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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Institutional Assessment of Administrative and Management Environment at the University College of Education Zanzibar Dr. Hamed R.H. Hikmany 4-9

ICT based curricular reforms in India - School initiatives and Advisory role of a Teacher Education Institution.: A case study Dr Ajitha Nayar K 10-18

An Assessment of Primary School Teachers’ Competence in the Teaching of Civic Education in Southwestern, Nigeria D.A. Falade (Ph.D) & M. Falade 19-26

The Impact of foreign lecturers’ recruitment on higher education: An analysis from the Malaysian standpoint and Challenges for Nigeria. Kazi Enamul Hoque, Gazi Mahabubul Alam, Oloruntegbe Kunle Oke, Faizah Shamsudin, Siti Zabedah Ali Akbar, Rose Nizeana Moktharuddin and Yew Sook Fong 27-43

Quality and Inequality in Education and Government Expenditure among Nations: Where do Developing Nations Stand? KunleOkeOloruntegbe, Agbayewa John Olaniran & Ajitha Nayar K 44-50

Meeting The 21st Century Educational Millennium Development Goal Challenges: The Imperativeness Of Media Technology And Information Communication Technology ( ICT) For Teachers And Teacher Educators In Lesson Plan And Lesson Implementation S O Adodo Ph.D 51-62

Staff Perception Of Gender Influence On Principals’ Administrative Effectiveness In Federal Government Colleges In South-West, Nigeria. Dr. (Mrs) Akinfolarin, C. A. & Balogun, Babatunde Nurudeen 63-70

Promoting Effective Management of the Universal Basic Education in Primary Schools through the Establishment of Guidance and Counselling Programme Tayo-Olajubutu Olufunmilayo & Olorunfemi-Olabisi, F.A 71-75

Student Politics in Bangladesh: An Impact on Quality Assurance in Education and National Development Gazi Mahbubul Alam (PhD) and Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal 76-91

Cultural Impediments on Women in Science and Technology Education Dr (Mrs.) Nsofor, C. C. 92-97

Development and Validation of Scientific Literacy Test Items Temitayo A. Oluwatelure 98-103

Measured Effect of Gender and Computer Literacy on Students’ Academic Achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education in Selected Secondary Schools in Ondo State O.A. Ige and O.O. Orungbemi 104-111

Institutional Assessment of Administrative and Management Environment at the University College of Education

Zanzibar

Dr. Hamed R.H. Hikmany University College of Education, Zanzibar

Abstract The University College of Education Zanzibar was launched in 1998 as a College of Education and later on promoted to become University College of Education. Academically it is affiliated to the International University of Africa in Khartoum, Sudan. It was founded by Direct Aid, a humanitarian non-governmental organization based in Kuwait. Concerns were raised on the overall management of UCEZ and why it has remained at the same status with no change of its structure and improvement in management. Thus it was directed to conduct an investigative exercise to assess the state of current situation in this area. The study employs a survey methodology where review of related literature, consultations and focus group discussions formed the core approach. The outcome of this study has revamped the University College of Education Zanzibar and is now aspiring to become a fully - fledged university christened ZANZIBAR INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY.

Key words: TUC – Tanzanian Commission for Universities; UCEZ – University College of Education Zanzibar; HEAC – Higher Education Accreditation Council; MKUZA II – Zanzibar Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty; Introduction The University College of Education- Zanzibar (UCEZ) was established in the year 1997 and inaugurated in 1998 by Direct Aid Agency (an international humanitarian non – governmental organization, whose Headquarters are in Kuwait). The University College of Education is an affiliated institution academically to the International University of Africa (IUA) in Sudan. There were claims that the administrative and management of the University College of Education has some deficiencies and hence creating concerns for better delivery of academic and non-academic functions. It was therefore directed by the Higher Council to conduct an institutional assessment of the administrative and management environment and propose recommendations for a change.

The institutional and administrative environment in higher education is part of governance and its importance in running colleges and universities has been debated for some time (Berdahl, 1991 and Kezar 2009). In their studies they found that campus faculty, staff, and administrators believed that decision making process were working ineffectively and suggested a change of approaches. These studies are of the opinion that administrators have become more fixated on satisfying social and political pressures, accountability to authorities and stabilizing financial matters forgetting the education based decision making purposes. Other writers (Branskamp & Wergin; 1998) suggested that relationships, trust and leadership are important factors for improving governance in higher education. Hence reorganizing governance structures

or putting in place governance structures where they are not in place is fundamental towards improving administration and management of higher education institutions.

International Journal of Research and Development (IJRD), ISSN 1596-969 Volume 1 No 2, pp 4-9Faculty of Education, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, NigeriaAvailable online at http://www.aauaeducationfac.org

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However, Kazer (2004) suggested that there are conditions that must be in place to facilitate governance such as leadership, relations and trust. Once these are weak or ineffective then no success will be realized in improving performance of institutions and the very core function of delivering knowledge (the teaching-learning) will be defeated.Legal documents of governance at UCEZ(those establishes UCEZ), particularly the Trust Rules (2005) is inadequate. There are inadequacies in establishing several governance structures and hence causing inefficiencies in the administrative and management. Methodology of the Assignment Terms of Reference, Action Plan and the Budget were developed and guided the assignment accordingly. The study was conducted between July 2010 and December 2011 and involved interviews and consultative sessions. The non-academic staff has a representation; only 50% were invited. Table No. 1 below gives the distribution of target population: Table No. 1: Groups Contacted and Respective Response Rate

S/N Types of Groups

Total numbers Total Response Resp. Rate (%)

1. UCEZ Principal

1 1 100

2. Academic Staff

23 23 100

3. Non-academic staff

48 15 31

4. Students’ Leaders

19 18 94.7

The criteria for selecting these population groups are that it provides 100% representation of the total population. A greater part of the study involved a review of five main documents at the UCEZ as indicated hereunder: Limitations The issue of financial management was not adequately discussed even during interviews or consultative sessions. Hence there is no information is this regard; what became evident is that there were no Financial Regulations and all receipts have to be signed and posted to Kuwait, the Headquarters. Furthermore, no regular auditing was conducted prior to this study. Discussion of Findings A Brief Account of UCEZ Administrative Structure Review of documents and consultations with different stakeholder provided a clear picture of the current situation as mentioned hereunder:

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Dr. Hamed R.H. Hikmany

Table No. 2: List of Documents that were reviewed indicating its relevant significance to the Study

S/N Title of Documents Specific Objectives of the Document

Relevance to the Study

1. Academic and Disciplinary Regulations, 2005

Guidance on academic matters.

The document is very useful in terms of laying regulations in a broader aspect.

2. Constituent Act of UCEZ, 2005. It establishes the College.

To assess legal and administrative arrangement.

4. Trust Rules of UCEZ, 2005 The main legal document that lays down owners and recipient country’s obligations and College’s structure.

To assess adequacy of the legal framework and provisions.

These documents were complimented by a review of the following reports: Minutes of the College’s Board, 2008 – 2010

Communications between the Higher Education Accreditation Council (HEAC, now TCU)

and UCEZ, 1998 – 2003

1. The structure of the ‘College Board’ and its mandate not very specific. 2. Management of Examinations full of shortfalls. 3. Department Boards (or Committees), did not meet at regular intervals. 4. ‘Scheme of Service’ for the entire College staff (Academic and non-academic) not

available. 5. The process of Recruitment, Appointment and Promotion was not transparent

enough. 6. Accreditation of the University College not yet attained. 7. Marketing and Publicity Policy not available. 8. Some contradictions/inconsistencies between the Constituent Act (CA) and

Trust Rules (TR) Administration and Management According to information found on mentioned documents and after an interview with the Principal, academic and non-academic staff, it was found that UCEZ has three senior positions. The first is the Principal, followed by Deputy Principal Administration and Deputy Principal Academic Affairs. On these three positions, only the post of the Principal was filled, the situation has been going on for the last fourteen years. This situation presented a deficiency in the running of UCEZ and the Principal raised complaints as there was too much for a single person to manage; he had no powers on recruitment at senior levels.

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This sentiment and feelings has been explicitly echoed by all stakeholders and the participants during consultative meetings. It was a consensus opinion of student leaders, non-academic staff, the academic staff and even the current Principal of the College that most problems faced by UCEZ are due to gaps in the Administrative and Management Structure. The College Board The College Board is the organ supposed to provide regular administrative consultative forums. College Board’s minutes for the year 2008/2009 were reviewed to check the quality of deliberations and whether serious matters and decisions were taken effectively and efficiently. A detailed analysis of Minutes was conducted and is reported in Table 3 below. Table 3: Minutes Analysis of the College Board Meetings

Date and Type Observation 1 No date on top

Start:10:15 End:15:15 (05 March, 2009) Meeting for two days. Date: closing day only. Date of the meeting not mentioned

Matters arising discussed Members of this meeting proposed that students involved in cheating should sit for supplementary examinations. If examinations rules and regulations stipulate this as a penalty, then it needs reviewing. Comment: Universities should not grant such an offer; the only penalty for cheating is ‘DISCONTINUE’. Students may re-register after two years. Item 8.1.5 is incomplete – does not specify the student concerned. In this case no appropriate disciplinary measure may be taken.

2 22 June, 2009 College Board Start: 10 am End: 15 hrs Concerns on quality.

A good report with in-depth coverage. Areas of concern that could seriously affect quality of students are: 4.8.1- Forgery and multiple admissions. 4.8.2- UCEZ has detected a number of forged certificates. 4.8.5- “All participants have expressed their concern about the deteriorating quality of students and the increasing rate of forged certificates” 4.8.6- “The quality is rather dropping year after year” – i.e. of students.

3 23 October, 2009 College Board NOTE: No consistency on the title. Opening : 9:45 Closing :11:20 Previous Minutes: 30-31 July 2009 were not found.

4.4.1. UCEZ does not have a clear procurement procedure. For example an officer was assigned the task of negotiating tendering a contract with different centers and present tenders to College Board. 2- NOTE: Importance of matters arising and approving reports. 3- AOB. 4.6.1. Inadequately reported. No corrections made during the 22.11.2009 meeting. There were no details of the discussions. Hence no follow-up is possible. 4.4.5 Poorly reported and no corrections were made during 22.11.2009 meeting. 4.4.6 And 4.4.7 mention “the Draft Report” without being specific.

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4 22 November, 2009 College Board Starting: 10:15

“Matters arising were covered satisfactorily. 8.1.14. About four students did not have coursework- which means they did not attend lessons. The Board decided to administer supplementary examinations; contrary to regulations.

5 31 Friday 2009 Start:9:10 am End:11:20 am No date on top Closing time indicates day but no month. Subject: Preparation for the higher council (3rd) Meeting Four members absent 4\15*%=26.7%

Presentation of agenda- good No matters arising – poor follow-up Note item 4.9.3 needs follow-up. (Changing name of department). Note item 4.98 needs follow-up (Reduction of part time lecturers) Note item 4.99 needs follow-up (Payment for marking exams). Quality control issues pertaining to exams were discussed. Needs follow-up- Need for administrative staff (College Board 22.6.2008).

6 04 January, 2010: College board (3rd meeting) (3rd Graduation) End closing time wrongly reported (23 Nov 2009 at 11:30) Agenda not professionally presented

No matters arising – hence follow up on decision is missing. The meeting was well in advance of the planned activity (Nov 2010) - but the minutes failed to mention the date. Previous meeting on23 Nov 2009 hence the time span between meetings is good. Good record keeping – Good minutes

7 20 May, 2010: College Board (six) (College budget for the year 2010-2011). Start: 10:05 End: 12:00 Agenda not professionally presented.

No matters arising- weakness on follow-up of decisions. Issues of repairs to computers: there seems to be no qualified personnel to deal with maintenance. Good record keeping- good minutes.

Status of Accreditation of the University College

According to TCU standards, there are three (3) stages that a person wishing to establish a University in the United Republic of Tanzania must undergo, namely:

1. Provisional Licensing, 2. Accreditation and finally, 3. Chartering.

Out of these three stages the status of UCEZ is that of ‘Accreditation’ also known by TCU as ‘Full Registration’. UCEZ is yet to acquire the final status of ‘Chartered’. By ‘Accreditation’ it means: “Accreditation is a system for recognising a University, its academic and professional programmes as well as governance and management structures for a level of performance, integrity, standards and quality which entitle the university to the

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confidence of the public it serves. In this context an accredited university means a university which has been given such recognition upon satisfaction of the legal requirements spelt out in the Universities Act and other applicable laws”. (TCU; 2005) ‘Chartering’ according to TCU is defined as: “A Charter is a governance instrument of a university issued in accordance with an approved format, signed and granted by the President in accordance with the Universities Act. A chartered University therefore means a University whose governance instrument has been approved by the Commission, signed and granted by the President’’. (TCU; 2005) Conclusions In almost all reports, matters arising were not adequately reported. In this case no proper follow-up is made regarding board’s decisions. This is weak administration and management of higher education; under these circumstances accountability is lost. The element of good governance is seriously being eroded. On appointments and promotions, there was no clear procedure and staff development programme was not in place. Recommendations All legal documents must be reviewed. However, since there are plans to upgrade UCEZ to fully university status is advised to conduct the review as a chartering process. This process will finally lead to ‘’Accreditation’’. Constituting Committees/ Boards as suggested hereunder: Department Boards Admission and Registration Committee Examinations Committee Recruitment, Promotion and Staff Development Procurement and Disposable of Assets. Develop ‘Scheme of Service’ for the entire College staff (Academic and non-academic). Develop marketing and publicity policy and website. References: Braskamp, L., &Wergin, J. (1998).Forming new social partnerships. In W. Tierney (Ed),

The responsive university: Restructuring for higher performance. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Haps Edward J. (2010): “Shared Decisions: Transforming University Governance” in The Journal of Higher Education Management Volume 25, Number (2010). Published by AAUA- American Association of University Stoughton Massachusetts USA Administrations.

Kazar, A. (2004). What is more important to affective governance: Relationships, trust and leadership, or structure and formal process? New directions for higher Education, no. 127, Fall; USA.

UCEZ (2005): The Five-Year Master plan 2005/2006 – 2009/2010. College Printing Press, Zanzibar.

UCEZ (2005): Trust Rules of UCEZ, 2005.College Printing Press, Zanzibar. UCEZ (2005): Academic and Disciplinary Regulations. College Printing Press,

Zanzibar. UCEZ (2005): Constituent Act of the UCEZ. College Printing Press, Zanzibar. Zanzibar Government (2000): Zanzibar Development Vision 2020. Zanzibar Government (2010): Zanzibar Strategy for Growth and Reduction of

Poverty.

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ICT based curricular reforms in India - School initiatives and Advisory role of a Teacher Education Institution.: A case study

Dr Ajitha Nayar K Indian Institute of |Information Technology and Management –

Kerala,Technopark, Trivandrum-695581,Kerala

[email protected]

Abstract

The advent of technology and the pedagogical applications of Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has offered so much scope for teaching and learning process. New ventures in ICT based teaching and ICT based learning has revolutionized the classroom practices. The study attempts to elaborate the course taken by a secondary school in reviewing its policy towards Information technology and the advisory role of a Teacher Education Institution (TEI) in India. The TEI helped in guiding a future course of action. However , the course of events revealed teacher educator’s apprehensions and inhibitions with regard to technology intervention in the classroom .

Introduction

The digital technologies have paved the way for curricular reform in curricular transactions, classroom practices, classroom designs, the roles of teachers and of students. Curricular reforms induced by technology take different forms, shapes and sizes. Inadequacies and limitations of school reform initiatives in development, implementation and evaluation of new school design approaches technology planning (Berends, Kirby, Naftel & McKelveyl, 2001; Hermen, et al, 1999; Sicchinelli and Barley, 1999). Review of classroom practices have revealed inconsistent and sporadic adoption of IT use (Berends et al, 2001; Boronan et al ,2002; Cook et al , 1999). The positive trends in India with regard to technology intervention in the classroom involving pedagogical use of technology has been facilitated by financial support rendered by the National Government to Government and aided (schools financially supported by the Government). This has resulted in curricular reforms based on technology use and deployment of technology resources. Change in curricular practices is necessitated by present technology and availability of cheap technology, digital content, technical support, educational software companies vying with each other in providing the right solutions for teacher and the learner, educational software working in close collaboration of schools.

Earlier studies have reported different types of technology enabled classroom environments in Kerala (Nayar & Barker 2008). Certain classrooms were reported that give direct access to teachers but not to students and certain curricular initiatives with students provided with computer access in the classroom and the third type where students went to computer labs to learn the subject. All these were pedagogical experiments with regard to ICT intervention. Studies have reported that learning skills deployed by students are different in different learning environments (Nayar 2009). Technology induced curricular reform also brings in changes to teacher’s roles where

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mailto:[email protected]

such role shifts from an educational technologist to more specific roles of technology resources specialist, a technology personnel, technopedagogist. Technology intervention in the secondary school classroom implied training pre service teachers who had enrolled for secondary teacher education program to be equipped with the future trends of technology enabled classroom. Thus teacher educators need to know what sort of ICT skills need to be incorporated and integrated in the teacher education program In this way it was also necessary to enhance their pedagogical skills and technological skills. This would act as a pointer towards techno pedagogies. The study commenced in 2007, emerged from the changing times and the need felt by a school in Kerala (a State in South India)to make changes in its curricular practices. This need was spearheaded by technology innovations around. Interventions of Educational software companies who were willing to support the school willing to make changes through thick and thin was another reason for the need to emerge. Review of literature reveals an extensive body of work addressing the use of IT in schools and classrooms (Kulik 1994; Mann, Shakeshaft, Becker, Kottkamp 1999; Schacter 1999; Sivin- Kachala and Bialo 2000; Wenglinsky 1998). At the period of the school attempting to make a curricular reform there has been an influx of IT (Information Technology) companies like NIIT, Educomp Pvt Limited working in the area of Educational software teaming up with schools with the intention to produce a techno pedagogical environment. IT became a compulsory subject at all levels as early as from the 1990s.The prevailing ICT practice of schools then was to impart IT literacy and IT education to all students from standard 1(age 5) to standard X (age 15). Later the attention turned to production of educational software heralding the era of techno pedagogies which means using technology for teaching and learning subjects prescribed in the syllabus i.e., Technology for teaching Biology, Social studies and science. Many schools with an optimistic and favorable IT policy entered into collaboration with private partnerships with educational software companies. This produced a conducive environment for technology use in the pedagogical context. The ICT based curricular reform has gone through different experiments with regard to location, nature of availability, preparation and design of technology based curricular resources. Technology enabled classrooms has revolutionized techno pedagogies in coming out with a suitable framework in utilizing technology in the classroom. Such classrooms are commonly referred to as smart classrooms .Smart technologies have in a sense transformed the way teachers teach and students learn in schools. It can be concluded that it is a new age technology movement that is fast becoming an imperative for schools. According to the report of the software company it envisages pedagogical possibilities for technology and claims that technology enabled classrooms will revolutionize classroom environments by Improving teacher effectiveness and productivity in class, bringing abstract and difficult curriculum concepts to life inside classrooms, Making learning an enjoyable experience for students, Improving academic performance of students, Enabling instant formative assessment of learning outcomes in class, enabling teachers to instantly assess and evaluate the learning achieved by their students in class Teacher education Institutions in India imparts primary and secondary teacher education courses. The secondary Teacher Education Institutions(TEI) are also referred

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Dr Ajitha Nayar K

to as Teacher Education colleges impart one year secondary teacher education course successful completion of which leads to securing a Bachelor’s Degree in education. The TEI which participated in the study was an upcoming institution which had been functioning for only one year. The seeking of assistance by the neighborhood schools was an opportunity to act an advisor of informing, guiding curricular reform for a TEI which was still in its early years of inception having been established in 2005. It was necessary for the newly functioning to be accorded as a quality teacher education which caters to the teaching , research and educational needs of the community and the locality around in which it is situated. The service required by the neighboring schools were taken as an opportunity to act and serve as an advisor in informing, guiding and orienting towards right curricular practices and curricular transactions. The fact that the teacher educators were newly inducted into the teacher education program and did not have considerable experience with regard to teaching in TEI made the exercise all the more worthwhile. It was a fact finding mission as the teacher education curriculum though had ICT component the teacher educators are not aware of what smart schools are and what are the ICT skills required by teachers. Studies have reported that Teacher Educators often do not impart pedagogical training to student teachers in ICT. Use of technology in TEI is limited to preparing instructional materials and personal needs (Nayar 2009) . Though the Teacher Education Curriculum has an ICT component whereby pre service teachers acquire technology education it was important that teacher educators who impart training are aware of real classroom situations and acquire familiarity of technology intervention in schools. The teacher educators who participated in the study were newly inducted had just recently commenced their roles as teachers in TEI. It was necessary that they gain direct experiences of pedagogical use of technology in real classroom situations. School’s dilemma The advent of changing classroom scenario with the advent of technology opened up new classroom environments in the schools throughout India. The nature of technology enabling opened up new and different forms of technology intervention in the classroom. Studies in India have reported that there were three types of technology enabled classrooms. The infusion of technology has induced some sort of curricular restructuring in schools at varying levels in various parts of the country. This technology induced curricular reform was occurring mostly in schools of urban setting. It was not imposed but a conducive atmosphere was created with more and more IT companies coming up with attractive schemes to vie with other competitors in the field and making offers which would lift the financial burden from school to the students or to the IT companies themselves investing for the initial period covering a span of 3-5 years. The nature of tie ups was in such a manner that the schools would be supported and made adequate with regard to ICT infrastructure including training of teachers for the experimental phase. After the experimental phase the schools would have to bear the burden of ICT support and maintenances and many schools who had entered into private partnerships with IT companies were hoping that after the experimental phase they could collect the necessary resources from students. This was not a bad idea for Private schools which the students with parents who could afford to pay the additional amount, but in government schools and rural schools the parents would have been less willing to dole out additional funds for their wards to get technology enabled learning.

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Dr Ajitha Nayar K

The neighborhood schools which requested help were quite hesitant and unwilling to make curricular reform let alone allow technology enabled classrooms. The schools were headed by the Parent Teachers Association which called upon to direct future course of action. The schools were practicing schools for teacher education institution which had earned a reputation for quality teacher education. So the schools based on enquiries with other schools decided to seek the advice of the TEI in question The schools were confused because they were schools implementing different curricular reforms with the advent of technology in the classrooms. The TEI was one which had made a mark with regard to quality of teacher education imparted and the success attained by students in the previous years. The activities of the Teacher Education and its program to make it viable and serve the community were widely acclaimed during annual meeting of the management committee. The advice of the TEI was sought because of this. In what way the TEI responded The TEI which was called upon for advice was one which was recently established and located in the immediate premises of the school. The Teacher Education Institution had attained a considerable reputation on account of innovative teaching technologies and instructional practices. The TEI which had student strength of 100 pre-service teachers was favored by teacher aspirants as the first option among privately managed self-financing colleges. The study was of explorative in nature and attempted to collect facts regarding the prospects of technology enabled classrooms in the wake of ICT induced curricular reforms in schools in the neighborhood. For collecting data a survey of technology enabled schools was conducted. Data was collected by means of observations of technology enabled classroom sessions. The observations were conducted by three teacher educators. The study was confined to Kerala, India, a state which has implemented reforms with regard to technology based learning. The nature of curricular reform being implemented was providing access to technology in the classroom and availability of technology based learning resources. Using computers as tool for learning was the reform which was being implemented in varying extents in different schools and the school in question wanted to address the problem and to decide on what nature of curricular innovation was best suited for its needs. At the time of the study technology enabled classrooms were being implemented only in one school within a 10km radius. So, the schools were selected not merely due to its proximity but due to the curricular reform it had impacted. The teacher educators observed 5 classrooms sessions. To support findings form observations a structured interview of school principal and 5 teachers were also conducted. The teacher educators were instructed to observe the classroom sessions and submit a report on aspects of teaching and learning. The reports were consolidated and the data collected could be categorized into four aspects which are teachers’ role. students’ role, learning tasks, teaching tasks. For interpreting the comments the inputs of the teacher educators was classified into favorable and unfavorable comments. A comment that was positive and reflected the use

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Dr Ajitha Nayar K

of or encouraged use of technology was framed as positive and negative comments expressed and neutral. Favorable comments were optimistic, implied use of smart classrooms resulting in educational advantages to teacher, student or both as good practice reflected In order to make the results more reliable the categorization was done by two teacher educators who had not participated in the study. In case of conflicting decision it was put to a third substituting teacher educator. The teacher educators submitted the report to the TEI which was then handed over to the school authorities. For the sake of brevity, clarity and comprehension the report was made as simple and brief as possible. Comments made by the Teacher Educators is given in Table 1 The comments made by the teacher educators revealed that most of them were optimistic regarding the educational potentialities of technology enabled classrooms .Most of the teacher educators emphasize the teacher supportive aspect and the time aspect when smart classrooms become operational. Teacher educators are aware that secondary school teachers often have to race against time and the requirement of finishing the syllabus in the minimum of time available often makes secondary school teachers cut lab hours. Most of the teacher educators believe that teaching becomes challenging and interesting and it minimized the monotony of classroom teaching. Teacher educators are well aware that certain curricular interventions can cause havoc with the rhythm of classroom teaching. The not so favorable comments centered on teacher’s resistance to change. Teachers are comfortable with chalk and talk method. The comments made by the teacher educators revealed that most of them are optimistic regarding the educational potentialities of technology enabled classrooms. Most of the teacher educators emphasize the teacher supportive aspect and the time aspect when technology becomes operational. Teacher educators are aware that secondary school teachers often have to race against time and the requirement of finishing the syllabus in the minimum of time available often makes secondary school teachers cut lab hours. Most of the teacher educators believe that teaching becomes challenging and interesting and it minimizes the monotony of classroom teaching. Teacher educators are well aware that certain curricular interventions can cause havoc with the rhythm of classroom teaching. The comments made by the teacher educators regarding the administrative component revealed that most of them are optimistic about technology enabled classrooms being ideal tools for the learner and excellent learning resources. They state that student attention is focused, learning becomes interesting and only relevant aspects related to the topic learnt are shown. All the teacher educators except one emphasized that technology enabled classrooms aid in the context of time constraints The issues related to lack of discipline and problems of classroom management are problems which are anticipated by the teacher educators. Doubts raised regarding the maturity exhibited by students in being responsible for taking care of educational resources in the classroom is hinted at in statements like Learners may mishandle the technology accessories in the classroom causing liabilities shed light on the fact that technology may be abused rather than just misused.

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Dr Ajitha Nayar K

Table 1. Comments Made by Teacher Educators

Aspects on which comments were made

Learner roles Learning tasks Teacher roles Teaching tasks

Favorable

It helps the learner to use technology and to consider computers as a learning tool also The teacher can face the learner at all times It does not give time for learner attention to deviate from the learning task Learning becomes interesting and students attention may remain focused Time with regard to queuing the children to take them to the lab not required Students are controlled in what is shown and what they see. Only relevant aspects related to the topic learnt is shown Technology enabled classrooms are student friendly as time is not lost in taking students to the computer lab and no time lapse occurs when technology resources need to be displayed. It is teacher friendly as it helps the teacher in locating supplementary teaching materials It helps those teachers who are not so confident in using technology requiring very little technology competency on the part of the teacher Teaching becomes quite challenging and interesting It removes the monotony of teaching It helps those teachers who are not so confident in using technology

Unfavorable

Learners may mishandle the technology accessories in the classroom causing liabilities to the teacher There may be instances when the resources are used for the learner more because it is there rather than whether it is required or relevant. Learners may persuade teachers to use it even if not suitable Much time may be lost in trying to retrieve the technology resources and there might be instances of classroom indiscipline Teaching may not change as teachers may resort to traditional methods

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Dr Ajitha Nayar K

Follow up action taken by the school The report was submitted to the school. The school discussed the report at the school committee meeting and the opinions of school teachers were elicited. The minutes of the school meeting revealed that most of the school teachers expressed lack of willingness to go in for technology induction. The reason was that issues related to classroom management and caution to be exercised with regard to the maintenance and safe custody of the IT equipment was a deterrent to teacher’s use of technology in the classroom. Teachers agreed to the comments by the teacher educators and were more influenced by the unfavorable comments rather than being encouraged by the favorable comments. Many teachers consulted were of the opinion that the teaching –learning issues were going on smoothly and efficiently and did not want issues to be more complicated with the advent of technology. Though they admitted it may be beneficial they did not think it necessary to bring in changes at the school level at this juncture. Conclusion and Implications of the Study The study highlighted the role played by teacher education colleges in chartering the future course of action in practicing schools. Though the role played was not significant in augmenting change, the fact that the teacher education institution was approached to generate a second opinion implies the pivotal role played by such institutions as centers for academic consultation and professional expertise in educational ventures. Many of the comments with regard to the teaching and teaching tasks were quite encouraging. In spite of this, more serious concern was given to the negative comments drawn. Findings of studies of innovation in educational contexts around the world show that many educational innovations ultimately fail because too little effort or too few resources are devoted to preparing teachers for the innovation (Bain 2004; Nayar and Barker 2008; Tondeur, Van Keer, vanBraak,Valcke 2008).Though there have been cases observed of teacher educators being reluctant to change here, the teacher educators were receptive to technology innovation but cautious on issues related to class management and student indiscipline.. Effective use of technology in learning is driven by pedagogical concerns, not technological concerns (Ballantyne 2005). Specifically, it needs to be understood that any new technology comes not merely with hardware and software, but with a learning and teaching style and grammar of its own and that management practices need to be adapted in order to use the technologies effectively (UNESCO 2002) .New technologies cannot be imposed without enabling teachers and learners to understand these fundamental shifts. Teachers need to be better prepared to meet the challenges of technology innovations and be trained to use technology for teaching so that inhibitions towards technology use could be eliminated .This would help them to be strong advocates for change . The study addresses the need for creating a conducive environment for fostering technology intervention in the curriculum. Making teachers accountable for scholastic and non-scholastic activities and not responsible for any irresponsible behavior on the part of students will help teachers to focus on teaching and learning without restraints and constraints. Teachers may then become more open for curricular reforms. Induction of technology coordinators who serves as curriculum managers and change agents would be instrumental in devising a technology plan for the school (Vanderlinde 2009).

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Teacher educators as torchbearers for the future teachers need to reform, readapt and reformulate beliefs, attitudes and practices and equip pre service teachers to face the challenges of innovation .New beliefs will generate new ways of thinking which will generate new practices and methodologies among pre-service teachers, then better equipped to face the challenges offered by technology . References

Bain, A. 2004. Secondary school reform and technology planning: Lessons learned from a ten year school reform initiative. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, vol.20 ,no.2, pp.149-170.

