table of contents - the geographic world · 2019. 1. 27. · june 2014 cie igcse geography (0460)...

TABLE OF CONTENTS 3

CHAPTER 1

Population Dynamics

4 CHAPTER 2

Settlement

6 CHAPTER 3

Plate Tectonics

7 CHAPTER 4

Landforms and Landscape Processes

13 CHAPTER 5

Weather, Climate & Natural Vegetation

15 CHAPTER 6

Inter-relationships between natural environment and

human activities

15 CHAPTER 7

Development

16 CHAPTER 8

Agricultural Systems

17 CHAPTER 9

Industrial Systems

17 CHAPTER 10

Leisure Activities and Tourism

June 2014 CIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY (0460) Zubair Junjunia

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18 CHAPTER 11

Energy and Water Resources

19 CHAPTER 12

Environmental Risks & Benefits:

Resource Conservation & Management

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POPULATION DYNAMICS REASONS FOR POPULATION EXPLOSION

Improved medical care – vaccinations, hospitals, doctors, new drugs and scientific inventions

Improved sanitation and water supply

Improvements in food production (quality & quantity)

Improved transport – moving food, doctors etc.

Decrease in child mortality

MAIN COMPONENTS INFLUENCING POPULATION GROWTH Migration: movement of people (or animals) from one country or

region to another

Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for every 1000 people

Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 people

Fertility rate: The average number of children a female is expected to have in their lifetime.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POPULATION GROWTH AND

RESOURCES Population growth is related to the amount of resources available for

example water, wood and minerals

Carrying Capacity: number of people the environment can support without there being negative effects to the population.

Optimum Population: amount of people that a region/country can ecologically support, usually less than carrying capacity.

Under-population: when country has declined too much that it can’t support its economic system.

Overpopulation: too much population of an area: overcrowding, depletion of resources.

Population Density: number of people living in a given area (km2)

Population Distribution: how a population is spread out around a country or an area

HIV/AIDS Origins o HIV-1 – arose in Central Africa o HIV-2 – arose in West Africa

HIV mostly occurs in women. When women give birth, they infect the child as well resulting in low death rate for infants.

Death rate of mothers results in a higher orphan generation. (Year 2000 – 600 000 orphans). Due to the countries being poor, there is a lack in state welfare, resulting in poverty and lack of education.

POPULATION PYRAMID GENERAL FORMATS Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age and sex

structure of the country.

Stage 1: high birth rate; high death rates; short life expectancy; less

dependency (since there are few old people and children have to work anyway)

Stage 2: high birth rate; fall in death rate; slightly longer life expectancy; more dependency as there are more elderly

Stage 3: declining birth rate; declining death rate; longer life expectancy; more dependency

Stage 4: low birth rate; low death rate; highest dependency ratio; longest life expectancy

HIGH DEATH RATES IN LEDCS Poor health care/few hospitals/doctors/nurses/clinics

Poor sanitation/poor hygiene/lack of toilets/dirty places

Poor access to safe/clean water/water borne diseases

Limited food supplies/malnutrition/starvation

HIV/AIDS

Natural disasters/drought/flood

Lack of vaccinations/medicines/cannot cure diseases

Lack of education about healthy lifestyles e.g. smoking/diet

Lack of provision for elderly e.g. pensions/old people’s homes

LOW BIRTH RATES IN MEDCS Availability of contraception/family planning/abortions

Educated in contraception/family planning

Able to afford contraception/family planning/abortions

Traditionally small families

Expense of bringing up children

Many women have careers/women are educated;

Availability of pensions

Low infant mortality rate

Lack of religious beliefs/don’t object to contraception

PROBLEMS OF Overpopulation

Unemployment

Shortage of hospitals/schools

Shortage of housing

Congestion

Inflation (excess demand)

Shortage of water & electricity

Nosie, air & water pollution

Underpopulation

Shortage of workers

Less paying taxes

Schools, hospitals & transport routes close; few customers

Less innovation/development

Hard to defend

Have to attract migrants

DEMOGRAPHIC MODEL

𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =𝑁𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒× 100

FACTORS INFLUENCING DENSITY OF POPULATION Causes of Sparse Population

Mountainous area

Very hot or very cold area

A heavily forested area

Areas that flood a lot No jobs

Poor supply of electricity, gas and water

Poor communications

Shortage of natural resources

No schools or hospitals

Regular natural disasters

Causes of Dense Population

Coastal areas

Flat relief; easy to build on

Close to a supply of water

Areas with natural resources

Fertile agricultural land

Developed transport links

Plenty of available jobs

Available electricity and water

Good communications

Good quality schools/hospitals


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MIGRATION Migration: movement of people from one area to another

Causes of Voluntary Migration

Find a job, or a better paid job

Pioneers developing new areas

Trade & economic expansion

Territorial expansion

Better climate

Social amenities

Be with friends/family

Causes of Forced Migration

Avoid religious/political persecution

Avoid war

Slavery/prisoner of war

Racial discrimination

Famine

Natural disasters

Overpopulation

Internal migration is within a country e.g. rural/urban, regional

External or international is between countries e.g. Negro slaves to America (forced) or Mexicans into the US (voluntary)

Emigrant: A person who leaves a country to migrate to another.

Immigrant: A migrant arriving in a new country.

Advantages Disadvantages

Losing Country

Reduces pressure on resources

Decline in birth rate

Migrants bring back new skills

Money is sent back

Loss of people in working age

Loss of educated/skilled people

Division of families

Left with elderly population

Gaining Country

Overcomes labor shortage

Dirty unskilled jobs done

Will work long hours for low salary

Cultural advantages and links

Pressure on jobs

Low quality & overcrowded housing

Racism

Language problems

Less healthy

Less religious amenities for immigrants

REFUGEES AND IDPS Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave their home and

their country. This might be because of a natural disaster, war, religious or political persecution.

Persecution: When someone is attacked for what they believe in e.g. their religion or political belief.

Internally displaced person (IDP): When someone has been forced to leave their home but not their country.

Asylum Seekers: Someone who is trying to get refuge (residency) in a foreign country because their life is in danger in their home country, usually because of their political or religious beliefs.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS OF RURAL SETTLEMENTS

An isolated, building or a group of two or three buildings, separated from the next by 2 or 3 km.

Buildings are strung along a line of communication, for example a main road, a river valley, or canal

Buildings are grouped together, initially for defense, or a common resource.

SITE AND SITUATION Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement is

located – the actual piece of land

Situation: describes settlement in relation to other settlements and physical features around it – this determines whether or not the situation will grow into a large city or remain a small town or village

PHYSICAL FACTORS Wet point sites: these have a good water supply

Dry point sites: these are away from the risk of flooding

Building materials: availability of things like stone, wood, clay etc.

