40 Transitional housing is relatively common in Western cultures or the global
North, and offers “structure, support (for addictions and mental health [...]), life skills, [...]
education and training”.41
Supportive housing
Similarly, supportive housing offers individuals affordable, safe and community-focused
housing. Unlike transitional housing, supportive housing does not have a time limit.
Supportive housing is assured to be affordable through “rent subsidy or setting rents at an
affordable levels”.42 According to research conducted in the United States, supportive
housing is crucial in resolving homelessness through increasing housing stability. It is also
credited to reduce the need for “publicly-funded crisis services, including shelters, hospitals,
psychiatric centers, jails, and prisons”.43
36 Global Homelessness Statistics Homeless World Cup [Online]. Available at:
https://homelessworldcup.org/homelessness-statistics/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 37 Brown et al. - 2017 - Waiting for shelter Perspectives on a homeless sh.pdf [Online], pp. 846-847 Available
at:
http://content.ebscohost.com/ContentServer.asp?EbscoContent=dGJyMMvl7ESep7U4wtvhOLCmr1CeprZSr62
4SK%2BWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMPGptEy1qbJPuePfgeyx43zx1%2B6B&T=P&P=AN&S=R&D=a
9h&K=124846699 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 38 ibid. pp.847 39 ibid. 40 Transitional Housing | The Homeless Hub [Online]. Available at:
https://www.homelesshub.ca/solutions/housing-accommodation-and-supports/transitional-housing [Accessed:
17 December 2018]. 41 ibid. 42 Supportive Housing | United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH) [Online]. Available at:
https://www.usich.gov/solutions/housing/supportive-housing/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 43 ibid.
22
Health and risk of disease
For those living in slums, diseases are a high risk because of they spread very quickly.44 As
an unplanned settlement, access to sanitation, clean water, and other hygiene facilities are
largely impossible and thus, water-borne diseases are common.45 Similarly, due to an absence
of windows or ventilation, respiratory diseases are highly contagious in slums.46 The
combination of disease and a lack of access to vaccination or medical treatment can be
deadly. High rates of sickness and disease and perpetuate the cycle of poverty, as children
may be hindered from attending school due to illness.47 Due to disease, their performance in
school may drastically decline, and overall, drop-outs due to sickness are common in children
living in slums.48
Likewise, the homeless are at a high risk for chronic and acute diseases.49 Homelessness
leaves individuals more susceptible of developing health problems due to the extremities of
their environment, skin diseases or ailments, and trauma, such as physical assaults and rape.50
Malnutrition, parasitic infestations, and dental problems are also common.51 As a result of
drug abuse or alcoholism, hepatitis remains widespread in homeless communities.52
Homelessness can often exacerbate and worsen health problems. Even routine treatments are
very difficult to administer. For example, diabetes can be adequately managed through a
healthy diet and insulin, however, as a homeless person, such treatments are very difficult to
administer: syringes can be stolen, insulin cannot be stored properly in a refrigerator, and
diets cannot be controlled.53 Furthermore, it is important to note that health problems can be
not only a consequence of homelessness, but also a cause. In the absence of therapy,
medication, or appropriate housing arrangements, major mental illnesses, such as chronic
schizophrenia, may cause an individual to unable to live with others and thus be driven to
homelessness.54 Alcoholism, drug use, and disabilities or diseases - such as AIDS - leading to
unemployment or high health care expenses can equally contribute to homelessness.55
Vulnerability to natural or man-made disasters
44 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17
December 2018]. 45 ibid. 46 ibid. 47 ibid. 48 ibid. 49 Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Care for Homeless (1988). Health Problems of Homeless
People. [Online]. National Academies Press (US). Available at:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218236/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 50 ibid. 51 ibid. 52 ibid. 53 ibid. 54 ibid. 55 ibid.
23
Slum dwellers are disproportionately affected by disasters as the poor construction “cannot
withstand earthquakes, landslides, excessive wind, or heavy rainstorms” 56In the Dharavi
slum of Mumbai, the effects of the record monsoon rains in July 2005 were deadly. Although
the exact number of casualties is unknown, it is estimated hundreds lost their lives in the
flood.57 Similarly, the homeless are often most affected by natural disasters. Equally,
according to a 2017 study by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, every
year, natural disasters make 14 million people homeless.58 Especially in Asia, natural
disasters such as floods, storms and earthquakes lead to millions losing their homes.59 The
largest amounts of homelessness due to natural disasters are in South and Southeast Asia.