Ballantyne, P. 2004. Empowering youth and connecting schools .Lessons from the Schoolnet. Namibia Approach, NASP, Infobrief 2,

Berends, M., Kirby, S. N., Naftel, S. & McKelvey, C. 2001. Implementation and Performance in New American Schools: Three Years into Scale-Up. Santa Monica, CA: Rand

Borman, G.D., Hewes, G.M., Overman, L.T. & Brown, S. 2002. Comprehensive school reform and student achievement: A meta-analysis. Center For Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk .From http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techReports/Report59.pdf

Cook, T.D., Habib, F., Phillips, M., Settersten, R.A., Shagle, S.C., Serdar M. & Degirmencioglu, S.M. 1999. Comer's School Development Program in Prince George's County, Maryland: A theory-based evaluation. American Educational Research Journal, Vol 36, pp.543-597.

Herman, R., Aladjem, D., McMahon, P., Masem, E., Mulligan, I., Smith O'Malley, A., Quinones, S., Reeve, A. & Woodruff, D. 1999. An Educators' guide to school-wide reform. Arlington, VA: Educational Research Service.

Kulik, J. A.1994. Meta-Analytic studies of findings on computer-based instruction. In E. L. Baker and Harold F. O'Neil Jr (Eds), Technology assessment in education and training. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Mann, D., Shakeshaft, C., Becker, J., & Kottkamp, R. 1999. West Virginia Study: Achievement gains from a statewide comprehensive instructional technology program. from http://www.mff.org/pubs/ME155.pdf

Nayar ,A.2009. A study of Technology mediated Teacher Education –Exploring Contexts , Extent and constraints, A study of Proficiency exhibited by secondary school students in Digital learning skills – A case study of a State in India. Paper presented at World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education , October 27-30, 2009 ,Vancouver,Canada.

Nayar, A and A. Miles Barker. 2008.’Rethinking the Digital Divide’. Paper presented at the ALT International conference ,9-11 September ,Leeds ,UK.

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http://www.csos.jhu.edu/crespar/techReports/Report59.pdf

http://www.mff.org/pubs/ME155.pdf

Schacter, J. 1999. The impact of education technology on student achievement: What the most current research has to say. Santa Monica, CA: Milken Exchange on Education Technology.

Sicchinelli, L. F., & Barley, Z. 1999. Evaluating for success. Comprehensive school reform: An evaluation guide for districts and schools. Aurora, CO: Mid-Continent Regional Educational Laboratory.

Sivin-Kachala, J. & Bialo, E. R. 2000. Research Report on the effectiveness of technology in schools (7th ed). Washington, DC: SIAA.

Tondeur,J.,Van Keer, H., van Braak,J., & Valcke,M.2008.ICT integration in the classroom .Challenging the potential of a school policy .Computers and Education. Vol 51, 212-223

UNESCO .2002. Information and communication technologies in teacher education: A planning guide. from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001295/129533e.pdf.

Vanderlinde,R., Johan,V.B., Ruban,H.2009. Educational technology on a turning point :curriculum implementation in Flanders and challenges for schools .Educational Technology Research Development , Vol 57, pp. 573-584

Wenglinsky, H..1998. Does it compute? The relationship between educational technology and student achievement in mathematics. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

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Dr Ajitha Nayar K

http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001295/129533e.pdf

An Assessment of Primary School Teachers’ Competence in the Teaching of Civic Education in Southwestern, Nigeria

D..A. Falade (Ph.D) & M. Falade Department of Social Studies, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo,

Ondo State, Nigeria.andSt. Monicas Grammar School Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria.

Abstract This study assessed the professional qualifications of primary school teachers as well as their civic knowledge and attitudes as factors for determining the extent to which they are competent in teaching civic education. Two instruments titled Teachers’ Civic Knowledge Test (TCKT) and Teachers’ Civic Attitude Scale (TCAS) were designed for the study. Three hundred and eleven primary school teachers from Osun and Ondo states were involved in the study. Three research questions were raised and answered. . Percentages were used in analyzing the data obtained in the study. The findings revealed that most (73.9%) of the primary school teachers possessed the necessary professional qualification (Nigeria Certificate of Education – NCE) that is required to teach in the Nigerian primary schools. However, majority of the teachers did not possess the civic knowledge and attitude required for the effective teaching of civic concepts in their respective classes. It is recommended that civic education should be integrated into the teacher education programme in Nigeria. In-service training on civic and political matters should be adopted to retrain teachers that are already on the job.. Key Words: Civic education, civic knowledge and attitude, teachers’ competence

Introduction Nigeria is facing many social problems of monumental proportions.(Fan, Ekpo

and Ita, 2008). Some of these problems include cult activities, armed robbery, violence, indiscipline, examination misconduct, disobedience and other unpatriotic practices. The socio-political and economic problems emanate majorly from loss of civic values and unpatriotic tendencies demonstrated by some Nigerian citizens. This is the reason why training for effective citizenship should be one of the main goals of the Nigerian education. Civic education is capable of inculcating in the learners those values, attitudes and skills that will enable them to live patriotic and democratic lives and contribute meaningfully to the progress of the nation.

The neglect of civic training at the primary school level has negative effect on the attitudes of the primary school leavers. It is therefore not surprising, today, to see some of the youths engaging in immoral, criminal and antisocial behaviour. In the light of this, the re-introduction of civic education into the Nigerian primary school system will help to develop in the pupils desirable social norms and national ethics. Since the primary schools level is the basic foundation for other stages of the schools system, the pupils will grow up to become responsible adults. Falade (2008) pointed out that the early years (secondary and primary school levels) are important for the development of civic values and traits.

However, the attainment of the objectives of civic education in Nigerian primary schools depends to a large extent on the effective teaching of civic concepts. Particularly, the qualities, competence and knowledge of primary school teachers on civic matters and concepts are of great significant to the attainment. Commenting on the imperative of teachers’ competence, Harvey (2011) pointed out that competence

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tends to be a particular thing considered when assessing some professional disciplines like teaching, health and social work. Objective of the study. The objective of this study is to assess the professional qualifications and teaching experiences of primary school teachers in Southwestern, Nigeria. The study also intends to examine the civic knowledge and attitudes of the primary school teachers as factors for determining their competence in teaching civic education in the primary school. Literature review Teacher’s Competence

Competence is the ability to do something or perform a task as expected or according to stipulated standard. Harvey (2011) conceived competence as the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities at a level of expertise sufficient to be able to perform in an appropriate work setting. Wojtczak (2002) described competence as the possession of a satisfactory level of relevant knowledge and acquisition of a range of relevant skills that include interpersonal and technical components at a certain point in the educational process. Such knowledge and skills are necessary to perform the tasks that reflect the scope of professional practices.

Teachers’ competence can be described as the application of acquired instructional knowledge, skills and attitudes for efficient and effective teaching. This is the reason why Cultural Heritage National Training Organisation (2004) argued that competence is linked to an ability to perform activities within an occupation or function; work consistently to agreed standards.

Teachers’ competence means more than the knowledge and skills acquired on a particular subject area. It rather involves the teachers’ ability to apply and appropriately utilize acquired instructional knowledge, attitudes and skills to achieve the desired instructional objectives. In the light of this Harvey (2011) expressed that competence is more than just knowledge and skills, it involves the ability to meet complex demands by drawing on and mobilizing psychosocial resources in a particular context.

However, instructional knowledge, attitudes and skills are fundamental factors determining the competence of teachers. That is, teachers’ competence depends, to a large extent, on their acquisition of relevant knowledge, attitude and skills in their area of specialization. It is therefore not possible for a teacher to demonstrate competency in teaching a particular subject when he manifest poor knowledge and attitude to the subject. Civic Education

Civic education refers to both formal and informal training given to the citizens to develop in them that knowledge, values and skills needed for effective participation in the political process and the civil society. Mehlinger cited in Ajibade (2011) pointed out that this type of education is concerned with the knowledge, skills and values citizens need to function effectively in participatory democracy.

Civic education aims at providing learners with useful information on their rights, responsibilities, and requirements for political engagements with the purpose of enabling the citizens to make meaningful contribution to the political system. The three major components of civic education are: A. Civic disposition, which consists of:

i. The development of confidence in the citizen so that he can be able to participatein civil life.

ii. The readiness of the citizen to participate in civil life.

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D.A. Falade (Ph.D) & M. Falade

iii. The ability of the citizen to assume the roles, rights and responsibilities usually associated with citizenship in a democratic system.

iv. The demonstration of openness, tolerance and responsibility in exercising one’s rights, and duties.

B. Civic Knowledge, which means that:

i. The citizen should understand his political and civic context. ii. The citizen should know his social, economic, political and civic rights.

iii. The citizen should understand the rule, rights and responsibilities of citizenship. C. Civic Skills, which involves:

i. The potential of the citizen to acquire the ability to explain, analyse, interact, evaluate, defend a position and monitor processes and outcomes.

ii. The ability of the citizen to use knowledge for informal participation in civic and political processes.

According to Civic Education Report (2010) these three components are however, interdependent and interrelated. That is, the acquisition of any of the components will affect and be affected by other components. For instance, it will be impossible for the learner to manifest appropriate civic disposition without acquiring certain civic knowledge and skills. Required Intellectual and Affective Qualities of Civic Education Teachers The introduction of civic education into the primary school system in Nigeria is to enhance the attainment of the objectives of primary education. The National Policy on Education (2004) stated the objectives of primary education, some of which are: (i) Citizenship education as a basis for effective participation in and contribution to the life of the society. (ii) Character and moral training and development of sound attitudes. These objectives can be achieved if civic education is implemented and well taught in the Nigerian primary schools. The qualities and competence of civic education teachers at the primary school level are very important. The National Policy on Education (2004) pointed out that “no educational system may rise above the quality of its teachers”. In the light of this Oyekan (2006) argued that in the implementation of a curriculum development product the teacher is the most important factor. The teacher is the prime executor of government policies on education. The intellectual ability and knowledge potentials of some of the pre-service teachers in our teacher training institutes are worrisome. Some students graduate form regular, part-time and sandwich Nigerian College of Education (NCE) programmes without adequate knowledge of major concepts in their areas of study. Teacher training programme in social studies education is one of the relevant programmes that currently prepare pre-service teachers for the teaching of civic education in the Nigerian primary schools. However, the researcher’s personal experience reveals that some final year social studies students do not have proper knowledge of important civic and political concepts. Civic education teachers are expected to have good knowledge of civic and political concepts. Thorough knowledge of the subject matter will strengthen the teacher to explain and illustrate the concept being taught in the class (Oyekan, 2006). The competence of a civic education teacher, to a large extent, depends on his knowledge of civic / political issues and concepts. This is because the teacher can not teach effectively any concept that he is not grounded in. There is no doubt that if a

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teacher is not an authority in the subject he is teaching he has no business being in the classroom (Adepoju, 2008). According to Ajayi (1989), there is a positive relationship between teacher’s ability, his intellectual characteristics and effectiveness in his teaching. The teacher’s cognitive ability and his intellectual characteristics shape his thoughts, his knowledge of the content of what he teaches and his method of imparting his ideas into the students. Apart from the knowledge component, the civic attitude, traits and values of the teacher have important role to play in developing learners to become responsible citizens. Fan, et al (2008) argued that teachers should serve as role-models to their pupils because modeling remains a powerful strategy for teaching values and morals. Methodology Research Design This study is descriptive. The survey design was adopted to obtain data on the paper qualifications of primary school teachers in Southwestern, Nigeria as well as their civic knowledge and attitudes. Research Questions Three research questions were raised for this study: Are primary school teachers professionally qualified and experienced to teach civic concepts? Will primary school teachers obtain high knowledge score on civic concepts? Will primary school teachers manifest positive attitude to civic issues? Population and Sample The population for this study is made up of primary school teachers in Ondo and Osun states. Three hundred and eleven (311) primary schools teachers were purposively selected from the population. Research Instrument Two instruments were designed and used for the study. The first instrument is titled: Teachers’ Civic Knowledge Test (TCKT) while the second instrument is tilted: Teachers’ Civic Attitude Scale (TCAS). These instruments were designed by the researcher. The TCKT was divided into two sections. Section A requested personal data from the respondents. Section B was made up of a twenty-five item civic knowledge test. These items were developed from the civic education concepts in the primary school syllabus. This instrument was developed to test the extent to which the teachers understood the concepts that they were to teach in their classes. The content validity of the instrument was done by three Social Studies lecturers from Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo. The TCAS was also divided into two sections. Section A requested personal data from the respondents. Section B contained fifteen items which were civic issues relevant to the primary school civic education contents. This instrument was developed to measure the attitudes of primary school teachers to civic issues. The content validity of the instrument was done by three Social Studies lecturers from Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo. Initial drafts of the instruments were given to each of the lecturers. They made valuable corrections which were effected before the final drafts were produced. The validated instruments were administered to the teachers in their respective schools and the collection was done thereafter. Analysis and Result Frequency distribution and percentages were used in analyzing the data obtained from this study. The analysis was done on the basis of the research questions generate for the study.

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Research Question 1: Are primary school teachers professionally qualified and experienced to teach civic concepts? Table I: Primary School Teachers’ Qualification.

Category B.Ed. and B.Sc. NCE Grade II No response Total

Frequency 58 234 9 10 311

Percentage 18.6 75 2.9 3.2 100.0

Table I shows that 18.6% of the primary school teachers had B.Ed / B.Sc., 75% were NCE graduates while 2.9% of the teachers had grade II certificate. This reveals that most of the teachers possessed the necessary professional qualification (i.e. NCE) that is required to teach in Nigerian primary schools. Table 2: Primary School Teachers’ Teaching Experiences

Year 1-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21 and above Not response Total

Frequency 40 47 29 58 109 28 311

Percentages 12.9 15 9.3 18.6 35 9 100.0

Table 2 shows that 27.8% of the teachers have teaching experience between 1 and 10 years while 62.9% of the teachers have teaching experience of 11 years and above Research Question 2: Will primary school teachers obtain high knowledge score on civic concept? Table 3: Knowledge Score of Primary School Teachers on Civic Concepts Knowledge score 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59

Frequency 4 6 57 137 94 13

Percentage 1.29 1.92 18.3 44.1 30 4.2

Performance Very poor Poor Fair Average Good Excellent

Group % & Remarks 21.5 Below Average 44.1 Average 34.2 Above Average

Total score = 60 Table 3 shows that 21.5% of the teachers scored below average in the civic education knowledge test. 44% of the teachers had average score while 34.2% of the teachers scored above average in the civic education knowledge test.

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Research Question 3: Will primary school teachers manifest positive attitude to civic issues? Table 4: Attitude of primary school teachers to civic issues

Attitude score 0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59

Frequency 4 18 66 150 71 2

Percentage 1.29 5.79 21.2 48.2 22.8 0.64

Performance Very poor Poor Fair Average Good Excellent

Group % & Remarks 28.4 Below Average 48.2 Average 23.4 Above Average

Table 4 shows that 28.4% of the teachers scored below average in the civic attitude scale. 48.2% of the teachers had average score while 23.4% of the teachers scored above average in the civic attitude scale. Discussion The findings of this study showed that most of the sampled primary school teachers in southwestern Nigeria possessed NCE certificate which is the educational qualification required for teaching in primary schools in Nigeria. Also, majority of the teachers had teaching experience of 11 years and above. With this, it is expected that the teachers should be able to teach civic concepts in their respective classes. This is in agreement with the findings of Amosun (1999) that most of the sampled teachers in Ibadan possessed the necessary qualifications and teaching experiences to enable them teach environmental concepts. However, paper qualification and teaching experiences alone may not determine the effectiveness and competence of primary school teachers in teaching civic concepts. The civic knowledge and attitudes of the teachers are pre-requisites for their efficiency and effectiveness in teaching civic education. It could be seen from Table 3 that 44.1% of the teachers had average score in civic education knowledge test while 34.2% scored above average in civic education knowledge test. Going by the general axiom that the teacher must know ten times more or better than his students (Ajayi,1989), the majority of the sampled teachers do not possess the civic knowledge required to effectively teach civic education in their classes. This is the reason why Amosun (1999) concluded that if these categories of teachers are called upon to teach the concepts, their teaching performance would likely be lower than average. Again, the attitudes of the teachers to civic and political issues are of great importance to their effectiveness and competence in teaching civic education. The findings of this study revealed that 48.2% of the teachers had average score in civic attitude scale while 23.4% score above average. The performance of the sampled primary school teachers in the attitude test is fair. This finding is corroborated by Amosun (1999) that the sampled population of teachers in Ibadan manifested fairly positive environmental attitudes and environment related practices. Civic educators are expected to demonstrate high positive attitude to civic issues. Teachers that will mould the lives of the young ones and train them to become fair, just empathetic, patriotic, honest and loyal should not only teach the concepts but demonstrate the

Falade et al.

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virtues inherent in the concepts. This view is supported by Akintunde (2008) who argued that it is not enough to teach civic education as means of inculcating patriotic, democratic and citizenship values, it is equally important to demonstrate the values in schools particularly in classroom practices. The findings of this study may partly result from the content of the Nigerian teacher education programme. Civic education has not been given the required priority in our teacher education curriculum. The researchers discovered from this study that majority of the primary school teachers obtained their NCE certificates through part-time and sandwich programmes. As such, they were not exposed to qualitative training in subject based as well as civic and political matters. This is against the view of Oyekan (2006) that all the practicing teachers in our educational institutions should be professionally trained to handle the current diversified curricula and nurture productive citizens. He also observed that teacher education programmes should be structured to equip good teachers with the appropriate attitudes, skills and knowledge. Conclusion This study revealed that primary school teachers in southwestern Nigeria possessed the required teaching qualifications. Majority of the sampled teachers had obtained NCE certificates. Most of the teachers also had teaching experiences of 11 years and above. However, the study established that few of the teachers scored above average in civic knowledge test. Also, majority of the teachers manifested fairly positive attitude to civic issues. This indicates that the teachers did not possess adequate civic knowledge and at the same time, they did not demonstrate sufficient positive civic attitudes that could enable them to have the competence of teaching civic concepts at the primary school level. It is deduced from the findings of this study that the content and pattern of teacher education programme in Nigeria do not give required priority to the teaching of civic and political matters. Recommendations On the basis of the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. Civic education should be integrated into the Nigerian teacher education programme. All student teachers, regardless the course of study, should be exposed to civic and political issues and concepts 2. In-service training on civic and political matters should urgently be giving to primary school teachers in Nigeria. Such in-service training can be achieved through regular seminars and workshops. 3. There is the need to implement the teaching of civic education in all primary schools in Nigeria. The teaching of civic education should be a mandate for all primary schools in the country. 4.The Nigerian government and educational agencies should encourage and sponsor the publication of books relevant to the curriculum content of primary schools civic education programme. References 1. Adepoju, O.A. (2008). A Proposal for Renewed Teacher Education Programmes in Nigeria. Journal of Teacher Education. 9(1) 59-68. 2. Ajayi, A.O. (1989). Teacher Characteristics and Human Learning in School. Ed. Ezewu. Social Psychological Factors of Human Learning in School. Onitsha, Leadway Books limited. PP. 64-73.

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3. Ajibade, I.S. (2011). Civic Education: A Veritable Tool for Promoting Responsible Citizenship in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Social Studies, xiv (2), 68-76.

4. Amosun, P.A. (1999) An Assessment of Teachers Preparedness to Teach Environmental Education in Ibadan, Oyo State. African Journal of Educational Research. 5(2) 54-64. 5. Akintunde, S.A. (2008) Democratizing Classroom Practices in Nigeria: What Action Research has to Offer. Journal of Teacher Education. 9(1) 124-133. 6. Civic Education Report (2010). Retrieved in November, 2010 from://international youthorchange.org/ 7. Cultural Heritage National Training Organisation (2004). Career Development Introduction. Retrieved in February, 2011 from: http://www.chnto.co.uk/development/vqhe/VQHE. 8. Fan, A.F; Ekpo, M. D. and Ita, M.B. (2008). Towards Enhancing Moral and Religious Instructions in Primary Schools. Journal of Teacher Education. 9(1) 51-62 9. Falade, D.A. (2008). Questions and Answers on Concepts, Methods Issues and Problems in Social Studies. Lagos, NOVEC’KOL Publisers. 10. Harvey. L. (2011). Analytic Quality Glossary. http://www.qualityreseachintern- ational.com/glossary. 11. National Policy on Education (2004). Nigeria. 12. Oyekan, S.O. (2006) Foundations of Teacher Education, Ibadan: Ben Quality Prints. 13.Wojtczak, A. (2002). Glossary of Medical Education Terms. Retrieved in February, 2011 fromhttp://www.//me.org/glossary.htm,

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http://www.chnto.co.uk/development/vqhe/VQHE

http://www.qualityreseachintern-/

The Impact of foreign lecturers’ recruitment on higher education: An analysis from the Malaysian standpoint and

Challenges for Nigeria. 1Kazi Enamul Hoque, Gazi Mahabubul Alam, 2Oloruntegbe Kunle Oke, Faizah

Shamsudin, Siti Zabedah Ali Akbar, Rose Nizeana Moktharuddin and Yew Sook Fong

Faculty of Education, 1University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and 2Adekunle

Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria Abstract This study examined the impact of internalization on the university education of Malaysia and challenges for Nigeria. The examination was undertaking in the following areas: publications in Web of Science journals, competition between local and foreign lecturers in terms of publications, the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process, and world ranking. A qualitative method was used, with data being collected mostly through interviews with local and foreign lecturers, students, and human resource management officials in Malaysia. Correspondingly, causal comparative research design was adopted for data collection from existing records in Nigeria. The study found that the recruitment of foreign lecturers has a significant impact on improving the world ranking of higher education institutions and in increasing publications in Web of Science journals. Also, there was found to be a mixed reaction about their impact on the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process among local teachers and students. The extensive pressure to publish in Web of Science journals has caused the brain drain of experienced senior lecturers and professors. These were non-existent in the present day Nigerian higher institutions. These findings offer valuable information for educational policy makers, vice chancellors, human resource managers, local and foreign lecturers and students. Key words: Foreign lecturers’ recruitment, teaching and learning, Nigeria, Malaysia, qualitative method, educational institutions. Introduction As there has been great focus on the issues of human resources in the education sector, the importance of ‘knowledge societies’ has gained various dimensions, namely the role of education as a supplier of human resources, and the role of human resources in the delivery of education. The former needs proper direction to devise, implement, and execute the delivery model through skilled support services like planning, administration, finance and quality heads. The latter is the core component mainly poised to attract, develop and retain quality teachers through effective human resource management. A number of researchers have reported that human resource practices are positively linked with organizational and employee performance (Guest, 2002; Harley, 2002; Gould-Williams, 2003; Park et al., 2003; Tessema and Soeters, 2006). Essentially, the purpose of human resource management (HRM) is to maximize the productivity of an organization by optimizing the effectiveness of its employees. Higher education plays an important role in the formation of knowledge, economy and democratic society. Higher education is also the center for generating knowledge to ensure the public is more knowledgeable because of a knowledge society will improve the economy and indirectly also improve the development of a country (Alam and Hoque, 2010). It is important for the faculty of institutions of learning or universities to improve the resource allocation mechanism including human resources, academic and non-academic, physical resources and financial resources. The primary responsibilities

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International Journal of Research and Development (IJRD), ISSN 1596-969 Volume 1 No 2, pp 27-43 Faculty of Education, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria Available online at http://www.aauaeducationfac.org

associated with human resource management include job analysis and staffing, recruitment, organization and utilization of work force, measurement and appraisal of work force performance, implementation of reward system for employees, professional development of workers, and maintenance of work force. The recent agenda faced by Malaysian universities is the issue of raising their position to be one of the world’s top 100 universities. To achieve this prestigious position, they need to develop in many aspects. Most importantly, due attention is needed in some essential areas such as increasing the number of international faculty members proportionately, publication in ISI (Web of Science) journals and increasing the index citation. Therefore, the human resource division of universities has increased recruiting foreign teachers to improve its status in terms of world ranking in these three areas. Of all the public universities, the University of Malaya (UM) has recruited a record number of foreign faculty members, an issue that is subject to a lot of discussion. At the moment, UM has been ranked 180 in the world but the impact of recruiting this record number of foreign faculty members is still being questioned from different angles. A lot of questions have also arisen about the potential of local teachers. Thus, this study intends to investigate the impact of human resource engagement in the higher education of Malaysia. The following objectives have been formulated to investigate the research problem. Objectives

i. To investigate the impact of Human Resource (HR) to the University of Malaya. ii. To examine the lecturers perspectives about the impact of HR to the University

of Malaya iii. To examine the Human Resource Manager’s perspective about the impact of HR

in Higher Education. iv. To examine the impact on teaching and learning from teachers’ and students’

perspective. v. To examine the impact of all these on the development of university education in

Nigeria and Malaysia Literature Review Roles of Human Resource Management (HRM) Human resource management (HRM) is responsible for the human dimension of an organization. It has a significant role to play in today’s world in that it not only has to assist the organization in achieving its strategic direction, it also has to represent and advocate for the organization’s employees. At its broadest level, HRM comprises of the following functions: staffing, development, motivation, and maintenance. In other words, it is concerned with hiring competent people, training them, helping them perform at high levels, and providing mechanisms to ensure that these employees maintain their productive affiliation with the organization. Studies show that HRM plays an important role in formulating and implementing organizational strategy. Myloni et al. (2004) found that also HRM can be seen as part of the overall strategy of the firm. The increasingly importance of HRM in strategy has then led the HR managers to be part of the decision makers while formulating and implementing strategy. Rozhan and Zakaria’s (1996) study of Malaysian firms provides some evidence of HR managers having an involvement in the strategy formulation process. Most research suggests that HRM is vital in order for an organization to achieve organizational success (Barney, 1991; Jackson and Schuler, 2000; Pfeffer, 1998). Typically, HRM is considered to be vital in order for an organization to achieve its success by enabling the organization to sustain competitive advantage. Literature on strategic HRM even indicates that HRM practices and systems contribute to the creation

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Kazi Enamul Hoque, Gazi Mahabubul Alam, Oloruntegbe Kunle Oke, Faizah Shamsudin, Siti Zabedah Ali Akbar, Rose Nizeana Moktharuddin and Yew Sook Fong

of a sustained competitive advantage for the firm (Backer and Huselid, 1998). As a result, it is important that a firm adopt HRM practices that make use of its employees. Guest (2002) has argued that the impact of HRM on performance depends on the workers’ response to HRM practices, so the impact will move in direction of the perception of HRM practices by the employee. As no organization can depend on genius, the supply is always scarce and unreliable. It is the test of an organization to make ordinary people perform better than they seem capable of doing, to bring out whatever strength there is in its members, and to use each person's strength to help all the other members perform. According to Backer and Gurhert (1996), the spirit of performance requires that there be full scope for individual excellence. The focus must be on the strengths - on what people can do rather than on what they cannot do. Foreign teachers’ recruitment (International perspective) During Asia’s boom decade, HRM issues were given a short shift. Labour was plentiful, and rather than training, companies relied on importing knowledge and trained professionals from overseas. In a time of fast growth, employees also were more interested in chasing ever increasing salary and benefits packages rather than enhancing skills. In an analysis of the way universities in Australia have responded to financial reduction, Davies (1997a) has noted that there is a definite move from a loose policy control and a collegiate environment to a tight policy control of a corporation. As control over research directions has been gradually shifting from researchers to administrators, the linkages between the vision of the institution and its implementation has weakened. Researchers tend to be left out of the decision-making process, yet they are expected to be instrumental to the success of the vision. A sense of frustration and helplessness is perceived by staff when there is a disparity between their capacity and the directives from institutional leaders to perform. Issues concerning staff such as expertise and critical mass are even more pertinent at regional universities than at their more established counterparts. Training former college staff to become active researchers become active researchers is a long-term process, even in combination with the scheme to import senior researchers with good track records to act as mentors and to drive the change. Apart from the length of time required to acquire necessary skills, the old attitude and culture which only values teaching efforts also significantly hinders progress in the development of a research and innovative culture, and causes tension among staff. In addition, some staffs simply do not have the aptitude for research and it is a futile exercise to demand that they attempt to become involved in research. Employment relations in the tertiary education sector have been through enormous and contentious reforms, particularly in the area of managing, codifying and measuring academic performance. A number of studies have been conducted in institutions of higher learning in New Zealand and Australia. Bruce Curtis (2007) critiques the changes and impact of the Performance-Based Research Fund (PBRF). He notes that: “… the new fund provides both opportunities and dilemmas to the management and academic staff of universities”. Hence, the institutions would encounter both positive as well as negative impact following the implementation of this fund. On the other hand, Morris, Pauline and Suzanne (2007) examine the performance management within the context of universities, arguing that although the use of performance management as a developmental or monitoring/control tool is not clear, universities are now strategically linking performance management with organizational goals. It is a matter of concern to academic staff that “…performance appraisals are being used to reward staff in areas that were traditionally considered as standard working rights and conditions”.

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Stephen and Bernadine (2007) report on the findings of a survey that explored staff perceptions of change management in Australian universities with a view to gauge the effectiveness of workplace change provisions in higher education enterprise agreements. Their findings show that there was a divergence in the perceptions of management and union representatives on workplace changes and they highlight the limitations of existing processes to meet the expectations and demands of these key sector participants. According to Stella and Keri (2007), while the introduction of performance measures associated with accreditation have added more pressure to an already over-stretched academic workforce, these measures may also have targeted benefits when used to improve curriculum. Their findings showed that the AACSB accreditation requirements have modified academic resistance to change and have also resulted in a more meaningful teaching and learning experience. Foreign teachers’ recruitment in the local perspective The Malaysian higher education system has undergone tremendous change during the last two decades. Although the number of tertiary students and universities in Malaysia is growing steadily, the most dramatic growth was due to the new economic and educational reforms. This move has drastically changed the nature and ethos of universities and has seen the emergence of a number of new small regional universities. As universities have to cater for a mass clientele while trying to reduce cost, educational approaches need to be revamped. Competition between universities has resulted in a more client-based approach to education and more flexible learning methods. Political and economic pressures have also forced universities to adopt a more outward-looking attitude. Unlike regional universities in the United Kingdom which are of a diverse nature, ranging from those of considerable international or national standing to former colleges whose primary interests are local or regional, regional universities in Australia consist mainly of former colleges of advanced education, teaching colleges or TAFE colleges. In a competitive environment where Australian universities are funded on a uniform basis and expected to maintain a high performance level in both teaching and research, local universities have found themselves at a disadvantage due to a few inherent difficulties. It is a struggle for them to retain talented local students who believe larger universities and cities can offer better study and employment opportunities. The small scale also results in the lack of a critical mass of staff in any specific area, which is a crucial factor for the development and sustaining of new activities. Such problems are even more prominent for research than teaching, since the majority of staff at these new universities have little to no research training or experience in publishing and attracting competitive research grants. Fewer and larger research grants would induce further concentration of resources, and the funding formula which is based mainly on the number of postgraduate student completions and the amount of external research income would certainly favor established and research-oriented universities. Another factor that has significant impact on local universities is the emphasis expressed in the paper for the need for universities to align their activities with the economic development of their region: “Institutions will need to be more assertive in the way they involve themselves with the economics of the region in which they are located, and contribute more to their own and to national objectives through their teaching, research, leadership, information and networking.” A somewhat vague promise for a one-off structural adjustment package has been perceived as an incentive for local universities to embrace this view. Against this background, it is understandable that local universities need to adopt new strategic directions in order to respond quickly to external pressure and opportunities.

