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Table of Contents

Socio-Demographics Characteristics and Patterns of Burnout Syndrome among

College Academic Staff in Kenya

Muriungi K. Susan, Ndetei D. Musyimi, Mwenda K. Lilian, Matheka C. Wambua,

Kanyotu Mary

320-337

Qualitative Approach on Underlying Factors in Regard to Education that Influence

Marital Contentment, Kenya

Dr. Samson Barongo, Prof Michael Okwara, Dr. Callen Nyamwange, Zachary

Kebati, Peter Onderi

338-348

Evaluation of Companies Environmental Practices in Nigeria

Ngozi Blessing Ijeoma

349-364

Stressing the Need for Team Building Composition amongst Health Workers in

Nigeria

C. O. Aronu, C. N. Okoli, G. A. Ogbogbo

365-382

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http://absronline.org/journals/index.php/sbsrr/article/view/520







Socio-Demographics Characteristics and Patterns of Burnout Syndrome Susan et al

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ISSN: 2313-6758

Volume 3, Issue 7

July, 2015

Pages: 320-337

Long periods of work may lead to chronic fatigue which is a precursor of burnout syndrome. To determine the prevalence of burnout Syndrome and the factors associated with its precipitation among the academic staff at Kenya Medical Training College, Nairobi, and Campus. A cross-section sample survey that recruited a total population of 139 academic staff in all the academic departments at KMTC, Nairobi Campus. Self-administered instruments were used which included a Social Demographic (SDQ) questionnaire developed by the researcher on general personal particulars and work related information and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). The researcher observed all ethical considerations and the data was analyzed using SPSS utilizing descriptive and inferential statistics. Results were presented in tables and narratives. Sixty 65.1% had high and 34.9% had average levels of burnout syndrome (p=0.007). Eighty five percent (85%) of whom had emotional exhaustion (p=0.01). All the respondents had high levels of depersonalization, and 67.6% had low levels of personal accomplishment (p=0.036). The highest risk factor for the developing burnout syndrome was being an academic lecturer, being over 41 years and having worked at KMTC for over 6 years (p>0.001), not taking annual leave (p=0.001) and being married with 1-5 children (p=0.036), being married with the highest professional qualification of a diploma or higher Diploma (p=0.009), working more hours beyond normal (p=0.023), absence of social support (p=0.049) and undertaking studies as the respondents was on fulltime employment (0.029). Burnout was prevalent among teaching staff at KMTC. This calls for measures to prevent chronic physical conditions associated with burnout.

Keywords: Burnout syndrome, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment,

*Muriungi K. Susan1

Ndetei D. Musyimi2

Mwenda K. Lilian3

Matheka C. Wambua4

Kanyotu Mary5

Socio-Demographics Characteristics and Patterns of Burnout Syndrome among College Academic Staff

in Kenya

1. Senior Lecturer,Daystar University, Kenya

2. Professor of Psychiatry, University of Nairobi & Director, Africa Mental Health Foundation, Kenya

3. Senior Lecturer, Dedan Kimanthi University,Kenya

4. Kenyatta National Hospital, Kenya

5. Kenya Medical Training college, Kenya

Email for correspondence: [email protected]


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INTRODUCTION

Burnout syndrome is a recognized psychological

disorder, which can generally be regarded as less

severe and more temporally in duration, as compared

to other psychopathological conditions like

depression and anxiety. In its broadest sense, burnout

can be defined as a syndrome exhibiting specific

symptoms of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization

and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach &

Jackson, 1986). Causes of burnout are varied among

different people depending on their personality or

environmental influences. It is caused by situational

stressors rather than biologically mediated chemical

imbalances. Stress, which is a precursor for burnout

syndrome may be caused by conflicts, environmental

pressures or frustration (Carson at al., 1996).

Individuals experiencing burnout may generally

present with chronic fatigue, exhaustion, tiredness

and a sense of being physically run down. Symptoms

of anger at those making demands from them

characterised by exploding easily at seemingly

inconsequent things and irritability are common.

Cynicism, negativity, a sense of feeling besieged,

frequent headache and weight loss or gain may also

set in (Henry, 2003).

Prolonged burnout following unresolved stress may

present with depleted physical energy and emotional

exhaustion. The immunity to illness becomes low;

with the individuals exhibiting low interest in

interpersonal relationships, pessimistic outlook,

increased absenteeism and inefficiency at work (Scott,

2006). An individual who has perfectionist tendencies

and strive to produce excellent work results may

experience excessive stress if the outcome of their

work is not excellent (Evans et al., 2005). Other people

are generally more excitable than others and therefore

have a stronger response to issues resulting to stress

in them being triggered more easily (Carson et al.,

2003). If one is inadequately qualified for the job by

way of professional qualification or personality, they

are likely to become stressed and therefore suffer

burnout easily. Nells (2003) stated that if one’s

personality does not tally with their job description,

they will feel stressed most of the time and may

therefore suffer burnout syndrome. He further stated

that though some jobs are poorly compensated,

workers who have high moral and motivation and

have a strong belief in what they do are less stressed

and so are less likely to suffer burnout syndrome

compared to those who do not.

Emotional exhaustion results from prolonged

exposure to stressful situations as the individual

experiences depletion of emotional resource. Maslach

& Jackson (1986), stated that people suffering from

burnout syndrome experience feelings of inability to

offer themselves at a psychological level due to

emotional exhaustion. Glouberman (2003) stated that

burnout results into mental and/or physical

exhaustion that is not alleviated by normal sleep.

Depersonalization leads to the affected individual

developing negative cynical attitudes and negative

feelings about others particularly those they work

with or the direct recipient of their services. They

experience a sense of being cut off from themselves

and others (Glouberman, 2003). Research has also

shown that people with reduced personal

accomplishment evaluate themselves negatively

particularly with regard to their work. They feel

dissatisfied with their accomplishments at work and

consequentially becoming unhappy (Glouberman,

2003). Such people with reduced personal

accomplishment develop a gradual decreased ability

to be effective at what they have always done

effectively and efficiently at work or elsewhere.

Burnout has also been found to emanate from

interpersonal and intrapersonal conflicts and

challenges, environmental pressures and frustrations

(Carson et al., 1996). Environmental pressures may

include pressure at work due to workload, working

for deadlines and social responsibilities. The

individual’s ability to cope with pressures, conflicts or


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frustration dictates the level of burnout that may

result.

People who are involved in multitasks like Kenya

Medical Training College lecturers are predisposed to

stress and if not taken care of my gradually develop

burnout syndrome and consequently, psychological

distress. Some of the responsibilities include lecture

preparations, production of teaching and learning

materials, classroom and clinical teachings,

curriculum review and development. Other

responsibilities include conducting examinations and

assessment of students within and outside the main

campus, giving guidance and counseling to students

and other responsibilities given at the discretion of the

immediate supervisor or otherwise. Other than

responsibilities that directly deal with teaching

students, the academic lecturers are involved in

organizing graduation and applications document

verification processing. They are involved in college

income generating activities like out sourcing and

organizing seminars, treating patients among others.

They are also called upon to perform any other

assignment within or without on behalf of the college.

This has left the lecturers quite multi-tasked with a lot

in their hands. This is not withstanding the high

demand to keep abreast with learning where most

lecturers pursuing their career advancement in higher

learning do so on part time basis as they take their full

load of responsibility in their departments. This

exposes them to fatigue and consequent burnout.

World Health Organization guidelines on lecturer

student ratio in science oriented courses have been

stated in the Government of Kenya draft guidelines

(Raza, 2003). It states that the ideal lecture: student

ration is supposed to be 1:10. This is not so in most of

the departments which has left the academic staff

with huge numbers of students to cater for

academically, mentor and give guidance and

counseling. Since the courses are skill oriented,

personalized teaching is paramount to ensure mastery

of skill. The capacity growth of student population in

the last seven years has been immense. The available

figures from the Kenya Medical Training College

Nairobi academic department shows that it has grown

from 2000 students in year 2000 to 3089 in the year

2007. This is a growth rate of 13%. There has not been

a corresponding increase in academic staffing. The

existing average student: lecturer ratio of 1:22 in the

college is evidence for this dissonance. The lecturer

student’s ratio is too low, thus leaving the possibility

of the lecturers being overwhelmed by the workload.

The lecturers may experience pressure to accomplish

their job related tasks efficiently and effectively

resulting to frustrations when they are not able to

accomplish expected targets.

Maina (1991) carried out a study to investigate stress

at work and mental health status among hospital

workers in Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH), Kenya.

The researcher used a sample of 550 workers drown

from various departments. The study identified job

stress, mental load (workload), insufficient internal

training, and discussions within the department, as

well as Schedule of work as sources of stress amongst

the workers. 36 % of female and 21% male subjects

had job stress while 21% females and 9% males stress

was cited as due to workload. A total of 36% of the

respondents cited their stress as related to insufficient

internal training. Fifty one per cent of the females and

33% of the male subjects cited work schedules as their

source of job stress. The subjects, who had taken sick

leave 4 – 6 times in the year, had a higher proportion

of both work stress indicator of 73% and 82% in

females and males respectively.