Defensive sites: within a river meander or on a hill with steep sided and commanding views

Fuel supply: for heating and cooking

Food supplies: land suitable for rearing animals and growing crops

Nodal points: where routes converge

Bridging point: may originally have been at a ford in the river or where river was shallow enough to build a bridge

Aspect: settlements often found on sunny side of a deep valley

Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain.

FUNCTIONS Rural Areas: tend to have a lot less functions than urban areas.

The main purpose of settlements in rural areas is normally agriculture and possibly tourism. This is because rural areas have less people, poorer transport, poorer communication, less technology and the land is better used for other purposes.

Urban Areas: tend to have a lot more functions ranging from shopping functions, to educational functions, to transport functions, to administrative functions and residential functions. The bigger the urban area, the more functions that it normally has.

Urban Sprawl: The spread or growth of an urban area into the rural-urban fringe

HIERARCHY

Determining order of importance: o The population size o The range and number of services o The sphere of influence

Sphere of Influence: The distance or area people travel from to access a service.

Services: Facilities that are offered to people e.g. supermarket. Services have a threshold population, which helps explain why bigger settlements have more services.

Range: This usually refers to the number of different services e.g. a school, a post office, etc.


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Threshold Population: The minimum amount of people required for a service to be offered and remain open.

High Order Goods (Comparison): Goods that people buy less frequently. They tend to be more expensive and people will normally compare quality and price before purchasing e.g. a car

Low Order Goods (Convenience): Goods that people buy every day. They don't usually cost much money and people would not normally travel far to buy them e.g. bread and milk.

CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT (CBD) The CBD: o Centre point of the city and has highest land prices o Most accessible point in the city o High-rise buildings and skyscrapers

Functions: retail, entertainment, financial services and other professional services

Land uses: o Leisure and recreation - may include open land o Residential - High/multi-storey buildings. o Transport - road and rail networks, stations and airports o Business and commerce - offices, shops and banks o Industry - factories, warehouses and small production centers

The CBD is located in the center because it is: o A central location for road/railways to converge o The most accessible location for workers o Accessible to most people for shops and businesses

Problems that CDB face: congestion, pollution and lack of space

RESIDENTIAL AREAS Old inner city area (a.k.a. twilight zone): o Typically found next to CBD o Has mainly terraced houses in a grid like pattern. o Originally built to house factory workers who worked in inner

city factories (now closed down).

Suburbia: o Urban sprawl and owning cars led to construction of well-

planned and spacious houses. o Usually larger than inner city terraces and most have a garden. o Typically, detached or semidetached o Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs (dead-end) and wide

avenues. o Land prices cheaper than in CBD and inner city, although

demand can make some areas expensive.

Outer city estate: o Located on the fringes of cities with varied types of housing o people relocated here when inner city was being redeveloped

The rural urban fringe: o This is found at the edge of a town or city o Mixture of land uses e.g. housing, golf courses, allotments,

business parks and airports.

INDUSTRIAL AREAS Factories were built: o As close as possible to the CBD but with enough space o Next to canals and railways to transport materials, o Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste disposal o Next to land where lots of workers could live.

FUNCTIONS AND SERVICES IN A VILLAGE Villages - low order services, services in towns will be higher order

Mainly/entirely convenience goods, whilst towns will offer specialist/comparison

Examples of village services (e.g. post office, church/mosque)

Services which require small threshold population;

Services which have small sphere of influence

URBAN PATTERNS IN LEDCS Model of a typical LEDC city:

Both MEDC and LEDC cities have a CBD - often oldest part of city.

In LEDCs, poorest housing is found on the edge of the city, in contrast to MEDC cities

Areas of poor quality housing found on the edge of cities in LEDCs are called squatter settlements or shanty towns

Favelas: illegal settlements created due to massive influx of people migrating into urban areas

LAND USE MODELS Burgess (concentric)

Based on idea that land values

are highest in the center

Because competition is high in central parts of the settlement

Limitations o Model quite old &

developed before mass car ownership.

o New working/housing trend o Every city is different

Hoyt (sector)

Based on circles in Burgess

model, but adds sectors of similar land uses in parts of the city.

Some zones, e.g. industry zone, radiate out from the CBD, probably following the line of a main road or a railway.

PROBLEMS OF URBAN GROWTH For People

Overcrowded

Unable to obtain jobs/low pay

Pressure on schools/hospitals

Increased crime rates

Difficulties of waste/litter

Traffic congestion

Noise pollution

Lack of sanitation

Poor quality of life

Food shortage

For Environment

Loss of vegetation

Loss of habitats

Impacts on food chains

Pollution of rivers

Death of fish/other species

Pollution of ground water

Air/atmospheric pollution

Rivers dry up

URBAN RENEWAL

Reasons for it

Older properties fallen into disrepair/high cost of repair;

Use land more intensively;

demand for apartments

Why people want keep old houses and improve them

Older houses retain culture

Old houses often large/well constructed;

People can’t afford to move;


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Building of houses with better amenities/or examples;

New road developments;

New leisure/shopping centres;

Community spirit;

Cheaper option for authority;

To restrict outward expansion

CONTROLLING URBAN GROWTH Greenbelts: area of land around urban areas that is protected from

development. Stops greenfield sites being built on and alternative like brownfield sites being used.

Urban Wedges: urban growth allowed to take place in wedges ensuring some green areas protected throughout city

Brownfield sited: increasing building on brownfield sites allows less pressure to be put on rural areas

Housing density: increasing housing density means less land will be destroyed

GREENFIELD SITES Advantages

Land never used – not polluted

Often near rural-urban fringe so good transport links

Less congestion

Room to expand

Disadvantages

Conflicts with other land users

Many sites are now protected by the government

Public protests for building on greenfield site

BROWNFIELD SITES Advantages

Often cheap to buy

Near the CBD

Closer to transport routes

Disadvantages

Site polluted – expensive to clean up

No room to expand

May not be in desirable shape or location

PLATE TECTONICS TECTONIC PLATES

Oceanic crust: younger, heavier, can sink and is constantly being destroyed and replaced

Continental crust: older, lighter, cannot sink and is permanent

Plate movement is caused by convection currents in the mantle

PLATE BOUNDARIES Diagram Description

Collision: occur when two continental plates move towards each other.

Example: Indo-Australian and the Eurasian Plate

Constructive: occur when two plates move away from each other.

Example: North American and Eurasian Plate

Conservative: occur when two plates slide past each other.

Example: North American Plate and the Pacific Plate

Destructive: occur when oceanic plate is subducted by a continental plate.

Example: Pacific Plate and the Eurasian Plate

DISTRIBUTION Plate boundary Volcanoes? Earthquakes? Fold mountains?