This includes China with 1.3 million people losing their homes yearly and India, which yields
a figure of 2.3 million people driven to homelessness because of a natural disaster.60
Particularly, sustainable housing is critical in ensuring natural disasters do not cause
homelessness. For example, both Japan and the Philippines have the same amounts of people
exposed to cyclones, yet as Japan has “more robust” houses, it faces far less homelessness
due to disasters compared to the Philippines, which has far less stable homes.61 Hence,
ensuring homes are built in a safe and sustainable manner is crucial in tackling homelessness.
Violence and crime
The lack of infrastructure - such as roads, street signs, telephone lines, or street lights - make
it very difficult for emergency and law enforcement vehicles to navigate through a slum.62
Thus, crime is difficult to monitor, control or prevent. Often, slum upgrading is seen as key in
reducing crime. NGO projects upgrading slums typically include crime and violence
prevention strategies.
Likewise, the homeless are often most vulnerable to violence and crime. In the United
Kingdom, “rough sleepers” are 15 times more likely to face abuse and violence compared to
non-homeless individuals.63 Globally, homeless women are most susceptible to violence, and
are often victims of emotional, physical or sexual violence, such as rape.64
56 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 57 Sturcke, J. (2005). India floods death toll nears 700. The Guardian [Online]. Available at:
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2005/jul/29/india.naturaldisasters [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 58 Natural Disasters Make 14 Million People Homeless Each Year, Reports Show (2017). [Online]. Available
at: https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/disasters-climate-change-14-million-homeless/ [Accessed: 17
December 2018]. 59 ibid. 60 ibid. 61 ibid. 62 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17
December 2018]. 63 Foster, D. (2016). Crisis Report Reveals Shocking Dangers of Being Homeless | Housing Network | The
Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2016/dec/23/homeless-crisis-
report-attack-violence-sleeping-rough [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 64 Lindsay, S. (2014). Do Homeless Women Experience Violence? | The Homeless Hub [Online]. Available at:
https://homelesshub.ca/resource/do-homeless-women-experience-violence [Accessed: 17 December 2018].
24
Anti-homelessness legislation or anti-vagrancy laws
Whilst the term refers to legislation aiming to prevent homelessness through providing shelter
and housing, anti-homelessness legislation also denotes laws aiming to criminalise
homelessness as a whole. In the United Kingdom in May 2018, the newspaper The Guardian
uncovered that nationwide, “over 50 local authorities” utilised “public space protection
orders”.65 Public space protection orders were introduced by Prime Minister Theresa May in
2014 to “restrict” ways in which a specific public space could be used.66 The order often
results in homeless people being “fined, given criminal convictions, and [...] imprisoned for
begging and rough sleeping”.67 Many homeless individuals were banned from city or town
centres.
65 Greenfield, P. and Marsh, S. (2018). Hundreds of homeless people fined and imprisoned in England and
Wales. The Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/may/20/homeless-
people-fined-imprisoned-pspo-england-wales [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 66 ibid. 67 ibid.
25
Bloc Positions
Brazil
Brazilian favelas (shanty towns or slums) are common in large urban cities, such as Rio de
Janeiro or São Paulo. According to the 2010 Census of Brazil, around 6 percent of all
Brazilians live in a favela.68 Many inhabitants of a favela do not consider themselves poor,
have deep cultural connections with their home and may pride themselves living in a favela.
Many houses have working toilet and water facilities, electricity, and newer houses are
constructed out of stable concrete.69 Yet, drug and crime rates in favelas are of the highest in
Brazil.70 Many drug dealers hire school children and thus, gangs are a rampant and endemic
problem in favelas .71 The Pacifying Police Unit (UPP) was established in Rio de Janeiro in
2008 to reduce violence in favelas and improve relations between the police and
community.72 It is important to note that Brazil would soon be hosting the 2014 World Cup
and Rio would host the Olympic Games in 2016.73 Thus, decreasing crime was essential to
not only improve citizens’ safety, but improve the image of the nation. The UPP had a 24-
hour presence in favelas and aimed to implement a “social assistance-focused model” instead
of a “violent, corrupt, and militaristic” one.74 However, UPP workers have been accused of
police brutality and even killing residents.75 The UPP have also been accused of attempting to
“pacify” favela residents.76 Thus, a UPP model to prevent crime in slums is not without its
faults.