In another study to investigate prevalence of burnout

syndrome and its effects amongst staff at Mathare

Hospital using the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)

(Ndetei et al., 2007), found that burnout affects levels

of performance. The researchers cited indicators of

burnout among some respondents as job turnover,

absenteeism, and low morale and emotional

symptoms. Physical indicators included physical

exhaustion, insomnia, increased substance/drug

abuse, interpersonal and intrapersonal problems.


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Burnout increased in all Maslach subscales in that 38%

of the studied subjects had emotional exhaustion, 47%

had high levels of depersonalization and 38.6%

experienced low levels of personal accomplishment.

The results revealed that on average, relationships at

work, family and society contributed to the

employee’s burnout. In this study, younger

employees correlated positively with emotional

exhaustion and negatively with personal

accomplishment. The number of children one had and

heavy workload was significantly associated with

increased emotional exhaustion and

depersonalization.

In another Kenyan study on compassion fatigue and

burnout syndrome using the MBI among medical

workers at KNH, Kenya, the researcher found that

94.5% of medical doctors had burnout syndrome

while 29.6% had compassion fatigue. Twelve point

nine per cent of the medical practitioners and 33.1% of

the nurses had compassion fatigue while 96.7%

medical practitioners and 94.7% of the nurses had

burnout syndrome (Kokonya, 2004). The researcher

identified some of the risk factors for burnout as being

young, recently employed, being a University of

Nairobi employee, working as a practitioner for less

than 16 years, being a nurse and married.

The studies have shown that more often than not, the

workers are not aware of the existence of burnout

within themselves (Maina, 1991). This means that they

do not relate their emotional exhaustion,

depersonalization or reduced personal

accomplishment symptoms with their burnout. This

implies they did not take any measures to deal with it.

Despite burnout being a very prevalent and

preventable condition, there are no studies that have

been done at the KMTC to investigate the existence of

burnout syndrome among the workers. This study,

therefore, aimed at determining the socio-

demographics characteristics and patterns of burnout

syndrome among college academic staff at the Kenya

Medical Training College.

METHODOLOGY

Study site

Kenya Medical Training College is a middle level

college training heath care professionals. Trainees at

KMTC undertake various courses within the various

faculties spread out in the country in the twenty seven

satellite Campuses. The Nairobi campus is the largest.

According to college records, the Nairobi campus has

a capacity of 3,089 basic and post basic students being

served by one hundred and thirty nine academic staff

distributed in the existing 16 academic departments.

Design

This research was cross-sectional descriptive study.

The study was conducted in the 16 academic

departments of the KMTC, Nairobi campus and

targeted all the academic staff in these departments

who qualified for the study. Inclusion Criteria was

academic staffs who had worked as lecturers at for the

last one-year and voluntarily signed the informed

consent form while the exclusion criteria involved all

other workers who were not lecturers, those lecturers

who were working in the non-academic departments

and academic staff who declined to sign the consent.

Data Collection Instruments

Social Demographic Questionnaire (SDQ)

This was a researcher designed tool that included the

number of hours the respondents worked beyond the

normal forty hours per week, the subject’s college

duties and responsibilities, whether or not they

proceed on annual leave or whether they have had

any kind of sick off and the level of professional

qualification. The respondent’s perception on

workload and existence of social support within the

college was also sought. This information was used to

compare and correlate the existence of burnout

syndrome among the subjects as well as the

psychological distress which was a consequent of

burnout syndrome.


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Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI)

The most influential burnout definition describes burnout as a three dimensional construct composed of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and professional efficacy (Maslach et al., 2001). The standard measuring instrument is the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Schaufeli & Buunk, 2003). Early research on burnout described it as a syndrome characterizing professions that involve demanding interpersonal interactions (Maslach et al., 2001). The MBI three-factor structure has been validated on samples of healthcare professionals (Hallberg & Sverke, 2004) and social workers (Kim & Ji, 2009).

Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) was developed and

designed to assess the three aspects of the burnout

syndrome. The aspects include emotional exhaustion,

depersonalization and lack of personal

accomplishment. The instrument is ideal to

investigate burnout syndrome amongst adult human

service providers of different professions, teaching

being one of them. The results reflect the degree of

burnout syndrome an individual has, whether high,

average or low (Maslach & Jackson, 1986).

The MBI assesses respondent’s feelings of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one’s work, impersonal response toward recipients of one’s service care or instruction, personal accomplishment in relation to evaluation of personal competence and successful achievements in one’s word. The scoring is a Likert scale of 0 (Never), 1 (A few times a year), 2 (Once a month or less), 3 (A few times a month), 4 (Once a week), 5 (A few times a week) and 6 (Every day). Respondents rate their feelings by indicating the relevant number. The MBI was self-administered. Ethical Approvals Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Kenyatta National Hospital/ University of Nairobi ethics and research committee. Confidentiality was maintained throughout the study and all participants gave informed consent.

Data Analysis

Data was collected using questionnaires. After data

was collected, it was entered, cleaned and coded. The

collected data was analyzed utilizing descriptive and

inferential statistics. Results were presented in form of

tables, bar charts, pie charts and narratives.

A total of 139 questionnaires were distributed to all the academic departments at the Kenya Medical Training College Nairobi Campus. One hundred and six (76.3%) questionnaires were well completed and valid for analysis.

RESULTS

Social demographic data Majority (69) of the respondents were males compared to 37 females. There were more respondents (57) who were 41 years and above compared to (44) who were in the age bracket of 30 – 40 years. A total of 83 respondents were married, with 70 of them having 1 – 3 children. Seventy eight (78) of the respondents had a diploma and higher diploma as their highest level of professional qualification, compared to 38 with a degree and above. Burnout Syndrome among academic staff Eighty six (86) respondents indicated they worked 5 hours compared to 20 who worked below 4 hours beyond their normal working hours. A total of 73 respondents indicated they felt overworked compared to 33 respondents who felt their workload was normal. No respondents indicated they were under worked. All the departments had 50% of their lecturers overworked. All the respondents had emotional exhaustion: 85.8% had high while 14.2% had average levels. Lecturers in eight academic departments had all their academic staff with high levels of emotional exhaustion. Seventy one (67.6%) of the respondents had low levels of personal accomplishment indicative of negative evaluation of self, whereas 25 (23.8%) had average. Only 9 (8.6%) had high level of personal accomplishment indicative of positive self-evaluation. Half of the departments had over 65% of their lecturers with high levels of burnout syndrome.


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Considering the three variables indicative of burnout syndrome, i.e. high levels of emotional exhaustion, high levels of Depersonalization and low levels of reduced personal accomplishment, all the respondents had burnout syndrome. 65.1% of the respondents had high whereas 34.9% had average levels of burnout syndrome. Considering the three variables indicative of burnout syndrome, i.e. high levels of emotional exhaustion, high levels of depersonalization and low levels of reduced personal accomplishment, all the respondents had burnout syndrome. 65.1% of the respondents had high whereas 34.9% had average levels of burnout syndrome. Gender, family structure and burnout syndrome Among the respondents who had high burnout levels, 70.3% were females and 62.3% were males. The respondents with average burnout constituted 29.7% females and 37.7% males. There was no difference between gender and burnout syndrome. There was an equal distribution between low and high levels of burnout syndrome among single male and female respondents. Among the married respondents, 30.1% males had average while 69.9% females had high levels of burnout syndrome. Of the widowers and widows, 75% males had average and 25% females had high levels of burnout syndrome. There was no significant difference between marital status and burnout syndrome. Sixty (85.7%) of the respondents who had 1 - 3 children had high while 10 (14.3%) had average levels of emotional exhaustion. All the respondents had high levels of depersonalization regardless of the number of children they had. The respondents with 1 – 3 children (72.5%) and those with above 6 children (66.7%) had the majority of their lecturers with low personal evaluation. Eighteen percent (18%) of respondents with 4 – 5 children had high levels of personal accomplishment. There was no significant difference between the number of children, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization personal accomplishment and burnout syndrome. Forty six point seven percent (46.7%) of the respondents with 1-3 children had high while 24(23.3%) had average levels of burnout syndrome.