Constructive Gentle Gentle No

Destructive Violent Violent Yes

Collision None Violent Yes

Conservative None Violent No

Earthquake: o Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean o Extend down entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean o Stretch across southern Europe and Asia

Volcanoes: o Encircle the whole of the Pacific Ocean o Extend down the entire length of the mid-Atlantic Ocean o Some in southern Europe, the Caribbean and east Africa

FOLD MOUNTAINS At a destructive plate margin, the oceanic plate is subducted whilst

the continental plate is crumpled upwards to form a mountain range

At collision margins, both plates forced upwards in a series of folds

Two types of fold mountains o Young: 10 to 15 million years of age e.g. Rockies and Himalayas o Old: Over 200 million years of age e.g. Uralas and Appalachians

Created by uplift and folding of tectonic plates as they move towards each other and collide

Movement of two plates forces sedimentary rocks upwards into a series of folds

VOLCANOES A vent in the earth's surface where magma, gas or ash escapes

onto the earth's surface or into the atmosphere.

Causes: o At constructive margin: plates move away from each other;

magma rises to fill the gap; o At destructive margin: oceanic crust melts from friction and

heat from mantle; newly formed magma is lighter so it rises to surface


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Volcanic plug: lava shoots up, falls down into the vent and solidifies

Explosive eruptions can produce mud flows called lahars

Active Volcano: A volcano that has erupted recently.

Dormant Volcano: A volcano that has not erupted in recent history but may erupt again in the future.

Extinct Volcano: A volcano that is unlikely to ever erupt again, because no magma is being produced under it.

Gentle slopes, slow

flowing lava Steep slopes, violent

eruption Mix of cone and shield, eruption

varies in strength, made of layers of ash

and lava (unstable)

Advantages

Tourist attraction: income and employment

Creates fertile soil: good agricultural land to grow crops

Geothermal heating: o Natural renewable

resource o Heating (hot water) o Geyser and mud baths

Disadvantages

Destruction of land, property, jobs, homes, transport

Rebuilding costs

Unemployment

Fires breakout

Diseases from poor sanitation

Gas from eruption suffocates

Pyroclastic flow

Prediction

Tremors within volcano

Ground temperatures rises, detect by heat-seeking cameras

Volcano swells and bulges

Volcano emits gas and steam

Animal behavior changes

Preparation

Set up warning system

Create evacuation plan

Train emergency services

Organize post-eruption plan

Emergency food supply

LAHARS Causes:

Melting snows

Heavy rainfall/water content of magma

Mix with ash

Flow down steep slopes/gravity

Triggered by earthquakes

Effect:

Loss of life

Destroy buildings/homes

Destroy crops/livestock

Disrupt communications

Bring down power lines/damage water pipes

Occur without warning/at great speed

EARTHQUAKE A series of vibrations or movements in the earth's crust

Caused when two plates ‘stick’; pressure builds up; one plate jerks forward sending shock waves to the surface

Features

Focus: point of earthquake

Epicenter: point directly above the focus, on the ground

Seismic waves

Shaking ground

Subduction zone: occurs at destructive margin, one plate goes under the other

Effects

Large number of deaths

Fires breaking out

Water pipes burst

Water contamination, diseases

Corpses: human & animal

Accessibility difficult

Building damaged/destroyed

Tsunami can follow

Reconstruction costs

Prediction

Measure earth tremors, pressure, and release of gas

Use maps and facts to find pattern in time/location

Unusual animal behavior

Preparation

Build earthquake-proof buildings and roads

Train emergency services

Set up warning system

Create evacuation plan

Emergency food supply

Practice drills

Earthquake-Proof Buildings

Computer-controlled weights on roof to reduce movement

Fire-resistant building material

No bricks or reinforced concrete block

Rubber shock-absorbers between foundations and superstructure

Foundation sunk deep into bedrock avoiding clay

Roads to provide quick access by ambulances and fire engines

Open areas where people can assemble if evacuated

Automatic shutters come down over the windows

Interlocking steel frames which can sway during earth movements

LANDFORMS AND LANDSCAPE PROCESSES WEATHERING

Weathering is disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ.

PHYSICAL WEATHERING Physical weathering: weathering where there is no change in the

chemical composition of the rock, due to physical processes.

Freeze-thaw: occurs where there are cracked rocks and temperatures fluctuate around freezing point, repeated freezing and thawing causes cracks to widen.

Exfoliation: occurs in very warm climates where there are

exposed, non-vegetated rocks. The outer layers heat up and cool down faster than the inner layers causing stresses in the rock; the outer layer peels off.

Shock waves


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BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING Biological weathering: roots widen weaknesses in the rock until

part of the rock detaches

CHEMICAL WEATHERING Chemical weathering: occurs in warm, moist climates

Carbonation: Carbon dioxide in air reacts with rainwater and forms carbonic acid/acid rain. This reacts with calcium carbonate or chalk forming calcium bicarbonate or calcium hydrogen carbonate which is soluble in water. this widens/ deepen cracks

Oxidation: If rock contains iron, it is oxidized in the presence of water forming iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) or rust. This gives the rock a reddish brown colour. The rock is weakened & eventually crumbles away.

WEATHERING IN HUMID TROPICAL AREAS Tropical areas tend to experience more weathering because of:

Large amounts of rainfall increasing chemical weathering

Large amounts of vegetation increasing biological weathering

They are nearer to the equator so there are high temperatures and faster rates of chemical reaction

Some areas (high areas and desert areas) have higher diurnal temperature range.

RIVER TERMINOLOGY Drainage basin: the area of land drained by a river.

Watershed: the edge of highland surrounding a drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two drainage basins.

Source: the beginning or start of a river.

Confluence: the point at which two rivers or streams join.

Tributary: a stream/smaller river which joins a larger stream or river.

Mouth: point where river comes to end, usually when entering sea

RIVER PROCESSES

Drainage basins act as a system with: o Inputs: precipitation o Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff, throughflow

& groundwater flow o Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture storage &

groundwater storage o Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or evapotranspiration

HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

CHANGES DOWN THE RIVER Long Profile:

Cross Profile:

Upper

Middle

Lower

Course Long Profile Cross Profile

Upper Steeply sloping towards the lower sections of the river.

Steep sided v-shaped valley. Thin river channel, deep in places.

Middle Shallow slopes towards the mouth of the river.

V-shaped valley remains with a wider valley floor and the river begins to meander across it. The river channel begins to widen and become deeper.

Lower Almost at sea level, very gently sloping towards its mouth.

Wide, shallow valley, with large flood plains and meanders. The river channel is wide, deep and smooth sided.

Bed: the bottom of the river channel.

Bank: The sides of the river channel. A river has two banks.

Wetted perimeter: length of bed and banks in contact with river.

Channel: The route course (between bed and banks) that a river flows. The flow of the river is often described as channel flow.

Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the middle of the river channel, where there is least friction.


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TRANSPORTATION Traction: rolling stones along the bed

Saltation: small particles bounce along bed in a leapfrog motion

Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the water flow

Solution: minerals dissolve in the water

EROSION Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and break into

smaller pieces (occurs at higher part of river)

Hydraulic action: the sheer force of the river dislodges particles from its banks and bed

Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the river banks and bed like sand-paper; occurs at low part of river (smaller particles)

Solution: acids in river dissolve rocks (occurs at any part of river)

DEPOSITION When a river lacks the energy to carry its load; it begins with the

heaviest particles; happens when there is less water or where the current slows down.

Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small particles are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting.

BRADSHAW MODEL

LANDFORMS V-shaped valley: o Valley is narrow with a

narrow, shallow river channel

o Valleys have steep sides o Channel has a steep

gradient o Water is mainly slow

flowing as most of the rivers energy is used to overcome the friction of the river bed & obstructions

o Load is mainly large, angular and rough

Interlocking spurs: In the upper valley a river is in the mountains. Water takes the easiest path downhill so twists & turns around the high land (spurs) forming interlocking spurs.

Waterfalls: o They occur because the river flows over hard rock which

erodes slowly. o Beneath is softer rock which is eroded faster to form a “step”. o The force of the water erodes the bottom of the waterfall to

form a plunge pool. o The hard rock gets undercut as the soft rock erodes so that it

eventually collapses.

Rapids: They form also where the river passes over hard rock, but

either the band of rock is not very deep or there are a series of shallow rock bands.

Potholes: Can be found in the upper & middle valley where a river flows over solid rock.

Meanders: o Wide sweeping bends found in

the lower part of the river. o They are formed by a

combination of lateral erosion & deposition.

Ox-bow Lakes: o Form when the neck of the meander becomes very narrow. o During high flow or floods the river cuts through the neck &

straightens its course. o Deposition occurs on the bank of the river o The cut-off meander is an ox-bow lake.


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Deltas: o Deltas occur where a river that carries a large amount of

sediment meets a lake or the sea. o This meeting causes the river to lose energy and drop the

sediment it is carrying. o Deltas form where river mouths become choked with

sediment, causing the main river channel to split into hundreds of smaller channels or distributaries.

Levées: when a river floods, the coarsest material is deposited

first, on the edges of the river, forming a natural embankment called a levée.

Flood plain: o Area of alluvial deposits found beside the river in its lower

course. o As meanders move slowly down the course of the river they

erode away the valley to create a wide valley floor, and they deposit layers of alluvial material on the slip off slopes building up into a large flood plain

CAUSES OF RIVER FLOODING Steep-sided channel: a river channel surrounded by steep slopes

causes fast surface run-off.

Lack of vegetation or woodland: surface run-off will be high as trees and plants won’t intercept precipitation.

Drainage basin, consisting of mainly impermeable rock: water cannot percolate through rock layer, and will runoff surface

Drainage basin in an urban area: these consist largely of impermeable concrete, which encourages overland flow.

Deforestation, overgrazing and overcultivation, and population pressures cause soil erosion causes sediment to go into rivers decreasing the cross-sectional area

FLOOD MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES Dams: o Often built along the course of a river in order to control the

amount of discharge. o Water is held back by the dam in a reservoir and released in a

controlled way which controls flooding. o Building dams is expensive, can affect farmers and cause

erosion downstream

River engineering: o The river channel may be widened or deepened allowing it to

carry more water. o A river channel may be straightened so that water can travel

faster along the course. o The channel course of the river can also be altered, diverting

floodwaters away from settlements. o Altering the river channel may lead to a greater risk of flooding

downstream, as the water is carried there faster.

Afforestation: o Trees planted near to the river meaning greater interception of

rainwater and lower river discharge. o This is a relatively low cost option, which enhances the

environmental quality of the drainage basin.

Managed flooding: The river is allowed to flood naturally in places, to prevent flooding in other areas

Planning: o Local authorities and national government introduce policies

to control urban development close to or on floodplain reducing chance of flooding and risk of damage to property.

o However, enforcing planning regulations and controls may be harder in LEDCs

FLOOD HYDROGRAPH

The greater the lag time, the less chance there is of a flood

A rise in discharge on the graph is called the rising limb

The falling limb shows a decrease in discharge.

TYPES OF WAVES Constructive

Low wave height & usually beach gradient is gentle.

Waves spill forward gently creating a strong swash.

Water drains away through beach material so backwash is weak.

These waves deposit material & build up beaches.

Destructive

High wave height & the beach tends to be steep.

Wave plunges forward onto beach so swash is weak, but rotation of water causes a strong backwash.

These waves tend to erode beaches.


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Constructive:

Destrictive:

COMPONENTS OF A WAVE Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach.

Backwash: when the water drains away back into the oncoming wave.

The size of waves depends upon three factors: o The strength of the wind. o The length of time the wind has been blowing. o The fetch or distance over which the wind can blow.

METHODS OF EROSIION Corrasion: large waves hurl beach material at the cliff

Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff

Attrition: waves cause stones to collide and disintegrate

Hydraulic action: force of waves compresses air in the cliffs

LONGSHORE DRIFT When waves approach the coast at an angle the swash moves up

the beach at an angle.

The backwash, however, drains straight back down the beach.

This will gradually move sand/stones along the beach in a zig-zag motion.

CLIFF AND WAVE-CUT PLATFORM Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff so a wave-cut

notch is formed.

The cliff is undercut & collapses.

Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff producing a platform of flat rock at the cliff foot extending out to sea.

CAVES, ARCHES AND STACKS A band of weaker rock extends through a headland.

More erosion occurs producing caves on both sides of headland

Continued erosion produces an arch through the headland.

Eventually the roof is weakened & collapses forming a stack

BEACHES In bays the waves diverge outwards.

The wave energy is dissipated creating a low energy environment hence deposition to form beaches.

BAYS AND HEADLANDS • Bays are formed due to softer rock

getting eroded easily.

• Headlands are usually formed since they are made of resistant rock and so is eroded more difficultly.

SPITS AND SALT MARSHES Spits: o Spits form when the coastline changes direction. Longshore

drift continues to carry material in the same direction. o Sand & shingle is built up to form the spit. o End of spit curves due to wave refraction or secondary winds.

Salt marsh: o Mud is deposited by the tides. The beach builds up above sea

level forming mudflats. o Plants start to grow in mud & trap more sediment, forming a

salt marsh.

Bars: A spit that connects two headlands or runs across the face of a small cove (bay)


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SAND DUNES Sand dunes form behind wide sandy beaches.

Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the high-water mark & carry it landward by saltation.

If they encounter an obstacle the wind loses energy & deposits sand in the lee of the obstacle.

Eventually a dune is formed. Plants then grow on it which stabilize it & trap more sand.

CORAL REEF Conditions required for growth of coral reef: o Warm water/seas; temperatures above 20°C o Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep o Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light o Plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted o Plentiful supply of plankton o Lack of strong currents

Fringing reef

Coral reefs grow in the shallow water of the coast in tropical areas

Barrier reef

Due to plate tectonics island starts to sink

Reef grows to keep up with the sinking, but a lagoon develops between reef & land

Coral atoll

These form around islands that are sinking.