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The recruitment of foreign teachers is a step in tackling this pressure. To cope with global trends, internationalization has been essential to the universities. Thus, the engagement of foreign students and teachers are the prerequisites of internationalization. This has Table 1. Malaysian Universities in the Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings. 2008 2009 2010 2011 School 230 180 207 167 University of Malaya 250 291 263 279 University of Kebangsaan Malaysia 313 314 309 335 University of Sains, Malaysia 356 320 365 401+ University of Technology, Malaysia 320 345 319 358 University of Putra, Malaysia Sources: Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings. resulted in an unusually fast turnabout of visions and missions in some local universities, which sometimes have not been thought through properly, and thus appear either conflicting or inconsistent. These sudden changes in direction have also created serious tension between institutional leaders and staff at a grassroots level. While the senior management appear to enthusiastically embrace and broadcast the rhetoric of a new vision, many staffs feel that their work and environment have been undermined without any obvious benefits. Methodology Qualitative methods were used that allowed interviewees to express their views in a free and personal way, giving as much prominence as possible to their thematic associations. Semi structured interviews by qualitative approach were held with:

I. Three local lecturers. II. One foreign lecturer.

III. (iii)Two human resource officers. IV. Four students.

Document Reviews A number of secondary texts were reviewed to materialize this research. Documents include University staffs directory, documents of THES-QS World University Rankings and students directory from department office. Research Design The study is going to use a qualitative approach and give justification for the choice of qualitative approach. It is a multi-study by gathering of data to answer the research question. A case study or multi study is a variation of an ethnography in that the researcher provides an in-depth exploration of a bounded system (e.g., an activity, an event, a person, or an individual) based on extensive data collection (Cresswell, 2007). According to Gay and Airasian (1996), the main focus of qualitative research is to give further understanding on the activities from the researcher’s perspective. The research design allows an in-depth inquiry into the lecturers and the Human Resource Manager’s perspectives on the impact of HRM in Higher Education, particularly in the University of Malaya and thus, it is most appropriate to use qualitative research design. Furthermore, qualitative research, aims to explain in depth phenomenon which potentially gives a better picture of the study. According to Creswell, 2002, it is the most

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appropriate approach for a field of inquiry about which is previously known; and it provides a detailed understanding of the phenomenon under study (Suseela, 2007). In qualitative research, there are various methods used to examine the information such as the case studies, interviews, observations, historical research, phenomenon study and basic theories (Ary, Jacobs and Razevich, 2002). Stake, in Suseela, (2007), states that qualitative research can be considered as the most appropriate approach to study educational issues that involve processes as it aid in looking at the issues in depth. Sampling A simple random sampling method was chosen in this study as each possible sample combination has equal probability of being chosen (Kish, 1965; Cochran, 1977). In this method, the population element can enter the sample only once. Once selected, the units are not returned to the population before the next draw. There arethree methods of selection of simple random sampling: i) Lottery method ii) Table 1 of random numbers and iii) Random number selections using calculators or computers. In this study, the researchers have followed the lottery method to elect the respondents. Many researchers (Nyarango et al., 2008; Nisar and Sohoo, 2010) have used lottery methods as it is considered totally bias free. In order to select the respondents, we went through the staff directory from the university website. The names were listed in alphabetical order. There were about 2500 lecturers from which 500 were foreigners. The ratio of foreign to local lecturers was 1:4. Following the lottery system, we randomly selected a letter that was considered to be the initial letter of the first name of the respondents. We found 15 lecturers with two foreign lecturers in the staff directory beginning with this letter. We started communicating with them via email and phone calls before the final interviews took place in order to build up rapport. Three lecturers were on study leave. The researchers then sent a letter of request explaining the research topic and objectives to all 12 lecturers. They were contacted through their office telephones and cell phones (where available). Only 7 out of 12 lecturers agreed and scheduled for interviews, of which two were foreign lecturers. One of the authors interviewed the lecturers, guided by semi-structured questionnaires and all the dialogues were recorded with their consent. Unfortunately, two local and one foreign lecturer declined to participate in the interview at the final stage quoting the topic as a ‘sensitive issue’. The principal researcher assured them of utmost confidentiality but they did not change their decision. Therefore, the number of respondents from lecturer category was only four with a foreign lecturer. Accordingly, only four human resource officers were found whose first names began with the letter elected by lottery. All four officers were contacted but only two agreed and scheduled for interviews with the same assurance of utmost confidentiality. About 25 Masters Students were found from the Faculty of Socia Sciences whose first names began with the letter chosen by lottery. Only 15 of them had classes with both local and foreign lecturers. Their e-mail addresses and cell phone numbers were collected from the department office and were contacted. Some of them had already finished their courses and was waiting for convocation. Only six of them primarily agreed and scheduled for interviews. Four students were successfully interviewed but the other two rescheduled their interview dates and times and finally apologized, one for flight delays and another one for family sickness. Lastly, all ten respondents were interviewed, of which three were local lecturers, one a foreign lecturer, two were human resource officers and four were students.

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Interview Interviews were the main method we relied on to receive clear answers to our research questions. We briefly examined the interview techniques which we applied with a view to eliciting valid and reliable answers (Bell, 1993; Cohen et al., 2002). First, let us explain the reason for choosing the semi-structured interview method. As suggested by Cohen et al. (2002); Kane (1997) as well as Bell (1993), the researchers needed to conduct trial interviews with colleagues before conducting final interviews with the respondents. We conducted trial interviews with colleagues and discovered that we needed to ask some further questions after receiving the answers of the respondents so we decided upon the semistructured interview technique. Before starting the interview proper,we took a minute to explain the research title and the purpose of the research, to give an instant idea of the research focus. (We had already mailed the research proposal to them along with the title, aim, and research questions). We also assured them of the confidentiality of their replies (Bell, 1993, Cohen et al., 2002). Each interview lasted 50 to 60 min. Keeping these research questions in mind, we asked them several indirect questions and the respondents’ answers led me to ask further questions, especially to justify the impact of foreign lecturers’ recruitment in the earlier mentioned areas. Instruments Validity and reliability The researchers have developed four categories (Local Lecturer + Foreign lecturer + Human resource managers + Students) of semistructured questionnaires (Appendix A) in order to obtain information to achieve the research objectives. The opinion of professional colleagues was sincerely considered to standardize the instruments whether it would cover the research areas. The subjects of this paper are the respondents of ten interviews. It has been proven that in order to receive proper, specific, valid and reliable data in a qualitative approach, attention must be paid to the triangulation of samples (Cohen et al., 2002; Mathison, 1988). We, therefore, selected our respondents from four categories: local lecturers, foreign lecturers, human resource managers and students. Data analysis The basic skills required from the researchers were the ability to analyze qualitative or symbolic material involving collecting, classifying, ordering, synthesizing, evaluating and interpreting. At the basis of all these acts lies sound professional judgment (Cohen et al., 2002). This statement adequately presents our work and efforts during the stage of the analysis of the findings. The researchers collected raw data from the interviews with the lecturers, the HR managers and students. All data were analyzed, Hoque et al. 3941 structured and screened to get the relevant information. The data collected from interviews were analyzed into themes to answer the research objectives. Four themes were generated from the interview transcripts. The first and second theme is the impact of foreign lecturers to the University of Malaya and the impact to teaching and learning. The third theme is the competition among the lecturers and the fourth theme is on human resource management. Labeling of respondents and data coding and ethical issues Robson (2002) pointed out that sometimes guaranteeing confidentiality helps the researcher elicit valid data. Though Patton (2002) agrees with Robson’s opinion, he also points out the issues of reliability; he emphasizes that even when keeping confidentiality, the data collected may be reliable, but critics question the reliability on the grounds that there are almost no chances to verify the data collected. It was important (Bell, 1993) to build up a small amount of trust with respondents before they

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allowed me to interview them. So we emailed them, assuring them that confidentiality would be maintained at all times, especially when the research would be presented in a paper; and we also tried to make our actual aims clearer. The identity of each of the respondents has been withheld to respect their confidentiality and ethics. In consideration of confidentiality, we labeled and coded the respondents (Bell, 1993). So in the findings and discussions section of this paper, the 10 respondents were referred to as, X, Y, Z, Q, M, R, N, S, L and K . The significance of research techniques adopted Some may question why a large sample or quantitative approach was not used, thus allowing for greater pool of information However, there are particular reasons why a fairly small sample was chosen. This is explained below. Firstly, this research investigated some issues that are very new and unique in their nature. The lack of relevant previous works restricted the researchers from having an idea that would help them to design quantitative tools (Alam, 2009). The investigation of a completely new area often demands a qualitative approach since many successful studies were achieved through it, as it provides parameters or metaphors to design the tools applicable to a quantitative approach. Secondly, the nature of the inquiry required in-depth insight rather than straightforward or simple opinions or statistics. Thirdly, it is also important to note funding and time constraints. However, since the issues were important in order to bring spotlight, quantitative interviews subsidized by case study style brought many insights to the problems that would help further studies to be conducted at this field. Limitations of the research Financial constraint has been the main limitation of this piece of personal research, meaning that it was not possible to conduct a wider research. Since, no funder is readily available; we conducted a small scale of research to bring the issue to the spotlight. Although a large scale empirical study is a key to explore this issue, while we lack adequate fund to conduct such study, therefore an exploratory study is conducted at a small scale using case study interviews. It seeks mainly an answer as to how much of a contribution is made by the foreign lecturers. However, a significant amount of data was collected, and selection of data for analysis and presentation created a problem (Patton, 2002). Avoiding personal ‘biasness and subjectivity’ (Cohen et al., 2002: 184) in relation to what should or should not be presented in the study was difficult. However, the data finally selected is, we believe, representative of what we found, heard and noted. In conclusion, we do not claim that this study is a postulate forever but could be a model for further studies. We also argue that the developing world could benefit from the findings, discussion and suggestions of this study. Results and Discussion The findings and discussions are based on interviews with X, Y, Z and Q, who are lecturers from the University of Malaya (UM). M is a human resource manager from a private college and R is a former head of department and human resource manager from UM. Four Masters’ students namely NA, S, L and K from UM were interviewed about the impact of foreign lecturers on the teaching-learning process as they have practical experience of having classes with them. The Impact of Foreign Lecturers to the University of Malaya For X, the most significant impact that she can see is on student performance, as a result of the university’s recruitment drive to employ more foreign lecturers, in order to improve its position in the QS World Universities Rankings. According to X, the impact of hiring foreign lecturers includes the following: the acceptance of different cultures and organizational cultures brought in by the foreigners to the university, competition in terms of work quality created by the local lecturers and improvement in the quality

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of student performance, as a result of the impact of the foreign lecturers’ experience and knowledge. With regard to the acceptance of different cultures and organizational cultures brought in by the foreign lecturers to the university, her hope was that they (the foreign lecturers) will have to eventually adapt to the local culture. This, she said, will definitely pose some problems to some foreign lecturers. She also admitted that the scenario today is different from what it used to be many years ago and this has affected the work culture of the university. Y, a lecturer from UM argues that that while the Vice-Chancellor has done well in hiring PhD holders, both he and the human resource management (HRM) should also recruit lecturers from Oxbridge and Ivy League Universities, or from countries such as Canada, the USA or Australia. Instead, he has employed doctorate holders from countries like Burma, Bangladesh, the Philippines and the UAE to save money from the budget. Mr. Y believes that this is a step back rather than forward as international lecturers should be sharing the advancement of their countries with the students and not vice versa He also believes that these international lecturers have been recruited just to fulfill THES-QS requirements in order to climb up the world ranking. R lambasted the Vice-Chancellor’s actions in employing lecturers from countries that were less-developed than Malaysia. He feels that both the lecturers and students of UM should be able to tap their brains and not the other way round. Instead, the Vice-Chancellor should employ lecturers from Ivy League universities or other renowned institutions. R claims that the countries from which these lecturers originate are less developed and their policies have yet to be established; how can they possibly be expected to teach about policy? He also raises the complaints students have made against these lecturers. Their approach, language proficiency and lack of factual teaching will jeopardize the standard of instruction in UM. He adds that UM may become one of the top 100 best universities in the world but their product quality is severely at stake; it is a case of cost effectiveness versus quality. Q, in terms of culture, stated that most of these foreign lecturers are talented and it will not find the process of assimilating themselves a problem. As they have come here to work, they should respect the local culture. As for the issue of the recruitment of foreign teachers from countries less-developed than Malaysia, he cited an example from a Faculty of UM, where a lecturer from a country less-developed country than Malaysia has produced at least 20 articles in ISI journals within a year and has subsequently been promoted to associate professor (from senior lecturer within a year), while some other lecturers from more developed countries at the same faculty could not produce a single article in ISI journal within the same period. He also agrees that foreign lecturers who have not shown their potential should not have their tenure extended. Nevertheless, the issues of nationality, race, and religion should not recruitment criteria. In terms of the potential of local lecturers, he believed them to be talented but lacking in both commitment and the technique of producing ISI articles despite time constraints. He added that the recruitment of foreign teachers has helped UM improve its ranking to the 180th spot, but this will not work next time if not enough publications and citations can be produced. The University of Malaya was ranked 230th best in the world by the THES-QS World University Rankings in 2008 (Table 1). Only recently, it was announced that it had improved its ranking to 180, to the joy of every member of the university, especially the Vice-Chancellor, Professor Datuk Dr. Ghauth Jasmon. Since taking the helm as Vice-Chancellor in 2007, he has been working on reaching the top 200. In an interview with the New Straits Times on October 8th 2009, the overjoyed Ghauth said that the improved position will greatly boost the morale of both staff and students. He added that everyone now realizes what has to be done to meet their KPI, as

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well as the criteria that has to be fulfilled before applying for promotion. He pointed out that UM has gone on a massive recruitment drive and has hired many international educators, besides increasing its foreign stud post graduate studies. net intake which now numbers over 1000 with 99% in post-graduate studies. In highlighting the issue of human resource management, the Vice-Chancellor said that the university is also revamping its hiring formula to improve the quality of its research. He explained that the university only accepts staffs who have published in ISI journals, adding that one can be sure of the quality as only 10% of submissions are accepted. This is he ensures that the research meets international standards. Ghauth is now even more motivated in pushing UM into the top 100 within the next five years, and is convinced UM can do just that. He further explained that he will be doubling up research in future. He wants his staff to publish more international textbooks and ISI journal articles, especially in the social sciences, an area, he pointed out, that was lagging behind the other faculties. At a meeting with some 150 UM alumni in January, Ghauth highlighted the areas in which UM must improve upon. These include quality of research and publications, academic staff and students, programs and delivery, international collaboration and networking, and entrepreneurship development. Ghauth stated that UM, which currently has substantial number of foreign lecturers, will continue to hire qualified lecturers from the United States of America, the United Kingdom and Australia. The impact of competition and ISI publications on lecturers The other impact to the university is healthy competition in terms of work quality, such as the increase in demand for research and the writing of ISI papers among foreign and local lecturers. Again, this is definitely a challenge to the local lecturers. According to X, the international lecturers come from a varied background, with most of them possessing academic qualifications from different international universities. As a result, they pose a challenge to the local academic staff and this will develop stiff but healthy competition to upgrade and improve the quality of work amongst them, particularly in the areas of research and publication. X is positive that the impact will help to improve the quality of student performance as a result of the foreign lecturers’ varied teaching approach, knowledge and experience. However, it is still too early to tell if there is any impact. In addition to this, Y states that the pressure has been immense as everyone is expected to produce ISI quality research. The diversity of experience in this area will encourage the local lecturers to compete with their international counterparts, although they should be mindful that their teaching is not affected. With regard to the issue of ISI publications, R maintains that this is the only way for UM to meet its aims. He states that the lecturers are under severe pressure, with many professors receiving show-cause letters from the Vice-Chancellor for not being able to publish their write-ups as Hoque et al. 3943 expected. They feel threatened by this new culture, feeling they are out of their comfort zone. However, he admits that it has not been easy for the Vice-Chancellor to change them. He states that they can either ignore his injunctions as they are already professors or financially stable or they can let the brain-drain occur. R believes that there are good and experienced teachers who are not inclined to do research. He believes that Ghauth should learn from the National University of Singapore where some lecturers are employed for solely to teach and some just to carry out research. Q comments that although the Vice-Chancellor has announced that publications in ISI journals from the Social Sciences faculties have increased tremendously, he should not be so adamant on requiring ISI publications from all lecturers. In order to meet this directive, every faculty should build up their research culture and teamwork. For example, one of the lecturers in a team may be very experienced in ISI publication. As such, local lecturers

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can benefit by teaming up with foreign lecturers who have an excellent track record of publishing articles in ISI journals. On the other hand, lecturers who prefer teaching should be allowed to do so, just as those who prefer to publish should be supported in their endeavours. He agrees that the Vice-Chancellor should emulate Singapore’s example at UM. The impact on teaching and learning The lecturers’ perspective According to Y, many senior lecturers that are good in teaching but not research are affected by the research based mission introduced by the new Vice-Chancellor. They are disturbed by the new culture since they have been in their comfort zone for quite some time. The drastic change in key performance indicators (KPI) and expectations is putting a lot of pressure on them. Thus, they may choose to either retire early or find another institution to work in. As a result, the university will face a brain-drain and lose the experienced lecturers and this will affect the teaching and learning in many faculties. The standard of instruction in the University of Malaya will be severely affected. With regard to the standard of teaching and learning, R states that some courses are taught by both local and international lecturers, with the students complaining that could not understand the subject matter due to the method of delivery. As a result, they have had to ask for notes from their friends who are taught by local lecturers. He maintains that he is not biased and was merely repeating what the students he supervises had told him. Q believes that this is a great opportunity for local students to share their knowledge with foreign lecturers, allowing them to increase their English proficiency. More importantly, they will be familiar with ISI culture and will not be worried when they begin to work. He believes that this culture should be continued for the sake of the future generation. Although some students are finding difficulties in coping with the language barrier, most of the students have accepted it as a challenge to be faced. The students’ perspective NA was frustrated when she came to know that foreign lecturers would be conducting two of her courses and that the medium of instruction would be English. She was worried because she was not proficient in English. After seeing the head of department she was informed that she had no choice but to take those courses. She remarked that at the time, she felt that both her education and her career were at risk. Regardless of this, she decided to sit for the classes anyway and within few days, she managed to adapt to the new situation and found foreign lecturers to be active, friendly, cooperative, and more importantly, gets the students to do his work. She was so convinced that she had decided to write her thesis in English and chose a foreign lecturer as her supervisor. In the beginning, S felt the same way as NA at the beginning because she used Bahasa Malaysia throughout her academic life. She says that she had a class with a native English speaker and another with a non-native speaker, finding it difficult to understand the instruction of the former throughout her class. She blamed herself, stating that it was her lack of proficiency was the fault of no one but her own. Nevertheless, she was not satisfied about the teaching and learning process, causing her to raise her dissatisfactions with the management. However, L, another student, was excited when she knew that one of her courses would be conducted by a foreign lecturer. Although she had previously attended classes conducted in English, this was the first time she was to be taught by a foreign lecturer. She expressed her gratitude to the foreign lecturer as she found him cooperative, active, knowledgeable and, most importantly, she enjoyed the three hour class from start to finish. In terms of the teaching and learning process, she said that some students were bored in some classes but the same students were enjoying the class taught by the

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international lecturer. For K, this was the first time she had come across lecturers who were caring, friendly and knew the technique of involving the students with the teaching-learning process. She added that the supervisor for her own thesis was a foreign lecturer who was an expert in the field and gave detailed feedback, which she found pleasantly surprising. The impact on lecturers who fail to stay current According to R, many senior lecturers have grown complacent in their teaching, with a tendency to adhere to outmoded theories. He cited the field of accountancy and engineering as an example of failure to stay updated with current technology, instead continuing to teach what they learnt 20 years ago. As a result, graduates are not being sufficiently prepared for the job market. Therefore, he notes, the students UM produces are not prepared by practitioners but instead by theorists. He suggests they emulate medical lecturers who are current in their teaching and can function in practical areas, instead of just the lecture hall. Human resource management at the University of Malaya and private higher education institutions According to X, the recruitment of academic staff at the University of Malaya is based on the needs of the university. Applicants have to go through a screening process, which is done by both the university and the Human Resource Division. After being selected to the posts, the HR Division is responsible for the training, salary, bonus and promotion of the employees. MM added that the principles of HRM within an organisation refer to the existence of a Mission Statement. Without this Mission Statement, the organization will not have any goals and objectives. Recruitment and selection in private colleges are mostly dominated by their owners. HR professionals need to operate and present a high-profile regional context, while acknowledging local stakeholders and interest groups. Despite this, the education market is now unmistakably global. HR teams must hire internationally and fight off recruitment raids from overseas institutions. The recruitment of international lecturers from third world countries is more cost effective compared to those from developed countries. The most important aspects are the exposure of the lecturers to the subject matter and the experience that can be shared. M also highlighted that several colleges have instigated coaching and mentoring schemes, providing tailored help in developing strategy and adapting behaviour. Organisations that have applied this at all level can expect to see an impact on personal development, culture change and on institutional alignment. Such management or leadership development programs differ from career management or career development programs. Cultural awareness programs for international staff where English is their second language are rare, as are the use of cultural awareness programs for native English-speakers who work with other nationalities. An increasing number of private sector organisations now outsource recruitment to reduce costs or free up HR resources. Online recruitment is now used extensively and job boards are seen as a highly effective low-cost medium. Its effectiveness in terms of delivering candidates was widely acknowledged. This is highlighted in the interview with Z (HRM officer) from Multimedia University (MMU), Malaysia. According to Z, MMU also provides special training programs designed on functional aspects and leadership development, in order to build knowledge as well as management capability at a dedicated training facility. The training faculty is drawn from premier national and internationally-renowned organizations. It strives to develop globally-recognized benchmarked skills and capabilities. There are well-defined performance parameter governing the performance management system, employee empowerment, and achievement of goals, thus

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reinforcing its achievement-oriented culture. There is a structured process of identifying and developing leadership potential. R, the previous human resource officer, had the following opinion in terms of lecturers’ publication and key performance indicators: (i) The needs to fulfill THES-QS criteria: Although efforts are made to recruit PhD holders who will be able to both teach and conduct research, the time provided to advertise the positions and screen the best candidates was limited. UM may be a research university but the budget allocated to employ lecturers from developed and reputable universities is inadequate. Furthermore, for lecturers to leave their universities they need to give ample notice and UM must be willing to pay an attractive compensation fee. As such, the HRM and the university is doing the best they can within these constraints. (ii) Brain Drain: Some excellent lecturers have left UM for better pay and promotion prospects. While academic staffs are precious, they can just jump ship to other public universities which can offer them better compensation without losing their retirement benefits. (iii) Key Performance Indicator (KPI): With the new Vice-Chancellor, the KPI for UM lecturers is clear cut. They know that they must be productive in order to be promoted or receive good remuneration. Lecturers must work either individually or in groups to produce ISI publications. This differs from the previous situation where there was no transparent criterion in receiving a professorship or promotion. Some are delighted by this turn of events but some senior lecturers are displeased that their comfort zones are being disturbed. The present Vice-Chancellor is focused and will issue show-cause letters to those who are not productive. It is expected that some will retire early or jump ship to other universities. All in all, it is beneficial for the lecturers that there is less bias and that the situation is more objective and transparent. They now know what has to be done to meet their professional aims. R’s opinion does not differ much from Y or Q’s, the only additional being the failure of certain lecturers to stay updated in their teaching, which will surely effect UM students upon graduation. Nigerian Experience Nigeria had made some giant strides in a few areas of economic development, a situation attributed mainly to oil exploration rather investment in education, industry, agriculture and science and technology. The two major indices of development, education and science and technology, are not getting enough attention as government expenditure in education is far below expectation when compared with other developing nations let alone developed ones (Oloruntegbe, 2011). A close look at the table below reveals how lightly Nigeria funds its education when compared some other African nations. Table 2. Selected African Nations Education Spending as Percentages of GDP

Country % GDP Country % GDP Country % GDP Angola 2.7 Liberia 4.5 Rwanda 2.8 Algeria 4.3 Libya 3.8 Senegal 3.2 Cote d’ Voire 4.6 Madagascar 3.2 Sierra Leone 2.7 Cameroun 3.2 Morocco 2.8 South Africa 5.7 Ethiopia 4.8 Mali 5.5 Sudan 1.4 Eritrea 48 Mozambique 2.4 Tunisia 6.8 Egypt 4.5 Namibia 8.6 Uganda 2.3 Kenya 6.4 Nigeria 1.3 Zambia 1.9 Zimbabwe 4.7

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Source: Salami (2011). Entrepreneurial Interventionism and Challenges for Youth Unemployment in Nigeria There have been several complaints about the lack of Nigerian Universities being listed in the top 2000 list of global Universities and wonder why the situation is like that. The reasons the universities fall below the universally acceptable standard of teaching and research are not far fetch. Coming from the President of the country is a revelation that 60% of lecturers in Nigerian Universities don’t have Doctorate Degrees (Adeyemo, 2012). The overall and major reason bothers on inadequate funding (Babatope, 2010) with the attendant dearth of infrastructural and learning facilities, overcrowded classrooms and dearth of research. About four to six decades ago (from 1960s to 80s), Nigerian universities witnessed foreign patronages because the learning and living environments were conducive. Foreign lecturers and students (usually the wards of these lecturers) were everywhere in the few existing universities then. We had them in University of Ibadan, University of Lagos and Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Today, they are non-existent in these universities. For these numerous problems, the universities find it extremely difficult to attract expatriates and to meet the criteria for Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings which include funding, research outputs, teaching facilities, internationalization and graduate employment rating in the world market among others. Whereas the leading university in Malaysia, University of Malaysia draws students and lecturers from over 80 countries in the world with high governmental expenditure and funding, no Nigerian universities come close to having students from neighboring African nations let alone from outside. According to the Governor of Central Bank of Nigeria, Nigerian students in Ghana universities alone paid close to N155b in 2011, the figure rose to N160b in 2012. No one is disagreeing with Nigerian studying abroad, but if the universities at home are comparatively funded and good, foreigners will be rushing to study in such institutions. Just as the balance of trades is tilted against Nigerian nation for the craving of the people for imported goods and inability to export manufactured goods, if part of the money spent by its students abroad is conserved the home universities will also have a place in the world. Right now there is no such place for the universities. A close look at the table below revealed that none of the universities in Nigeria made below 2000 in World University Ranking compared with those in Malaysia with as high in performance as 167. Table 3. Performance of Nigerian Universities in 2011- 2012Times Higher Education-QS World University Rankings University Africa World University of Benin 31 2485 University of Ibadan 45 3215 University of Ilorin 41 3242 University of Lagos 55 3691 University of Nigeria 64 4031 Ahmadu Bello Univ 76 4379 University of Jos 88 5040 Covenant University 94 5489 Univ of Agric. Abeokuta 116 6565 National Open University 125 7099 University of Port Harcourt 132 7065 Ambrose Alli University 181 10088

University Africa World Federal University, Minna 312 13750 Ekiti State University 314 13781 Federal University, Owerri 323 13963 Babcock University 333 14203 University of Maiduguri 348 14484 Bowen University 396 14990 Fed University, Oye, Ekiti 378 15032 Osun State University 433 16003 Rivers University of Tech 437 16031 Enugu University of Tech 443 16035 Abu Tafawa B. University 492 16686 Afe Babalola University 524 17094

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Bayero University, Kano 188 10325 University of Calabar 224 11357 Nmadi Azikwe University 228 11602

Abuja University 532 17188 Lagos State University 568 17711 Eboyin State University 571 17789

Table 4 Performance of Universities in Malaysia 2011-2012 2012Times Higher Education-QS World University Ranking University (2011) Asia World University Malaya 167 Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia 279 Universiti Sains Malaysia 335 Universiti Putra Malaysia 358

University (2011) Asia World Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 401 - 450 International Islamic University 451 - 500 Universiti Teknologi Mara 600+

This is really a food for thought for Nigeria.. Universities are supposed to provide countries with advanced skilled manpower and be a breeding ground for great technological achievements. Sure enough most Nigerian universities are lagging in this area and this is one of the reasons the graduates are not taken seriously when they pursue vacant jobs abroad and a huge minus for the much mouthed vision 20,2020 Conclusion Some issues such as brain drain, recruiting teachers for lecturing and researching separately as in Singapore’s case, key performance indicators, competitiveness among local and foreign teachers in terms of publications Hoque et al. 3945 in Web of Science, new culture creation by recruiting many foreign lecturers at a time and students’ freedom to choose their courses either in Bahasa or English have been revealed as the major impact of recruiting foreign lecturers. Most of these findings are aligned with Tahir and Ismail’s study (2007), who had identified almost similar issues in their extensive qualitative study through interviews on the issue of ‘adjustment of expatriates in Malaysia’. Another vital issue is the recruitment of lecturers from countries less-developed than Malaysia. African nations including Nigeria were classified among these less-developed, notwithstanding the fact that the two countries belong to same blocs, the G8 and the Commonwealth and that one rendered some help for the economic take-off of the other. But the situation is quite different now, as can be seen in tables Malaysia must have been more committed to her educational development which in turn had resulted in higher economic and national development. The issue of brain was mentioned as resulting from and reflecting in inequality of government expenditure in education (Oloruntegbe, 2011), a good number of developing nations, Nigeria and Malaysia inclusive, paraded sound intellectuals in various fields. Brain drain and brain circulation are worldwide phenomena; the latter often results in knowledge sharing while in case of the former, the movement is skewed in favour of the developed nations who get the best professionals all the times. This fact and some other findings seem to contradict the finding of this study as skilled and talented expatriates, regardless of nationality, do contribute to national development of the country they migrated to (Alam et al., 2010; Oloruntegbe et al., 2010). Hoque et al. (2010) in their recent study revealed that a collegial relationship creates opportunities to share knowledge. Following this, the researchers suggest that the management ensure the positive collegial relationship among local and foreign lecturers to share global knowledge and to create a research environment.

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Degrees – President Goodluck Jonathan. Bella Naija August 22nd Edition Alam GM (2009). The role of science and technology education at network age

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Alam GM, Hoque KE (2010). Who gains from brain and body drain business – developing/developed world or individuals: a comparative study between skilled and semi/unskilled emigrants. Afr. J. Bus. Manage., 4(4): 534-548.

Alam GM, Hoque KE Oloruntegbe KO (2010). Quest for a better operation system in Education: Privatization, Teacher Educationalization or Voucherilization: glimpsing from consumer and product perspectives. Afr. J. Bus. Manage., 4(6): 1202-1214.