Those with between 4–5 children had 10 (9.70%) respondents with average and 17(16.5%) with high levels of burnout. Among the respondents with 6 and above children, 2(1.9%) had average and 4(3.9%) had high levels of burnout syndrome. There was no significant difference between number of children and burnout syndrome. Forty six point seven percent (46.7%) of the respondents with 1-3 children had high and 24(23.3%) had average levels of burnout syndrome. Those with between 4 – 5 children had 10 (9.70%) respondents with average and 17 (16.5%) with high levels of burnout. Among the respondents with 6 and above children, 2(1.9%) had average and 4(3.9%) had high levels of burnout syndrome. Professional qualification and burnout syndrome Twenty two (88%) of the respondents with diploma, 35 (81.4%) with higher diploma and all the 18 (100%) with degree as their highest professional qualification had high levels of emotional exhaustion. Sixteen (78.4%) of the respondents with master’s degree had the lowest percentage with high levels of emotional exhaustion. All PhD and 77% of master’s degree holders had low levels of personal accomplishment. Only 11.1% of master’s degree holders had high personal accomplishment. Respondents who had basic degree as their highest level of professional qualification, had the lowest percentage (16.7%) with average levels of burnout syndrome. Respondents in other levels of professional qualification ranged between 57.9% – 62.8% with high levels and 37.2% - 42.1% with average levels of burnout as shown in figure 1. Working hours and burnout Syndrome About two thirds (68.5%) of the respondents who worked 5 – 10 hours beyond their normal working hours per week had high levels of emotional exhaustion, all had high depersonalization and 52(68.4%) had low personal accomplishment. Seventeen respondents (85%) who worked 0 – 4 hours beyond normal working hours had high emotional exhaustion, all of the respondents in this category had high depersonalization and 14(73.7%) had low personal accomplishment. Only one respondent with


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high emotional exhaustion was among those who worked 16 hours beyond their normal working hours. Majority of the respondents (70%) with high levels of burnout syndrome worked 0-4 hours followed by the category that worked 5-10 hours beyond their normal working hours. On average, the respondents who worked 11 and above hours beyond their normal working hours had 45.2% and 54.8% with high and average levels of burnout syndrome respectively. There was a significant difference between average number of hours worked per week beyond normal working hours and burnout syndrome (p=0.02) as shown in table 1. Annual Leave and Burnout Syndrome Among the respondents who reported they had not taken their annual leave, 61.1% had high and 38.9% had average burnout levels. Another 61.7% of respondents who had taken their annual leave had high levels of burnout whereas 32.9% had average levels. There was a significant difference between annual leave and burnout syndrome. Among the respondents who had taken their annual leave every year in the last five years, 66% had high while 34% had average levels of burnout syndrome. The respondents who had taken their annual leave randomly within the last 5 years, 66.9% had high and 35.1% had average levels of burnout. There was a difference between taking annual leave in the last 5 years and burnout syndrome with those people not taking a leave having high burnout levels. Job environment and burnout Syndrome The results revealed that burnout syndrome was prevalent among lecturers in all substantive posts distributed as 65.1% with high and 34.9% average levels of burnout syndrome. Seventy five per cent (75%) of the senior academic lecturers had high levels and 25% average levels of burnout syndrome. The highest numbers of respondents (77.8%) with high levels of burnout were in assistant lecturer category and 75% in principal lecturer’s category. The least number (56.5%) with high levels of burnout was in the category of senior lecturer. All the respondents who had worked over 26 years had high levels of burnout. Seventy five (75%) of

those who had worked less than 6 years had high levels of burnout. Respondents who had worked between 6 to 10 years had 59.4 % with high and 40.6% with low levels of burnout. The highest numbers of respondents (88.9%) with burnout syndrome were found among those who had worked over 21 years. There was no difference between number of years worked, age and burnout syndrome. Sixty nine point nine percent (69.9%) of the respondents who reported they felt overworked had high and 30.1% had average levels of burnout syndrome. Among the respondents who described their workload as normal, 54.5% had high and 45.5 had average levels of burnout syndrome. The respondents who had high levels of burnout syndrome, 50.9% felt the college did not offer social support and 14.2% felt there was social support. Among the respondents who had average levels of burnout, 32.1% felt there was no social support and 2.8% felt there was social support. There was a statistically significant difference between burnout syndrome and feelings of whether or not there was social support at KMTC Nairobi Campus. Among the respondents who reported they were satisfied with their job, 60.8% had high and 39.2% had average levels of burnout syndrome. Seventy five per cent (75%) of those who said they were not satisfied with their jobs had high levels and 25% average levels of burnout syndrome. Sixty one point five percent (61.5%) and 38.5% respondents who reported they would leave KMTC if they got another job where they were paid a similar salary they got at KMTC had high levels and average levels of burnout syndrome respectively. Sixty eight point five percent (68.5%) and 31% of the respondents who reported they would not leave KMTC, had high levels and average levels of burnout syndrome respectively. Part time studies versus burnout syndrome Among the respondents who were undertaking part time studies as they worked, 60% had high and 40% had average levels of burnout syndrome. Those who were not undertaking any studies as they worked had 68.9% with high levels and 31.1% with average levels


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of burnout. There was no difference between undertaking part time studies and burnout syndrome. Absence from duty and burnout syndrome Fifty eight point four percent (48.4%) and 41.6% of the respondents who had not stayed away from work on sick leave had high and average levels of burnout syndrome. Among those who had stayed away on sick leave, 82.8% had high levels and 17.2% had average levels of burnout syndrome. There was significant difference between staying away from work on sick leave versus burnout syndrome (p= 0.019). Seventy five percent (75%) of the respondents who took an off from work to see a doctor or visited hospital while sick had high and 25% had average levels of burnout syndrome respectively while 61.5% of the respondents who said they had not taken an off from work to see a doctor had high levels of burnout syndrome and 38.5% had average levels. There was a statistically significant difference between taking an off to see a doctor and burnout syndrome. Sixty six point seven percent (66.7%) of the respondents who had not stayed away from work for other reasons had high whereas 33.3% had average levels of burnout syndrome. Sixty three point three percent (63.3%) of those who had stayed away from work had high and 36.7% had average levels of burnout syndrome. There was no difference between staying away from work for other reasons and burnout syndrome. Gender, family structure, professional qualification and burnout syndrome On average, the majority of respondents with high levels of burnout syndrome were married males 36 (85.7%) and married females 58 (84.6%). The category with the lowest percentage of respondents with burnout syndrome was unmarried respondents who were 13.2%. There was a statistically significant difference between gender, marital and average burnout syndrome. (p=0.021 as shown in table 2). The highest number of respondents 38 (56.7%), with high levels of burnout were married with 1-3 children, while 8 (11.9%) were single with 1-3 children. The respondents with the least number (5.6%), with

average levels of burnout syndrome had more than 6 children and were married. Other than the widowed category (1), the category with the least number of respondents (11.1%), with high level of burnout syndrome were those with 4 - 5 children and were single. There was a significant difference between marital status, number of children and burnout levels p=0.036 as shown in table 3. Among the respondents who had high levels of burnout, 17(39.5%) males and 10(38.5%) females. had graduate or post graduate education. While 6(60.4%) males and 16(61.5%) females had high diploma or higher diploma as their highest professional qualification. Among the respondents who had average burnout levels (10) males and (1) female; had graduate or post graduate education as their highest professional qualifications. There was a statistically significant difference between gender and those with diploma and degree and above as their highest professional qualification and burnout syndrome p= 0.009 and p= 0.023 respectively as shown in table 4. Fifteen (41.7%) respondents with 1-3 children and felt overworked had average burnout, while 40 (59.7%) in the same category had high burnout. 2 (3%) respondents who had more than 6 children and felt they were overworked had high burnout level as compared to another 2 with same number of children who felt their work load was normal. There was a statistically significant difference between view of work overload, number of children and high burnout levels p=0.003 as shown in table 5. Part Time Studies, Number of Hours Worked Beyond Normal and Burnout Syndrome Among respondents who were undertaking part time studies, 21(48.8%) males and 6(23.1%) females had high levels of burnout syndrome. fourteen (53.8%) males and 4(36.4%) females had average burnout levels. as compared to 22 (51.2%) males and 20 (76.9%) females with high burnout levels who were not undertaking part time studies. There was a statistically significant difference between those who were not undertaking part time studies as they worked, gender and burnout syndrome (p=0.029) as shown in table 6. Twenty four (53.3%) respondents above 41 years who


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worked 5-10 hours beyond normal working hours had high burnout levels. Among the respondents with average burnout levels, 15 (57.7%) were 30-40 years and worked 5-10 hours beyond normal working time. There was significance difference between age, number of hours worked beyond normal and average burnout level (p= 0.046) as seen in table 7. The highest number of respondents , 33 (70.2%) who had taken their annual leave and were working 5-10 hours beyond their normal working hours had high burnout level, compared to 18 (38.3%) respondents in the same category with average burnout levels. Seventeen (77.3%) respondents who were working 5-10 hours beyond their normal working hours and had not taken annual leave had high burnout levels whereas 8(36.4%) in the same category had average burnout levels. There was significant difference between having taken annual leave, average number of hours beyond normal working hours and average burnout levels (p=0.007) as seen in table 8. All the13 (65%) respondents who were in the 30-40 year bracket and had worked for 6-10 years at KMTC had average burnout level compared to 13 (54.2%) respondents with high burnout levels in the same category.. Twenty eight (70%) of the respondents above 41 years who had worked for more than 15 years had high levels of burnout compared to 11(64.7%) in the same category who had average levels of burnout. There was a significant difference between number of years worked, age and burnout level (p=0.000) as seen in table 9.