Coral growth keeps up with this & island keeps sinking

Eventually island sinks below sea level forming a ring of coral with a lagoon in the centre.

MANGROVE SWAMPS Trees and shrubs that grow in saline coastal habitats

Conditions for mangrove swamps to grow:

o Topical or subtropical environment

o Shore is soft and muddy – easy to take root

Shoreline must be undisturbed for them to prosper

Diagram showing optimal conditions for their growth:

Problems faced by mangrove swamps and their solutions:

Problem

Emersion due to overflow of water

Saline environment

Lack of oxygen

Solution

Plants adapt to water environment

Plants have waxy covering prevents entry of salt

Long roots take in air through pores when possibly

Benefits and drawbacks of mangrove swamps:

Benefits: o Provide habitat and protection many aquatic life o Important area for fishing industry o Slows water flow allowing for fertile deposits o Protects coast from erosion – dissipates wave energy o Advance outwards – leaves fertile land for settlements o Mangrove wood collected for firewood o Work like a natural water cleaning system

Drawbacks: o Noxious and impenetrable o Full of disease

Interdependence between Coral Reefs and Mangrove Swamps:

COASTAL DEFENCES Hard Engineering

Rip-rap: giant boulders placed at the foot of cliffs, designed to absorb waves energy and protect cliffs behind. Can be effective, but does look ugly, reduces access to beach and can be expensive

Gabion: uses large boulders placed in cages which means can be installed quickly and is fairly effective. However, it also looks ugly, reduces access and can be expensive.

Groynes: designed to stop longshore drift transporting away beach material. Can be effective in maintaining a beach, but need replacing regularly, look ugly and can cause problems down coast.

Sea wall: made out of concrete and are aimed to absorb waves energy. Sometimes curved to direct waves energy back out to sea. Very effective, but are expensive, ugly and reduce access


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Breakwater: are built out into the sea and are a coats first line of defence. Instead of breaking on coast, waves, break on breakwater. Often found around the mouths of rivers and ports. They are expensive and can disrupt shipping and animals.

Revetments: similar to sea walls, but often built out of wood. Found at the foot of cliffs and are designed at absorb the waves energy. Need replacing regularly & don’t protect against storms

Soft Engineering

Dune Stabalisation: planting vegetation on berm of beach or on dunes, making them more stable (roots) and reducing the moisture content (root uptake)

Cliff Regrading: make cliffs less steep; reducing angle reduces undercutting and risk of cliff collapsing

Beach Nourishment: adding more sand to the beach. Beaches are natural defences, so by making them bigger, you are creating a natural defence.

Beach Drainage: removing some of the excess water reduces stress on the cliff.

Managed Retreat: allowing sea to take back land. Low value land is often chosen to be flooded by sea.

WEATHER, CLIMATE & NATURAL VEGETATION WEATHER INSTRUMENTS

Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that they collect the same amount of water & so comparisons can be made

Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing: o Funnel (A) to collect the water. o Container to collect water which may

be graduated. It is emptied once every 24hrs at the same time.

o Rain is measured in millimeters. o Sunk into ground, but not level so

splashes or surface water can’t get in Max-min thermometer: record max. & min. temp. over 24hr period

Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains alcohol

As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal index and when it cools, mercury contracts and index is left in place at highest temp.

As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with it, but as alcohol expands, it flows past index, leaving it in place at lowest temp.

• Both indexes read once every 24hrs from bottom of index. Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of sunshine at a given location

Burns a timeline

Traces sun shine not the hours of daylight

The glass ball focus the light

This burns a line onto the card

Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer):

Dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer and it measures actual air temperature

Wet bulb is same but bulb is covered with a fine cloth which is connected to a reservoir of water.

Water evaporates from the cloth & cools the temperature so it reads a few degrees lower than air temp.

Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read Barometer: Measure air pressure

An aneroid barometer has a corrugated chamber containing a vacuum

As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts & expands.

Levers conduct this movement to a spindle which moves the pointer on the dial which records the air pressure in mm of mercury.

Anemometer: Measures wind speed.

Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are blown around by the wind the revolutions are counted & converted into m/s, km/h or knots

Wind vane: Records wind direction

The fletching is blown by the wind so that the arrow head points into the wind.

Mounted on a high pole. Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers

Painted white to reflect the sun with a double lid for insulation.

Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted downwards to prevent light getting in.

Legs 1m long to prevent heating from ground.

On short grass so it’s standardized i.e. same amount of reflectivity.

TYPES OF CLOUDS


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Cirrus: found high in the atmosphere, common throughout the world, thin and wispy in appearance and move fairly quickly

Stratus: low level, usually grey in colour, move fast and can produce light rain and snow.

Cumulonimbus: large clouds up to 10km high and across, produce rain, thunder and lightening, usually found in spring and summer

Cumulus: fairly low clouds, look like lumps of cotton wool, can produce light rain and each individual clouds has a short life cycle

WEATHER SYMBOLS Cloud cover: measured in eighths. Hold sheet directly above your

head & estimate the cloud cover directly above you.

Warm and cold front symbols:

TYPES OF RAINFALL Relief Rain

Warm moist air from the sea

Forced to rise over mountain/hill

Cools as it rises

Condensation

Clouds form

Rain

E.g. West of UK

Frontal Rain

Warm airmass meets colder air mass

Warm air mass rises over colder

Condensation

Clouds form

Rain

E.g. All of UK in Winter

Convectional Rain

Sun heats ground which heats air

Warm air rises

Cools as it rises

Condensation

Clouds form

Rain

E.g. South of UK

Weather: o The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere, including

changes in temperature, rainfall and humidity o This can vary from day to day and from place to place

Climate: o This is the average conditions over a longer period of time,

usually a few years

CLIMATE Tropical Rainforest Tropical Desert

Location

Around equator, between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn =

‘tropics’

Between 5° and 30° north and south of

the equator

Mean temp. of hottest

month ≈25°C ≈30°C

Mean temp. of coldest

month ≈25°C >18°C

Annual temp. range

<5°C <5°C

Rainfall amount

>2000mm <250mm

Rainfall distribution

Same throughout year Irregular

Wind Low Strong

Cloud Heavy Almost none

Humidity High Low

Pressure Low High

FACTORS AFFFECTING TEMPERATURE Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature

Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters and cooler summers

Prevailing winds: seasonal difference in heating between land and sea affects temperature of prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in temperature

Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter temperatures in coastal areas; cold currents cool them down in summer

Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per 100m)

Pressure Systems:

Depression Anticyclone

Air movement Upwards Downwards

Air pressure Low High

Wind direction

Anticlockwise towards the centre

Clockwise away from the cente

Isobars Close together Far apart

Associated weather

Short sunny spells; longer periods of wind

cloud and rain

Dry; usually sunny; light winds; nights may

be cold

Frequency All year – mostly in summer and winter

Ocassionaly in winter

ECOSYSTEM: TROPICAL RAINFOREST Vegetation grows in distinct layers.