Babatope, B.A. (2010). Problems of facilities in Southwest Nigerian universities and the way forward. Journal of Education Administration and Policy Studies. 2,2 39-43

Backer B Gerhart B (1996). The impact of human resource management on organizational performance: progress and prospects. Acad. Manage. J., 39: 779- 801

Backer BE, Huselid MA (1998). High-performance work systems and firm performance: a synthesis of research and managerial implications. Res. Person. Human Res. Manage., 16, G.R. Ferris (ed). Greenwich CT: JAI Press.

Barney JB (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. J. Manage., 17:99-120.

Bell J (1993). Doing your Research Projects (Third edition). Buckingham. Philadelphia: Open University press,.

Bruce Curtis (2007). Academic life: commodification, continuity, collegiality, confusion and the Performance Based Research Fund. New Zealand J. Employ. Relat., 5(3): 2-17

Coachran WG (1977). Sampling technique. New Delhi: Wiley eastern Limited. Cohen L, Manion, L, Morrison K (2002). Research Methods in Education, Rutledge:

Flamer Davies JL (1997a). The evolution of university responses to financial reduction. Higher Educ. Manage., 9(1): 127-140.

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HuM. Res. Manage., 14(1): 28-54. Guest D (2002). Human Resource Management, Corporate Performance and Employee Wellbeing: Building the Worker into HRM. J. Ind. Relat., 44(3), 335- 358.

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Mathison S (1988). Why triangulate? Educ. Res., 17(2): 13-17. Morris L, Pauline S, Suzanne Y (2007). Performance management in higher education –

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Nisar N, Sohoo NA (2010) Severity of Menopausal symptoms and the quality of life at different status of Menopause: a community based survey from rural Sindh, Pakistan. Int. J. Collaborat. Res. Internal Med Public Health, 2(5): 118-130.

Nyarango RM, Aloo PA, Kabiru EW, Nyanchongi BO (2008). The risk of pathogenic intestinal parasite infections in Kisii Municipality, Kenya. BMC Pub. Health, 8(237): 1-6

Oloruntegbe, K.O. (2011). Quality and inequality in education and government expenditure among nations: where do developing nations stand? Proceeding of the 6th Annual Canada International Conference on Education. University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

Oloruntegbe OK, Akinsete AM, Ayeni EO, Odutuyiand MO, Ala, GM (2010). Rethinking development and sustainability of African economy: The roles of science education. Afr. J. Bus. Manage., 4(6): 811 – 819

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Quality and Inequality in Education and Government Expenditure among Nations: Where do Developing Nations Stand?

1Kunle Oke Oloruntegbe, 2Agbayewa John Olaniran & 3Ajitha Nayar K

1&2Science and Technical Education, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria, 3Indian Institute of information technology and management-Kerala

E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Education is the bedrock of nations’ development. Every nation therefore strives to provide quality education for its citizenry. Two major factors that determine quality assurance are political will and good governance. Historically, global economic growth has been unique, GDP per capital increasing steadily until 2008 economic recession (UNESCO Science Report, 2010) thereby reducing education funding in many nations. There have also been cases of political instabilities, absence of good governance and strong political will in some parts of the world while others are really branding the knowledge economy. How have these and other factors affected the provision of quality education and the attendant science and technological growth and economic development? What is the hope of developing nation in all these? These are the major issues discussed in this paper. Introduction The world economy is changing as knowledge supplants physical capital as source of present and future wealth. Science and technology is a driving force behind this knowledge economy, with information technology, biotechnology and other innovations leading to remarkable changes in the way we live and work. Human capital in the United States of America is now estimated to be at least three times more important than physical capital (National Science Foundation, 2010). A century ago this would not have been the case. As science and technology is becoming a very important driver to nations’ economic growth and development, much can only be realized if the young people are trained as skilled workers and professionals capable of quality knowledge generation. Education is one of the most powerful instruments for advancing equity and Human Development .It builds people capacities and expands freedom of choice( Human Development Report,2013).The quality of education provided and the investment in research and development will determine how much a nation can launch into the opportunities available and get adequately prepared for branding knowledge prowess and engaged in global competitiveness. Some of the developed countries had reacted quickly with quality higher education a major political priority. There is increase in the number of young people receiving education. Lifelong learning is also being used to help workers adjust to rapidly changing economy. What is the fate of developing nations in all these? Will they be able to join the major players competing in science and technology and the global economy? Or are they to be excluded? There is the need to take a thoughtful and critical examination of these questions so as to reduce the disparity and shorten the gaps between the developed, the developing and the less developed nations. This is the focus of this paper, to provide a review of indicators critical to nations’ economic development with a view of opening up a vista of challenges as well as opportunities calling for attention. Researches reports have shown inequality in world distribution of wealth and ability to generate knowledge and create wealth (Sorlin, &Vessuri, 2007; UNESCO – INCHER

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Kassel, 2009;Human Development report,2013) and in the quality of education provided (Downes, T.A &Figlio, 1999). Lack of political will and misplaced priority coupled with low investment in research and development and inadequate funding of education are responsible for the wide gaps. This in turn had resulted in brain drain, low research output and digital divides that hamper economic growth and infrastructural development of many of the developing nations. A look at table 1 reveals the above situations more closely. Table 2 reveals the overall consequences of these and how the most populous nations of the world appropriate and misappropriate the opportunities that should have resulted had the teeming population been adequately trained and equipped with quality education requirements for knowledge economy. A few of these situations are discussed below. Variability in Indicators of S&T Growth Brain drain: There has been drastic movement of intellectuals particularly academicians from the developing nations to the developed ones. It is almost impossible to draw a systematic picture of long-term migration of highly skilled worldwide, however the effect of this phenomenon on Research & Development and Quality Education are mostly felt in India, South Asia, Turkey and Sub-Sahara South Africa (Table 1). The overall effect is felt on reduced research output and poor quality education. Brain drain and brain circulation are worldwide phenomena; the latter often results in knowledge sharing while in case of the former, the movement is skewed in favour of the developed nations who get the best professionals all the times. Table 1. World Distribution of Salient Indicators of Research & Development and Science and Technology Research Publications Patent Internet users WS% WS% WS% per 100

World 7209.7 100 986 099 100 156 667 100 23.69 Developed Countries 4478.3 62.1 742 256 95.3 141 183 93.0 62.09 Developing Countries 2696.7 37.4 31742 32.0 17 344 11.1 17.41 Less- Developed Countries 34.7 0.5 3 766 0.4 13 0.0 2.06 Americas 1831.9 25.4 348 180 35.3 85 155 54.4 45.50 North America 1579.9 21.9 306 676 31.1 84 913 54.2 74.14 Latin America And The Caribbean 252.1 3.5 48 791 4.9 355 0.2 28.34 Europe 2123.6 29.5 419 454 42.5 25 387 16.2 52.59 European Union 1448.3 20.1 359 991 36.5 23 850 15.2 64.58 Commonwealth Of Independent States In Europe 551.5 7.6 32 710 3.3 332 0.2 29.77 Central, eastern and other Europe 123.8 1.7 48 526 4.9 1 708 1.1 40.40 Africa 158.5 2.2 19 650 2.0 134 0.1 8.14 South Africa 19.3 0.3 5 248 0.5 92 0.1 8.14 Other sub-Saharan countries (excl. south Africa) 40.8 0.6 6 256 0.6 16 0.0 5.68 Arab states in Africa 98.4 1.4 8 607 0.9 26 0.0 16.61 Asia 2950.6 40.9 303 147 30.7 50 313 32.1 16.41 Japan 710.0 9.8 74 6 18 7.6 74 618 10.6 71.42 China 1423.4 19.7 104 968 10.6 7 362 4.7 22.28 Israel - - 10 069 1.0 1 248 0.8 49.64 India 154.8 -2 2.2e 36 261 3.7 741 0.5 4.38 Commonwealth of independent states in Asia 39.7 0.6 1 761 0.2 9 0.0 12.30 Newly industrialized economies in Asia 434.3 6.0 62 855 6.4 7465 4.8 23.47 Arab states in Asia 24.4 0.3 5.366 0.5 58 0.0 15.93 Other in Asia (excl Japan, China, India, Israel) 127.1 1.8 40.358 4.1 48 0.0 11.51 Oceania 145.1 2.0 33 060 3.4 1 516 1.0 54.04 Selected countries Argentina 38.7 0.5 6.197 0.6 56 0.0 28.11 Brazil 124.9 1.7 26 482 2.7 124 0.1 37.52 Canada 139.0-1 1.9e 43 539 4.4 3 806 2.4 75.53 Cuba - - 773 0.1 3 0.0 12.94 Egypt 49.4 0.7 3 963 0.4 22 0.0 16 65 France 215.8 3.0 57 133 5.8 3 631 2.3 70.68 Germany 290.9 4.0 76 368 7.7 9 713 6.2 77.91 Iran (Islamic Republic of) 50.1-1 0.7e 10 894 1.1 7 0.0 31.37 Mexico 37.9 0.5 8 262 0.8 81 0 .1 21.43 Republic of Korea 221.9 3.1 32 781 3.3 6424 4.1 81.00 Russian federation 469.1 6.5 27 083 2.7 286 0.2 32.11 Turkey 49.7 0.7 71 787 1.8 32 0.0 34.37 United Kingdom 254.6 3.5 71 302 7.2 4 007 2.6 78.39 United states of America 1425.6-1 20.0e 272 879 27.7 81 811 52.2 74.00

45

KunleOkeOloruntegbe, Agbayewa John Olaniran & Ajitha Nayar K

Trends in publications Scientific output is measured by the number of publications appearing in Science Citation index, SCI (Thomson Reuters). Such citations offer valuable indicators for international comparison at the aggregate level as well as giving more detail assessment of particular scientific fields (See the third and the fourth columns on table 1). The developed nations have the highest volumes. Publications detailing different scientific fields follow the same trend as the number of volumes. The developed world dominates research, scientific and technological fields and get ready market in the developing world for the products of their innovation s and efforts Patents Global justice and the distribution of wealth and power are increasingly affected by national and international rules on patents, copyright and other forms of ‘intellectual property’. In today’s world, these rules underpin the control of, access to and use of technology, knowledge, medicines, seeds, biodiversity, scientific research and much more. Currently, international rules for patents are being shaped in the narrow interests of a few major industries in rich countries. The third major column of table 1 shows inequality in private knowledge creation with USA having the overall dominance. This highlights the US technology markets roles as the world leading private market for technology market license. Japan, Germany and Republic of Korea are the other countries with the most patent holders. All these point not only to inequality of knowledge creation but a monopoly of trades, business and economies with the balance tilting heavily in favour of the industrialized world. Strict adherence to patent laws may also reduce public access to things that, were formerly part of the global commons, including genetic information encoded in the gene of people, plants, animals and microorganisms. Once these things are controlled by companies, they can exclude people from using them unless they can pay. Digital Divide: Knowledge appropriation and diffusion are yet other indicators of development of high quality education. This variable enables us to gauge whether easier access to information and knowledge has provided opportunities for more repid definition of science and technology. In a society where economy is being driven by knowledge-intensive activities, the distribution of knowledge across the population is increasingly linked to stratification. With the mass diffusion of internet across the population many had questioned the potential effects of the innovation on society at large, inspiring optimistic hopes and fantasies along the line. Whereas the proponents and enthusiasts have heralded the potential benefits thinking that it will reduce inequality by dissolving the barriers to information thereby allowing people with diverse backgrounds to improve their human capital, expand their social networks, search for and find jobs, have better access to health information, and consequently enhance their life chances; others caution that the differential spread of internet will lead to increasing inequalities improving the prospects of those who are already privileged while denying opportunities of advancement for the less privileged. These two positions were sustained by the emerging concept of digital divide. Keniston (2003) identifies four divides; the first is that which exists within every nation, industrialized or developing, between those who are rich, educated, and powerful, and those who are not. The second and less often noticed is linguistic and cultural. For instance the divide separates those who speak English in a particular nation from those having it as a second language or speak entirely different ones and never bother to learn the language of computers and internet.

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The third is the growing digital gap between the rich and the poor nations. What can be called a divide between information-rich nations of United States and the Nordic countries like Sweden, Germany, Finland, and Iceland and information-poor nations of Africa, South America, South Asia, and Indonesia and so on. The last being the emergence of a new elite group, the “digerati” meaning the beneficiaries of the enormous successful information technology industry, knowledge-based sectors of the economy, experts in biotechnology and pharmacology and those occupying traditional connections having a combination of education, brainpower, special entrepreneurial skills and ability to stay on the “cutting edge” of knowledge. Fig 1 Top ten economies by internet user penetration

Fig 2 Ten selected developing economies

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These divides are closely linked with disparity in science and technological growth on one hand and the knowledge economy on the other among nations. The data on intent users (last column, table 1 and figures1 and 2) paint a very disturbing gaps between the developed and the developing economies. Many of the developing countries are coming up, almost catching up with the USA, Japan and major European countries. Among the developing economies China has been able to increase its research productivity by way of the number of scientific publications, number of patents filed and the volume of internet penetrivity (Human Development Report, 2013).This shows the crucial importance of the emergence of digital communications like internet on the world distribution of science and technology, and more broadly, knowledge generation. The rapid diffusion of internet in the South is the most promising new trends in this millennium, as it is likely to bring about a greater convergence in access to science and technology overtime. Trends in government expenditure on education As varied as indicators pictured above are so are their root causes, funding. There is inequality, but not a regular pattern, in education spending generally and expenditure per student at both primary and secondary levels in particular as can be seen on table 2. For example, China and Indian, the two most populous nations expended much less on primary and secondary students than the United States of America, the third most populous and the richest (China – 6.110912.198 , Indian - 7.2107 23.148 , United States - 17.936 22.451). Japan - 21.22218.767 . Japan the 10th most populous and the third richest expended much more that the latter two. The developing nations like Thailand, Bangladesh, Philippine and South Africa ranked among the nations that spent the least. There are no data for countries like Egypt, Nigeria, Pakistan, Vietnam and Democratic Republic of Congo among the 24 most populous countries shown on table 2. There is a strong relationship between school spending and student outcomes [5] and school resources associated with unequal incomes and community sorting lead to unequal educational and labour market outcomes (Downes & Figlio, 1999). However, the question whether additional dollars spent on schools will improve outcome remain unresolved and hotly contested. How much of the fund expended actually goes to education provision? If the data on the corruption level (Table 2) is a variable to consider, the developing nations ranked highest among the most corrupt. Whereas the developed nations like France and Japan ranked among the least, there is no data for the United States, United Kingdom and Germany. It is either the level is negligible or there is none at all. Johnston (1997) asserted there are linkages between incidences of corruption and specific stages of political, economic and social development. This may well apply to trends witnessed above. Way Forward to Bridging the Gap. As is reported in the Human development report 2013,developing countries need to focus on 4 policy priorities which are enhancing equity , enabling voice and participation , confronting environmental pressures and managing demographic changes. Improved government expenditure on education, entrenching the right political will and good governance can be what the developing nations need to start the catch up race with the developed ones. Whereas the Sub-Saharan African nations are still grappling with Education for All , EFA others are daily thinking of providing quality education aimed at developing science and technological skills and knowledge among the citizenry.

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To advocates, politicians and organizations promoting change, political will is the Holy Grail. Charney (2009) declared that when advocates argue, politicians vote, and organizations campaign. Political will is the ghost in the machine of politics, the motive force that generates political action. Charney again defines political will as “opinion + intensity + salience”. There must be a strong political will in the starting, sustaining and catching up race. There are lots of important issues on which most people have no opinions. Many people feel strongly about an issue, if there is not much intensity, there is not much political will. Yet even strong opinions form political will only they are salient to public choice (Charney, 2009). It can be inferred that many nations do not see education as priority that is why they spend too little or pay lip service to it. Table 2. Fall-out of S & T in 25 Most Populous Countries S/N Country Population PBP LE GDP ($m) ES/GDP E/P E/S CL HDI 1. China 1,336,718,075 2.8 74.68 7,123,912 2 - 6.1109 12.198 3.578 0.75585

2. India 1,189,172,90 25 66.8 3,362, 9604 4.181 7.2107 23.148 3.387 0.602126 3. USA 311,705,000 12 78.37 11,628,0831 5.737 17.936 22.451 - 0.94410

4. Indonesia 245,613,043 13.3 71.33 779,71915 1.2130 3.2117 8.7111 2.8110 0.697111

5. Brazil 203,429,773 26 72.53 1,482,8599 4.278 12.574 12.696 3.769 0.79263

6. Pakistan 176,554,000 24 65.99 336,000 25 1.8126 - - - 0.527136 7. Nigeria 155,215,573 70 47.56 155,57150 - - - 2.4134 0.453159

8. Bangladesh150,865,000 40 69.95 363,424 32 2.4119 7.3106 14.189 2.4134 0.52139 9. Russia 138,739,892 13.1 69.29 1,408,603 10 3.888 - 20.558 2.1154 0.79562 10. Japan 126,475,664 15.7 82.25 3,774,086 3 3.696 21.222 18.767 7.817 0.94311 11. Mexico 112,336,538 18.2 76.47 1,014, 51412 5.346 11.779 13.891 3.198 0.81453 12. Philippines101,833,983 32.9 71.66 378,22524 3.1104 14.355 12.597 2.4134 0.75884

13. Ethiopia 90,873,739 38.7 56.19 56,88865 4.666 33.67 71.24 2.7116 0.367171

14. Vietnam 87,375,000 10.6 72.18 222,17237 2.7116 7.3105 - - - 15. Germany 81,471,834 15.5 80.07 2,325,8285 4.666 17.837 20.558 - 0.9320 16 Egypt 80,492,000 20 72.66 282,02630 - 3.198 - - 0.659119 17. Turkey 78,785,548 17.11 72.5 552,99017 3.197 17.639 11.8104 4.456 0.7594 18. Iran 75,448,000 18 70.55 505,01921 4.958 - - 2.2146 0.73699 19. Congo DR 71,712,867 71 55.33 38,49376 3.2101 - - 2.1154 0.512169 20. Thailand 66,720,155 9.6 73.6 510,26819 5.249 12.574 12.895 3.578 0.77873

21. France 65,102,719 6.2 81.19 1,744,3527 5.640 1835 29.323 6.825 0.93816 22. UK 62,435,709 14 80.5 1,832,2526 5.346 1457 14.986 - 0.93915 23. Italy 61, 016,804 --- 81,77 1,621,3728 4.763 21.223 27.133 3.967 0.93418

24. S. Africa 49,004,031 50 49.33 510,10220 5.346 1457 17.974 4.554 0.658121

Key: PBP – Population below Poverty line; LE – Life Expectancy; ES/GDP – Education Expenditure ; EP – Expenditure per Student (Primary); ES - Expenditure per Student (Secondary); CL Corruption Level; HDI – Human Development Index; Ranking in Superscript. Source: Sorlin&Vessuri, (2007). Knowledge Society Versus Knowledge Economy: Knowledge, Power and Politics. Palgrave MacMillan

Conclusion Participation and inclusivity improve quality of policies and their implementation and reduce probability of future upheaval (Human development report, 2013). This will contribute to Good governance which will contribute to right allocation of funds and wise spending. This will result in equity and sustainability. Investments in young people’s education and training will help to remove obstacles of disparity and will assure quality in the long run.

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Dynamics. Report on UNESCO Forum on Higher Education, Research and Knowledge 2001 – 2009. Meek, V.L., Teichler, U. & Kearney, M. (Eds), International Centre for Higher Education

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Meeting The 21st Century Educational Millennium Development Goal Challenges: The Imperativeness Of Media Technology And

Information Communication Technology ( ICT) For Teachers And Teacher Educators In Lesson Plan And Lesson Implementation

S O Adodo Ph.D

Science and Technical Education Department, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko. P.M B 001,

Ondo State, Nigeria. Corresponding Author’s E-mail: [email protected], sunday.adodo@aaua .edu.ng. Abstract: Today teachers and teaching methods have an indispensable role in ensuring long-lasting and efficient learning. Teachers inadequate lesson plan or lesson preparations and lesson implementations have been observed over the years. Hence this paper provides the pedagogy application of ICTs and internet websites for lesson plan and implementations from Tileston (2004) perspective. The paper highlights ways that the Computer and the internet may be employed into real lesson panning, introduction, implementation in the classroom and school life in general. Teachers are encouraged after reading through this paper to use the knowledge gained to start using Computer to introduce and explain concept with relevant simulation, music, graphic, pictorials dimension to learning process, complementing chalk and talk, book leaning and conventional demonstrations. Introduction

Education as a discipline has its own peculiarities. Education both formal and informal is a major contributor to the mainstay of any society. Formal Education takes place in an organized school environment. It is the deliberate attempt by one or more people to effect changes in the behavior of one or more person (the students) presented with certain experience. Informal Education, on the other hand, is the process whereby behavior changes occur as a result of experiences in situations, which do not fall into the previous category. Formal Education, hence, involves the teacher, the students, the textbooks, the classrooms the library etc(Bandele (2006).. It is significant to note that all these aspects of formal education are interactively working together in a given education system to fit perfectly into the ICT network. We also talk of the activities that go in the organized school environment both inside and outside the class room. That is, the curricular and extra-curricular activities. There are well-defined levels of education in our country: pre-primary, primary, secondary and tertiary levels. The increasing development and sophistication of our educational system at all levels bring greater demands on practitioners, curriculum planners, evaluators and teachers to move in tune with the information technology revaluation. The evolution of the computer and its capacity to handle diverse kinds of problems cushioned the mounting activities created by the staggering developments in education. Information and communication technology (ICT) has permeated into every sphere of human development. Education stands to be the greatest beneficiary of this development. Nigerian teachers and teacher educators cannot afford to be isolated in the present global wind of change. According to Iji (2006), The emergence of Information Communication Technology (ICT) has actually revolutionized the existence and activities of contemporary man especially in

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mailto:Sunday.adodo@aaua

the milieu of globalization and the new knowledge society. Iji quoting Okebukola (2006) said that the global reform in education particularly in response to the effects of globalization demand that any nation desirous of being a key player must be in the fore front of applying ICTs. to all its educational plans and processes The teachers carry the countries national objectives like building of a united, strong and self-reliant nation, hence they are involved in planning the curriculum that can lead to the achievement of this goal like the training of the mind in understanding of the world around. The position of the teacher in the CT age is of great importance to the school, community and indeed the whole nation. One of the primary educational aims and objectives of education in Nigeria is the inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for survival of individual and the Nigerian society NPE (2004) The responsibility towards the realization of this aim are on the teachers. The whole world is drifting to E-everything: e- mail, e-commerce, e-law, e-money, e-medicine, e-library, e-education and of course global sitting room, The abundance riches of these E-facilities ought to be meaningfully tapped by the teachers The introduction of ICT into the discipline of education, as in other areas became an antidote to effectively solving education problems that would have been difficult, if not impossible to solve through human normal efforts. The use of media (information and communication technologies in the educative process categorized broadly into two: ICTs for Education and ICTs in Education. ICTs for education refers to development of media (information and communications) technology specifically for teaching and learning purposes, while ICTs in Education involves the adoption of general components of media information and communication technologies in the teaching-learning process. Generally, the educational relevance of computers and other components of information technology cannot be overemphasized. From the period when Skinner applied programmed instructions to teaching machines, through Brunner’s experiment with computer in instruction, to the current wave of information transmission and exchange via the World Wide Web,(www), we have seen different applications of ICTs in enhancing cognitive development. The application of computers and other media communication technologies in education can be Classified into three broad categories; pedagogy, training and continuing Education ( Okunrotifa 1982; Iluromi 2004; Bandele 2006). The pedagogical applicability of the ICTs is concerned essentially with how effective learning can take place with the aid of the various components of ICTs. Almost all subjects ranging from mathematics (the most structured) to music (the least structured) can be learnt with the help of media technology through computers. It should be emphasized that pedagogic application of ICTs, involves effective learning with the aid of computers and other information technologies, serving the purpose of learning aids, which plays complementary roles in teaching/learning situations rather than supplements to the teacher/instructor/facilitator. Linked to this paper is how teacher can acquire and appropriate skills and ability and competence to both mentally and physically use media and ICT to plan for their lessons and also implement their lessons . Since training programme is concerned with improved ways of doing things, of carrying out various activities in a professional manner,this paper is alerting the teachers that the ICTs can be very useful tool for the development of skills as it provides effective training programmes which can be attributed to its capacity for simulation, model building and interactive adaptation. Bandele (2006) states that there is no claim to an exhaustive listing of all available areas of ICT application in education as ICT has prominence in the areas of Education policies, processes and products. The computers

Adodo

Adodo

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S O Adodo Ph.D

and telecommunication facilities are used right from the time policies are proposed till the final outcome of such policy. Media Applications in the Classroom In the present day of high-technology application of instructional media such as computer, internet facilities and the advanced educational electronic gadgets like the close circuit television (cctv) and satellite operation now installed in educational institutions which Capenter (2006) terms as ‘chat box’ is required for meaningful learning to take place. The teacher according to Adodo and Adare (2009) cannot be left behind as such inadequacy is likely to have negative impact on both the teacher and the learners. Adodo et al,(2009) also observed that in a typical classroom teaching and learning situation, it may be difficult to accomplish imparting the basic scientific skills and values in learners using the conventional teaching materials and methods only. Some posers are considered below as to the computer in real classroom situation, the users (the students) and the people behind the scene (teachers). It is of little good using a Computer to teach a ‘bad’ and ‘wrong’ lesson. To use the Computer in the classroom therefore, ordinary knowledge of the computer is inadequate, understanding of what the ping-pong classroom interaction and teaching entails are also essential and relevant. The national situation is always the ideal students should be made to involve themselves in real classroom activities. That is, they should be involved in real experiments, not withstanding, such could be simulated through the use of Computers though, the Computer is superior, the teaching in its execution of certain specific task cannot match the flexibility, sensitivity or will of the teacher. The computer may hence find it easy to displace the teacher in the classrom. The use of computer is becoming more and more extensive in everyday life and hence, learners need to be prepared for this. It is good to mention here that the computer can greatly enhance the effectiveness of a classroom lesson. Essentially, the computer becomes very suitable for students who were not only absent, but missed school work, since it has the potentials for repeated performance and those who are slow learners, or for the high achievers. The Teachers using Media to Plan Lessons From Tilestone’s (2004) perspective. Media is not just for use in student project; using media can help make a teacher’s job easier and more exciting. From planning the lesson to ideas for assessments, there are many interesting resources available through various media today. Website addresses (URLs) change frequently. If you can’t find a given site, try searching for it by name of keyword at a search engine like Google or Yahoo. At www.teacnet.com teachers can download an excel worksheet to keep up with lesson plans or get an idea about how to do their own lesson plans using a spreadsheet. this Website also contains ideas for bulletin boards and for lessons. As teacher, a great website to help you in your planning is www.new-teacher.com. You might try one of the following sites. For questions about current events:

- ABC (www.abd.abcnews.go.com) - CBS (www.cbs.com) - CNN (www.cnn.com) - MBC (www.mbc.com) - Time for kids (www.timeforkids.com) - USA today (www.usatoday.com) - The Washington Post (www.washintonpost.com) - The Weather Channel (www.whether.com)

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S O Adodo Ph.D

http://www.teacnet.com/

http://www.new-teacher.com/

http://www.abd.abcnews.go.com/

http://www.cbs.com/

http://www.cnn.com/

http://www.mbc.com/

http://www.timeforkids.com/

http://www.usatoday.com/

http://www.washintonpost.com/

http://www.whether.com/

For historical events: - Franklin institute (www.fi.edu), which includes events in history, maths, science,

and literature. - This day in history (www.historychannel.com/thisday)

For Science - The astronomy photo of the day

(www.antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html) For Music:

- The Garden State Pops Youth Orchestra’s “This day in music history” (www.gspyo.com)

For Arts: - Arts links (www.dart.fine-art.com/artlinks), which includes links to artists,

galleries and exhibits and museums. For language art:

- The flat Stanley website (flaststanley,enoreo.on.ca) You may like to start with Mindjogs, described in Ten Best Teaching Practices (Teleston, 2000). Mindjogs are thought questions and puzzles designed to get the oxygen up in the brain, and prepare the students for the learning. They also accomplish another goal of getting students to their seats and working. some websites that are good sources for mindjogs include www.skinema.com and www.tomyolkfungi.net. If you want to put your mindjogs on the internet but not sure how? www.webmonkey.com will help you design your own web page. If your school does not have a server on which you can place your web page go to teacher tools, my school online at www.teacehrvision.com for a website that will host your home page.

Once you introduce your students to the world of mindjogs, provide opportunities for them to come up with starters for the day. The steps to good planning and how media can help classroom teachers in this task are explain “In What Every Teacher Should Know About Instructional Planning (Teleston, 2004b)” Figure 1.1 Adapted from (Teleston, 2004b) is a graphic model of those steps.

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S O Adodo Ph.D

http://www.fi.edu/

http://www.historychannel.com/thisday

http://www.antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html

http://www.gspyo.com/

http://www.dart.fine-art.com/artlinks

http://www.skinema.com/

http://www.tomyolkfungi.net/

http://www.webmonkey.com/

http://www.teacehrvision.com/

NO YES What You Will Need Source: (Teleston, 2004b)

Constructin

g

Information

Organizing

Information

Sharing

Information

Construc

t Model

Shape

Internaliz

e

Material you will need to

prepare

Choose standards and

Benchmarks for your unit

Write objective

Declarative

Procedure

Go

Move

Back

Implement Develop a Rubic

Give it to your students

Declarative Objectives Procedural Objectives

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S O Adodo Ph.D

Beginning with Goals for the Learning Use the stated goals as a guide in deciding what to teach stated goals and standards are available on the internet. If you do not know the address for your state, you can run a search on any of the search engine, such as Google, by typing in your state name and education agency or department. A website that provides the doorway into all states is www.statestandards.com, where states goals for each state can be found along with other information such as sample tests and information about the assessment tests. Use table tool on your word-processing software to list the goal for the lesson. A. Build Declarative Objectives Develop declarative objectives for the learning based on the state standards and benchmarks Declarative objective cover the factual knowledge that students should know as a result of learning and have three purposes: to help students construct information, organize it and store it. Figure 1:2 is a graphic model of declarative objectives. Let’s look at each of this purposes and how using media will help students to reach these goals. Figure 1:2 Working with Declarative Objectives Helping Students to Construct Meaning We can help students to construct meaning from their learning by doing the following things: Asking students to provide their own goals for their learning. Building a matrix can help students to create their own learning goals. Table 1:1 is an example of a matrix that students might use to build their goals. This is an important step, because the self-system and metacognitive system of the brain, which controls motivation and impulsivity, rely on goals set by the individual. If you want your students to be motivated to start a process and complete it with high energy, teach them how to set goals, monitor them, and change them as needed during the process.