DISCUSSION

All lecturers had high and average levels of burnout syndrome at 65.1% and 34.9% respectively and 20% of them had psychological distress. This can be attributed to various factors; among them the low lecturer: student ratio (1:22) which is far below the (1:12) UNESCO and WHO guidelines (Raza, 2003). The lecturers at the KMTC have many students to mentor, over and above their college related responsibilities. The work overload leads to chronic fatigue and stress, a precursor of burnout syndrome and consequently psychological distress (Carson et al., 1996; Engel, 1980) The burnout syndrome among the lecturers in this study makes the lecturers to frequent health facilities, take sick leave or absent themselves

from duty; which may be a contributing factor in the noticeable low levels of self-accomplishments (p=0.002, p=0.019). These results are similar with those found by Engel (1980) in a study to investigate clinical application of bio-psychosocial model. The work overload was also evidenced by the high number of lecturers who worked more hours than normal working hours per week (p= 0.019). Similar results were found in a study to measure quality and validity of need for recovery scale (Van Veldnoven & Broersen, 2003). The researcher concluded that this leaves one in a continuously fatigued state that in turn leads to the development of burnout syndrome

Generally, the departments with low lecturer: student

ratio had majority of their lecturers with more of them

with the highest levels of emotional exhaustion and

lowest level of personal accomplishment. The high

levels of emotional exhaustion can be explained in

part as due to work overload (Van Veldnoven &

Broersen, 2003).

Some departments with high lecturer: student ratio

had majority of their lecturers with high burnout

syndrome levels. This means that there are other

factors that contribute to the development of burnout

syndrome. From the current study, some of these risk

factors include level of professional qualification,

gender, marital status and number of children,

perception of work load, not taking annual leave and

social support at KMTC. Similar factors have been

shown in a study to investigate the epidemiology of

fatigue: more questions than answers (Lewis &

Wessely, 1992). More than half of the respondents

who had high levels of burnout had not taken their

annual leave (p=0.001) and were also working more

hours beyond normal (p=0.007).All the respondents

had high depersonalization and emotional exhaustion

(p=0.001) and (majority) had low personal

accomplishment (p=0.036); the adverse impact of

acute and chronic fatigue on the health of workers.

This is in agreement with Dijk and Swaen, (2003), who

found that stress related disorders were responsible

for approximately 30% of permanent disability in the


329 | P a g e

Netherlands and UK. That the lecturers at KMTC

Nairobi campus were less productive than expected is

evidenced by absenteeism from work due to sick offs

or staying away from work for other reasons (36.7%

and 63.3%). Chronic fatigue and consequently

burnout syndrome gradually leads to the employees

in developing feelings of professional incompetence

as was concluded by Van Dierrendanck (2001). This

was evident in the current study where over half of

the respondents were found to have low personal

accomplishment and felt overworked (67.6% and

69.9%) respectively.

Respondents who were married and had 1- 5 children

irrespective of their gender were found to have high

levels of burnout syndrome (p=0.036). The author

postulates that married people and particularly

women with children have additional family

responsibilities that make them more likely to

experience chronic stress and consequently develop

burnout syndrome. Similarly, Wright et al (1997) in a

study among prison officers; where more women

officers who had more family responsibilities were

found to have high levels of burnout syndrome and

psychological illnesses compared to their male

counterparts. Chronic stress is a precursor of burnout

syndrome and affecting women more than men who

report burnout syndrome and stress related illnesses

more frequently (Leone et al., 2002; Hayfer, 1999). In

the current study, more women respondents were

found to have high burnout levels compared to men

respondents p= 0.021. The author postulates that

generally, women employees had a higher workload

than their male counterparts; due to additional family

responsibilities that made them develop burnout and

consequently psychological distress than the males in

the study.

Among respondents who had degree and above as

their highest professional qualification, more male

(39%) than female respondents (23.8%) had high or

average burnout levels, thus suggesting men with

higher professional qualifications were more prone to

develop burnout syndrome than their women

colleagues. Comparatively, females with lower

professional qualification (38.1%), were more

predisposed to develop burnout syndrome than their

male counterparts (30.5%) p= 0.009). It is speculated

that the differences in burnout prevalence among

respondents with the same professional qualification

could be due to personal attributes and added family

responsibilities as stated by Wright et al., (1997);

Maslach & Jackson (1981).

In the current study, the respondent’s perception of

whether or not there was social support was found to

be a precipitating factor to the development of

burnout syndrome. About half of the respondents

who indicated there was no social support at KMTC

had high burnout levels.

Among the respondents who had 1-3 children and were younger (30-40 years), over half of them felt overworked and exhibited high or average levels of burnout. It is postulated that young children are an added responsibility compared to older children among older respondents (over 40 years). There is increased personal responsibility contributing to the development of burnout syndrome among the young respondents who were below 40 years. When there is no social support at work, it means workers are left to deal with their personal challenges individually and therefore become vulnerable to develop burnout syndrome with any additional pressure of work or otherwise. Likewise, it is speculated that women were more vulnerable to stress due to additional family responsibilities outside the work place than the men. Similar studies have been carried out among various professional cadres and have shown multi-dimensional factors that contribute to fatigue and consequent burnout syndrome occurring in working populations (Dijk &Swaen, 2003; Hurbers et al., 2003; Leone et a., 2006 and Montazeri et al., 2003).These factors were cited as work schedules, social support, workload, and Personal attributes like personality, ability to cope with challenges, age, and gender. Other studies done also found that being female and their view of luck of social support at work is a predisposition to develop burnout (Dijk &Swaen, 2003; Piko, 2006). Thommasen et al., (2001) cited other


330 | P a g e

factors to the development of burnout syndrome as social responsibilities and perceptual differences on issues of workload. Other studies have shown similar results where perception of workload and none existence of social support contributed to the development of burnout syndrome (Lewis & Wessely, 1992; Dierrendanck et al., 2001; Wright et al., 1997). This implies that attitude towards workload is a contributor to development of burnout syndrome.

More respondents who were undertaking part time

studies as they worked had burnout syndrome than

those who were not (P= 0.029). These results are

similar to others studies carried out where other

additional personal responsibilities outside workplace

were found to be risk factors in the development of

burnout syndrome among respondents (Ozyurt et al.,

2006; Swoboda et al., 2005; Maslach & Jackson, 1981).

Respondents who had worked over 10 years and were

over 40 years had high burnout syndrome compared

to those who had worked less years (P=0.000). The

researcher postulated that lecturers who had served

for a longer time on the job had a wide range of

experience and expertise, which the college was

utilising through additional work which left them

overworked, fatigued and consequently suffer

burnout syndrome. Conversely, other studies (Dijk

&Swaen, 2003;) found that older people (over 40

years) had less burnout levels compared to younger

age group although they had however not considered

years worked in the same institutions.

CONCLUSION

The general objectives of the current study were to

establish the prevalence of burnout syndrome among

KMTC Nairobi Campus academic staff. This study

compared the burnout prevalence among lecturers in

various academic departments and identified the

relationship between social demographic factors and

burnout syndrome. It was found that all academic

lecturers at KMTC Nairobi campus had burnout

syndrome.

Occurrence of burnout syndrome influenced the

development of psychological distress. Different

factors were found to precipitate respondents to the

development of burnout syndrome and consequently

psychological distress. These were: Working more

hours beyond normal hours per week, failure to take

annually, lower professional qualification of diploma

or higher diploma as the highest professional

qualification and being male compared to females in

the same category. Being male and having a degree

and above as the highest professional qualification

compared to female respondents in the same category,

perception of work overload, having 1-3 children

feelings of lack of social support and undertaking part

time studies were found to be associated with

burnout.

Study Limitation Data was collected when the lecturers were preparing for students final examinations. This may have partly contributed to the high levels of burnout syndrome established in this study.

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Table-1 Average number of hours beyond normal working hours per week versus EE, DP and PA