Emergent layer: tall trees up to 50m. Few lower branches. Grow above others to get full sunlight.

Main canopy: trees 30-40m forming a continuous canopy. Few lower branches.

Under canopy: trees 20m high (& young trees) – less dense can survive in less sunlight.

Shrub layer: low shrubs & saplings. Shade plants. Forest floor: little grows except fungi – too little light.

Since the trees grow tall, have large buttress roots for support

Lianas use large trees as a support in order to reach the sunlight.

Epiphytes grow on trees to get light & have hanging roots that collect rainwater.

Leaves shed water easily having drip tips & “channels” to direct the water.


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DEFORESTATION OF TROPICAL RAINFORESTS Reasons for deforestation: o Farming: demand for food increases with population - need to

clear more usable ground o Hydro-Electric Power: land may need to be removed to build

damn or floodable area o Mining: demand for resources increase – rainforests hold

plenty o Road building: increased congestion requires new roads –

rainforest in the way o Settlements: population increase causes cities to become

bigger requiring more land o Timber: self-explanatory

Problems due to deforestation: o Flooding: less interception by vegetation thus more flash

floods o Landslides: removal of vegetation causes soil to become

unstable o Biodiversity Loss: deforestation kills off unknown species, since

they will have no home o Less Photosynthesis: causes imbalance of oxygen and carbon

dioxide in atmosphere o Silting: rivers, seas and oceans become more difficult to

navigate due to reduced depth o Desertification: soil loses components vital to survival of plants

– become hard o Indigenous: these people lose their homes, more importantly

impact their society o Less Rainfall: Less interception = less transpiration = fewer

clouds = less rainfall

ECOSYSTEM: TROPICAL DESERT Plants such as cacti:

Have thick, waxy cuticles to reduce transpiration;

Fleshy stems to store water;

Leaves reduced to spines to reduce surface area for transpiration & prevent animals eating them & sunken stomata.

Shrubs have:

Small, waxy leaves & long tap roots to reach down to water table and/or shallow roots to collect any moisture before it evaporates.

Seeds can lie dormant for years. After rain they germinate quickly, flower & produce seeds within 2-3 weeks.

INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE NATURAL

ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES HAZARDS & OPPURTUNITIES

Environmental Hazards

Volcanic eruptions

Earthquakes

Tropical storms

Flooding

Drought

Environmental Oppurtunities

Renewavle energy sources: o Droughts = solar power o Volcanic land = geothermal

Medical research and genetic engineering of crops

Flooding = alluvium = fertile

Tourism = source of wealth

Tropical rainforests = wood

DEVELOPMENT Affluence: general level of prosperity enjoyed by population

Appropriate Aid: resources suited to basic conditions prevailing in receiving country

Development: progress in terms of economic growth, use of technology and human welfare

Development Gap: difference in standards of living between richest and poorest countries

Free Trade: trade between countries is not restricted by laws and formalities

Quality of Life: often used as an umbrella term taking into account GDP and human welfare

MAIN INDICATORS Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of total population

Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of total population

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): total value of goods and services produced annually

GDP per Capita: GDP per head of population

Human Welfare: condition of population i.e. diet, housing, healthcare, education, etc.

Infant Mortality: avg. number of deaths of infants under 1, per 1000 live births, per year

Life expectancy: average number of years a person might be expected to live

Intermediate Technology: simple, easily learned technology used in economic activities

Human Development Index (HDI): measures and compares international development

GLOBALIZATION Process in which the world is becoming increasingly

interconnected

Causes of globalization: o Improvements in transportation o Freedom of trade o Improvements of communications o Labour availability and skills


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IMPACTS OF GLOBALIZATION Positive impacts of globalization: o Economies of scale, cost per item reduced when operating on a

larger scale o TNCs helps countries; provide new jobs & skills for local people o TNCs bring money and foreign currency to local economies o Allows for sharing of ideas, experiences and lifestyles of people

and cultures o Increases awareness of events in far-away parts of the world

Negative impacts of globalization: o Globalisation operates mostly in interests of richest countries o No guarantees that wealth from inward investment will benefit

local community o Profits are sent back to the MEDC where the TNC is based o TNCS, with massive economies of scale, may drive local

companies out of business o If cheaper in another country, TNC might close down factory

making locals redundant o Absence of laws may allow TNCs to operate in LEDCs in ways

not allowed in MEDCs o Threat to the world's cultural diversity, such as the traditions

and languages o Industry may begin to thrive in LEDCs at expense of jobs in

MEDCs

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS Human Inputs

Physical Inputs

Process Outputs

Things that are built or

made by humans and

added on to a farm

Natural things that are found on a farm or added to a

farm

The events that take place on a

farm to turn inputs into

ouputs

Things that are produced on a famr that are

often sold

Labor/rent

Machinery

Building

Animal feed

Fertilizers

Pesticide

Market demand

Government controls

Seeds

Soil

Precipitation

Temp.

Length of Season

Alluvium

Floods

Relief

Drainage

Rearing

Shearing

Ploughing

Fertilizing

Weeding

Irrigating

Cultivating

Harvesting

Slaughtering

Planting

Profits

Meat products

Wool

Milk

Waste

Crops

Pollution

Erosion

CLASSIFICATION OF FARMING TYPES 1. Specialisation

Arable (crops)

Pastoral (animals)

Mixed (both)

2. Economic Status

Commercial (for profit)

Subsistence (to survive)

3. Intensity of Land Use

Extensive

Normally a larger farm

Few inputs per hectare

Few workers per hectare

Low yields per hectare

Intensive

Normally a smaller farm

High inputs per hectare

Lots of workers per hectare

High yields per hectare

4. Land tenure

Shifting & Nomadic (where farmers move from one

area to another)

Sedentary (farm location is permanent)

FARMER’S DECISION Successful Year

Buying more land

Buying better and newer equipment e.g. new tractor

Improving drainage/irrigation

Buying new varieties of seed, (GM crops)

New buildings/more farms

Bad Year

Sell some of your livestock

Sell some of your land

Diversify by opening a shop

Try and farm more intensively by buying more fertilisers and pesticides

FACTORS AFFECTING FARMING Temperature determines crops grown

Crops grow where there is an adequate growing season

There must be sufficient rainfall for crops to grow

Irrigation needed if insufficient rain

Cereal crops/vines need sunshine to ripen

Too much rainfall may flood crops/require drainage system

In areas with frost/long winter hardy animals may be kept

If it is windy wind breaks are needed etc.

Better/alluvial soil means arable farming otherwise pastoral

Flat relief means arable and hilly relief means pastoral

GREEN REVOLUTION The introduction of modern western style farming techniques in

LEDCs during the late 1960's and 1970's.

High Yield Varieties: o Developed to try and end food shortages by increasing yields. o Were first developed by cross pollinating different varieties o This is now being done through genetic modification.