Declaration Objective

Students’ goals for the learning

Symbol or connector Until Internalized

Information

Linguistic/ non-linguistic

Organizer Connector Organizing

Information

Using Storing

Information

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S O Adodo Ph.D

http://www.statestandards.com/

State your local goals

State your learning goal

How will you meet your goal?

Was your goal met? If not, why not?

ii. Helping students make connections. One of the most important thing to do at the beginning of a new unit or body of knowledge is to help students make connections on what they already know or have experienced and the new knowledge that they are about to undertake. This process is defined as “Linking old knowledge with new knowledge, making predictions, verifying them and filling in a lot of unstated information” (Marzano, 2000). Visuals, such as pictures, graphs, and computer-generated research are used to do this. Music and pictures of events in history are also helpful in assisting students to make connections to the new information. The book “We interrupt This Broadcast by(Gerner 1998) has soms pictures and record of events in history iii. Providing advance thinking about the unit. Send students on a scavenger hunt through the internet to find pieces of information that will be utilized within the unit of study. By doing this, you are providing interest and anticipation to the information. The teacher can use Time Life series or pictures and sounds from websites, such as www.pbs.org, to spark interest in students, and to build curiosity about the unit. vi. Introducing a new unit with music. Begin a new unit by creating the “soundings of the time” through music. For example, for a unit of World War II, bring in music from that era to introduce the topic. Songs of the time, such tunes as “Boogie-woogie Bugle Boy”. Ask the students to search the web for the meaning of boogie-woogie for that time. vii. Introducing a new unit with pictures. Start a new unit by showing pictures from the Internet. For example the teacher can begin a unit of study of natural disasters with a picture from the net showing the aftermath of the most disastrous earthquake in California history. Made a PowerPoint presentation using some of the pages from the book we are reading. Since most students are visual, it is important that all students can see the pictures from the book. |A good website for introducing your students to meaningful use of Internet for research is www.newsbank.com, a site not only guides students through how to research, but provide sample of original documents as well. 2. Helping Students Organize Declarative Knowledge. The second face of teaching declarative knowledge is helping students to organize the new information. The more we can put information into visual representations, the more we will help our students to construct meaning and to put the information into long-tear memory. Jensen (1997) says that at least 87% of the students in the class room are visual learners; this means they must see the learning to

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S O Adodo Ph.D

http://www.pbs.org/

http://www.newsbank.com/

construct the meaning. visual organizer sometimes called nonlinguistic organizers, graphic organizers, or advance organizers, help the brain to organize and make patterns of the information studied. The website: www.engine-uity.com. This site has very high-level materials for all grade levels. Graphic Organizers: Graphic Organizers are one of the best ways to help students put information into manageable chunks and to provide a pattern. Since the brain is a pattern-seeking organ, this one strategy has enormous potentials for raising the learning level of students. A great website to introduce the teachers/students to the teaching and drawing of graphic organizers is www.thinkingmaps.com this site will introduce teachers to basic maps and what they should be used. For example, it suggests that teachers use the following: Circle maps for defining something in context Tree maps for classifying and grouping. Bubble maps for describing using objectives Double bubble maps for comparing and contrasting Flowing maps for sequencing and ordering information Brace maps for identify part/whole relationships Bridge maps for seen analogies. Software is available for developing these maps or you can make your own using basic computer tools and auto shapes. 3. Help Students Store Declarative Information The third step for teachers is helping students to store declarative information. Declarative knowledge is the most difficult kind of knowledge for the brain to store, particularly if it is thought in the traditional method of lecture with drill and practice. There are, however, some tools that can help the brain to store the information in more acceptable way. Some of those tools are as follows: Use symbols to help the brain put the information into categories or patterns. For examples, if you are teaching a class that requires a great deal of vocabulary, create symbols to put at the top of each sheet to help the students (and their brains) sort the information. Use the symbols from auto shapes function of your word-processing or drawing program, download pictures from the internet, and make your own drawing tools or software programs such as Printshop. When making graphic organizers, teach students to use symbols as well as words. This will help them to store the information more efficiently and to have better recall. Students, too, may download images from the internet to create their own using common computer programs. Teachers need to spend a great deal of time drawing graphic organizers to show yhe students the process. The web is full of great sites for making organizers quickly and easily. Two if such webs that are often use are www.thinkingmaps.com and www.inspirtation.com For vocabulary words, ask students to provide a symbol for each word to help them remember it. You create a table by suing the table tool of your word-processing program, and then students can either draw symbols or download them from the internet. Use visual tools such as the non-linguistic organizers provided on the www.thingingmaps.com website.

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S O Adodo Ph.D

http://www.engine-uity.com/

http://www.thinkingmaps.com/

http://www.thinkingmaps.com/

http://www.inspirtation.com/

http://www.thingingmaps.com/

B. Develop Procedure Objectives Figure 2.3 Working with Procedural Objectives

Mental and actual Make the model my own Perform until internalized Procedural Objectives Procedure objectives are those objectives built around what we want students to be able to do (i.e., to demonstrate through written, oral, kinesthetic, or other means). They show what students can do with the declarative information. We teach declarative information first, because students need to know the vocabulary, facts, people, and such before performing a procedure. There are three phases to procedural knowledge: constructing models in the mind, shaping the information, and initializing the process to the point that it is automatic (sometimes call automaticity). Figure 2:3 is a graphic organizer showing the part to procedural objectives. We can use media and technology to help students accomplish this three steps by sending them to website for specific pictures on the learning, by taking them on a virtual field trip through the use of virtual learning lab, by using graphic organizers and by allowing them to practice skills using computer instead of paper and pencil only. 1. Constructing Models First, students need to be able to construct models of the learning mentality and, in some cases, actually. This might be accomplished through imagery, graphic models, or through student projects. Students use declarative information to construct the model or project-to-decide what it will look like, and so forth. It is difficult to make a basket in a basketball if you have never mentally imagine doing that; The same is true with procedure activities. Help students to visualize doing and activity and doing it well. Using technology to help them plan and designing their final products by sending students to websites that offer examples of good models. Provide many visuals on topic studies to help students with their mental models. Through software, student may be able to construct their model completely on the computer. For examples, students who are designing a newspaper layout, brochure, flyer for their project may want to use one of the presentation program or a software suite, such as Apple Work or Microsoft Works.

Procedural Objectives

Construct

Models Shape Internalize

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S O Adodo Ph.D

Students who want to create power point presentation, for their projects may want to go beyond the typical graphic that come with the program by going to the graphics online tool in power point. Sound, pictures and animation are easily added to these presentations. If students want to record their own voices into the presentation, this can be done with an inexpensive microphone attached to the computer. To view ideas for existing presentation, students can go to www.presentationpro.com and download the free trial software. This site changes often and has great idea for making better use of graphic and sound. II. Shaping Information Second, students need to be able to shape the information so that it becomes their own. Some of the way that will help students shape the new information is by providing opportunities to practices the learning and by giving them clues about how to make the process work smoothly. For example, in the unit on building models of amusement park ride, students were given opportunity to examine various rides and to visualize first what they will do with their own rides. They were given software to design and test their ideas many times before actually presenting them. By using software, they were able to makes changes as needed throughout the process. Graphic organizers and models for brochure, flyers, and so forth are also a great way to help the students shape the information into their own product. III. Internalizing Information Students can be helped to internalize and give the information automaticity by providing adequate opportunity for them to work with the process and by providing feedback often. Students need the time to practice an activity until it becomes automatic for them. Students need both massed practice (also known as immersion) and practice over time before the process becomes internalized. Immersion is a great tool, but if we do not come back to the learning from time to time, often the learning is lost. That is why students may do well on the test in a day over the science concepts studied this week, but try given a problem from this week’s work three weeks from now. To the extent possible, provide opportunities for the students to practice the learning on the computer instead of with paper and pencil. Make homework more meaningful by assigning activities that are not rote and that are original instead of more of the same from the classroom. For example you might ask students to “Read page 87 to 95 in your text tonight and mind map the key point that the authors are making”. This type of homework is much more meaningful, and it is more difficult to copy someone else’s homework. Provide a Matrix or Rubic If we want consistently to receive quality products from our students, we must tell them up front what we mean by quality. Table 2:1 Rubic Make Using a Table Tool Expert Emerging Beginning Not Yet Students understands the information and able to write and say what he/she knows in his/her own words.

Student demonstrates some understanding and can say or write the information with some help

Student show a minimum understanding and can explain with cues and coaching from teacher

Student can repeat information, but shows no ability to understand what is being said.

There is no doubt that more students will turn in quality works if they knew what that was. A rubric or matrix is a great way to let students know what we expect. The fastest and clearest way to create these is using computer. A simple matrix or rubric can be

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S O Adodo Ph.D

http://www.presentationpro.com/

made by using the tables’ tool in most Word-processing programs. Great Websites for learning to create rubrics include www.rubicator.com and ww.rubics.co Conclusion This paper highlights ways that the Computer may be employed into real lesson panning, introduction, implementation and school life in general: Prominent among the methods of teaching are: Lecture, discussion, demonstration, discovery and exploratory. The last three are more relevant in the science lesson. Computer can be fitted strategically in the classroom with screens to aid visibility for the display. The teacher across the globe particularly in the developing countries to start using Computer to introduce and explain certain concept with a simulation, music, graphic, pictorials dimension to learning process, complementing chalk and talk book leaning and conventional demonstrations. Computer machines and internet facilities should be made available to both the teachers and the students as research studies have revealed that : - If Computers (Machines) are available, a task or learning exercise can be set for the children working in groups using the Computers. - Pupil can be made to develop their own work on the media using the Computer. - Brilliant students might be set on exercise or problem on the Computer linking media. - Pupils who have conceptual difficulties with a topic can have extra tuition with the Computer and media technology. Lesson tutors can be built in for teaching concepts through children’s independent work on the Computer lining the media. It is necessary to note here that to write a good program for classroom lesson, the programmer must have a sound understanding of education and hence the problem to be programmed. The Computer cannot solve problems which the teacher themselves do not know. The teachers should note that in all levels of educational system, the most important goal should be for as many children as possible to experience the microcomputer in their lesson. Bandele, (2006), affirms that in tertiary institutions, the requirement will be slightly different. The demands from the students and request being made to the Computer will be better Computers and other ICT related facilities. According to Bandele, media technology through the Computer can be used to assist instruction in the classroom through: Computer Aided Instruction (CAI), Computer Assisted Learning (CAL), Computer Managed Learning (CNL), Simulations, Tutorial, Demonstration, “Drill and practices, Computer games, and classroom Application Programs. References Adodo. S O and Adare dele (2009). Teacher competence in utilization of educational

electronic media technology for the teaching of integrated science in the junior secondary schools in ondo state. Nigeria. Journal of educational Research and development. Ahmadu bello University. Zaria vol.4 (2) 183-189

Bandele, S.O (2006) Development service and application of ICT in education: ICT and computer application. Ado Ekiti, Nigeria.

Gerner, J. (1998), We interrupt this broadcast. Kansas city, MO:McMeel.

Iji, C O. (2006). Information and communication Technology (ICT): A necessity for teachers and teacher educators in Nigeria. Nigeria Journal of Professinal Teachers vol,1 (4) 26-34.

Iluromi, P B (2004) The role of electronic media in Teaching and learning of French as a second language. Journal of school of languages. Vol.2 (1) 170-173 Jensen, E, (1997Completiong the puzzle: The brain compatible approach to learning(2nd ed). Del Mar. C A; The brain store.

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http://www.rubicator.com/

Msrzano R J (200) Transforming classroom grading: Alexandria, V A association for Supervision Curriculum Development. Federal Ministry of Education (2004). National policy on Education. Federal Republic of Nigeria

Okebukola, P. (2006). The role ofInformation and communication Technology(ICTs) in teachers’ education. Benue State University Journal of education vol.7 1-8

Okunrotifa, P O (1982) Instructional Technology: trend in the developing world. west African journal of Education vol.18 ( 1) 112-127

Tileston, D W,(2000) The best teaching practice: How brain research learning styles and standards define teaching competencies. Thousand Oako, C A Corwin press. California

Tileson D W,(2004), What every Teacher should know about media and Technology. Corwin Press: A stage publication company, Thousand Oako. California.

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Staff Perception Of Gender Influence On Principals’ Administrative Effectiveness In Federal Government Colleges In South-West, Nigeria.

Dr. (Mrs) Akinfolarin, C. A. & Balogun, Babatunde Nurudeen

Department Of Educational Management, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko,

Ondo State, Nigeria. Correspondent Author: E-mail Address: [email protected]

Abstract This study was set to examine staff perception of gender influence on principals’ administrative effectiveness in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. Descriptive method was adopted. Data was collected from twelve Federal Government Colleges and analyzed using t-test at 0.05 level of significance. The result showed that male and female principals’ effectiveness in general administration were 36.04 and 55.28 respectively. Also, the mean rating for male and female principals’ effectiveness in the area of school finances were 36.04 and 49.31 respectively. There is a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of general administration and school finance. However, the mean for male and female principals’ effectiveness in the area of discipline and academic excellence were 48.11 and 47.96; 51.81 and 52.02 respectively. Hence, there is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the areas of school discipline and academic excellence. Leadership in Federal Government Colleges should not be limited to a particular gender. Officers with distinguished potentials and capability should be made college principals. The staff of the college should give equal support to their principals irrespective of the gender. Teachers should have input in the selection and appointment of school principals. Key Words: Gender, Administration, Effectiveness, Colleges. Introduction Observation made in the past was that, males occupied administrative positions and public offices more than the female counterparts. The reason for this could be attributed to what Babalola (2006) stated that some parents failed to send their female children to school. He explained further that parents prefer sending their male children to school while the female could assist in the farm work to get the required finance in training the male children. The erroneous believe by parents was that sending a female child to school was waste of money because after graduation, she will get married and bear the name of her husband and become more relevant to her husband’s family than her own family. As a result of this number of females that supposed to occupy administrative positions and public offices were limited and probably lack the required training, knowledge and skills to carry out the administrative work effectively.

Through public enlightenment, parents became aware that the education of female child is also important. Therefore, there is increase in the enrolment of female children in the school. Babalola (2006) reported that the gap between educated men and women became minimal and recently the numbers of female students were more than male students in tertiary institution in South-West Nigeria. He went further to explain that the females gender realized the level at which men claim superiority over

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them and came up with popular saying that “anything man can do, a woman can do better.” They started agitating that women should be given the opportunity to occupy public offices. Nevertheless, the gender equality is paving ways for females; some of these were able to get to the apex of their carrier through rank and files. Akinwomoju, (2001) reported that very few women were among members of the academic staff at the early stage of the introduction of Federal Government Colleges in Nigeria. Presently, more women are among the academic staff and some of them have been elevated to the post of principal, Of the eighteen Federal Government Colleges in South-West Nigeria, twelve are presently headed by women. Babalola (2006) observed that in recent times more women have been given the opportunity to serve in different capacities in all facets of life as far as Nigeria is concerned. He affirmed that a lot of women have performed creditably in various areas of endeavour. Notable amongst them are Professor Dora Akunyili, former Director General National Agency for Food, Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC) and Minister of information, Dr. NgoziOkonjo-Iwuala, Minister of Finance and Former Minister of External Affairs and now Managing Director in World Bank, Professor Grace Alele-Williams, former Vice Chancellor University of Benin, Late Professor JadesolaAkande, former Vice Chancellor, Lagos State University, Dr. Okereke, Director General of Nigerian Stock Exchange and a host of others. Also, more women were recently appointed as Ministers by President of Nigeria Dr Goodluck Jonathan.

Babalola (2006) affirmed that the public is becoming aware of the capability of women to perform effectively. It was observed that many of the staff membersin Federal Government Colleges prefer female principals to male. This observation necessitated this study to actually show empirically the perception of staff and gender influence on principals’ administrative effectiveness in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria.

The Principals, Irrespective of their gender are expected to coordinate, control and supervise activities of other staff members to ensure that the stated goals and objectives of the school are accomplished. The accomplishment of these goals and objectives hinge largely on the Principals’ Administrative Effectiveness in the areas of supervision, discipline, financial management, academic excellence, decision making, staff motivation, maintaining school-community relationship, staff and students’ welfare, involvement of staff in decision making andother administrative factors.

It is pertinent to review related literature. Osho (1998) found out that there was no significant difference between male and female principals in the areas of general school administration, academic excellence and personnel management. His study equally revealed that there was a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the areas of school finance, school discipline and school supervision as perceived by the secondary school teachers in Edo State. He concluded that female principals are very thorough and more consistent in the area of discipline among the staff members and students but their high handedness at times make them lose the support of their subordinates which affects their administration negatively and hinders the attainment of school objectives.

Adigun (2003) in a study revealed that there was a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the areas of school administration, school finance and discipline in secondary schools in Kwara State. The study also revealed that there was no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the areas of academic excellence and supervision. He explained further that male principals were effective in school discipline among the staff and the students than their female counterparts. Also, he

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concluded that the female principals were more prudent and transparent in the administration of finance in secondary schools in Kwara State than their male counterparts.

Korabic (2000) studied gender leadership and managerial effectiveness revealed that gender does not have any significant impact on the administrative effectiveness of the administrator. He explained further that the potentialities of individual administrator as regards his/her inborn leadership traits, administrative skills and knowledge acquired through adequate training and his/her abilities to put all these into practice go a long way in determining how effective he/she will be as an administrator. He explained that every manager of any organization irrespective of his/her gender is given the same power and authority to discharge his/her duties effectively to enhance the attainment of the organization goal and the failure to do so should not be attributed to the gender of the administrator. He concluded that the notion that men are better managers than the women is erroneous and that research has proved that some women are better manager than men. The study and comparative analysis of managerial and leadership effectiveness in the National Health Service carried out by Hamlin (2008) revealed that female health works were more effective than their male counterparts. He explained further that the female health workers were more patient, dedicated and satisfied with the job than their male counterpart who believed the job is better for women than men.

The study of Omoike and Idogho (2008) on gender disparity in administrative effectiveness of Heads of Academic Department in Nigerian Universities revealed that there was no significant difference in the administrative effectiveness of male and female Heads of Department in Nigerian Universities. They further explained that the finding has no significant difference in the administrative effectiveness of the Heads of Department between male and female has an implication for gender issues in university administration. There is a current global focus on female education that requires increase not only in women education but also in female involvement in education administration in particular and university governance in general.

Farrell (2002) in his study showed that there was no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the administration of secondary schools. He concluded that both male and female should be given equal opportunity as principal of secondary schools as long as they meet the required criteria.The study of Olajide (2002) revealed that there was a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the areas of general school administration, school finance, school discipline and academic excellence in secondary schools in Lagos State. The study equally showed that there was no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the areas of school supervision and human management in secondary schools in Lagos State. In the light of the above studies the following statement of the problems were observed. May staff both teaching and non-teaching within the F.G. College in the South West Nigeria prefer to work with female principals Also, there is shortage of teachers in some subjects in some schools due to mass transfer because teachers seek for transfer by themselves to schools where they feel the principal is administratively effective.

There seems to be conflict between some male principals and their teachers, lack of co-operation among teaching and non-teaching staff, poor school-community relationship between the school and the host community and conflict between the Parents Teachers’ Association executive and the school principal. These problems

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among other factors are likely to be traceable to gender influence on principals’ administrative effectiveness. This situation may have adverse effect on the administrative effectiveness of these colleges which may hinder the attainment of the goals for which the colleges were established to achieve. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to examine staff perception of gender influence on principals’ administrative effectiveness in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. The study also ascertained the difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the areas of school finance, discipline and academic excellence as perceived by the staff. Research Questions The following questions were raised in the study ?

1. Is there any difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness as perceived by the Staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria?

2. Is there any difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school finance as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West Nigeria?

3. Is there any difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school discipline as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West Nigeria?

4. Is there any difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of academic excellence as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria?

Hypotheses Based on the above research questions, the following hypotheses were formulated and tested.

1. There is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria.

2. There is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school finance as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria.

3. There is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school discipline as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria.

4. There is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of academic excellence as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria.

Methodology The study adopted a descriptive survey method. This design was considered suitable for the study because it affords the investigators the opportunity of obtaining the opinion of the sample population so as to infer the opinion of the entire population. The populations for this study were eighteen Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria and all the teaching and non-teaching staff. The samples for the study were twelve Federal Government Colleges 360 staff in South-West, Nigeria One hundred and eighty (180) teaching and one hundred and eighty (180) non-teaching staff. The college sample form 67% of the college population while staff sample form 51% of the staff population.

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Twelve colleges that have been headed by male and female principals were selected purposively. Stratified sampling technique was used to select male and female teaching and non-teaching staff that have stayed for over ten years in each college with the assistance of the college administrative officers. Simple random sampling technique was used to select 96 and 84 male and female teaching staff and 76 and 104 male and female non-teaching staff respectively. Fifteen (15) teaching and fifteen (15) non-teaching staff were selected from each of the 12 colleges sampled. The colleges selected were co-educational. The nature of these colleges necessitated their being selected purposively. A questionnaire titled Principals’ Gender and Administrative Effectiveness Questionnaire (PGAEQ) was developed for this study. The questionnaire was adopted from Osho (1998). The questionnaire was divided into two sections; Section A and B, Section A was on bio-data of the respondents. Section B contained items on generital administration, school finance, school discipline and academic excellence in which the respondents were requested to rate his/her principals’ administrative effectiveness on 4 point likert scale of Strongly Agreed (SA), Agreed (A), Disagreed (D) and Strongly Disagreed (SD). The instrument was validated by two experts in test and measurement to ascertain its face and content validities for use in data collection. The reliability co-efficient was done by comparing the response of the pilot sample (thirty respondents) in the administration of the instrument after two weeks of previous administration. The calculation was done using Pearson’s Product Moment correlation co-efficient and r = 0.84 obtained. The instrument was adjudged reliable. The questionnaire was administered personally on the subjects. Three hundred and sixty (360) respondents comprising of teaching and non- teaching staff completed the questionnaire properly. This amounted to hundred percent (100%) return rate. T test was used to test the hypothesis raised at the level of significant 0.05 Result of Findings Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria Table 1:Summary of Difference between Male and Female Principals’ Administrative Effectiveness in General Administration in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. PRINCIPALS N X S.D df t-cal t- table Male 180 36.04 1.30 Female 180 55.28 2.66 358 87.82 1.960

Critical value 0.05 level of significance. From table 1, mean rating for male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness are 36.04 and 55.28 respectively. This indicates that female principals are more effective than their male counterparts. The table also shows that t -cal 87.82>t -tab 1.960 at 0.05 level of significance thus, the null hypotheses is rejected. Hence there is a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. This result agrees with the findings of Adigun (2003) and Olajide (2002) that there was a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness as perceived by teachers in secondary schools in Kwara and Lagos State

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respectively. Although the findings disagrees with the findings of Osho (1998); Farrell (2002); Korabic (2000) and Omoike and Idogho (2008) that gender does not have significant impact on the administrative effectiveness of the administrator. Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school finance as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. Table 2: Summary of Difference between Male and Female Principals’ Administrative Effectiveness in School Finance. PRINCIPALS N X S.D df t-cal t-table Male 180 36.04 1.19 358 77.92 1.960 Female 180 49.31 1.96

Critical value 0.05 level of significance Male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness mean rating as shown in table 2 above is 36.04 and 49.31 respectively. Also, t -cal 77.92>t - table 1.960 at 0.05 level of significance and the null hypotheses is rejected. Thus there is a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school finance as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. This corroborates the findings of Osho (1998); Olajide (2002) and Adigun (2003) that there was significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school finance as perceived by teachers in secondary schools in Edo, Lagos and Kwara State respectively. Hypothesis 3: There is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school discipline as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. Table 3: Summary of Difference between Male and Female Principals’ Administrative Effectiveness in School Discipline. PRINCIPALS N N X S.D df t-cal t- table Male 180 48.11 1.49 Female 180 47.96 1.36 358 1.011 1.960

Critical value 0.05 level of significance The difference between the mean rating of male principals (48.11) and mean rating of female principals (47.96) is very small (0.15) as shown in table 3 above. The table equally shows that the t - cal 1.011<t - tab 1.960 at 0.05 level of significance and the null hypotheses is upheld. Therefore, there is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school discipline as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. The findings of Osho (1998); Olajide (2002) and Adigun (2003) disagrees with this findings as their findings revealed that there was a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of school discipline as perceived by teachers in secondary schools in Edo, Lagos and Kwara State respectively. Hypothesis 4: There is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of academic excellence as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria.

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Table 4: Summary of Difference between Male and Female Principals’ Administrative Effectiveness in Academic Excellence. PRINCIPALS N X S.D df t-cal t-table Male 180 51.81 1.51 358 1.15 1.960 Female 180 52.02 1.91

Critical value 0.05 level of significance Table 4 above shows that the mean rating for male and female principals is 51.81 and 52.02 respectively. The difference between the means appears very minimal (0.21). Also, from table 4, t - cal 1.15<t - tab 1.960 at 0.05 level of significance. Thus the null hypothesis was upheld. Hence, there is no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of academic excellence as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. This agrees with the findings of Osho (1998) and Adigun (2003) that there was no significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of academic excellence as perceived by teachers in secondary schools in Edo and Kwara State respectively. But, the findings was contrary to the findings of Olajide (2002) which revealed that there was a significant difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the area of academic excellence as perceived by teachers in secondary schools in Lagos State. Conclusion This study has revealed that the female principals are perceived to be more effective than their female counterparts in the general administration and school finance. However, there is no difference between male and female principals’ administrative effectiveness in the areas of school discipline and academic excellence as perceived by the staff in Federal Government Colleges in South-West, Nigeria. Recommendation

The attainment of educational goals lies greatly in the hands of educational administrators at all levels of our educational institutions. Therefore, the leadership of our educational institution especially Federal Government Colleges should not be limited to a particular gender. Officers with distinguished administrative potentials and capability should be appointed as principals so that the general goals and specific goals for the establishment of these Federal Government Colleges can be accomplished. Staff should give equal support and co-operation to their principals irrespective of the gender of the principal.

Only officers who had performed credibly well as vice-principals at one time or the other should be appointed as school principals rather than appointing officers in the Federal Ministry of Education that may lack the required skills needed for effective school administration.

Teachers should have input in the selection or appointment of school principals because they know who to be principals better than those in the ministry where the appointment is made.

The ministry should try as much as possible to resist any inducement given by officers wanted to be appointed as principals either through use of money or lobby by top political office holders because officers in this category usually lack the skills required for effective school administration. References Adigun, D. F. (2003): Difference between Male and Female Principals’ Administrative

Effectiveness in Secondary Schools in Kwara State. Unpublished Masters Project University of Ilorin.

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Akinwomoju, A. N. (2001): Historical Development of Federal Unity Colleges. Workshop held at Federal Government College, Idoani, Ondo State. Unpublished Proceedings.

Babalola, G. B. (2006): The Difference between Male and Female Geography Teachers’ Teaching Effectiveness in Secondary Schools in Ikole Local Government Areas, Ekiti State. Unpublished Masters Project, University of Ado-Ekiti.

Farrell, M. H. (2002): Pathway to Educational Leadership Advancing Women as Principals and Superintendents. Retrieved from http//www.aaum.org/700/efpathwaysbd.html.Hamlin, R. G.

(2002): A study and Comparative Analysis of Managerial and Leadership Effectiveness in the National Health Service: an Empirical Factor Analytic Study. Health Services Management Research, 15 (4):1-20.

Korabic, K. (2000): Gender Leadership and Managerial Effectiveness. Retrieve August 17, 2006 from: http//www.uoguelph/korabic/1433-html.

Olajide, T. O. (2002): Comparative Analysis between Male and Female Principals’ Administrative Effectiveness in Secondary Schools in Lagos State. Unpublished Masters Project.Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos State.

Omoike, D. and Idogho, P. O. A. (2008): Gender Disparity in Administrative Effectiveness Of Heads of Academic Departments in Nigerian Universities. Journal of Silica Science.Edo: 16(3)205-208.

Osho, O. (1998): Analysis of the Administrative Effectiveness of Principals as perceived by Teachers of SecondarySchools in Edo State. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State.

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Promoting Effective Management of the Universal Basic Education in Primary Schools through the Establishment of Guidance and

Counselling Programme

Tayo-Olajubutu Olufunmilayo & Olorunfemi-Olabisi, F.A Department of Guidance and Counselling,

Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, Nigeria Abstract There are multifaceted challenges which the child faces as he or she crosses over from the home to the school. If the initial fears, stress and confusions are not properly managed, it could lead to loss of interest in learning. To assist the school child to adjust and settle down properly demands for the presence and services of the school counsellor. It is the counsellor who has the unilateral training in the promotion of desirable interpersonal relationship in individuals and groups. It is the realization of this fact that prompted the researcher into seeking the opinions of head – teachers on the inclusion of guidance and counselling in the Universal Basic Education, UBE Primary Schools. Based on this, information was collected and analyzed; It was recommended that the establishment of guidance and counselling is vital for the effective management of the UBE Primary Schools. Key Words: Guidance & Counselling, Effective Management, Universal Basic Education. Introduction There is considerable evidence to show that education has a big role to play in inculcating the right type of value and attitudes for the survival of the individual and society. Education is thus described as a cornerstone of development by Onwuasoanya (2007).It is based on this realization that the Universal Basic Education (UBE) was launched by the Federal Government in 1999 under President of Nigeria, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo. However, mere access to the UBE Scheme is not enough proof to show that the products or the beneficiaries would be of the expected quality. It implies that if the UBE scheme lacks the proper planning and guidance, it could be a wasted effort after all. Educating and preparing the child for a better life goes beyond academic excellence only. It demands for the services of a professional school Counsellor in assisting to develop and stimulate the child’s intellectual, physical, social, and vocational growth, to enable him serve the individual and society fully. The Counsellor as a result of his or her training knows the importance of the development of the whole child. He also knows the appropriate skills and techniques to apply to ensure the success of the set goals for the UBE at the primary school level. Literature Review The concept of Guidance and Counselling Guidance and Counselling can be likened to the two sides of a coin which are inseparably linked. Adewuyi and Akinade (2007) explained that guidance services include information, orientation and in–service training. While counselling services comprise:

Academic counselling Behavioural counselling Career or vocational counselling Group counselling Socio – personal counselling Parent or child counselling and

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Job adjustment counselling.

Kolo (1997) in his own contribution sees Guidance and Counselling as a special helping Profession. The special nature of the relationship between the counsellor and his client(s) is the one that produces growth in the client(s).Specifically, Guidance and Counselling in the UBE primary schools is meant to assist pupils to experience smooth transition from home to school, settle down to learning, excel, and survive in their lives’ endeavours. Universal Basic Education (UBE) Basic education is the minimum education that every individual is expected to have. The UBE scheme was therefore introduced by the federal government to ensure that Nigerian children irrespective of their background have access to quality minimal education that would make them useful to themselves and the society at large. The State Universal Education Board (SUBEB) is the major implementer of the UBE programme at the state level. The UBE scheme in Nigeria according to the Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN, 2000a) blue print, and as explained in Jiya (2001), encompasses the following:

- Developing in her citizenry a strong consciousness for education and a strong commitment to its promotion.