and burnout syndrome

Average overtime hours worked/week

EE DP PA Burnout

Average

High High High Average Low Average High

0-4 3 17 20 1 4 14 6 14

15.0% 85.0% 100.0% 5.3% 21.1% 73.7% 30.0% 70.0%

5-10 8 68 76 6 18 52 26 50

10.5% 89.5% 100.0% 7.9% 23.7% 68.4% 34.2% 65.8%

11-15 2 5 7 1 3 3 3 4

28.6% 71.4% 100.0% 14.3% 42.9% 42.9% 42.9% 57.1%

16+ 2 1 3 1 0 2 2 1

66.7% 33.3% 100.0% 33.3% .0% 66.7% 66.7% 33.3%

Total

15 91 106 9 25 71 37 69

14.2% 85.8% 100.0% 8.6% 23.8% 67.6% 34.9% 65.1%

Test x2=8.842, df= 3 p=0.031

x2=9.068, df= 4 p=0.023

x2=10.892, df= 5 p=0.019

Table-2 Gender and marital status versus burnout syndrome

BURNOUT GENDER

MARITAL STATUS

SINGLE MARRIED WIDOWED

Average

MALE

7 19

26.9% 73.1%

FEMALE

2 6 3

18.2% 54.5% 27.3%

Total

9 25 3

24.3% 67.6% 8.1%

High

MALE

5 36 1

11.9% 85.7% 2.4%

FEMALE

4 22

15.4% 84.6%

Total

9 58 1

13.2% 85.3% 1.5%

Tests x2=7.727, df= 2 and p=0.021


334 | P a g e

Table-3

Marital status and number of children versus burnout syndrome

Burnout

Number Of Children Total

1-3 4-5 6+

Average

Single

8 1 0 9

88.9% 11.1% .0% 100.0%

Married

16 6 2 24

66.7% 25.0% 8.3% 100.0%

Widowed

0 3 0 3

.0% 100.0% .0% 100.0%

Total

24 10 2 36

66.7% 27.8% 5.6% 100.0%

High

Single

8 1 0 9

88.9% 11.1% .0% 100.0%

Married

38 15 4 57

66.7% 26.3% 7.0% 100.0%

Widowed

0 1 0 1

.0% 100.0% .0% 100.0%

Total 46 17 4 67

68.7% 25.4% 6.0% 100.0%

Test

Average: x2= 10.267, df = 3 p=0.036

Table-4 Gender, level of professional qualification versus burnout syndrome

Burnout

Highest Professional Qualification Total

Diploma higher diploma Degree and above

Average

Male

9 7 10 26

34.6% 26.9% 38.5% 100.0%

Female

1 9 1 11

9.1% 81.8% 9.1% 100.0%

Total

10 16 11 37

27.0% 43.2% 29.7% 100.0%

High

Male

10 16 17 43

23.3% 37.2% 39.5% 100.0%

Female

5 11 10 26

19.2% 42.3% 38.5% 100.0%

Total

15 27 27 69

21.7% 39.1% 39.1% 100.0%

Average: x2= 9.493,df = 1,p=0.009

High:x2= 0.233,df = 2,p=0.023


335 | P a g e

Table-5

Number of children and feeling of being worked versus burnout syndrome

Table-6 Undertaking part time studies versus burnout syndrome

Burnout Undertaking part time studies as you

work Total

YES NO

Average

Male

14 12 26

53.8% 46.2% 100.0%

Female

4 7 11

36.4% 63.6% 100.0%

Total

18 19 37

48.6% 51.4% 100.0%

High

Male

21 22 43

48.8% 51.2% 100.0%

Female

6 20 26

23.1% 76.9% 100.0%

27 42 69

39.1% 60.9% 100.0%

Total

Average: x2= 0.946,df = 4, p=0.271

High:x2= 4.514,df = 5, p=0.029

Burnout

Feelings that describe your workload Total Overworked Normal

Average 1-3

15 9 24

62.5% 37.5% 100.0%

4-5

5 5 10

50.0% 50.0% 100.0%

6+

1 1 2

50.0% 50.0% 100.0%

Total

21 15 36

58.3% 41.7% 100.0%

High

1-3

40 6 46

87.0% 13.0% 100.0%

4-5

8 9 17

47.1% 52.9% 100.0%

6+

2 2 4

50.0% 50.0% 100.0%

Total 50 17 67

74.6% 25.4% 100.0%

Tests High: x2= 11.798, df = 4 and p=0.003


336 | P a g e

Table-7 Average number of hours worked beyond normal working hours and age versus burnout

syndrome

Burnout

Age Bracket Total 30-40 41+

Average 0-4

4 2 6

66.7% 33.3% 100.0%

5-10

15 11 26

57.7% 42.3% 100.0%

11+

1 4 5

20.0% 80.0% 100.0%

Total

20 17 37

54.1% 45.9% 100.0%

High 0-4

3 11 14

21.4% 78.6% 100.0%

5-10

21 24 45

46.7% 53.3% 100.0%

11+

0 5 5

.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Total 24 40 64

37.5% 62.5% 100.0%

Tests Average: x2= 6.156, df = 2 and p=0.046

Table-8 Average numbers of overtime hours worked and annual leave versus burnout syndrome

Burnout

Did you take your annual leave last year? Total

YES NO

Average 0-4

5 1 6

83.3% 16.7% 100.0%

5-10

18 8 26

69.2% 30.8% 100.0%

11+

0 5 5

.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Total

23 14 37

62.2% 37.8% 100.0%

High 0-4

11 3 14

78.6% 21.4% 100.0%

5-10

33 17 50

66.0% 34.0% 100.0%

11+

3 2 5

60.0% 40.0% 100.0%

Total 47 22 69

68.1% 31.9% 100.0%



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Table-9 Years worked at Kenya Medical Training College, age versus burnout syndrome

Burnout Duration worked

AGE Total 30-40 41+

Average < 6

2 1 3

66.7% 33.3% 100.0%

6-10

13 0 13

100.0% .0% 100.0%

11-15

5 5 10

50.0% 50.0% 100.0%

16-20

0 9 9

.0% 100.0% 100.0%

21+

0 2 2

.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Total

20 17 37

54.1% 45.9% 100.0%

High

< 6

6 2 8

75.0% 25.0% 100.0%

6-10

13 4 17

76.5% 23.5% 100.0%

11-15

5 6 11

45.5% 54.5% 100.0%

16-20

0 17 17

.0% 100.0% 100.0%

21+

0 11 11

.0% 100.0% 100.0%

Total

24 40 64

37.5% 62.5% 100.0%


Figure-1: Professional qualification versus burnout

40

60

37.2

62.8

16.7

83.3

42.1

57.9

0

20

40

60

80

100

%

Diploma Higher

Diploma

Degree Masters and

Above

Professional Qualification

Average High


338 | P a g e

ISSN: 2313-6758

Volume 3, Issue 7

July, 2015

Pages: 338-348

Marital satisfaction is a pertinent ingredient to the stability of any nation, given that the family is the basic unit of any nation. Too much marital dissatisfaction leads to family members being unstable socially which trickles down to societal problems hence to the nation. A higher level of satisfaction is seen as a measure of marital success. It is, therefore, important to study correlates of marital satisfaction in order to determine what variables could potentially predict the outcome of marital satisfaction. The purpose of this study therefore sought to establish the correlates between levels of education in relation to marital satisfaction. The objectives for the study were: to determine find out factors in regard to education influencing marital satisfaction, to find out reasons in regard to getting spouses satisfied with marriage and reasons in regard to education getting spouses quit their previous marriages. Literature on the three objectives above has been reviewed. The researcher employed a cross sectional survey design to examine the theme of study. The descriptive study was conducted among 4,019 spouses by using a questionnaire. Gay (2006) informed the sampling criteria where 5% of 4,019 were selected. Content and construct validity was ascertained by a pilot study of applying 20 questionnaires outside the area of study. Analysis was done using calculation of simple means and calculating percentages, manually calculating the means in the Likert scale and ranking it to understand the general trend of the theme of study and conclusions, results and recommendations were given. On factors in regard to education influencing marital satisfaction spent doing office work at home (M=3.6), time spent on social media (M=3.5) and ability to solve marital problems (M=3.5) mostly influenced marital satisfaction. On reasons in regard to education and marital satisfaction, spouses majorly consider care for the family, 55.5%, religion 55.5%, commitment. And on reasons in regard to education getting spouses quit their previous marriages the spouses gave being unfaithful by 25.0%, 18.3% illiteracy/ low education, mistrust 18.3%,

*Dr. Samson Barongo1

Prof Michael Okwara2

Dr. Callen Nyamwange3

Zachary Kebati4

Peter Onderi 5

Qualitative Approach on Underlying Factors in Regard to Education that Influence Marital

Contentment, Kenya

1,3&4. Ksii University,

Bosongo, Kisii, Kenya.

2. Jaramogi Oginga

Odinga University of

Science and Technology,

Bondo, Kenya.

5. Maseno University,

Maseno, Kenya.


Qualitative Approach on Underlying Factors Barongo et al

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violence related factors 15.0%, spouse unreliability/dishonest 11.6% and other factors 8.3%.

Keywords: Level of Education, marital satisfaction,

INTRODUCTION

Marital satisfaction is a pertinent ingredient to the stability of any nation given that the family is the basic unit of any nation. A study by infotrak in 2010 showed that only 40 % of Kenyans report being happily married and 3 in 10 said they will marry their current spouse if given a chance to remarry Mcsheffrey (2014). Too much marital dissatisfaction leads to family members being unstable socially which trickles down to societal problems hence to the nation. Some research done in the area of marital satisfaction has focused on level of education at time of marriage (Heaton 2002, Golzari 2014, Agha, 2012, Nivischi, 2009). Bumpass (2007) studied whether the inverse correlation between level of education at time of marriage and marital instability was attributable to the participant’s education, religious affiliation, parental marital stability, or husband’s marital history. They performed a multivariate analysis on a large sample of married, White women under the age of 45, and found that marital instability was not attributable to the aforementioned factors. Their data showed that age at marriage was the strongest single predictor of marital intability in their analysis. This means that, absent of all other seemingly relevant variables, age at time of marriage was the strongest predictor of marital stability. The researcher believes that given the research was done at a global level there needs to correlate age , level of education, gender and courtship and find the strongest predictor of marital satisfaction which might additionally predict marital stability. Alfons (2007) also examined the effects of age, number of children, employment status, and length of marriage on marital satisfaction. They found that those who married later were more likely to remain married, but also that those who married younger and get divorced are more likely to remarry. Contrary to previously stated results, these researchers found that age had a significant negative effect on the sexual adjustment and marital adjustment of first-married adults. In other words, the older one was at the time

of first marriage, the less adjusted the individual would be toward the marriage and, consequently, the less satisfaction one would express. Middle-aged adults seemed to have greater adjustment problems than both young and elderly participants involved in the study. Mahin et al (2012) did a research for the purpose of examining the effects as a result of educational level and conflict resolution skills training on marital satisfaction among Iranian couples based on prepare-enrich program. In this study, marital satisfaction was measured by enrich Marital Satisfaction. The methodology of this study was experimental method; with pre-test, post-test, and control group design. Purposive sampling was conducted to select the sample that was included 54 couples who were consisted of all couples referred to the researcher by counseling centers. The referrals were done for about two months in 2009. These couples were randomly assigned to an experimental and a control group as well. The dependent variables were marital satisfaction, and the independent variables were communication and conflict resolution skills training. Consequently, the results indicated that communication and conflict resolution skills training improved marital satisfaction due to education (p<.05). Moreover, the results showed that communication and conflict resolution training was effective in martial satisfaction in post-test (p<.05). In conclusion the findings of this study indicated that the on prepare-enrich program can be effective in improving marital satisfaction among Iranian couples. In Africa there are also some researches done on marital satisfaction. But interestingly Owuamanam (2000) reports that the most single variable that pointed on marital satisfaction is the aspect of religious inclination. He pointed out that the major reason for revelation above is the non tolerance and diverse thinking between Muslims and Christians religious philosophy. Given that on the local scene there are no major contrasts between religious