Successes

HYV did increase food production and made countries more self-sufficient

Food prices began to fall making; affordable for poor

Shorter growing season, more crops could be grown

The yields were more reliable

Different crops were grown adding variety to local diet

There were surpluses so crops could be traded commercially

Farmers became wealthier

Failures

Required fertilisers & pesticides polluted water

The HYV were more prone to disease and drought

More water had to be diverted to growing crops

Many poorer farmers couldn’t afford to buy expensive HYV

Mechanisation led to unemployment

Many natural varieties lost

Countries & farmers became dependent on foreigners

MONOCULTURE Growing of only one type of crop

Cash crops: crops that are normally grown in large plantations for the purpose of selling and making a profit

Advantages

Become more efficient

Profitable

Can have high yields

Easily controllable

Low training required

Disadvantages

If demand falls, no profit

Less variety

Bad season, no profit

Labor becomes deskilled

Only source of income

ORGANIC CROPS AND FARMING Farming that uses natural varieties and natural farming

techniques. There is only very limited use of fertlisers.

Advantages

Longer to ripen; better flavour

Low fertilizer use; less run-off

Less chemicals to consumers

Higher prices when sold

Disadvantages

Crops are not uniform

May be susceptible to disease

Take longer to grow

May need more water


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GM CROPS AND FARMING Genetically modified crops are crops that have their genes altered

to improve quality and/or quantity

Advantages

Uniform in shape – easy to transport/ appeal consumers

Growing season shorter

Drought resistant – less water

Higher yields

Disadvantages

Natural species may die

Tastse often not as good

Lead to development of super weeds – stronger than GM

No one knows long term effect on humans

FAMINE When demand for food exceeds supply of food leading to

undernourishment. Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation.

Human Causes

Increasing population; supply cannot keep up with demand

Overgrazing reduces integrity of soil and can cause topsoil erosion and soil degradation.

Overcultivating causes soil degradation, using up and not giving nutrients recovery time

Deforestation of woodland, damages integrity of soil as well as its source of nutrients.

Farming and industrial pollution can both degrade land and reduce crop yields

Corruption of government

Physical Causes

Too hot or cool temperatures can kill crops and animals.

Shortage of rainfall kills most crops or require irrigation

Too much rainfall can flood & kill crops or wash away topsoil reducing soils fertility leading to low yield

Natural disasters can destroy large areas of agricultural land and kill or injure farmers.

If soil is infertile because the bedrock contains few minerals it can be hard to cultivate land and lead to low yields.

Effects:

Hunger

Susceptible to infectious diseases

Impair physical and mental development

Reduce labour productivity

INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS SECTORS

Primary industry: industry, such as farming, fishing, forestry and mining that extracts raw materials directly from the land or sea.

Secondary industry: an industry that processes or manufactures primary raw materials, assembles parts made by other industries or is part of the construction industry.

Tertiary industry: an occupation, such as health, education, transport and retailing, which provides a service to people

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURES An MEDC e.g. the UK

Low proportion in primary sector: o Mechanizations of jobs in primary o Primary resources exhausted o Resources are now imported.

Numbers falling in secondary sector: o Mechanization - as machines are

taking over jobs in factories.

Tertiary sector is main growth area: o Most work in hospitals, schools, offices & financial services o Greater demand for leisure services as people have more free

time and become wealthier. o More jobs become available in the tertiary sector.

An LEDC e.g. Ghana

Majority in primary sector: o Lack of machinery available in

farming, forestry and mining. o Farming very important because

most eat what they grow.

Few in secondary sector: o Lack of factories because machinery is too expensive o MNCS manufacture instead

Tertiary may be larger than secondary: o Most informal work is in the tertiary sector o Growth of jobs in tourism

An NIC e.g. Brazil

While Brazil’s economic base is developing, there are still a large number of people employed in primary industries such as farming.

There are a large proportion of people employed in tertiary industries.

One reason may be growth of Brazil as a tourist destination.

Also, there have been significant improvements in the provision of health care, education and transport.

THE INDUSTRIAL SYSTEM Input: resources which may be physical (natural) such as iron ore

or human (artificial) such as labour.

Processes: turning raw materials into usable things such as steelmaking and also turning usable things into other things for example assembling cars.

Outputs: profit or loss + waste materials

LOCATING AN INDUSTRY Physical Factors

Power/energy: the industry should be near the raw materials or a port/station where the materials come from

Natural routes: river valleys and flat land is good for transport

Site and land: flat land & enough space might be needed, cheap land

Human & Economic Factors

Labour: quantity (industry might need many people) and/or quality (very-skilled workers, close to a university)

Capital: (money)

Markets: size and location of market

Transport: cost increases when items are bulky (steel), fragile (glassware), heavy (steel) or perishable (fruit/veg.)

Government policies

Leisure facilities: countryside views / amenities

Hi-Tech Industries

High-tech industries are footloose as they do not need to be near raw materials so are located: o In a pleasant working environment near to large markets and

major transport routes. OR o Companies (especially foreign) may be tempted by the

government to locate in former industrial areas which often had higher levels of unemployment

LEISURE ACTIVITIES AND TOURISM Tourism: the occupation of providing information,

accommodation, transportation and other services to tourists.


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FACTORS THAT LEAD TO CHANGES IN TOURIST PATTERNS Transport and accessibility: access to various means of

transportation such as trains, cars, planes, ships etc.

Scenery: the landscape and visual appearance of a place.

Weather: depending on the type of vacation wanted, climate is important e.g. for a ski trip, a cold destination is necessary.

Accommodation: quality of hotels, camps, resorts, parks and their affordability.

Amenities: the various recreational, historical, leisure facilities and sites that are offered and can be accessed.

REASONS FOR INCREASE IN TOURISM Greater affluence: higher salary + holiday with pay

Greater mobility: increase in car ownership + more aircraft

Improved accessibility and transport facilities: o Better roads o Larger airports, online reservation, package holidays

More leisure time: longer vacations, shorter working hours, people work from home, more elderly

Changing lifestyles: changing fashions, earlier retirements

Change in recreational activities

Advertising of holiday destinations: TV and the Internet

Green tourism

ADVANTAGES OF TOURISM Encouraging tourism will give country a chance to improve and

increase its GDP per capita rate (overall income is increased.)

Brings in foreign money, culture, tradition; diversity

Provides jobs for the unemployed

Creates more business opportunities

Positive compliments from tourists will increase the publicity

To please the tourists, new infrastructure will have to be built such as roads, bridges, buildings etc.

Cultural festivals may become a tourist attraction

DISADVANTAGES OF TOURISM Increased congestion and pollution

Damage to physical landscape

Global brands may replace local businesses

Traditional culture lost

Inflation affecting locals

Seasonal unemployment

A shortage of services e.g. water supplies

Social/cultural problems

BUTLER’S PRODUCT CYCLE Exploration: newly discovered

tourist location that only receives a very small amount of tourists.