- Provision of free and compulsory universal basic education for every school- age Nigerian child.

- Catering for the drop-out-of-school children and adolescents through various forms of complementary approaches to the provision and promotion of basic education.

- Ensuring the acquisition of the appropriate level of literacy, numeracy, manipulative and life skills needed for laying the foundation for life-long learning.

Effective Management The concept of effective management is linked with those activities and techniques involved in getting things done. Management may entail working out broad or short-term outlines by the school counsellor to ensure the accomplishment of the purposes of the success of the UBE scheme particularly at the primary level of education. It is vital for the school counsellor to make adequate provisions within the school to recognize and take good care of the health, feelings, attitudes, and personal hygiene of pupils. Teaching and learning is dependent on good guidance. This makes it imperative to create an enabling environment for learning to thrive. The Place of Guidance And Counselling In UBE Primary Schools. It could be recalled that in the 19th and early 20th centuries in Nigeria, the training of the child towards the moulding of his or her character was mostly done by parents and community elders at large. However, the advanced technological development which has eventually reduced the whole world to a global village has equally exposed the child to a lot of challenges. The manual prepared for the re-training of basic education teachers and managers by the Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC, 2010), acknowledged the fact that the various challenges being experienced by the school child today have pressurized him or her into a state of anxiety, fear and stress. To reduce this state of fear and stress amongst the school children called for the introduction of Guidance and Counselling services at the primary level of education. The primary level is the formative years of the child. It is the period when the child crosses over from the home to the school. The coming together of children from different backgrounds could cumulate to a lot of behavioural problems. On this Saka

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Tayo-Olajubutu Olufunmilayo & Olorunfemi-Olabisi, F.A

(2001) forsees some initial fear which the primary school child could exhibit to include phobia, panic about attending school, intellectual disabilities and motivational inadequacies. All these could result into frustration if not properly guided. It is feared that without the inclusion of Guidance and Counselling the envisaged frustrating situation could aggravate to more serious problems for the management of the UBE primary schools.

There is need to realize that at the primary level of education the counsellor’s techniques are more of direction and intervention. His or her work is focused more on helping the pupils on how to change specific aspects of their character, thinking, feeling and acting. Abudulkareem (2001) observed that many of the primary school pupils at this point of their lives are often in the midst of conflicts which cannot even be solved by their parents. This might be for the fact that many of them as young as they appear to be, seem to be more exposed or know much than their parents, about the society of today. The school coupled with the assistance of a professional counsellor serve as the ultimate for the socialization of pupils for better adjustment. Benefits of Guidance And Counselling For the UBE Primary Schools.

Many benefits are attached to the establishment of Guidance and Counselling at the primary school level of the UBE schools. Some of such benefits as identified by UBEC (2010) are:

- Providing the child with solid foundation for higher education - Assisting the child to develop the ability to communicate and interact freely

among friends, cohort and members of the society. - Making provisions for solid and scientific reflective thinking, which will assist the

child’s coping ability in the world of computer literacy and space exploration - It makes provision for the child’s ability to integrate herself in terms of morals,

attitudes, and behaviour acceptable to the community. It is against this background that this study sought to know the perception of head – teachers, who are at the helms of affairs at this level of education, on the establishment of Guidance and Counselling progamme in the UBE primary schools. Statement of the Problem There are multifaceted challenges which often subject the child to perpetual state of anxiety, fear, and stress. Without the presence of Guidance and Counselling programme in the UBE primary schools, the challenges could become overwhelming for the school child to grapple with. They could eventually mare the success of the UBE scheme and spell a doom for the individual child and the society at large. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to seek the opinion of head–teachers about the establishment of Guidance and Counselling programme in the UBE primary Schools. It was to find out whether there would be a difference between the opinions of male and female head – teachers concerning the establishment of Guidance and Counselling programme in UBE primary schools. It was also to find out if the location of what could be a factor in the establishment of Guidance and Counselling programme in UBE primary schools.Finally, the study was out to know what could be the benefits of establishing Guidance and Counselling in the UBE primary schools. Research Questions The following research questions were generated to guide the study:

1. Is there any need for the establishment of Guidance and Counselling programme in the UBE primary schools?

2. Is there any difference between the behavioural challenges of pupils and the establishment of Guidance and Counselling in the UBE primary schools?

Tayo-Olajubutu & Olorunfemi-Olabisi

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Research Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were generated and tested at 0.05 level of significance: There is no significant difference between the opinions of male and female head – teachers on the establishment of Guidance and Counselling programme in the UBE primary schools: There is no significant difference between urban and rural head – teachers on the establishment of Guidance and Counselling in the UBE primary schools. Method The study adopted the descriptive survey design in selecting the male and female head – teachers from Akure North Local Government Area (LGA) of Ondo State. The population for the study which was 50 head – teachers, also constituted the sample for the study. Research Instrument 50 copies of the self – constructed questionnaire titled “Establishment of Guidance and Counselling Programme for UBE Primary Schools Questionnaire (EGCPUBEPQ)”, were administered to the head – teachers. Data collected were subjected to t-test statistical analysis. A statistical comparison of the findings in each of the measured variable were analyzed and discussed. The two hypotheses raised were tested at 0.05 level of significance. Results Table 1 The t-test Table for the comparison of male and female head– teachers on their opinions on the establishment of guidance and counselling programme in UBE Primary Schools.

Gender N Mean SD df tcal tcrt

Male 15 69.87 13.809 38 1.229 2.021 Female 25 56.28 5.628

Not significant at P < 0.05 Data on table 1 showed that the value of t–cal of 1.229 was less than of t- cri of 2.021 at 0.05 level of significance. This result indicates that there was no significant difference between the opinions of male and female head – teachers on the establishment of Guidance and Counselling Programme in the UBE primary schools. Therefore hypothesis one was not rejected Table 2 The t-test Table for The Comparison between Urban and Rural Head

Teachers on Their opinions on the Establishment of Guidance and Counselling

Programme In the UBE Primary Schools.

Location N Mean SD df tcal tcrt Urban 22 69.80 12.67 38 1.621 2.021 Rural 18 76.44 15.317

Not significant at P< 0.05 Data on table 2 showed that the t – cal of 1.621 was less than the t – cri of 2.021 at 0.05 level of significance. This implies that the null hypothesis of no significant difference was not rejected. Discussion and Conclusion Data on table one confirmed that there was no significant difference between the opinions of male and female head – teachers on the establishment of Guidance and

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Counselling in the UBE Primary Schools. This shows that the head teachers, either male or female appreciated the services of Guidance and Counselling at the primary level of education. This finding is in agreement with the views of Kolo (1997), Abudulkareem (2001), Adewuyi and Akinade (2007) and Onwuasoanya (2007). They all expressed the belief that it is only through the employment of Guidance and Counselling services that the initial problems and confusions amongst pupils could be effectively managed. The second hypothesis was also not rejected. It implies that head – teachers in either urban or rural location supported the establishment of Guidance and Counselling Programme in Primary Schools in their area where they work. This result agreed with one of the set goals of the Federal Republic of Nigeria for establishing the UBE schools. One of the objectives stated that the UBE scheme is meant for all Nigerian children irrespective of their backgrounds or locations. Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that Guidance and Counselling should be employed in all UBE primary schools in Nigeria. This is because it would be of great benefit to pupils. In addition, it would assist educational planners, policy makers, and the school authority in the effective management of the UBE primary schools. References Abudulkareem, A.Y. (2001). Guidance and Counselling Services for Successful

Implemention of Universal Basic Education Programme in Nigeria. Journal of Counselling And Human Development 1 (1) 110 – 117. ABU, Zaria.

Adewuyi Olufemi, T.D and Akinade E.A (2007). Knowledge and Altitude of Relevance of Counselling Services in UBE Among Nigerian Teachers. The Counsellor. 23. 19 35. CASSON

Federal Government of Nigeria (2000a) Federal Ministry of Education Proposed Implementation Blueprint: Universal Education Scheme. Abuja. Government Press.

Jiya, J. (2001). Rationale for Guidance And Counselling In The UBE. Journal of Counselling And Human Development. 1. (1) 146 – 150. Zaira.

Kolo, F.D (1997). Conditions, Techniques And Skills for An Effective Counselling Process.Published by Jofegan Associates . P.O Box 726. Jos, Nigeria.

Onwuasoanya, P.N.(2007). Establishment of Counselling Services for Effective Implementation of UBE. In Primary Schools in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State. Conference Proceedings.144 – 153. Ota, Ogun State Nigeria.

Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC, 2010). Manual for the Re-Training of Basic Education Teachers And Basic Education Managers. 47 – 49. 7 Gwani Street Wuse Zone 4, Abuja.

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Student Politics in Bangladesh: An Impact on Quality Assurance in Education and National Development

Gazi Mahbubul Alam (PhD) and Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal Programme Officer, ILO, Dhaka Office, Bangladesh. Email:[email protected] Mirja

Mohammad Shahjamal, MPhill, Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Student politics is one of ignored areas in international scholarly debate. In the late 1960’s to early 70’s, some authors made some contributions in the context of South America and Africa. In 1968, Altabach also made a very little contribution on Indian student politics. The Institutions of HE (Higher Education) in southern Asia is experiencing a high volume of student politics and teacher politics. People often make link between teacher politics and students while they talk informally. As Academics of HE in Southern Asia who are mainly conduct research are also rigorously involve with politics, therefore, they often ignore this area (Alam, 2003). The paper explores the impact of students’ involvement in ‘party politics’ on quality of higher education and national development in Bangladesh answering some specific research questions through the data gained from an empirical research work. Introduction Most introductory textbooks on students’ politics begin with this question, “What is politics?” There is, however, considerable disagreement regarding how to answer the question (Burns 2000, p93). One view is that politics has to do solely and uniquely with the activities of the state (Crick, 1971, Laski, 1931, Pickles, 1964, Miller, 1962, Heywood, 1997). There are, however, those who challenge this view because they consider it to be too narrow. They have in their different ways sought to broaden our understanding of the nature of politics. For example, one account is that politics has to do with the resolution, or at least the regulation, of conflict between individuals or groups. A related view is that politics has to do with the preservation of order within a particular society or group (Crick, 1971). There is also the view that politics involves processes of collective decision-making in societies and or groups (Hague et al., 1992, 1982). A fourth view is that politics has to do with the exercise of power (Duverger, 1974, Leftwich, 1984, Lukes, 1981, 1974). As such politics is an integral aspect of all social life. This is the understanding of politics that one finds in much of the current literature produced by post structuralist writers such as, for example, Chantal Mouffe (Mouffe, 1993). Heywood has claimed recently that this last view is both the broadest and the most radical definition of politics available in the current literature (Heywood, 1997). Student Politics In this research we focus on students’ involvement in ‘party politics.’ To clarify the concept, it is important to distinguish different levels of student politics. As we mentioned earlier, politics is an activity that requires at least two people; therefore, student politics also requires at least two students. Consequently, just two students’ united activities in pursuance of certain aims can be identified as student politics. Then again, there are different types of student politics and it must be borne in mind that the types identified by different authors are based on time/region/country/culture (Altbach, 1974, Fields, 1970, Larkin, 1968). Below, we will distinguish three types of student politics.

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Student unity: It is probable that student unity is one of the oldest structures of student politics (Altbach, 1974). When a number of students, whether just some students or the whole student body of a school, country or region, form themselves into a unity for executing a certain aim or a number of aims, or campaign in favour of their rights or agitate to receive their entitlement, they can be characterized by the term student unity (Altbach, 1974, 1993, Ottaway, 1968). Students union: In some countries, the student forum/club is also known as union (Altbach, 1974, Williams, 1968). When a group of students who have religion, region, or any other interest in common form an organization under certain conditions within a school, country or even an international context, this is known as a students’ union (Altbach, 1974). So every different group of students having one or more interests or aspects in common can form a different student union within a school, country or international context. Each student union will campaign in favour of its own outlook or agitate to receive its entitlement. Therefore, sometimes student unions can be in competition with each other. Students’ involvement in party politics: Every country has different national political parties except the countries where martial law or dictatorships exist (Heywood, 1997). These national political parties usually have their associated or affiliated organizations for different professional groups. To discuss this situation, I will use examples from the Bangladeshi context. In Bangladesh, there are four major national political parties, namely Bangladesh Aowami League (BAL), Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), Bangladesh Jatio Party (BJP) and Jamayati Islami Bangladeshi (JIB). Each of them has an affiliated political organization for students. For example, Bangladesh Chartro league (BCL) is an affiliated or associated student organization of BAL.

The above-mentioned three types are not exclusive. For example, if some students form a unity based on a particular issue, thereafter they can be divided into different groups for their further different interests or purposes. And then different groups can form various student unions. In underdeveloped counties, students unions are always biased by national politics because of their socio-economical and overall social conditions (Altbach, 1974, 1993 and 1968, Glazer, 1968, Hamilton, 1968). In the case of Bangladesh, Hannan (2000) believes that student politics ought to be associated with national politics. But authors such as Altbach, Ross, David, Glazer, Hamilton, Marr, Emmerson, Myhr and Ottaway believe that students’ involvement in ‘party politics’ has created a political atmosphere in HE institutes in most countries and that has an impact on the educational atmosphere. In this context Hamilton (1968, p 355) states: The extensive involvement of the student movement with partisan politics in Venezuela makes it exceedingly difficult to draw a boundary line between indigenous and outside elements in the movement or between a “trained communist agitator” and ordinary student leaders. Most students would not object strongly even to the presence on campus of a politician with no pretensions of student status, for the simple reason that student leaders are expected to be in contact with the machinery and authorities of the party they represent. On the other hand, some students involved in ‘party politics’ would agree with the views expressed by Jaime: Jaime rejected the view that student organizations should be concerned only with “student issues”, such as financial aid and housing, and denied the charge that student political groups were merely party tools. He also disagreed with those who believed students could never be politically relevant (Glazer,1968, P290).

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Gazi Mahbubul Alam (PhD) and Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal

The above two quotes contrast different views on students’ involvement in ‘party politics’, one negative, the other positive. Background information on and present situation of Bangladeshi student politics The findings and discussion section of this project mainly illuminated the Bangladeshi student political context focusing on some special aspects. However, a brief discussion will help to understand the discussion of the leading sections. Virtually no academic research has been conducted on Bangladeshi student politics (Daily Star). Apart from the newspaper articles, two authors (Hannan and Ullah) based in Bangladesh have made some contributions on Bangladeshi student politics. However, their work only focuses on student campaigning. They themselves claim to be student leaders (Ullah, 2001 and Hannan, 2000), so the contents of their publications are not wholly neutral ‘Unofficially recognized Bengal student politics’ is older than Bangladesh (Hannan 2000, Ullah, 2001 and Shmastantrik Chartro Front –SCF, 2001). Student politics in the Bengal region was established while it was under British rule (Hannan, 2000 and Ullah, 2001). After the ‘British chastisement’, it came under Pakistani governance and was named East Pakistan. As an independent nation since 1971 it has been being administered by both the elected government and martial law. Consequently, student politics has always been associated with campaigning for social change because of the ‘demand of the times’ (Hannan, 1993, 1994 and Ullah, 2001). Different types of student politics have existed at different periods (Hannan, 2000). Both Hannan and Ullah point out that the ‘British chastisement’ enforced laws for all aspects of Bengal which were not generally appropriate (Ullah, 2001 and Hannan, 2000). Particularly the educational policies imposed by the British administration on Bengal were different from the internal policies which existed within the UK and this was a cause of concern to Bengali students (Hannan, 2000 and 1994). Again, Pakistani rules also force the students to campaign in favour of their rights (Hannan, 2000 and Ullah, 2001). Moreover, Hannan (2000) and Ullah (2001) note that under martial law students continued the revolutionary tradition of student politics. Certain situations created by British rule, Pakistani governance and martial law forced students to campaign in favour of their and their country’s rights. However, the recent upsurge of student politics is different: national political parties have established affiliated student political parties to use the students as their political tools. The available literature shows that up to 1930, there were no student unions in Bangladesh (Hannan, 1993 SCF, 2001). However, in this period students were collectively facing challenges from different student movements (Ullah, 2001 SCF, 2001, Hannan, 2000). In 1941, students were divided into two main groups, namely ‘leftist’ and ‘rightist’. Rightist students did not engage in much political activity within the campus (Ullah, 2001, SCF, 2001 and Hannan, 2000). Bangladesh Islami Chartro Shibir (BICS) was the only student organization which was rightist. On the other hand, there were two leftist student unions, namely Chartro union and Chartro League, and they principally dominated and controlled the campus politics (Hannan 1993, 2000 and Ullah 2001). In 1952, both leftist and rightist political groups unitedly played a vital role in achieving the victory for Mother Tongue Revolution (Ullah, 2001). In early 1960 Chartro league was divided into different groups and each group was headed by different Chartro league leaders (Hannan, 2000, 1993 and Ullah,

Gazi Mahbubul Alam& Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal Gazi Mahbubul Alam& Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal Gazi Mahbubul Alam& Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal Gazi Mahbubul Alam& Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal

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2001). In 1971, leftist political students played a vital role in achieving victory for Independence Revaluation. ‘Rightist students’ were inactive on this occasion.

After independence, Bangladesh Aowami League (BAL) formed the government and campus politics were controlled by their associated organization, named Bangladesh Chartro League (BCL) (Hannan, 2000 and Ullah, 2001). In 1975, the president of the country was assassinated by military officials and after a few days martial law was established. In the meantime the ‘chief of the army’ formed a new political party named Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and also established an associated political party for students named Jatiotabadi Chartro Dall (JCD) as a rival party to BCL (Hannan, 2000). The country president who was himself BNP president was also killed by military officials and after a certain period martial law was once again established.

The new chief of the military government also established another political party named Bangladesh Jatiyo Party (BJP). The BJP were committed not to establish an associated student political party. But in 1988, students engaged in a big revolution against the ‘so-called elected BJP government’. Since the party had no affiliated student political party the president along with his advisers thought to establish one in order to compete against the other student political parties involved in the student revolution. BJP’s affiliated political student party is called Bangladesh National Chartro Shamash (BNCS) (Hannan 2000). However, after toppling themilitary government in 1990, every successor has been elected by election conducted by the‘caretaker government Considering the present circumstances, it can be concluded that at present Bangladeshi student politics is an activity which is guided by and guided for the national political parties’ competition, interests and outlook. Therefore, to examine these issues, we conducted further investigation in order to find the answers of the following research questions using the following research methods. 1. Why are students involved in politics? 2. What are the disadvantages of students’ involvement in politics? 3. What are the advantages of students’ involvement in politics? 4. How can students be encouraged not to join in ‘nefarious party politics’? Research techniques The methods of data collection are qualitative. We chose methods that would allow the respondents to express their views in a free and personal way, giving as much prominence as possible to their thematic associations. Hence, we chose to use semi-structured telephone interviews and email questionnaires. Another method of data collection we adopted was document review. The interviews and other methods of data collection were conducted from abroad while we were in study leave. Only few days for field work, taken leave from universities was mainly concentrated on observation. The observation was conducted through checklist and non-checklist method. In some extent, the observation was very challenging and risky thus we have to stay with the ‘cadres’. Interview Samples As mentioned earlier, there are four major student organizations in Bangladesh, namely BCL, JCD, BJCS and BICS. It is proven that to receive proper and reliable data, triangulation of samples is an important issue (Cohen et al., 2002). We selected our respondents from the four main major student organizations mentioned. We intended to interview two students who were involved with the ‘Chartro union’ but unfortunately we failed to find anybody prepared to be an interviewee. We selected two people from each organization: one person holding a more responsible position such as committee

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member or coordinator/secretary, and the other with a less responsible position. In addition, we chose two students who were not involved in politics (see next section). Moreover, we chose one college principal and one lecturer as our respondents. We also contacted national political leaders but they were not interested to talk on this topic. Robson (2000) makes the point that sometimes guaranteeing confidentiality helps the researcher to elicit valid data. When selecting respondents involved in politics, we chose students studying at Dhaka college, Dhaka university and some other institutes which are currently experiencing a high volume of student politics. We selected those respondents not involved in student politics from private HE institutes where no student politics exists. he college principal and lecturer selected had teaching experience at both types of institutes. In consideration of confidentiality, we labelled the respondents (Cohen and Manion, 1997 and Hammersley, 1996). So in the findings and discussion section of this paper the 12 respondents will be referred to as R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, R10, R11 and R12. R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8 are involved with BCL, BNSP, BICS and BJCS. R9 and R10 are the students who are not involved with politics. R11 and R12 are respectively the lecturer and principal. The further information about the respondents is as follows. R1 is studying a short language course in a university after completion of his master’s degree. He is also an established businessman. He is now almost 37 years old and has already spent 22 years in HE by taking various courses. He started student politics at 15 years old when he was a student at HSC level. R2 is about 41 years old and started politics when he was a student at HSC level. His HE period spans almost 25 years at various courses and he is currently studying in a College. R3 is 31 years old, recently passed her master’s degree and is now pursuing a short course. Her experience in HE and student politics is 14 years. R4 completed his masters degree almost 10 years ago. In the meantime he has taken a number of short courses and has 16 years of experience in student politics. R5 is now completing the final year of his undergraduate course and his experience in politics is about 2.5 years. R6 is a student of the masters programme and his age is almost 29 years, his experience in politics is about 7 years. R7 is a 36 year old student studying a short course in the law department after five years at a law college. His experience in student politics is about 12 years. R8 is a student who is now an established businessperson at present enrolled as a student of a short course and involved with student politics since 1981. It was difficult for us to make contact with the students who recently joined in politics because traditionally, they usually need to seek permission from their senior leaders but their seniors like to be the respondents to make the initial contact with the respondents we usually phoned their ‘party office’ where the officials are senior students rather than junior. However, some of the senior leaders allowed juniors to talk us upon our request. R9 and R10 are studying respectively a masters and an HSC programme at the ages of 26 and 15. Findings and Discussion This section is devoted to the project’s outcomes. We attempt to answer our research questions by considering and comparing my interviewees’ responses, and the results of the document review (DR) and the email questionnaires (EQ). The answers to the research questions are dealt with in turn. How are students motivated towards ‘party politics’ in Bangladesh?

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R1, R4, R5, R3, R8 and R11 placed heavy emphasis on the ‘diplomatic’ advertising methods practised by the different political student organizations. Most of the student organizations distribute their publicity leaflets to the examinees when they take part in the ‘admission test’ for enrolment in HE. In addition, the institute’s student leaders usually meet with the examinees at the ‘test centre’ of the college or university to inform them of facilities provided for students once they are members of their ‘party’. R5 points out that it is very hard to get accommodation at college/university halls of residences. Each ‘hall’ is controlled and occupied by one political party. For example, Mujib Hall at Dhaka University is controlled by BCL, while on the other hand Zia Hall at the DU is controlled by JCD. Therefore, student leaders often offer newcomers accommodation on condition they join their political party. In addition R5 also mentions that a party offers ‘preparatory coaching for the admission test’ and that the instructors also put pressure on new students to join their party. A few student organizations also provide free clothes, books and stationery for newcomers (R1, R7 R3 and R8). R4 says “Since I was not involved with any party, I was informed that I would have to join their political party otherwise I would lose my room in the hall. And the threat was very real. My family background didn’t allow me to afford private accommodation; therefore I had no alternative but to join their party”. In addition R7 also mentions that “my family didn’t provide me with sufficient money even though my father was solvent, so I joined in politics to earn extra money”. (But what R7 means by the term extra money is unclear). On the other hand, R9 and R10 mention that they manage themselves on the money provided by their families. They also note that sometimes it is hard to manage on the amount of money received from the family, but not impossible. They hold the view that “parents are under no obligation to send the money which is needed to buy ‘addiction goods’ such as drugs, or to enjoy a luxurious life, are they?” We feel that investigation of the issues raised above requires quantitative research because this will reveal the attitudes of a wide range of students, and the role family background plays in student involvement in politics. R10, R11 and R12 give heavy emphasis to the existing educational system. R1 mentions that if an HE institute allows ‘such students’ (who are not academically brilliant) to ‘take’ the course, they usually join in politics. Even though the ‘admission test’ exists, students can be enrolled in HE without sitting the test by joining the ‘powerful political group’ (R10). Moreover, R11 says that if lecturers and institutional support staff are involved in politics, they also ‘push’ the students to join in politics. Sometimes, they also involved in ‘irregular activities’ to help political students to enrol in HE or to stay within the system. The points made by R10 and R11 indicate the reasons for the enrolment of non-brilliant students into the HE system. R12 also points out that HE institutes which receive funds from the government experience a high volume of student politics because often the active government and their political leaders put pressure on the institute’s authorities to introduce student politics. R12’s responses raise the issue of autonomy and corruption in HE institutes. With the exception of the universities, the management of HE institutes in Bangladesh is not autonomous and is politically corrupt. However, as previously mentioned, the universities’ management is ostensibly autonomous. Active student leaders are usually also national parliamentarians. Moreover, traditionally, student leaders would be national politicians. In this regard R11 and R12 point out that to establish a national political platform for themselves, students enter politics at HE level. The above points raise a few questions. If students are national parliamentarians, how can they concentrate on their studies while they are busily engaged in political and social activities? It must be borne in mind that the Prime

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Minister is the chancellor of the universities in Bangladesh. Senators are elected politically. VCs and college heads are selected politically. Therefore, how do the faculty members legislate, and then enforce the laws on the ‘so-called parliamentarian students’ and how can they guide them. Of course, faculty members cannot guide them, on the contrary they must be guided by parliamentarian students. As a result university and college halls of residences are often occupied by the ‘bhahiraghata’ armed cadres, not by the students (R9, R10, R11 R12 and EQ). So students have no alternative but to become followers of a political group. Email Questionnaires (EQ) also generated two vital points with regard to the course contents and facilitates provided. In PE and SE textbooks, the articles are biased in favour of particular political leaders. F12 also mentioned that with every change of government the content of PE and SE textbooks is changed with a view to ‘brain washing’ the students to join their political philosophy once they become ‘adult’. Let us give an example. From 1991 to 1995 PE and SE books contained articles in favour of BNP leaders, with special focus on their party founder General Zia. Their successor, BAL, changed the contents of the PE and SE books in 1996. The new contents mostly focused on their leader Sheikh Mujib. Having said that, R2 added that he was motivated to enter politics by gathering knowledge about Mujib from books, newspapers and family. EQ also revealed that Bangladeshi HE is not able to put enough pressure on students to concentrate on their studies. Students do not need to write any assignments, or to undertake research work or any practical activities. Moreover, Bangladeshi HE does not usually offer many technical, professional or job-oriented programmes, so the students’ future employability is under threat. In addition, the facilities provided by HE, such as libraries, Internet access, sport and recreation, are very poor. Consequently, students experience many difficulties in getting through their HE courses, and they become motivated towards politics. Since most of the teachers at primary, secondary and HE level lack the competence to ‘foster’ their students’ humanity, the result is that students do not have a strong sense of their duties and responsibilities as students of HE (R6, R3 R11, R10 R12 and EQ). In addition, R11 and R12 said that once students enrol for an HSC programme, their parents’ influence on them is weakened. Most of the colleges are urban, so rural students in particular live away from their parents. Therefore, they lack proper direction, and instead follow the guidance received from student leaders. R1, R2, R5 and R6 also mentioned that family political background influences students to join in politics. But adolescents need good guidance from their seniors. These accounts show that inadequate or inappropriate education system, family background and age also play a role in influencing students to join in politics. Major advantages and disadvantages created by student politics in Bangladesh Advantages It was only the student unity which ‘campaigned and fought’ for 1952’s Mother Tongue Revolution, because Bangladesh was not an independent nation at the time. Therefore no established national political parties existed in Bengal in 1952 (R1 to R12 and EQ). In addition all respondents mentioned that even though in 1971 a few political parties had become established, their activities were not well organized and united. They also mentioned that these political parties were not established enough to lead the Independence Revolution. The student unity, in contrast, was well organized and established. Some of the student leaders were very intellectual and well known and they

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travelled around Bengal trying to raise awareness in people, especially adolescents, about ‘our’ rights and the concepts of independence and national development. The student leaders acted on that occasion very cautiously and ‘technically’ (R11 and R12). These circumstances created a unity of the Bengal population. In consequence the collective ‘awareness and fighting’ role of the Bengal people helped to attain the Independence (R1 to R12 and EQ). Since its emergence in 1990, Bangladeshi students unitedly played a vital role in addressing the autocratic government (R1, R3, R4, R6 R5 and R12). However, R7 and R8 challenged this view. They argued that the government was elected and was directing the country very smoothly. So there were no opportunities for BNP and BAL to come into ‘power’ by election. Therefore, they ‘used their parties’ students as the political tools’ to campaign and to promulgate calumnies against the government. R9, R10, R11, R12 and EQ maintained that student politics have not contributed any advantages to the nation apart from the three occasions mentioned. But these respondents stated very clearly that the type of student politics which played an influential role on the occasions mentioned was ‘student unity’. On the other hand R1, R2, R3 R5, R7 and R8 mentioned that sometimes they were involved in organizing other kinds of social and political activities, and this provided them with opportunities to learn the skills of ‘public communication’, coordinating people, participatory approaches and leadership. R4 and R1 mentioned another advantage: that by maintaining ‘good and diplomatic’ liaison with privileged people, they could promote their business. In addition R2 mentioned that his party work helped to secure students’ rights. He noted that faculty members in government universities and colleges offer private coaching to students or they can also work with private institutes to earn more money. As a result the quality of education provided by government HE institutes is deteriorating. Therefore, BCL campaigns to address these issues. Disadvantages The disadvantages of present Bangladeshi student politics are manifold (R9, R10 and R12). The prime concern is that a constraint placed by the unrest and other inevitable circumstances which is resulted by the student politics deteriorates the quality of education (see Figure 3). R1, R10, R11 and R12 said that DU is the apex of the country’s HE institutes. Therefore the student politics of DU control student politics for the whole country. But emergencies created by DU’s student politics resulted in the establishment of a ‘police camp’ within the campus (EQ, R3, R1, R11, R10 and R11). Moreover, the present situation of unrest created by student politics forced the authorities to move Dhanmondi police station closer to the university campuses. It should be mentioned that Ramana and Lalbagh police stations are already located closer to the campuses. DU, BUET and DMC are all located adjacently. If a situation requires stationing police within the campuses, how can HE institutes perform their regular activities (R1 R10 R11 R12 and EQ)? Student organizations often fight each other to establish their parties’ authority within the campus and surroundings (R3, R9, R12 and EQ). It is now common for HE institutes to be closed by the strikes caused by student politics. R12 also mentioned that in an academic year, a minimum of 20 days is usually lost due to student political unrest. In addition, he says that in a year more than 30 days are lost as a result of Hartal called by different national political parties. Student organizations’ affiliation with the national

Gazi Mahbubul Alam& Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal

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political parties also forces HE institutes to close during these Hartal periods (R9, R10, R11, R4, and EQ) (see below figure 7). R10 and R12 also mentioned that at Hartal students involved with student politics work as the ‘picketers’. But R1, R5, R6, R7 and R8 link student unrest with the country’s overall situation. They point to the country’s overall ‘miserable degrading situation’ as the main causal factor of student unrest. R1 stated that “student unrest is not a separate issue, it is a part of the country’s present unrest”. R10, 12, R11, R5 and R1 made the point that campus political unrest sometimes leads to accidental death. If circumstances force an HE institute to close for more than 50 days in an academic year, how will the institute provide appropriate HE? Obviously, it cannot do so. To illustrate this problem, we use the data of HSC examination results of different years of three colleges, namely Dhaka College, Notre Dame College and Dhaka City College. It should be noted that Dhaka College’s students are involved in party politics, while the students of Notre Dame College and Dhaka City College are not involved in party politics. However their students can be members of different educational clubs i.e. Science Club, Arts and Social Science Club, and Debating Club organized and directed by the faculty members and students. We also provide the data on SSC results because students enroll in an HSC programme after completion of SSC. R9 and R10’s points are important to note before analysing the table. Students studying at a college where student politics are available can unusually do ‘nakal’ in the examination which helps them to secure ‘duinumbari’ (better performance) rather than their actual performance. They sometimes sit in a different room where ‘open book’ examinations are available (R10, R9 and R12). The percentages of HSC first division holders are higher at NDC and DCC than at DC. R12 said that before liberation the performances of DC students were better than NDC and DCC students. Therefore, it can be concluded that present student political involvement not only encroaches on their study time but also brings an inappropriate educational atmosphere. The above figure also supplements the earlier figure and the concept established analyzing the earlier figure. The trend shows that the result of the university graduates is a declining feature in Bangladeshi education system. The differences between primary to junior secondary is not very higher. A slight higher differences starts from secondary level. From higher secondary, the declining feature of the result is comparatively higher than secondary level. In the university level, this trend is in utmost position therefore it can be testify that quality of the education in university level is not in a level of expectation. A number of factors can be blamed, however, student politics is one of the prime factors which also influence the difference since Bangladeshi education system experience the student politics from higher secondary level and this is extreme in the tertiary education provision. By analysing the trend of some countries (i.e., Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore), the increasing features is found in the tertiary education provision since these systems are more conception based. Therefore securing the good score is possible in tertiary level if someone can precisely grasps, manipulate and disseminate the concept in a precise way. Example can be cited from Western education system where CGPA or distinction/merit system has been introduced as students’ are receiving more than 80%. Moreover, student leaders sometimes engage in corruption or criminal actions. For instance, communications received from the ‘New Market Businessman Association’ and ‘Elephant Road Shop Owner Association’ indicated that they could reduce the prices of their goods by 15% if they did not have to provide ‘chada’ (subscriptions) to student leaders, especially at DC and DU.