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communities, the researcher may not consider religion as a major variable. (Onyishi, Sorokowski, Sorokowska, Pipitone 2012) research has compared number of children and level of education where his study was done among 374 people from the Igbo ethnic group (Nigeria) where the study assessed for levels of marital satisfaction and the number of children. In contrast to almost all previous findings Onyishi et al (2012) found a positive relationship between the number of children and marital satisfaction among parents. Number of children was the strongest predictor of marital satisfaction even when compared to other variables like wealth and education. Alder (2010) examined education and marital satisfaction where the purpose of her study was to determine whether there is a relationship between marital satisfaction (as measured by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale; Spanier, 1976) and the independent variables of age, education level, and courtship length (parsed into pre- and post-engagement periods). The participants were Africans but now living in United States of America (N = 60) who were required to complete surveys online regarding their experiences in their marriages. This research was approved by the institutional review board of Pacific University in February 2009. Results indicated that there was not a statistically significant relationship between marital satisfaction, and education level. LITERATURE REVIEW Golzari (2014) did a study and compared education and marital satisfaction level in infertile women in Rwanda. He worked on the assumption that most significant crises in one's lifetime which leads to stressful emotional problems and challenges couples' marital bondage could be dynamic due to education changes. As such he conducted a correlation study performed on infertile women who held bachelor's degrees, high school diplomas, and degrees below high school. The sample consisted of 180 women including 60 bachelors, 60 high school graduates, and 60 without high school diplomas. The infertile women were selected by convenient sampling out of Mehr Infertility Clinic referees who were being treated by assisted reproductive technology. Findings revealed women who had received post-secondary education

enjoyed higher marital satisfaction as compared to the rest of samples. Rezaee et al (2013) studied the level of family life education and its effectiveness on marital satisfaction among women attending in Isfahan counseling centers. The methodology of this research was quasi experimental with pre-test and post-test design and control group. Statistical populations were women attending in Isfahan city counseling centers. For selecting statistical sample, 30 women from women attending in counseling centers were selected as volunteers and randomly distributed between experimental and control groups. The main hypothesis of the research stated that family the level of family life Education increases marital satisfaction and their subscales in women. In this study, the dependent variable was marital-satisfaction and the independent variable was family life education conducted to case group in 10 sessions. The results of this survey show that the level of education in family life improved marital satisfaction (P<0.01). Agha et al (2012) studied on level of education and the aspect of emotional intelligence and marital satisfaction. He hypothesized that as the level of education increases emotional intelligence also increased hence more marital satisfaction. This study was conducted among academic members of Rafsanjani University of Medical Sciences. 122 participants were chosen for the study by filling enrich marital satisfaction questionnaire. Regarding the type of the research, which was descriptive, Pearson and Spearman correlation co-efficiency and also the T test were used. The moderately satisfied rate in this study was 68% and the total emotional intelligence score was 337. There was no statistical significance between education, emotional intelligence and marital satisfaction (P<.05).

Madanian , Syed , Abdul (2012) studied on education advancement among international married students when faced with a new context, experience new marital concerns, but the study is limited to exploring marital satisfaction factors for various populations. By criterion purposive and snowballing sampling, 10 Iranian female students who were temporary residents at University Technology Malaysia (UTM) were selected. Data were collected by semi- structure interview. By utilizing a qualitative approach (Inductive thematic analysis) four themes were


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emerged from the data. These themes orderly revealed that financial issues, intimacy, commitment and children were significant factors that influence the level of marital satisfaction for Iranian female students in Malaysia and not education level of participants. The qualitative research pointed out that when the afore mentioned factors play out, the couples become nervous and subsequently tend to have more marital problems and dissatisfaction. Tucker and O’Grady (2004) also reported on a discussion of educational attainment level and marital satisfaction in their study. They investigated factors related to marital satisfaction, including attractiveness, education level, and age at marriage. Using American undergraduates to rate 8 marriages on a 15-item Likert scale, they found that subjects judged similarities in education levels to be an important determinant in whether the couple was likely to have a satisfying marriage. An important aspect of this study was that people of higher education levels were only seen as having more satisfying marriages if the education level was commensurate with that of their spouse. Lower-educated couples were also judged as having satisfying marriages, as long as they were similarly matched in level of education. (Bradbury, Fincham, Beach 2000) related the level of education of marriage enrichment information and marital satisfaction, where 1,234 marriage people undergoing marriage enrichment programme were given questionnaires to fill. The members then compared with another group who were not attending to any form of marriage therapy. The resultant information was that there was a strong relationship between marital education and marital satisfaction. The previous research was unique since it findings could be generalized to many participants since the sample size was bigger than the current research. The previous research reported findings on spouses who were on marriage enrichment programme. Therefore, the current research has filled gaps by creating literature not only in spouses who are in marriage enrichment programme but to spouses not only in that programme. Humoud (2010) did a research to examine whether a marital enhancement program could make any change in the marital satisfaction of Kuwaiti couples

in Kuwait. Participants were 62 married couples (16 couples in the experimental group; 16 couples in the control group) — their marital duration ranging from one year to thirty-one years. The study concluded that the marriage enrichment program in the SDO of Kuwait has had a significant positive effect on marital communication and marital adjustment immediately following the enrichment experience. Nivischi (2009) studied education as one of the factors that affect marital satisfaction among black Jamaicans and African Americans living in the United States. The purpose of this previous study of was to investigate among other factors education and marital satisfaction. The factors investigated included the effects of age, gender, educational attainment, social support, and religion on the marital satisfaction of these two groups. One of the hypotheses for this previous study was that there is no relative significance between education and marital satisfaction. A Multinomial Logistic Regression analysis investigated the second research question and hypothesis that no predictive relationship existed between marital satisfaction ethnicity with age, gender, and educational attainment. Findings indicated that age, gender, and educational attainment level were significant predictors of marital satisfaction (p<0.05). Tampieri (2010) examined how education affects decisions hence job and marital satisfaction among British couples. He build up a model with educational assortative matching where individuals decided whether to attend university both for obtaining job satisfaction and for increasing the probability to be matched with an educated partner. The analysis was based on the sub-sample of men and women aged between 23 and 65 years and total interviews of 10, 000 personal interviews. The theoretical results suggested that, as assortative matching increases, the proportion of marital satisfaction increases. For educated individuals, job satisfaction falls and marital satisfaction increases. The model was tested using the British Household Panel Survey where longitudinal analysis was carried out for years 2003-2006. The empirical findings supported the theoretical results that as education level of individuals increased, job satisfaction decreased and marital satisfaction increased.


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Mahin , Sidek , Noah, Siti, Hassan, Maznah (2012) did a research for the purpose of examining the effects as a result of educational level and conflict resolution skills training on marital satisfaction among Iranian couples based on prepare-enrich program. In this study, marital satisfaction was measured by enrich Marital Satisfaction. The methodology of this study was experimental method; with pre-test, post-test, and control group design. Purposive sampling was conducted to select the sample that was included 54 couples who were consisted of all couples referred to the researcher by counseling centers. The referrals were done for about two months in 2009. These couples were randomly assigned to an experimental and a control group as well. The dependent variables were marital satisfaction, and the independent variables were communication and conflict resolution skills training. Consequently, the results indicated that communication and conflict resolution skills training improved marital satisfaction due to education (p<.05). Moreover, the results showed that communication and conflict resolution training was effective in martial satisfaction in post-test (p<.05). In conclusion the findings of this study indicated that the on prepare-enrich program can be effective in improving marital satisfaction among Iranian couples. Cohen (2004) researched on the aspect and the purpose of his study was to determine the significance between educational enrich advice, marital expectations, and marital satisfaction. Included in this study were husbands (n= 56) and wives (n= 56) who had been married less than one year and were classified as newlyweds. The relationship between education sources of information and expectations was found to be highly significant for variables related to family satisfaction. It was also found that a high percentage of couples gather information from informal sources rather than from more formal methods such as premarital education classes and premarital therapy. Expectations were found to be moderately to highly significant determinants of marital satisfaction. Michelle (2013) has examined the association between educational attainment in married individuals, and her research examined the role of partner attachment by comparing educational attainment in predicting marital satisfaction. The study included 2