Involvement: area becomes better known; tourism is supported by local population and start to build basic tourist infrastructure.

Development: tourism becomes an important sector of economy. More investment from foreign tour firms. Infrastructure becomes developed.

Consolidation: Growth continues with resources diverted to tourism sector. Areas may change to the exclusive use of tourists, possibly alienating locals.

Stagnation: Increased opposition to tourism, tourist facilities may become tired and number of tourist arrival plateaus or declines.

Rejuvenation: A tourist destination rebrands itself or improves tourist facilities, offers promotions or improves transportation.

Decline: No improvements are made to the tourist destination and the number of tourists continues to declines.

ECOTOURISM Ecotourism: Holidays that involve eco-related activities and are

sustainable e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding, etc.

Sustainable tourism: Tourist activities that are socially, environmentally and economically sustainable.

Typical Ecotourism Activities

Hiking

Kayaking

Bird watching

Safari (animal watching)

Cycling

Beach cleaning

Tree planting

Completing bird and animal surveys

How Ecotourist Resorts Can Be Eco-friendly

Use renewable energy sources

Build using only local products

Serve only local food, using locally sourced products

Employ only local staff

Recycle all waste

Treat and clean all water

Educate guests about the importance of protecting the environment

Promote local culture

ENERGY AND WATER RESOURCES TYPES OF RESOURCES

Non-renewable resources: These are finite. Fossil fuels were initially produced by photosynthesis. In theory they are renewable, but it takes millions of years for them to form. E.g. coal, oil, gas, (uranium).

Renewable resources: These are continuous e.g. solar, wind, water, geothermal. They are therefore sustainable.

NON-RENEWABLE Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) used mainly by MEDCs

Uranium for nuclear energy

Fuel-wood is a non-commercial source of energy in MEDCs but important in LEDCs; women walk long distances each day to collect wood. They cook over open wood fires or wood stoves

Advantages Disadvantages

Co

al

Lasts 300yrs, now become more efficient, needed to make coke

Cost of production high, produces lot of GH gases, dangerous, open cast = visual pollution, costly to transport, acid rain

Oil

More efficient than coal, easier to transport, diversity of uses, petro-chemicals

Lasts only 50-70yrs, oil spills, releases GH gases, prices fluctuate, refineries use lot of space, acid rain

Gas

Cleanest of fossil fuels, cheaper than oil, easy to distribute

Releases methane, explosive, prices fluctuate, acid rain, GH gases.


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RENEWABLE ENERGY SUPPLIES Types

Geothermal

Wind

Solar

Bio fuel

Hydroelectric

Tidal

Wave

Advantages

Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels

Alleviate the world’s energy crisis

Offer opportunities for development of alternative energy sources

They do not pollute

They do not add to Global Warming

The source lasts forever

Disadvantages

Difficult to generate quantities of electricity required

Energy produced incomparable to fossil fuels

Unreliable supply of constant energy; wind doesn’t blow everyday

Some countries do not have the conditions for these sources

Cost of renewable energy technology very high

Cost of fossil fuel generation much less

NUCLEAR POWER Benefits

Technology for nuclear power exists

Abundance of radioactive supply as fuel

Releases very low amounts of greenhouse gases

Reduces dependency on fossil fuel countries

Nuclear waste stored safely underground

Electric supply altered easily based on demand

Drawbacks

Risk of nuclear accidents (Chernobyl)

Risk of nuclear plants as terrorist targets

Nuclear technology can be used to make WMDs

Risky to transport material

Cost of power plants are high

Risk of nuclear radiation related to cancer

Uranium mining dangerous and polluting

Remains radioactive for long

SITING OF THERMAL POWER STATION Needs geologically stable ground (away from plate margins and

earthquakes)

Needs flat land which is easier to build on

Needs to be near a large coal supply as coal is heavy to transport and a lot is needed

Needs impermeable rock

Needs to be close to a railway to bring in large amounts of fuel

Needs a water source

SITING OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION Needs high rainfall and low evaporation levels

Needs a steep sided valley


Needs to be away from large centers of population

SITING OF NUCLEAR POWER STATION Needs large amounts of water for cooling purposes so is often by

the coast / a river

Needs geologically stable ground (away from plate margins and earthquakes)

Needs flat land which is easier to build on


Needs to be away from large centers of population

WATER USES Agriculture: to water the plants etc.

Domestic: cooking, cleaning and drinking

Industrial: heated to make steam in order to turn turbines, and for cooling down reactors

PROBLEMS CAUSED BY WATER SHORTAGES Drought: below average supply of water over a prolonged period.

Famine: crops fail & livestock die due to water shortage

Groundwater supply deplete and aquifers begin to dry up

Conflict arise if there is a limited supply of water and water resources are shared

People may be forced to relocate due to famine and drought

Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of waterborne diseases

Eutrophication due to run-off from farms containing fertilizer

Dirty water and eutrophication may cause loss of biodiversity

ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS & BENEFITS: RESOURCE CONSERVATION & MANAGEMENT

PROBLEMS WITH DEVELOPMENT Soil erosion

Occurs in farms, where rainforest is cleared – soil is washed away by rain because there are no tree roots to retain it.

In the Amazon rainforest, eroded soil goes into rivers and pollutes the drinking water.

Global warming

Greenhouse effect is when infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere, and some is absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules.

The effect of this is warming of surface and lower atmosphere

Global warming happens as a result of too much greenhouse gas

Effects: o Melting ice-sheets = rising sea levels = increase in storms o Change in the distribution of precipitation o Plants and wildlife might not have the time to adjust o Lower crop yields in Africa, parts of Asia and Latin America o More people at risk from insect-borne & water-borne diseases

Greenhouses gases are: o CO2 from burning fossil fuels or wood o Methane from decomposing organic matter and waste gases o CFCs or chlorofluorocarbons from aerosols, air conditioners,

foam packaging and refrigerators (now banned) o Oxides of Nitrogen from car exhausts, power stations and

agricultural fertilizer Air pollution: cars and power stations

Carbon monoxide: incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances causes oxygen starvation

Sulfur dioxide: combustion of fossil fuels causes respiratory problems and acid rain

Nitrogen oxides: nitrogen and oxygen from air combine in a hot environment (furnace or engine); same effect as sulfur dioxide

Lead oxide: burning leaded petrol; damages nervous system Water Pollution:

Nitrates & phosphates from fertilizers cause eutrophication

Oil spilling into the sea

Acid rain: o Makes lakes/ponds acidic and damage fishes gills, killing them o Destroys top of trees and damages roots = dead tree

Health hazards for humans

Damages limestone buildings and sculptures

Fewer crops can be grown on an acidic field Visual pollution: all man-made things are ugly compared to the unspoiled nature Noise pollution:

Vehicles (including planes) –

Machinery in industries and farms

Noisy humans

table of contents - the geographic world · 2019. 1. 27. · june 2014 cie igcse geography (0460)...

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