Kenya
The Kibera slum in Nairobi houses more than 700 thousand slum dwellers.77 Built using mud,
dirt, and “recycled tin rooftops,” the slum dwellers of Kibera are at risk of natural disasters.78
Only 20 percent of houses in Kibera have electricity and water shortage is a critical problem
in the slum.79 Whilst Kibera has been cited as a successful slum upgrade and become a model
68 What Are The Favelas Of Brazil? [Online]. Available at: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-
favelas-of-brazil.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 69 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 70 What Are The Favelas Of Brazil? [Online]. Available at: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-
favelas-of-brazil.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 71 ibid. 72 Leeds, E. (2016). What Can Be Learned from Brazil’s “Pacification” Police Model? [Online]. Available at:
https://www.wola.org/analysis/what-can-be-learned-from-brazils-pacification-police-model/ [Accessed: 17
December 2018]. 73 ibid. 74 ibid. 75 ibid. 76 ibid. 77 The World’s Largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha & Neza (2017). [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/
[Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 78 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 79 ibid.
26
for other settlements around the world, development efforts have been halted due to the
“density of the settlements” and the “steep topography”.80 Due to the water shortages, many
slum dwellers have been forced to pay large amount of money to receive drinkable water.81
Charity projects have sought to combat this through installing pipelines, yet “competitors in
the market” destroy these to “regain their position on the slum dwelling consumers”.82
Because the Kenyan government does not recognise Kibera as a formal settlement, the
government cannot combat such crimes.83
India
In Mumbai, the Dharavi slum contains more than 1 million slum dwellers.84 Unlike in other
countries, slum dwellers often are employed.85 Many are not living below the poverty line
and are well-educated, but live in slums due to lack of housing.86 Since the 1950s, Mumbai
has had restrictive housing policies, creating an unfavourable environment for housing
development and construction in the city.87 Living conditions are very poor, with few
working toilets and limited access to clean water.88 A nearby river functions as both. Thus,
diseases such as “cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis” are rampant. The slum is also highly
susceptible to natural disasters such as “monsoon rains, tropical cyclones, and subsequent
flooding”.89
Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced a Housing for All plan in 2015 which sought to
provide affordable housing.90 Regional states are tasked with implementing the plan. The
Maharashtra government encompassing Mumbai has formulated a plan to upgrade slums, but
little has been done so far.91 The city has implemented a “market-dominant model” to
upgrade slums, which has reaped little success due to funding.92 It is also difficult for slum
dwellers to be assigned new, redeveloped housing because of complicated administrative
procedures: only slum dwellers with documents proving they “have been living in the slum
80 ibid. 81 ibid. 82 ibid. 83 ibid. 84 The World’s Largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha & Neza (2017). [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/
[Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 85 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 86 Zhang, Y. (2016). Building a Slum-Free Mumbai [Online]. Available at:
https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/building-slum-free-mumbai [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 87 ibid. 88 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at:
https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 89 ibid. 90 Zhang, Y. (2016). Building a Slum-Free Mumbai [Online]. Available at:
https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/building-slum-free-mumbai [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 91 ibid. 92 ibid.
27
prior to [...] January 1, 2000, are eligible for [...] free housing”.93 Thus, the non-eligible
population is forced to continue to live in slums.