longitudinal studies of 207 newlywed marriages and findings revealed that new education attainment did not demonstrate marital satisfaction but rather attachment anxiety interacted to predict marital satisfaction or dissatisfaction. Dinah , Ireri, Tumuti (2012) reported on existing professional services for young people especially in developing countries educated by the local situation on marriage for them to be effective in marriage. The study aimed at identifying sources of relationship guidance and education, young people’s fears and reasons for marriage and relationship to marital satisfaction. And the hypothesis was that there was no significant relationship between relationship education guidance and marital satisfaction. 65 young Christians in Nairobi with an average age of 25.23 (sd.4.38) completed a self-report questionnaire. Results indicated that the participants relied mainly on friends for relationship guidance and education were not satisfied in their marriages. Social emotional benefits, especially companionship, were the major motivation for young people to marry. Infidelity and divorce were the main sources of fear of marriage. Mahdieh, Mohammad, Nakhaee (2014) reported on the impact of premarital education and effectiveness of marital stability. The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of the new education programs with the classic one. 351 women were divided into two premarital education groups: classic education and new education in prior to marriage education. The mental health, quality of life, marital satisfaction, and sexual satisfaction of women were evaluated one year after marriage. At one-year follow up, both groups showed improvement in mental health; however physical health-related quality of life decreased in both groups. The two groups showed no significant difference in terms of sexual satisfaction and marital satisfaction. Marital satisfaction showed significant correlation with sexual satisfaction and not education aspects. Ernest et al (2012) examined the relationship between education and age in order to compare which variable had more weight and impact in marital satisfaction. Imhonde , Oyaziwo , Ifunanyachukwu, 2008) studied effective communication, education determinants of marital status satisfaction among newly wedded

http://scialert.net/asci/author.php?author=Henry%20O.%20Imhonde&last=

http://scialert.net/asci/author.php?author=Oyaziwo%20Aluede&last=

http://scialert.net/asci/author.php?author=N.R.%20Ifunanyachukwu&last=


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couples in a Nigerian University. A total of 150 (80 males and 70 females) selected from married students and staff of Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma participated in the study. The study used a questionnaire comprising the demographic variables, dyadic adjustment scale and communication scale was used to test the hypotheses. There was a main effect of communication on marital satisfaction. Though there was an interaction effect of age and communication on marital satisfaction. There was also no statistical significant differences across the three religion studied. This study results showed that education had a significant relationship with marital satisfaction.

Mahdieh et al (2014) examined on the level of education and marital satisfaction interns of effectiveness of premarital Education Programme in Iran. The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of the new program with the classic one. The study included 331 women who were divided into two premarital education groups: classic education and new education. The mental health, quality of life, marital satisfaction, and sexual satisfaction of women were evaluated one year after marriage. Results showed that at one-year follow-up, both groups showed improvement in mental health to the level of premarital education P<0.05. The two groups showed no significant difference in terms of sexual satisfaction and marital satisfaction. Marital satisfaction showed significant correlation with sexual satisfaction. The new program of premarital education showed no superiority over the classic. Tampieri (2010) examined how higher education aspects job and marital satisfaction. He build up a model with assortative matching where individuals decide whether to attend university both for obtaining job satisfaction and for increasing the probability to be matched with an educated partner. The model was tested by using the British Household Panel Survey data for the years 2003-2006. Findings supported the theoretical results and therefore, the implication was that that couples with similar education levels had higher marital satisfaction due to assortative matching. Alder (2010) examined education and marital satisfaction where the purpose of her study was to

determine whether there is a relationship between marital satisfaction (as measured by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale; Spanier, 1976) and the independent variables of age, education level, and courtship length (parsed into pre- and post-engagement periods). The participants were Africans but now living in United States of America (N = 60) who were required to complete surveys online regarding their experiences in their marriages. This research was approved by the institutional review board of Pacific University in February 2009. Results indicated that there was not a statistically significant relationship between marital satisfaction, and education level. Anim (2011) study set out to examine how much distress men and women experience in their marital relationships, and whether or not education level is associated with marital distress and serenity in Ghana. This was done by using the Marital Happiness Scale, and a questionnaire that measured demographic characteristics, as measuring instruments. 4 research questions were formulated and 4 hypotheses were tested. They covered the differences that exist in the marital distress experiences among husbands and wives, and differences in education and their impact on marital distress. A total of eighty (80) married men and women comprising 40 husbands and 40 wives were conveniently and purposively selected to take part in the study. Descriptive statistics and t- Tests were used to analyze the data to bring out differences and to determine associations among variables. The findings showed that there were no significant differences between husbands and wives of low education and those of high education in their distress. Those with high education were not less distressed than those with low education. METHODOLOGY The study was done in Kisii township is a town located to the south east of Lake Victoria and is bordered by six counties with Narok to the south, Migori to the west, Homa Bay to the north west, Kisumu to the north, Bomet to the south east and Nyamira to the east. The researcher employed a cross sectional descriptive survey design to examine the phenomenon under investigation. Cross sectional survey design was be used since


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unlike longitudinal survey design where we have a long experience with the field , the researcher had limited period to accomplish the study . And although cross sectional survey design was used conclusions were only made at only one time. The researcher utilized both qualitative and qualitative approaches approximately where descriptive, statistical and exploratory styles were be used. All in all the design used was triangulation which enriched the information received. The target population comprised of all the married spouses in Kisii Township in Kisii County. There are approximately 4019 spouses according to 2009 census in Kisii Township of Kisii County. Due to limited time and the vast majority of the households the researcher did not get data from all the married spouses in Kisii Township. There are approximately 4,019 spouses (source 2009 census). According to Gay (2006), a sample of 5% of the total population is a good representative of the target population for populations that are between 4001 to 10, 000 to ensure homogeneity, size and accuracy. Therefore the study utilized 200 respondents as per the principle above. Table 1.1 gives the full criteria for the selection of the subjects

Insert Table 1.1 here The Study obtained data from the field using a questionnaire as the main instrument. Self -administered questionnaires were used to collect information from spouses on personal data under study. Closed ended questions were be used because they were faster to code and score for analysis thus consistency of responses across the respondents. Open ended questions were be used to give respondents an open room to give their views of the phenomenon under study. The researcher administered the instruments of data collection to 50 respondents outside the locale of the study .This administration of the questionnaires at this level ensured that the questionnaires were understood. Vague questions were rectified. Content validity was maintained by re- examining the questions to ensured they capture the needed data. The research peers, research experts evaluated all aspects such that the instruments focused on the

required information. Construct validity ensured that the instruments obtained the anticipated view, attitudes and perceptions on the subject under research. The researcher administered the instruments to 20 respondents outside the locale of the study. This was done to ensure that the instruments are understood. Administering them outside the of the study will ensure that Hawthorne effect does not occur. After the administration of the instruments vague statements will be discarded. Also those statements that did not capture the right constructs of the study were discarded. The exercise was be supervised all through by the research peers and research experts. Data analysis was done by both qualitative and quantitative approaches appropriately The following data analysis procedure was used.

(a) Edit of the data on a regular basis which sorted out anomalies in the data in regard to completeness , coherence and checking of contradiction.

(b) Coding the data into themes and sub themes where similar responses were grouped together.

(c) Availing the similarities and differences within the coded data was done by the researcher.

(d) Interpretation of the data and deducting of meaning of the data.

(e) Summary, discussion, conclusions and recommendations from the data.

Statistical calculation was done to establish percentages and the mean using the formula. Frequency X 100 = % M

Insert Table 1.2 here Thus the best predictor of MS was time spent with the spouse i.e. quality time. Thus it was clear that majority of them were present but absentee spouses. This was compounded more given the same also engaged more in social media e.g. face book and lacked the ability to solve marital problems.

Insert Table 1.3 here Couples were analyzed thematically on reasons that account for their satisfaction. It was evident that spouses majorly consider care for the family, 55.5%, religion 55.5%, commitment 51.8%, spouse being understanding 44.4%, trust and love 33.3% each, children 25.9% and others 14.8%.


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As such the strongest predictor of the reasons that made spouses get satisfied with marriage was care for the family and religion.

Insert Table-1.4 here Another underlying factor that measured marital satisfaction was asked and top on the list was spouse being unfaithful by 25.0%, 18.3% illiteracy/low education, mistrust 18.3%, violence related factors 15.0%, spouse unreliability/dishonest 11.6% and other factors 8.3%. The number of married people who have tried marriage more than once stood at 30% (60 people). All the above factors given are pertinent issues when addressing issues why couples remain or quit marriages as Kitson (1990) suggests that dissatisfaction that end in divorce begin in a process before the marriage the actual divorce or separation. Generally, are you satisfied with your marriage? Of the 200 respondents, 150 (75.0%) said Yes, 39 (19.5%) said No, 9 (4.5%) were undecided and 2 (1.0%) did not respond. (Figure 1.1)

Insert Figure 1.1 here According to the findings above, despite challenges in their marriages 75% were generally satisfied, 19.5% were not generally satisfied, 4.5% were undecided and 1% had no response. RECOMMENDATIONS Therapists should teach couples the balance between too much office works or work at home at the expense of marital stability.