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Students involved in politics not only create a miserable degrading atmosphere in HE institutes, but also their abominable practices cause social decadence. R3, R5, R7, R9, R11 and R12 related that a student leader at Jahangirnagar University had ‘scored a century’ of rapes. But R1 and R2 claimed that BCL had expelled him from ‘our party’. The question that should be asked, however, is how was the student allowed to achieve such a shameful record? It is important to ask why the party did not take necessary action after the first rape and how was this student allowed to pursue his education abroad (DR). Certainly, it is proven that he had received illegal support from his political party. In addition, a student leader of JCD killed a BUET student in June 2002, but he has still not been arrested (R1, R2, R5, R6, R9, R12). R11 and R12 also mentioned that students involved in politics have no respect for their teachers and elderly people. They have also been known to kill their teachers if the teachers try to prevent them from committing abominable practices. However, R1 to R8 said that only a few student leaders are involved in abominable activities and that it is the people, police and journalists who have generalized these exceptions as a characteristic aspect of student politics. R1 also said that “I was arrested in 1988 and 1994 but the police didn’t try to understand that I am a constructive student leader. And they punished and injured me seriously”. Students involved in politics are continuing HE for a longer period by enrolling in different programmes because to be a ‘high level of student leader, it takes a longer period’ (R1, R5, R6, R3 R10, R11 and R12). R2 stated that he has waited almost 20 years to be the president of BCL of Dhaka region. Involvement in party politics forces students to work as the ‘party tools’ (R5, R6, R3 R9, R10, R11 and R12). They are commanded by their leaders to campaign in favour of their party, especially during the election period. Students involved in politics are also known as the hijackers of the ‘ballot paper’. They also force people to contribute their vote to their party. Moreover they oppress the people of minority groups and non-privileged classes at the direction of their leaders. EQ, R9, R10, R11 and R12 held the view that students involved in politics force teachers to provide them with a list of key questions prior to the examinations. Moreover, R10, R11 and R12 also mentioned that they are doing ‘nakal’ in the examination but the authorities cannot take effective action due to their connection with the political leaders. R11 said that “I was furiously threatened by a national politician that if I take any action against any of his party students, I will be sacked from my job”. Brilliant students are threatened with the ‘competition of the job market’ since it is the student leaders who get the jobs because of their association with the national politicians. Students’ involvement in party politics and impact on quality assurance in HE and development Discussions of previous sections have already illuminated the impact of student involvement in ‘party politics’ on ND. Nevertheless a brief discussion in this section will help to explain some specific points. Student politics is not self-directed. It is now working in collaboration with the national politics. Therefore the impact of national politics and student politics in ND areinterrelated. We will not discuss the issue of national politics, but a simple view of Clinton (2003) and WB (2002) is that the Bangladeshi people’s greatest enemy is the political instability of their country. Political leaders do not bother about the country’s development. They are only concerned with their own development and most of the political leaders have shady backgrounds as holders of ‘black money’. Honest and competent people are not interested in entering politics because of the present ‘polluted situation’. In addition, R10, R11, R12 and EQ believe that political leaders have enough money to send their children to pursue their education in developed countries; so political leaders have no worries about the miserable degrading atmosphere of the country’s HE institutes. It was our expectation

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that student politics would bring a prosperous life for Bangali and accordingly that it was contributing to ND. But the present activities of student politics are very disappointing (R1 to R12 and EQ). Student politics hinders not only social freedom but also economic development. Before elaborating on this, it is important to note that education itself can play a significant role for ND, so any threat to education is a threat to ND. Rashid (2001) notes that large numbers of students have been killed as a result of student politics since 1971. It is very simple to understand that if students are frequently killed in situations of unrest caused by student politics, the unrest does not remain confined to HE campuses but spreads throughout the country. When a daughter reaches adulthood, parents are afraid to send their daughter to school and away from home because of their fear of student leaders (R10, R9, R3, R12 and EQ). R9 also said that “my parents are not only worried for my sister but also for me. Nobody knows when and where the fighting will be started”. Such circumstances hinder not only the development of HE but also of the overall social freedom. In addition, in their haste to become affluent overnight, student leaders employ corrupt practices (terrorism, ‘jamidakhal’ ‘baridakhal’ ‘Chadabasi’) and deny poor people their right to access basic goods (R5, R7, R10, R12 and EQ). The impact on economic growth and the development of HE is serious. The honours bachelor degree is a four-year programme and the masters programme requires another year to complete (BANBEIS 2002). But students need at least 8 years to complete the masters degree due to the so-called ‘session jam’ created by student politics. Let us give an example to illustrate this: a student was due to complete his/her master degree in 1988 from DU’s economics department (assuming he/she passed the examination) but due to ‘session jam’ no examinations could be conducted before 1993 for the 1988 cohort. The problem is that the certificates of the students conceal this appalling situation, because the year inserted on the certificate is 1988. So how can the educational budgets possibly meet the demand of these additional HE periods? If every student has to spend an extra 3-7 years pursuing HE, how will he/she be funded? Who will support their old parents in maintaining their family? Who will bear the educational and accommodation expenses of their younger brothers and sisters? Another important point to note is that the enrolment age for candidates wishing to hold a government job is 30 years. (In Bangladesh, a government job is more prestigious and once secured there is virtually no chance of dismissal.) To be a ‘first class’ government officer, a candidate has to have a masters degree with necessary experience, but if a student is over 30 by the time he/she passes his/her masters degree due to the so-called session jam, how can he/she apply for government jobs. Consequently most of the masters degree holders are jobless or in a job which is not relevant to his/her qualifications. R12 points out that “even though ‘session jam’ is comparatively reduced now, students have to sit the examinations without proper preparation because ‘we’ cannot provide them with enough seminars, and cannot allow them sufficient time for reading”. On the other hand, WB (2002) suggests that by utilizing manpower properly Bangladesh can gain a strong economy. But under the circumstances described it is sheer fantasy to think that WB’s suggestion could be implemented. As a consequence of ‘contractors’ having to provide ‘chada’ to the local student leaders to execute the developmental works (i.e. construction/repairing of building and road etc.), the

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quality of the developmental works is deteriorating. Entrepreneurs not only have little incentive to establish new businesses but they are also unwilling to extend their existing business because student leaders often impose a larger amount of ‘taxes’ (illegal subscriptions) on them. The Daily Prothom-Alo, Daily Star and some other newspapers reported on 21st December 2002 that a few leading garments and leather industries were going to be closed because JCD leader and parliamentarian Pintu imposes a huge amount of ‘taxes’ on those industries. It should be noted that garments and leather sectors earn more foreign currency than others b exporting their manufactured products (see chart 1). Chart 1: Exports from Bangladesh during 1997-98 Source: BGMEA 2001 Students who are involved in politics tend to travel without paying their fare (R1, R5, R9 R7, R9, R11 and R12). They even like to impose ‘taxes’ on transport owners (R9 and R12). So, fighting between transport workers and students involved in politics is now a regular activity and it leads to transport strikes for uncertain periods (R11 and EQ). Hampering of communications also hinders the country’s usual activities. Corruption As we mentioned above, Bangladeshi student politics and corruption of the HE atmosphere are interrelated. Corrupt activities (i.e. illicit admission to and retention in the HE system of students involved in politics, illegal distribution of accommodation in halls of residence, pressure of illegitimate distribution of govt. budget, illicit changing of textbooks’ contents as described earlier perpetrated by faculty members, support staff, and political leaders provide incentives to students to join in ‘party politics’. So it is quite natural that a ‘student politics’ which was born and has grown up with corruption will continue to play a role in creating a corrupt educational atmosphere. As a result, students involved in politics are conducting a wide range of corrupt practices, i.e. nakal, baridhakal, jamidhkal, Chadabasi which bring pollution and corruption not only within HE but also in society in general. So how could such a corrupt HE atmosphere/management possibly provide quality education to the students and develop their capacity to be significant actors in promoting ND. Moreover, any corruption itself always hinders ND. How can students play a constructive role in building an appropriate educational atmosphere?

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There is no doubt that the present HE atmosphere in the country is not good enough to provide quality education (R1 to R12 and EQ). But it is related to the overall situation of political unrest in the country (R1, R2, R3, R5, and R7). To create a better educational atmosphere in HE institutes, R1, R5, R2, R6 and R9 suggest that brilliant students need to join in the politics so that the ‘so-called’ students would not have a place in student politics. They also mention that their involvement in student politics would ensure that the country has good political leaders in the future. But to me as an observer, the issue appears to be beset with problems. Involvement of brilliant students in politics not only would encroach upon their study time but also they would have to challenge the rival group due to the existing circumstances of student politics. As an example, two brilliant students named Avi and Niru joined in student politics and they became known as the most ‘dangerous’ student leaders who love ‘killing and raping’. And now Avi is a parliamentarian of notorious reputation. On the other hand, R9, R10, R11 R12 and EQ’s views are that ‘banning student politics is a must’ to solve the problems and to reinstate the appropriate educational atmosphere (BRAC 2002). We believe that banning student politics is not a solution for the following reasons. Student politics on campus are not officially recognized. So if government wished to ban that, it would first have to accord that official recognition. Once government officially recognizes student politics, the chances of banning them would be almost zero because the student leaders would have a legal issue to campaign against that. Therefore, if a government tried to impose a ban, their rivals would incite their students to create situations of unrest. Moreover, “anybody who has voting power can be involved in politics” (Rashid 2001). So 18 year old students have the right to be involved in politics. However, in Bangladesh, most students start politics at the age of fifteen. Students’ basic responsibility is to study. 80% of their time should be used for study or study related matters, leaving only 20% to be used for other activities (R1 to R12, and EQ). As mature citizens, students may have an interest in politics just as they are interested in sports, music, films etc. But that does not mean that they have to be engaged with them as a full time professional (R9, R7, R10 R12, R11 and EQ). If HE institutes insisted that all of their students should spend 80% of their time in study, this would create the conditions for fostering an appropriate HE atmosphere. And this would also result in HE campuses free from national politics. We do not need to deprive students of their rights but we could create so-called politics-free campuses - just as we can create smoking-free campuses - by keeping students busy in study and other social activities. HE institutions could keep their students busy with study and other social activities by implementing the following suggestions: - Teachers need to put in more time monitoring their students’ performance, with regular use of ‘tests’ and assignments. They should also strive to foster their students’ humanity. They should also act as the ‘mentor’ of their students (Altbach, 1974, Rose, 1969) - HE institutes need to ensure sufficient educational facilities. They should establish a number of different clubs for science, arts, social science, debate, sport and culture (e.g. football, cricket, music clubs). Every student should be a member of at least one club in accordance with his/her particular interest(s). These clubs should be led jointly by teachers and students. The leading positions in these clubs would be occupied by competent and interested people on a roster basis. There would be no permanent leader positions in the clubs (Altbach1974 and Glazer 1968).

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- For students not making satisfactory progress extra support would be provided. - HE institutes need to introduce knock-out rules, so that students who were not sincere,committed or able would not be permitted to stay in HE institutes without achieving satisfactory progress (R12 and Altbach 1974, 1968). - HE institutes need to introduce not only examinations to judge students’ academic performance but also competitive occasions to judge their performance in terms of social activities (i.e. sports, music, debate) and general knowledge. These measures would foster social identity in students and as a result they would not turn to politics to find a social identity (Altbach, 1974, 1968, 1973 and Ross, 1969). Conclusion The final comment is that to address the existing problems, Bangladesh urgently needs a united strong political commitment, otherwise there is no hope of achieving an appropriate HE atmosphere. We have to remember that the students who died as a result of the fighting caused by student politics are our own sons/daughters or brothers/sisters. And they are our assets. Therefore, every professional member of society should be committed to help build the best prospects for our students. Moreover, everybody needs to bear in mind that self-development cannot be authentic development until Bangladesh is no longer a developing, but a developed country. Furthermore, a situation of unrest knows no laws, so student unrest is a threat to anybody’s life, even that of the political leaders or their children (Ross, 1969). References Alam, G, M., (2003) The impact of students’ involvement in ‘party politics’ on higher

education and national development in Bangladesh, Published by The International University, MO, USA

Altbach, G. Philip (1968) Student Politics in Bombay, published by Asia Publishing House, Bombay, New Delhi, Calcutta, London, New York, Bangalore, Madras, Lucknow

Altbach, G. Philip (1974) Student Politics in America: A Historical Analysis, published by McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, Singapore, Sydney, Toronto

Altbach, G. Philip (1993) The Politics of Students and Faculty, Journal of Education and Social Change page 41-61

Altbach. P. G and Kelly David (1973) American students: a selected bibliography students activism and related topics, published by Lexington

BANBEIS web page (2001) (www. banbeis.org) BANBEIS-Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics, 2001 (Pocket

Book on Educational Statistics) BGMEA, 2002 Statistics of export income and role of Garments Industries, Dhaka BRAC (Annual Report 2002), http://www.brac.net/BRAC_Annual_Report_2002.pdf Burns, T. (2000), What is Politics? Robinson Crusoe, Deep Ecology and Immanuel Kant,

published by Political Studies Association an Blackwell Publisher (2000) 20(2) (ISSN 0263-9357, PP 93-98

Clinton, H. R (2003) Living History, published by Headline, ISBN: 0747255156 Cohen, L and Manion, L (1994) Research Methods in Education, Rutledge, London, New

York Cohen, L Manion, L and Morrison, K (2002) Research Methods in Education, Published

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by Rutledge, Flamer Crick, B (1971) In Defence of Politics, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books

Daily Star, 9th June 2002, Dhaka, Bangladesh Duverger, M. (1974) The study of Politics, London: Nelson

Fagerlind, I & Saha, J (1989) Education & National Development, Pergamon press, Oxford, New York, Tokyo

Glazer, M., (1968) Chile- in Emerson (ed) Students and Politics in Developing country edited by Emmerson, K. Donald

Hague, R., M, H and S. B., (1992) [1982]) Comparative Government and Politics 3rd edn, London: Macmillan

Hamilton, L, W., (1968), Venezuela in Emerson (Eds) Students and Politics in Developing Nations edited by Emmerson, K. Donald

Hammersley, M (1996) Social Research: Philosophy and practice published by Sage, London

Hannan, M. (1993) Bangladesher Chartro Androlan-A- Etishas 1830-1952 (History of Bengal students’ movement-1830-1951) published by Osman Gani Agamme Prakashani, Dhaka



Hannan, M. (2000) Bangladesher Chartro Androlan-A- Etishas 1990-1999 (History of Bengal students’ movement-1990-1999) published by Ahmmed and Mowla brothers, Dhaka

Hannan, M. (2000) Bangladesher Chartro Androlan-A- Etishas: Bangbandi period (History of Bengal students’ movement-Bangbandi period) published by Osman Gani Agamme Prakashani, Dhaka

Hannan, M. (2000) Bangladesher Chartro Androlan-A- Etishas: Erashard period (History of Bengal students’ movement- Erashard period) published by Osman Gani Agamme Prakashani, Dhaka

Larkin, D, J., (1968) China in Emerson D K (Ed) student politics in developing nations Laski, H.J., (1931) An introduction to Politics London: Allen an Unwin Leftwich, A., (ed) (1984) What is Politics? The Activity and its study, Oxford: Blackwell Lukes, S., (1981[1974], Power: A radical view, London: Macmillan Miller J.D.B (1962) The Nature of Politics, Harmondsworth: Penguin Mouffe, C., (1993) The return of the political, London: Methuen Mullins, J. L., (2002) Management and organizational Behaviour (5th Edition) published

by Pearson Education, England Ottaway, B. D., (1968) Algeria in Emerson D K (Ed) student politics in developing

nations Pickles, D., (1964) Introduction to politics, London: Methuen Rashid, H., (2001) Politics Watch: Banning student Politics, The Daily Star, September 5,

2001,Dhaka Robson, C., (2000) Real World Research: A Resources for Social Scientists and

Practitioner Researchers published by Blackwell, Oxford, Cambridge Ross D. A., (1969) Student Unrest in India, McGill-Queen’s University Press, Montreal,

London Shmastantrik Chartro Front - SCF (2001) Shikhkhha Sharak Grantho, Dhaka Ullah, M., (2001) Shat Dashaker Chartro rajnati O Ananao Proshango (student politics of

Gazi Mahbubul Alam& Mirja Mohammad Shahjamal

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decade of sixty) Willams, J., (1968) The Congo in Emerson D K (Ed) student politics in developing

Nations 17 / 18 student Politics in Bangladesh: An Impact on Quality Assurance in Education and National Development Monday, 11 August 2008 07:10

World Bank 2002, Bangladesh 2020, A Long Run Perspective Study 1 The caretaker is formed after every five years by neutral enlightened people ofthe society for a period of three months with special authority to conduct the national parliament Election 2 Secondary School Certificate 3 Higher Secondary Certificate

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Cultural Impediments on Women in Science and Technology Education

Dr (Mrs.) Nsofor, C. C., Department of Science Education School of Technology Education, Federal University of

Technology, Minna E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Education and culture have many things in common, whatever is learnt from generation to generation and transmitted to the next generation is called education while the way people do their things (including education) is the shortest description of culture. Culture is what we teach (or pass) to our children about them, us, others, our history, our values in all spheres, in an effort to prepare them, to survive and live well. Thus culture is the ‘way of life’ of people which is transmitted to the next generation. This goes to say that the culture and education of any country determines its development rate. In Nigeria, the educational structure is interrelated with culture. Culture affects societal participation in educational, social, physical and psychologically oriented functions. Culture has been an impediment on women in science. This paper reviews the status of women in science, technology and mathematics education, discusses culture and the cultural impediments on women and finally gives suggestions on how to ameliorate the cultural strangle-hold on women. Key Word: Science , Technology and Mathematics Education, Women, culture Introduction Science, technology and mathematics education (STME) has accelerated the pace of change in the world. It has provided the foundation for wealth and development and brought immense improvement to the quality of life. The models of science powerfully interpret the natural world while technological inventions enable man to extend his capacities to manipulate and control his environment. Mathematics is an essential tool for the development of science and technology. The importance of science, technology and mathematics education therefore, cannot be over emphasized. For any nation to develop technologically there must be massive education of the populace in science, technology and mathematics irrespective of race, creed or sex. In Nigeria, the story is different, it has been variously noted that women are underrepresented in science, technology and mathematics education (Williams 1987, Nsofor 2000). This, then, implies that Nigeria in her journey towards development still have a long way to go. A nation cannot be dreaming of being developed when most of her women population are locked up, marginalized or discriminated against. For the realization of our national development goal through Science Technology and Mathematics Education, all hands (male and female) must be on deck; all potentials should be tapped and utilized. However, there has been a consensus among Nigerians that there are certain factors that continue to relegate and depress the enthusiasm of any forthcoming ambitious female (Williams 1998; Nsofor 2000). Popular among such factors is culture. There is therefore, need for a serious focus on such factor and a radical redress sought in order to pave way for the much desired technological development in Nigeria. Culture and Cultural Influences Culture has been defined variously as that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habit acquired by a member of the society. It is, therefore, what we teach (or pass in) to our children about

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themselves, ourselves, others, our history, our values in all spheres, our environment, our conceptions of the world and of our people in it in an effort to prepare them, to survive and live well. What is of great relevance here and which emerges from the above definitions is that culture is the “way of life” of people which is transmitted to the next generation. Nigeria is made up of a larger number of cultural entities; it had its collection of norms, role assignments and order which made the existence of the society possible. In the traditional Nigerian culture therefore, the practices is that the woman’s place was considered as primarily the home. Traditions and society dictate that women stay at home and make good mothers and wives and economically troubled families prefer to invest their limited resources in the education of boys rather than the girls who might eventually marry into another family or abandon their profession (Alamina 2001). There still exists cultural and social stereotypes concerning “professions for women” which greatly influence their choice of fields of study. There are some traditional roles assigned to males and females, for example, for females; nursing, teaching and cookery. and for males; science, engineering, hunting (Ajewole 2000b). A critical analysis of these roles and duties shows that there are no special qualities to warrant some of them being exclusively assigned to men or women. Status of Women in Science, Technology and Mathematics Education A careful consideration of the statistics of contribution in Science, Technology and Mathematics Education in Nigeria reveals that the participation of women is significantly low; evidence abounds in every science and technology base organization. In most cases one can only boast of a maximum of little percent participation by women and girls. For instance, in the United States of America, it was reported that women comprise about 50% of the workforce in which 9% are employed as scientist and engineers. Research has further shown that in United States, girls have poor attitude towards science, enroll less often in science courses, demonstrate lower achievement level in science and have fewer experiences with instruments or materials of science than boys (Linn, 1999; Kahle, 2000 in Ajewole, 2006). Similarly, in Great Britain, Head (1999) found that most girls lack training in mathematics and this explains why although females comprise over 1/3 of all students in higher education in England, they account for less than 1/7 of the undergraduates in physics and far less than 1/6 in chemistry. In surveys carried out by UNESCO (2000) on women education on STM subjects, in 21 countries in Africa, it was found that in most countries, there are very few girls in secondary level physical sciences and mathematics and their poor participation in these subjects affect their entry not only into technical fields but also into higher education. The same trend also occurs in Nigeria, to this effect, Bolarin (2004) lamented that this problem has been, and is still in existence. In continuation, he stated categorically that the low participation of women in Science, Technology and Mathematics Education can be traced back to the last two years of secondary education. A number of studies supported this and revealed that there are relatively few female students studying the physical sciences (physics and chemistry). Among such studies is that of Bajah & Bozimo (2005) on enrolment distribution of boys and girls in science and mathematics subjects at the secondary school level. Their findings are as shown in Table 1.

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Dr (Mrs.) Nsofor, C. C.

Table 1: Enrolment Distribution of Girls & Boys in Science and Mathematics Subject Total No entered Male Female %of female Ratio of enrolment male/female Add Mathes 9508 2952 1556 16.4 5.1 Maths 523499 303273 220226 42.1 4.1 Chemistry 134058 87044 47014 35.1 9.1 Physics 79086 62361 17325 21.7 6.3 Biology 391802 215237 176565 45.1 2.1

Source: Bajah and Bozimo (2005). Analysis from the figures above which shows under representation of the female in sciences signals a serious problem. This is because secondary education is the bed rock upon which the tertiary education is based and if women are not well represented at this level; one then wonders what happens next. In response to this, Bolarin (2004) remarked that the dearth of girls in the science classes at the secondary school level leads to the acute shortage of numbers of female that gain access to scientific studies and technological training at the university level. He confirmed his statement through a case study on male versus female student’s enrolment into science and science related courses at University of Lagos. Table 2 shows his findings: Table 2: Male/Female Students enrolment Courses Total enrolment Male Female Engineering 1541 1444 (93.7%) 97 (6.3%) Environmental science 745 623 (83.6%) 122 (16.4%) Sciences 3605 1765 (67.8%) 840 (32.2%) Sources: Bolarin, 2004 In line with this, a similar study was carried out at university of Ibadan by Bajah and Bozimo (2005). Their findings are shown in table 3. Table 3: Male/Female Students enrolment into faculties Faculty Total Male Female Ratio of enrolment male/female Science 1865 1408(75.5) 457(24.5) 3.1 Technology 891 829 (83.0) 62 (7.0) 13.1 Sources: Bajah & Bozomo, (2005) At the Federal University of Technology, Minna where a similar study is being carried out, preliminary results are in line with the findings of those two studies. That is, the trend is portraying a consistent under representation of women in Science Technology and Mathematics Education. It can be seen from this review that the problem is persistent. Actually, the issue of women in Science, Technology and Mathematics Education has received attention of several scholars, all reiterating that women should be involved fully in all aspects of educational activities. This is in recognition of the fact that technological development is motivated by innovations, inventions, discoveries through various researches which are not conditioned by gender or biological considerations. This implies that the quest for rapid development by any nation should depend on the full participation of both men and women in science, technology and mathematics education. But on the contrary, Pelemo (1990) noted that only' about 2% of the total

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population of women are in technology with about 98% not having commitment to it. This might be one of the reasons why the pace of technological development is so slow in Nigeria. Upon this background, Erinosho (1994) retorted that as long as all human potentials in this nation are not being tapped equally and utilized, the technological breakthrough might continue to elude this nation. Having made this point, the question that comes to mind, is, why are women under -represented in science, technology and mathematics education? Cultural Impediments on Women in Science Technology and Mathematics Education The first and most basic of the problems associated with under representation of women in science, technology and mathematics education is the fact that from the beginning of time, women education was held back by some cultural factors which manifest in socialization patterns, sex-stereotyped roles at home, sex-stereotyped occupation and others.. These cultural factors have worked negatively to depress the competence of the women in various ways as made clearer thus: Socialization Pattern This refers to the transmission of behavior, roles, attitudes and beliefs from one generation to another. In Nigeria, the socialization pattern has been a hindering factor to the level of aspiration of women. Culturally, the role of women is seen to be that of child bearing, agricultural production and housekeeping. This is demonstrated and imparted vigorously to the consciousness of the women and girls. For instance, a father prefers to invest on the boys' education than on a girl. If education is to be given to girls at all, it will be in the area of arts and humanities and such professions which were thought to be compatible with housekeeping. They are not motivated to aspire for science, technology, and mathematics oriented disciplines. In addition to this, in some parts of the country, especially in the northern parts, it is believed that sending girls to school is against the culture as the child will be exposed to moral decadence and the likelihood of losing respect for elders. Therefore to avoid these, girls are married off at a tender age. This does not give them the opportunity for education in general and science, technology and mathematics education in particular. Through these patterns, the girls therefore learn to conform to roles of passivity, dependence and sentimentality. Sex-stereotyped Roles at Home The birth of a female child is seen as a disappointment in many Nigeria cultures and as such the girl child is treated as a second class citizen. Culturally, their roles are defined as domestics as the girl-child is expected to keep the house, wash dishes, cook and carry the young ones. This gives them very slim chance for studies both at home and in school. To worsen the situation, highly educated women are culturally not regarded as good wives and their possibilities for marriage become limited. So, this is instilled into the mind of a growing female early in life causing them to be myopic in their life aspirations. All these are transmitted to daughters by their parents. The girl is therefore caught up in a vicious circle of illiteracy and poverty. Sex-stereotyped Occupation The dominance of male culture over women is a tradition which has socialized most women into believing that it is a taboo for her to venture into an occupation in the male preserve. To add to this, in some cases men refuse to marry women that pick -up such careers that have culturally been termed "masculine". These attitudes force women into believing that they should feel guilty for achieving at the level of men. There is no doubt that this kind of expectation of gender occupational roles could depress their intellectual development, undermine their confidence and dampen their aspirations. Also from socio-cultural orientation, women generally believe that they are weaker vessels and that rough and tough jobs are meant for boys alone. This has consciously or unconsciously induced a wrong perception and negative attitude of female themselves towards science, technology and mathematics which they regard as tough and ‘masculine’. However, it should be pointed out at this point that science, technology and mathematics are too important to be stereotyped. As a matter

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of fact, all cultural impediments working against women full participation in science, technology and mathematics should be stamped out. To achieve these, the following recommendations are put forward. Recommendations If Nigeria is to achieve self-sufficiency, deliberate efforts must be made to introduce women to science technology and mathematics education, thus; Parents should be educated on the need to change their attitudes and to invest in the education of their girls in areas of science, technology and mathematics. Cultural and religious teachings which are anti-female in education in general and anti- female in science education in particular need to be discouraged. Research findings have shown that many health problems of developing countries such as high rate of infant and material mortality, high infertility rate, malnutrition and stressful condition etc. correlate positively with low level of women in science. Thus health matters are science- based. It stands to reason that empowering women for scientific literacy programme, the above cases will be minimized. Sponsorship should be given to girls and women pursuing courses in science. Admission quota for women/girls into science in tertiary institutions could be raised to ensure that a pool of women have access to science education. There should be free science education for women and should be implemented through scholarship and bursary scheme. Proper counseling should be given to girls particularly those interested in areas of science, technology and mathematics. Girls/women need to be counseled on the beauty of studying and understanding science by encouragement. There must be programmes to popularize science, technology and mathematics among girls right from the nursery level to tertiary level so as to create science culture in the women from a young age. Female science educators should establish an organization whereby they come together under one umbrella in fostering gender equity in science through seminars, conferences, workshops, thereby facilitating women entry into employment in fields of science. Conclusion This paper has made an attempt to establish the existence of impediments on women in science, technology and mathematics education by reviewing the status of women in science, technology and mathematics education. Such an impediment is identified as culture among others. Suggestions were given on how to redress the situation. The emphasis is that science, technology and mathematics education is the gateway to development and thus too important to be stereotyped. Women should be fully involved. Investment in the education of girls may well be the highest return investment available for a development world of which Nigeria is part References Alamina,J. J. (2001). An Impediment to Women in Science: Cultural Influence and the Way Forward. STAN Proceedings Pp62-65 Alele- William, G. (1987) National workshop on promoting STM education among girls and

women in Nigeria. A keynote address Federal Ministry of Education Lagos. Alele- William, G. (1998). “FAWE Promoting Education of Girls, Women(1).” Vanguard Newspaper Wednesday July 31st, 1996. Ajewole, G. A. (2006). Teaching Science for Gender Equity under the Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme. Paper presented at the National conference organized by Nigerian Academy of Education of University of Benin 6-10 November. Bajah, S. T. and Bozimo, H. (2005) Low participation of girls in STM education: strategies for

redress. Promoting Science, Technology and Mathematics among Girls & Women in Nigeria. A publication of the women education branch of the F.M.E.