Mexico
The Neza slum in Mexico City houses some 1.2 million people.94 To many, the Neza slum
has become a success story of slum upgrading, as slum dwellers demanded improved living
conditions in the 1970s.95 Since then, the government has continued to develop the area.96
Yet, high crime - particularly drugs and violence - remains prevalent
Pakistan
The world’s largest slum is found in Orangi Town in Karachi, Pakistan. According to Habitat
for Humanity, more than 2.4 million people live in Orangi Town.97 The population increased
rapidly in the early 1970s as thousands migrated from East Pakistan post-war of
independence.98 As the government stalled or refused to install sewage, residents began to
build sewage pipes themselves.99 As of late, more than 90 percent of the slum has sewage
pipes, apparently “all put in by residents”.100
United States of America
In 2017, 553,742 Americans were “homeless on a single night,” yielding an increase of 0.7
percent over 2016.101 Despite an improved economy since 2008, such figures demonstrate an
inability to provide shelter for the most vulnerable in the country. Increases were highest in
metropolitan areas such as Los Angeles and New York City. As median hourly wages have
not increased for decades but living costs and rent sours, the lack of housing or support
supplied by the federal government is reflected in the increased number of homeless
people.102 Yet, recently, citizens in Los Angeles voted to tax themselves to provide funding
93 ibid. 94 The World’s Largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha & Neza (2017). [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/
[Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 95 Wulfhorst, E. (2016). Mexico’s Ciudad Neza rises from slum to success story. Reuters [Online]. Available at:
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-slum-neza-idUSKBN12E1F2 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 96 ibid. 97 The World’s Largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha & Neza (2017). [Online]. Available at:
https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/
[Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 98 News Desk (2016). Karachi’s Orangi Town Named Largest Slum in the World | The Express Tribune
[Online]. Available at: https://tribune.com.pk/story/1245044/karachis-orangi-town-named-largest-slum-world/
[Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 99 ibid. 100 ibid. 101 Gee, A. (2017). America’s Homeless Population Rises for the First Time since the Great Recession | US
News | The Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/dec/05/america-
homeless-population-2017-official-count-crisis [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 102 ibid.
28
for homeless shelters and the government of Hawaii will implement “authorised tent
encampments”.103 Thus, the future of the homeless in the United States remains uncertain.
European Union
Whilst homelessness is comparatively low in Europe, the number of homeless individuals has
increased in all Europe countries, except Finland.104 Particularly, housing systems have been
strained in “London, Paris, Brussels, Dublin, Vienna, Athens, Warsaw and Barcelona”.105
Housing costs have increased and overcrowding has become common in most urban
European cities. In Greece, 95 percent of low income citizens spend more than 40 percent of
their income on housing.106 As many as one in 70 people are homeless in Greece.107 Across
the continent, young people, minorities - such as Roma - and migrants are susceptible to
homelessness. In Denmark, the amount of homeless young people increased by 85 percent
from 2009 to 2015.108 Only Finland has been able to reduce the number of homeless.
European member states may attempt to model Finnish housing programme, including
permanent, affordable housing and a Housing First programme, wherein the homeless are
given stable housing to end - not manage - homelessness.109 Furthermore, the European
Commission has devised strategies for member states, including homelessness prevention, re-
housing, and data collection shared across the Union. However, many member states lack the
institutional capacity to implement such plans, such as in the case of Romania, where as
recent as the 1980s, homelessness was regarded as a “personal deficiency” and not the
outcome of socio-economic or other problems.110 Thus, the plans of the European
Commission face hurdles in its application.
Points a Resolution Should Address
1. How will intra-state conflict and climate change affect homelessness and slum
housing in the future?
2. How can member states uphold ethical standards when upgrading slums?
3. What other factors – gender, race, disenfranchised groups or minorities – play a role?
How and in what ways should these be considered when proposing solutions to
homelessness and improving conditions in slums?
103 ibid. 104 Foster, D. (2017). Homelessness at crisis point in all EU countries – except Finland. The Guardian [Online].
Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2017/mar/21/homelessness-housing-problems-
crisis-point-all-eu-countries-except-finland [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 105 ibid. 106 ibid. 107 Kelly, L. (2017). Alarming Trend Shows Homelessness Crisis across Europe • INSP [Online]. Available at:
https://insp.ngo/alarming-trend-shows-homelessness-crisis-across-europe/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 108 ibid. 109 Foster, D. (2017). Homelessness at crisis point in all EU countries – except Finland. The Guardian [Online].
Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2017/mar/21/homelessness-housing-problems-
crisis-point-all-eu-countries-except-finland [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 110 Briciu, C. (2014). Homelessness in Romania – Challenges for Research and Policy. Vol. 5.
29
4. What are long-term and immediate, short-term solutions to homeless and slums? Try
to consider health risks and exposure to weather and natural disasters.
Further Reading
1. The UN Habitat website has many resources specific to homelessness and slums:
https://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing-slum-upgrading/
2. The slum almanac provides greater detail on slum upgrading:
https://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/
3. For statistics on your delegation regarding homelessness and housing, refer to the UN
statistics division: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/sconcerns/housing/
30
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