Bolarin T.A (2004) Problems and Prospects of women's areas to scientific studies and Technological Training at University level: a case study of Lagos State. African Journal of education 1. (1).

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Erinosho, S. U. (1994). Perspective on women in Science and Technology in Nigeria. Federal Ministry of Education. Blue Print on women education in Nigeria 1989, edition, NERC Press Lagos. Head, J. (1999). Personality and the pursuit of science. Studies in Science Education.6, (1) 25-44 Nsofor, c.c. (2000). The need to involve women in the development of science and technology in the new millennium. A paper presented at the 2nd international conference of the NAWACS, Abuja. UNESCO, (2000). Education of Girls: The Ouagadougou Declaration and Framework for Action. Ouagadougou.

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Development and Validation of Scientific Literacy Test Items Temitayo A. Oluwatelure

Science and Technical Education, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko

Abstract This study centered on the development and validation of a test measuring the scientific literacy level of secondary school graduates. This test was developed with reference to the standard of the secondary school science core curriculum, which was drawn from the objectives of the 6-3-3-4 National Policy on Education in Nigeria. The instrument named Literacy Level Rating Scale (LLRS) was made up of five sections, whose items were set out to measure different dimensions of scientific literacy. A total of 335 secondary school graduates constitute the sample for the initial and final field trials. The final version of the literacy level rating scale emerged with characteristics within the acceptable limit for reliable tests. The result obtained were, 0.138, 0.019, 0.855, validity; 0.748, 0.762, 0.792 0.708 for reliability, at 0.05 level of significance respectively

Keyword: Literacy level, rating scale, evaluation, science learning

Introduction The national policy on education (2004) Section 4 item 18 proposed that students be provided with opportunity for education of a higher quality irrespective of sex or social, religious and ethnic background. According to these policy statements, the purpose of qualitative education is to ensure that “our young boys and girls have a flair for science and technological subjects which will enhance the nation’s man power development.” One of the aims and objectives of education in Nigeria is that, “Education should aim at helping the child to acquire appropriate skills, abilities and competences both mental and physical as equipment for the individual to live and contribute to the development of the society” (FRN2004). A good science curriculum, when adequately implemented will help students to acquire scientific skills that can be used in real-life problem solving; with a proper science education at the secondary school level; students would have the opportunity to understand the nature and utility of theories. Curriculum planners are full of hope that learning science at the secondary school level will produce scientifically literate people who will transform the country into a high technologically developed state. Whether this hope will materialize or not is a function of wide and varied factors. These factors include learning experiences provided under the auspices of the school; learning resources students have been exposed to and how rich and qualitative science activities have been at school, learning resources centers students have been to and how rich and qualitative practical periods have been at school. (Bajah and Okebukola, 1984). Orji, (2000) made mention of appropriate teaching techniques which according to him requires provision of enough qualified teachers and teaching materials as well as good mode of implementation of curricula. According to him, these factors are essential to the realization of educational objectives in science and mathematics. It becomes very necessary to find out whether students who passed through the science curriculum in the secondary school science curriculum have achieved the goals of the curriculum. The extent of acquisition of scientific skills which could manifest literacy level of learners needs to be evaluated in order to determine whether the goals of science education at the level being achieved. According to STAN (2001), science and technology holds so many promises to the society that “the

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need has arisen for concrete steps to be adopted to get youths who are leaders of tomorrow to be well groomed in science and its applications”. Very many questions are to be asked at this junction. One may want to know if the 6-3-3-4 curricula in content and practice in Nigeria will ensure the acquisition of the scientific knowledge and skills needed in the process of social, economic and technological development. One could also ask whether graduates of the secondary school science curriculum are on the path of meeting the demands of a modern society; via scientific knowledge and skills that demonstrates high literacy level in science. Similarly, one would want to know whether the scientific literacy learners have reached in science, after two decades of the operation of the curricula, is substantial for self-reliance, and also whether Nigeria is getting nearer to the much needed technological development, stated in the National Policy on Education. Implicit in the successful completion of the Junior Secondary School curriculum is the assumption that JSS graduates would have acquired the skills contained in the integrated science core curriculum (Okeke, Akusoba and Okafor, 2004). The findings of Okoli (2006), showed that the skills are not being acquired by secondary school students. This was attributed to such factors as poor teaching, especially with teachers who preferred the traditional expository/lecture method of teaching, to the innovative activity oriented teaching method; poor learning resources, and lack of students’ interest among many reasons In view of these problems, (Ivowi, 1999) was of the opinion that much still remains to be achieved in science learning at school, “if we are to fill the science and technology places in our Universities and Polytechnics and make reasonable progress in science and technology”. Bajah, (1990) in a similar manner, suggested that our generation needs more evaluation studies for primary and secondary science curricula in order to ascertain the directions for improvement”. There is a concern about the level of understanding of secondary school students in science today because of the ignorance those students demonstrate when confronted with problem situations that need simple and basic scientific knowledge to solve. Secondary school graduates should be able to operate simple household equipment, repair simple appliances when damaged and appreciate the importance of practical technology. In consideration of these issues, the researcher saw the need to develop an instrument, which may be used to assess the status of this important educational objective, that is, scientific literacy. Developing Scientific Literacy Test Items Laugksch and Spargo, (1996) described the development of a pool of paper and pencil test item of scientific literacy, which were based on selected chapters of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (A A A S). The test items were made up of 472 true – false test items and 240 key ideas in, and attitudes towards science. The test items developed covered impact of science and technology on the society. Miller, (1983) suggested that, concept of scientific literacy consist of three dimensions, the first is an understanding of the nature and methods of science (i.e. the nature of science). The second has to do with the key scientific terms and concepts, and the third is the awareness and understanding of the impact of science technology on the society. Arons (1983) however extended the above to include intellectual abilities or habit of mind. (Brickhouse, Ebert, Mary and Wier, 1989) extended the scope of scientific literacy to correct application of scientific knowledge and reasoning skills to solve problems and to making decision in their personal, civic, and professional spheres.

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Temitayo A. Oluwatelure

Measures of scientific literacy should ideally be based on items testing comprehension and awareness of important principles in and attitudes towards science (Laugch and Spargo 1996). . Characteristics of the “Literacy Level Rating Scale” (LLRS) The instrument developed in this research was called Literacy Level Rating Scale. It has some characteristics, which are described below: This instrument was constructed with a focus on the measurement of scientific literacy of graduands of secondary school science programmed. The items were based mainly on the content of the integrated science and the Biology core curriculum. A close examination of this research instrument revealed the fact that it covers the three dimension of scientific literacy as contain in the Millers’ framework. Miller, (1983). It possessed items on correct application of scientific knowledge and reasoning skills to solve problems, just as it was found in (Brickhouse et al 1989). It also possessed items on STS topics; sharing the same idea with (Alkenhead and Ryan, 1992) .It incorporated the principle of (Laugksch and Spargo 1996), in which the instrument contained items on awareness of important principle in science. What was peculiar to this instrument was that, unlike the earlier studies, it was applied to a population of graduands of secondary school science programme. Another is the fact that the instrument sought the relationships between the students’ scientific literacy level and the quality of the laboratory activities they had while they went through the programme.

LLRS has advantages over Test of Scientific Literacy mentioned in (Eze, 2003) and test of science process skill acquisition mentioned in (Okoli,2006).This is so, in that the

SECTION ITEM VARIABLES MEASURED A 1 – 9 Bio data A 10 -21 Background information about the respondents B (SLT) Ability to use a - r Knowledge - Recall – common scientific Terms

C1 (e,h,n,q). Understanding C1 (a – c, i) Inquiry Skills,

Designing and Communicating to others. C1 (d, f, k, o, r, s) Application of Scientific

knowledge - STS. C1 ( j, g, m) Reasoning Skill/ Understanding C2 (1 -28 ) Application of Concepts /

Principle to solve day Problem.

D 1-20 Quality of Laboratory Activities

E 1-24 Interest in Science Total No. of Items 110

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former sought information concerning the background of the students as well as the nature of the science programme to which they were consumers. Unlike the latter, LLRS measured the three dimensions of scientific literacy Lastly, the instrument contained items on the student interest in science. This gave

opportunities to seek the relationship between the students’ scientific literacy level and

the interest they had in science. The details of this could be seen in the table above.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to construct and validate an instrument, named “Literacy Level Rating Scale” (LLRS), for appraising the level of acquisition of scientific literacy among secondary school graduates who have been admitted into the university. Method of Construction of the Test The instrument being constructed in this study was made up of five sections. The first four sections were constructed by the researcher while the fifth section was a modified form of Bakares Science Interest Inventory (SII). The composition of each section was as described below:

Section A (Bio- data & Background Information)This section included items that elicited responses about the respondents school and school type, present institution, course of study, Department /Faculty, sex, laboratory type, laboratory facilities and equipments, level of involvement in the classroom learning. It also contained information on classroom interaction; amount of time spent on classroom activities/theoretical work; as well as adequacy/inadequacy of the school science core subjects which ought to prepared individuals as responsible members of the society and for further studies in science based fields.

Section B (Scientific Literacy test, SLT) Scientific Literacy Test (SLT) contained items, which elicited responses revealing the extent to which the respondents have understood, and the ability to use common scientific terms/concepts. Ability to recall, and respond correctly to the items of this section was a measure of how much of the learnt materials they have being able to carry with them into the world

Section C (Acquisition of scientific skill, ASS). This section of the questionnaire contained question items that elicited responses on inquiry skills, how to design inquiry and communication of finding to others. These items have been included by the researcher in order to obtain scores that would reveal how much of the inquiry skills were taught/learnt and the extent to which ability to think critically and reason logically to solve problems have been developed by respondents.

Section D (Students’ ratings of the quality of laboratory activities SRQL) This section of the instrument was included in order to elicit responses about the quality of the laboratory activities done by respondents while running the programme at the secondary school level. The respondents in a main study would be expected to rate each item as “Very High”; “High” “Low” “Very Low”. It would also be expected to reveal facts about the use of text books, and the habit of dictating notes to the students as a substitute to laboratory activities.

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Section E (Science Interest Inventory, SII) The science Interest Inventory (SII) constituted the fifth section of this questionnaire. The rationale for including this section was embedded in the fact that it was an important determinant in decision-making, whether to engage in or disengage from science subjects. Section E (i.e. the SII ) was adapted from Bakare’s Vocational Interest Inventory (VII)

Validity of the Instrument The research instrument was validated using face validity, in which the instrument was presented to lecturers in the faculty of science and science education. This was done in order to ensure that the instrument covered the necessary area of the study. In addition, construct validity was applied to the instrument. To achieve this, the researcher made use of respondents from a University located outside the research location, that is, University of Ilorin, The researcher administered the instrument to 355 freshers who were randomly selected from the departments based in the faculty of science.. The researcher simultaneously administered another instrument named “Students’ View About Science (SVAS) that were completed by the same set of respondents. The instruments were scored and the total summed scores for (SLRS) and SVAS was obtained for each respondents involved in the pilot study. The scores were then subjected to statistical analysis as shown below: - Divergent or Discriminant Validity between section B (Scientific Literacy Test SLT) and students’ View About Science (SVAS) The value obtained = 0.138 Divergent or discriminant Validity between Student’ Rating of the Quality of Laboratory Activity (SRQL) and (SVAS) The value obtained = 0.019 Convergent or Concurrent Validity between, SLT and Acquisition of Scientific Skills (ASS). The value obtained = 0.855 Reliability of the Instrument. The reliability of the instrument was determined by the use of split – half reliability test. The researcher believed that for the instrument to be internally consistent there must be a high correlation relationship when the responses, which were even – numbered, were correlated with responses which were odd-numbered. This procedure was carried out with the data obtained from Scientific Literacy Test, Acquisition of Scientific Skills, Student Rating of the Quality of Laboratory Activities and data obtained from the Science Interest Inventory respectively. Pilot Study For the purpose of this pilot study, the instrument was taken to the field to be administered first to forty (40) and latter to two hundred and ninety-five (295) respondents who have graduates of the secondary school science curriculum selected from all the departments in science and science education; boys and girls inclusive. In the field trial the researcher was able to determine the clarity of the test instructions as well as reliability and validity of the instrument. Also through the help of experts in curriculum and science education some of the items, which were considered unsuitable, were removed and replaced with items that strictly measured scientific literacy. Results The result obtained were, 0.138, 0.019, 0.855, validity; 0.748, 0.762, 0.792 0.708 for reliability, at 0.05 level of significance respectively

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Conclusion An instrument has been constructed in study. From the table of specification it could be revealed that, ability to measure some dimensions of scientific literacy of Nigerians, particularly products of the secondary school science curriculum. This instrument has been prepared in readiness for main studies by interested researchers who may wish to adopt it for use for Nigerian population as well as with other populations of the world

References Aikenhead, S.S., and Ryan, A .G. (1991).The development of a new instrument : “Views

On Science Technology Society” (VOST). Science Education. 76, 477 – 491. Aron, A.B. (1983). Achieving wider scientific literacy. Daedzlus, 112, 9 – 122. Bajah, S.T., (1990). New direction in Science Technology and Mathematics Education for

the 90s’. 31st Annual Conference Proceeding STAN. Bajah, T. and Okebukola, P. (1992): What is science. Ibadan. Science Teachers’

Association of Nigeria. Brickhouse, N.W, Ebert – May, D., and Wier, B.A. (1989): Scientific Literacy: Perspectives

of school administrators’, teachers, students, and scientists from an urban mid – Atlantic community. In A.B. Champagne, B.E. Lovitts, and B.J Callinger (Eds), Washington DC, Association for the Advancement for the Advancement of science. 157 – 176.

Cannon, J.R. and Jinks, J. (1992): A cultural literacy approach to assessing general scientific literacy. School science and Mathematics. 92, 196 – 200.

Eze, C.U (2003): An investigation into the scientific literacy level of Non-science students of Nigerian Universities: A case study of University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Journal of STAN. Ch 38, No 1 & 2, Pg 51-63.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education. Lagos. NERDC Press Ivowi UMO (1999) Perspective on Education and Science Teaching. Abuja

Laugksch, R.C. and Spargo (1996): Development of a pool of Scientific Literacy Test- Items Based on Selected AAAS Literacy Goals. Science Education. U.S.A John Wiley and Sons. 80 (2), 121-143.

Lederman, N.G (1992). Students’ and teachers’ conception of the nature of science: A review of the research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29, 331 – 259.

Miller J.D (1983). Scientific literacy: A conceptual and empirical review. Daedlus, 112, 29 – 48.

Miller, J.D, (1989). Scientific Literacy. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of science. San Francisco, C A.

National policy on education 1981, 1998 Edition, Nigeria, National Academy of Science 1997 Washington D.C.

Okeke, S. O. C; Akusoba, E. U. and Okafor, C. O. (2004) Construction and validation of an instrument for appraising the level of acquisition of science process skills by J.S.S Graduates in Anambra state schools – STAN Journal Nigeria. 39, (1&2) 101-108.

Okoli, J.N (2006): Effect of investigation laboratory approach and expository method on acquisition of science process skill by biology students of different levels of scientific literacy. Journal of STAN Nigeria, 41, (1&2). 79-88.

Orji, A.B.C. (2000) comparability of two problem solving models in facilitating students’ learning outcomes in Physics. Journal of STAN Ibadan. University Press PLC. 35 (1$2) 25-30

STAN, (2001): Fundamentals of Science –Technology-Society Ibadan.

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Measured Effect of Gender and Computer Literacy on Students’ Academic Achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education in

Selected Secondary Schools in Ondo State

O.A. Ige and O.O. Orungbemi Department of Social Science Education, Adekunle Ajasin

University, Akungba- Akoko E-Mail: [email protected];

[email protected]

Abstract This survey study of descriptive type investigated the measured effect of gender and computer literacy on students’ academic achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education in selected secondary schools in Ondo State, Nigeria. Specifically, the study sought to determine the influence of gender and computer literacy on students’ academic achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education. The population consisted of two hundred and fifty students selected from ten secondary schools in Ondo State. The selected students responded to the Computer Literacy Test (CLT) and Social Studies and Civic Education Test (SSCET), which had reliability of 0.78. Data collected were analyzed using: percentage, mean, standard deviation and multiple regression analysis. The results showed that 16% of the students had low computer literacy skills, 36% and 48% had average and high computer literacy skills respectively. There was a joint relationship between the independent variables (gender and computer literacy) and dependent variable (academic achievement in social studies and civic education). The independent variables accounted for 12.7% of total variance in the academic achievement of the students. Gender and computer literacy also had significant relative influence on academic achievement of the students, while there was a significant difference in the achievement of low, average, and high computer literate students. Based on the results of the study, it was suggested that scholars should study factors that influence students’ academic achievement in all disciplines, consequent on the need to train globally competent students that can function effectively in the information age.

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International Journal of Research and Development (IJRD), ISSN 1596-969 Volume 1 No 2, pp 104-111

Faculty of Education, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Ondo State, NigeriaAvailable online at http://www.aauaeducationfac.org

Introduction

Social Studies, especially Civic Education which emanated from it, are relatively new in the Nigerian School Programme. The introduction of Social Studies was due to the need for a more effective way of educating the citizens. This is to make citizens better informed on societal issues and problems as well as to equip them with the skills required for problem solving and effective citizenship (Falade, 2007; 2006). This could be seen in the views of Sunal and Haas (2008) that:

“When Social Studies focuses attention on students’ problems (social, economic, political and environment) students will naturally want to observe, ask questions, seek information, express observation and idea in drawings, argue for their view points, and act to change things. When students ‘do’ Social Studies, they draw on thinking skills and knowledge from the entire school curriculum as they construct an understanding of their social world and seek to solve the problems it presents”.

Therefore, Social Studies and Civic Education play critical roles in preparing learners tobecoming active social participants in the ways of life of their society.

Social Studies among other school subjects is primarily designed to be taught in Nigerian schools to address the right type of values, attitudes and behaviour, and to develop these aspects of character in a positive and productive way (Ojo, 2008). Ekundayo (2003) stated that, the development of values and attitudes occupies an integral place in Social Studies. Falade (2007) stated that overall aim of teaching Social Studies is to prepare its learners for effective participation in the society. Some of the values that Social Studies seek to develop in learners are: obedience, hard work, togetherness, comradeship and cooperation, love of our physical environment, appreciation of our interdependence, honesty, loyalty and respect for other people and their property.

Akinlaye, Mansaray and Ajiboye (1996) stated that the eclectic and inter-disciplinary nature of Social Studies allows it to accommodate a wide spectrum of ideas, issues, problems or topics, within which students could study and understand the complex nature of man’s ever changing situation. Falade (1999) stated that a careful examination of the purpose of Social Studies vis-à-vis the objectives of Civic Education shows that there is high level similarity between the two. Oyetade (2010) stated that the scope of Social Studies focuses attention on the level of coverage, quantity andquality of content. The subject starts with the immediate environment of the child and takes to a distant environment. The subject proceeds from known to unknown, simple to complex etc. Social Studies study man right from his home background through the school, community, state, nation or country and the world at large. In order to meaningfully learn about man’s interaction with his social and physical environments, all the relevant and important aspects of man, that have been studied in disjointed and separate forms in compartmentalized disciplines have to be brought together for holistic study in a subject, which is why social studies evolved in the first instance. These explain why its contents are daily growing in leaps and bounds on the one hand, and why it is continually regarded as a life subject on the other hand.

Zeszotarski (2000) described computer literacy as the ability to use e-mail, graphical interfaces such as Netscape, online publishing and the ability to evaluate the content of online materials. Throwing more light on the concept, Idowu and Adagunodo (2004) viewed computer literacy as the ability to use computer system to word process document, analyze data, develop small computer programmes, browse internet and install software. Sathrasinghe (2006) alerts that the excitement and benefits computer offers to teaching and learning is inestimable. Information and Communication Technology in education system has become a significant indices of national development, an instrument of individual empowerment and a key to opportunities to succeed in life. Morell, Mayhorn, and Bennett (2000) further emphasized that computer literacy facilitates students’ better learning and serves as a monitor to students that have been disillusioned with education and also makes learning more flexible. Furthermore, Information and Communication Technology enhances easy and convenient teaching; sparks students’ interest and promotes holistic, collaborative and integrated learning, promotes the quality of curriculum content delivery and makes learning students’ centered. On the other hand, computer related gender inequalities concern not only students but also educators. Akinbote (1999) observes that gender issues have been linked with achievement of students in academic tasks in several studies but without any definite conclusion.

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O.A. Ige and O.O. Orungbemi

Purpose of the Study From the foregoing, this study examines the difference in the academic achievement of students in Social Studies and Civic Education that are exposed to computer and those that are not exposed to computer. The study further compares the academic achievement of students who can use computer to solve specific tasks and those who can operate computer partially to achieve the learning outcomes in Social Studies and Civic Education, and examines how gender affects the academic achievement in relation to their computer literacy levels. The following research questions and hypothesis were asked to guide the study.

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1.What is the level of computer literacy of Junior Secondary School students in terms oflow, average (medium) and high?

2. What is the combined influence of gender and computer literacy on secondary schoolstudents’ academic achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education?

3. What is the relative influence of gender and computer literacy secondary schoolstudents’ achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education?

4. There is no significance difference among students with low, average and highcomputer literacy skills in their achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education.

Methodology DesignThe study adopted a survey design of an ex-post facto type. This method was adoptedsince it affords the researchers the opportunity to collect data without manipulation ofany variable of interest in the study.

SampleThe study sample was 116 male and 134 female students of Social Studies and CivicEducation in ten selected secondary schools in Ondo-State.Research InstrumentsComputer Literacy TestThe Computer Literacy Test was used to assess the level of the Students’ computer literacy. The instrument was designed by the Office of Education, North American Division of Seventh Day Adventists in 2005 and revised in 2009. The test has two sections; section A has 60 questions which evaluates literacy, while section B has 10 questions, which tests competency. The 60 questions in section A are in 6 parts with 10 questions each. There are 13 options lettered A to M, with a correct option matching each question. Section B has 10 objective test items with options A – D which include only one correct option. The initial 70 questions were subjected to peer and expert review to ensure the construct and content validity of the test as well as its appropriateness for the target learners. The test items were thereafter reduced from 70 to 38 based on too high or too low difficulty indices. The results of the analysis were used to pick items that have discriminating index of 0.4 to 0.7. For reliability and average item difficulty, the final draft of the test was subjected to KR-20 which yielded 0.78.

Social Studies and Civic Education Test The Social Studies and Civic Education Test (SSCET) was developed by the researchers to measure the participants’ achievement in selected Social Studies and Civic Education concepts. The instrument has two sections, namely, sections A and B. Section A elicit response on personal information such as: name, sex, school. Section B has 16 objective test items with options A – D which include only one correct option. The table of specification for the construction of CET is presented on Table 1.

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MAIN CONCEPT Categories in Cognitive Domain (Bloom, 1959)

Knowledge Comprehension Application Total Items across

Concepts

CITIZENSHIP * (2) (1) (2) 5

**3,7 4 1,2

ICT & COMMUNICATION (1) (2) (4) 7

5 9,10 6,8,11,15

VALUES (1) (1) (2) 4

14 13 16, 12

*Total items across concepts ** Serial numbers of test items

Table 1: Table of Specification for SSCET

These questions were based on the three concepts selected for this study and the questions were limited to the first three levels of cognition (knowledge, comprehension and application). Research has shown that the students may not be able to learn about the selected concepts beyond the application category at the Junior Secondary School level (Aworanti and Abimbola, 1997; Falade, 2007; Dees, 2009). Data Analysis The quantitative data was collated, coded and analyzed using simple Percentage, Mean, Standard Deviation and Multiple Regression Analysis.

Results

1.What is the level of computer literacy of junior secondary school students in the selected schools?

Table 2: Junior Secondary School Students Computer Literacy Level

Level Frequency (F) Percentage (%)

Low 40 16.0

Average 90 36.0

High 120 48.0

Total 250 100.0

Table 2 reveals that only 16% of the student had low computer literacy skills, 36% had average while 48% had high level of computer literacy.

2.What is the combined influence of gender and computer literacy on secondary school students’academic achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education?

Table 3: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis Showing Joint Influence of

Gender and Computer Literacy on Secondary School Students’ Knowledge of Civic Education

R= 0.366 R2= 0.134 Adjusted R2

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Table 3 shows that there is a joint relationship between the independent variables (Gender and computer literacy) and the dependent variable (Academic achievement in civic education) (R= 0.366). The independent variables accounted for 12.7% of total variance in the academic achievement of the students (Adjusted R2 = 0.127). This joint influence is shown to be significant (F (2,247) = 19.14; P<0.05). Therefore, the joint influence of gender and computer literacy on academic achievement of the secondary school students in Social Studies and Civic Education is significant.

Model Sum of Square df Mean Square Frequency Significance Remark

Regression 1082.17 2 541.09

19.144 .000 Significant

Residual 6981.33 247 28.27

Total 8063.50 249

3. What is the relative influence of gender and computer literacy on secondary school students’ achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education?

Table 4: Summary of Multiple Regression Analysis Showing Relative Influence of Gender and Computer Literacy on Students’ Academic Achievement

Un-standardized

Coefficient

Standardized

Coefficient

Standard Beta t Significant

2.096 15.993 .000

Model B

(constant) 33.524

Sex -3.520 0.691 -0.309 -5.094 .000

CLT .222 0.096 0.140 2.315 .021

Table 4 reveals that both gender (B = - 0.309; t = - 5.09; P< 0.05) and computer literacy (B = 0.14; t = 2.32; P< 0.05) have significant relative influence on the academic achievement of the secondary school students achievement in Social Studies and Civic education.

4.There is no significance difference among students with low, average and high computer literacy skillsin their achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education.

Table 5a: Descriptive Aspect of One-way ANOVA

N Mean Standard Deviation

40 28.98 6.01

90 31.92 5.18

120 32.50 5.71

Computer Literacy Level

Low

Average

High

Total 250 31.73 5.69

Table 5a shows that students with high computer literacy scored the highest in Social Studies and Civic Education achievement test (X= 32.5) followed by students with average computer literacy skills (X= 31.9) while students with low computer literacy skills scored the least (X= 29.0).

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Table 5b: Significant Status of the ANOVA

F Civic Education Score Sum of Squares Df Mean Square Significant

Between Groups 378.073 2 189.037

6.075 .003

7685.431 247 31.115 Within Groups

Total 8063.504 249

Table 5b shows that there is a significant difference among students with low, average and high computer literacy skills in their achievement in civic education (F( 2,247)= 6.08; P< 0.05). Therefore Ho1 is rejected.

Discussion Research question one examines the level of computer literacy of the secondary school students selected for the study. From the two hundred and fifty students selected for the study, forty students had low computer literacy skills, ninety students had average computer literacy skills, while one hundred and twenty students had high computer literacy skills. The number of students with low and average computer literacy skills outnumbered the students with high computer literacy skills in the selected secondary schools. This confirms the findings of Adomi, Okiy, and Retayan (2003) that some Nigerians are not aware of the existence and importance of the Internet, and Adomi and Kpangban (2010) that for most Nigerians, information technology is still something unfamiliar, distant and mysterious.

Research question two states that ‘What is the combined influence of gender and computer literacy on secondary school students’ achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education?’ Results of the study show that a combination of the independent variables when taken together seems to be effective in significantly predicting the academic achievement of students’ in Social Studies and Civic Education. This finding is in conflict with the findings of Allen and Wolff (2010) that carried out a survey on three hundred and forty seven second year dental students through survey monkey on the effect of computer literacy on student academic performance and found out that there was no statistically significant relationship between grades and computer skills. The independent variables (gender and computer literacy) accounted for 12.7% of the variance in academic achievement. The observe F-ratio of 19.14 significant at 0.05 level is an evidence that the effectiveness of a combination of the independent variables in predicting the academic achievement of secondary school students.

Research question three examines the relative influence of gender and computer literacy on secondary school students’ academic achievement in Social Studies and Civic Education. Gender and computer literacy have significant relative influence on academic achievement of students in the selected secondary schools. This negates the findings of Oludipe (2010) that gender has no influence on students’ academic achievement and support the findings of Falade (1999; 2007) that found out that there is a significant effect of gender on students’ knowledge of civic and political concepts, males have higher adjusted post-test mean score than females, and males also differ from females in their demonstration of civic traits. The descriptive aspect of the Analysis of Variance shows that students with high computer literacy skills have the highest mean score (X=32.50), while students with low computer literacy skills have the lowest mean score (X=28.98).This finding is in conflict with the

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findings of Allen and Wolff (2010) that carried out a survey on three hundred and forty seven second year dental students through survey monkey on the effect of computer literacy on student academic performance and found out that there was no statistically significant relationship between grades and computer skills.

Conclusion The nexus among gender, computer literacy and students’ academic achievement

explored in this study seems very innovative, and the findings showing the importance of adequate computer skills to the academic achievement of students. The need to study factors that influences students’ academic achievement has become more critical for all disciplines consequent on the need to train globally competent students that can function effectively in the information age. This study has shown that gender and computer literacy are potential factors that can influence students’ academic achievement. The findings suggest that the higher the ability of a student to use e-mail, graphical interfaces such as Netscape, word process document, analyze data, browse Internet and install software, the higher the student’s academic achievement. The views represented in this paper, and any errors that accompany them, are, of course, ours.

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