1. Religious leaders, marital therapists, parents and stakeholders in marital issues should counsel on the significance of family care and religion on marital; stability and satisfaction.

2. Couples should be taught on marital mistrust and illiteracy as it makes couples separate or divorce.

3. Couples should be counseled on marital self awareness since majorities were generally satisfied but on the other hand they had deep marital problems they went through.

REFERENCES

Alder, E. S. (2010). Age, Education Level, and Length of Courtship in Relation to Marital Satisfaction. (Master's thesis, Pacific University). Alfons, V. (2007). Do demographics affect marital satisfaction? Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 33, 73-85. Anim M. T (2011). Level of education and marital distress in Ghanaian married couples. Published PhD Thesis, University of Cape Coast, Ghana. Booth (2004). Age at marriage and marital instability. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47(1), 67-75. Agha Mohammad HP, Mokhtaree MR, Sayadi AR, Nazer M, Mosavi SA (2012) Study of Emotional Intelligence and Marital Satisfaction in Academic Members of Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences. Journal of Psychology & Psychotherapy; 2:106, pages 245-255. Bradbury, T. Fincham, F. & Beach, S. (2000). Research on the nature and determinants of marital satisfaction: A decade in review. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 954-980. Booth, A. & Edwards, J. N. (2004). Age at marriage and marital instability. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 47(1), 67-75. Bumpass (2007). Differentials in marital instability: 1970. American

Sociological Review, 37(12), 754-766. Cohen, S. (2004). Social relationships and health.

American Psychologist, 59(8), 676-684. Gay L.R (2006). Educational Research: Competencies

for Analysis and Application, 3rd (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill Publishing Company, 101

Golzari Jafarzadeh, F, M.; Poursamar, S. L.; Sahraeian

K. (2014). Comparison of education and marital satisfaction level in infertile women. Journal of Jahrom University of Medical Sciences; Vol. 11, pages 56-64.


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Gorchoff SM, John OP, Helson R (2008). Contextualizing change in marital satisfaction during middle- age: An 18-year longitudinal study. Psychological Science. 2008; 19:1194–1200.

Heaton, T. B. (2002). Factors contributing to increasing

marital stability in the United States.Journal of Family Issues, 23(3), 392-409.

Humoud Alqashan (2010). Enrichment Training

Program and Successful Marriage in Kuwait: a Field Study on Kuwaiti Couples. 16 MAR 2010

Kitson G.C and Morgan L.A. (1999). “The Multiple

Consequences of Divorce: A Decade Review. Journal of Marriage and the family 52: 913-924.

Madanian Latifehossadat, Syed Mohamed Shafeq

Syed Mansor, Abdul Hafidz bin Omar (2012). Marital satisfaction of Iranian female students in Malaysia: a qualitative study. 3rd World Conference on Psychology, Counseling and Guidance.

Mcshefferey Eliszabeth (2014). Married for 80 years

and still in love. Saturday nation, 30th August 2014, Pg 3.

Nivischi Ngozi, Edwards (2009). Marital satisfaction:

Factors for black Jamaicans and African Americans living in the United States.

Michelle J (2013). Communication Patterns and

Marital Satisfaction of Couples when Wives are Undergoing Initial Cycles of Chemotherapy for Metastatic Breast Cancer. Alliant International University, California School of Professional Psychology, San Diego

Onyishi Ernest I, Piotr S, Agnieszka S, Nathan

Pipitone (2012). Children and marital satisfaction in a non-Western sample: having more children increases marital satisfaction among the Igbo people of Nigeria. Journal of human behavior and society; Volume 33, Issue 6, Pages 771–774.

Owuamanam T O. The Nigerian Journal Of Guidance And Counseling Vol. 7 (1) 2000: pp. 110-120. Age at Marriage, Religion and Marital Satisfaction among Igbo People in Imo State.

Rezaee, Neia A. K & Ariri, M. (2013). A social work

study on the effect of family life education on marital satisfaction of women attending in Isfahan Counseling Centers. Management Science Letters, 3(6), 1565-1570.

Tampieri, Alessandro. (2010). Higher Education Effects

in Job and Marital Satisfaction: Theory and Evidence. University of Leicester, UK Working Paper No. 10/07.

http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Jennifer+Michelle+Filek-Vitkay%22


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Table 1.1: Population sampling table

Table 1.2: Others Factors Influencing Marital Satisfaction

Strongly Satisfied

Satisfied No Idea

Dissatisfied Strongly Dissatisfied

Mean Rank

Ability to solve marital problems. 60 40 2 50 43 3.5 2 Using family money or finances. 30 40 4 54 72 3.0 3 Faithfulness in sexual matters. 10 10 3 70 107 2.5 5 Length of time he/she stays at home.

15 16 4 66 101 2.5 5

Attention to family matters. 18 20 2 64 96 2.7 4 Time spent on social media e.g. face book.

62 38 1 46 53 3.5 2

Time spent on reading at home. 12 14 3 61 110 2.4 5 Time spent doing office work at home

64 38 1 48 49 3.6 1

How he/she handles children, e.g. care, discipline,

12 12 4 62 110 2.4 5

Major issues that influence MS were time spent doing office work at home (M=3.6), time spent on social media (M=3.5) and ability to solve marital problems (M=3.5).

Size of population Percentage of sampling

0-100 100%

101-1000 10%

1001- 5000 5%

5001- 10,000 3%

10,000+ 1%


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Table 1.3: Reasons for Being Satisfied with Marriage

Factor Frequency Percent

Commitment by the spouse. 14 51.8 Love from the spouse. 09 33.3 Religion. 15 55.5 Spouse being understanding. 12 44.4 Spouse being caring for family. 15 55.5 Trusted spouse. 09 33.3 Children. 07 25.9

Others. 04 14.8

Table 1.4: Reasons for Quitting Previous Marriages

Frequency Percent

Illiterate couple/low education 11 18.3 Spouse being unfaithful. 15 25 Violence-related factors. 09 15 Spouse unreliable/dishonest. 07 11.6 Mistrust among couples 11 18.3 Others 05 8.3

Total 60 100

Figure 1.1: Proportion (%) of spouses satisfied with their marriages

Yes, 75

No, 19.5

Undecided, 4.5

No response, 1


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ISSN: 2313-6758

Volume 3, Issue 7

July, 2015

Pages: 349-364

This study focuses on evaluating whether companies in Nigeria incorporate environmental practices that are environmentally friendly in line with Green accounting concepts. The main objective of this study was to examine companies’ environmental practices so as to determine if they are environmentally friendly. The source of data for this study was primary data obtained with the aid of a questionnaire and the statistical tool employed is the Mann-Whiteny U test. The results of the analysis revealed that majority of the respondents agree that environmental cost accounting impact positively on profitability and success of the manufacturing firms. It was also found that environmental cost accounting impact positively on profitability and success of the manufacturing firms. The finding further revealed that majority of the respondents concur that manufacturing firms incorporates practices that are environmentally friendly in line with green accounting concepts as to enhance sustainable development, it was found that manufacturing firms incorporates practices that are environmentally friendly in line with Green accounting concepts as to enhance sustainable development.

Keywords: Manufacturing firms, Green accounting, Environmental cost accounting, Sustainable development, Profitability,

*Ijeoma, Ngozi Blessing

Evaluation of Companies Environmental Practices in Nigeria

Department of Accountancy, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka-Nigeria.


Companies Environmental Practices Ijeoma

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INTRODUCTION

The past two decades has highlighted the need for responsible environmental management for companies across the globe. Many companies now recognize that long-term economic growth must be environmentally sustainable. Environmental concerns play a significant role in the formulation of corporate strategy; thus, environmental economists have been engaged in continuous development of both appropriate accounting systems and reliable estimates of environmental damages. Consequently, environmental management accounting (EMA) has attracted increasing attention leading to the enactment of environmental regulations requiring management to become more conscious of the environmental implications of virtually every decision facing their companies. Indeed government mandates for environmentally responsible behavior have been enacted in virtually all countries. Limits of traditional financial and cost accounting methods to reflect efforts of organizations towards sustainability and to provide management with information needed to make sustainable business decisions are well documented in scholarly research. These decisions include selecting among proposed capital expenditures, and making better pricing and product mix decisions by uncovering the real costs including environmental costs of various products and processes. These decisions require information about costs and benefits that have often not previously been collected. Environmental cost accounting information is useful in improving a number of business decisions. This study examines the current practices in environmental cost accounting and future needs. Despite much progress, corporate costing systems fail to produce a true picture of environmental costs. In many parts of the world, companies are spending significantly on to checkmate environmental concerns like pollution; these costs mostly represent the most obvious and most easily measures environmental related costs. However, studies have shown that hidden costs may be greater. Hence, uncovering these hidden costs becomes a sine qua non since knowledge of them can provide significant opportunities for decision making and business planning. Countries with environmental accounting programs include Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Norway, Sweden, UK, US as well as Developing countries like Botswana Chile, Korea

Mexico, Moldova, Namibia, Philippines and South Africa with occasional studies in Colombia, Costa Rica, Eu-15, Indonesia, and South Africa. However, there has been little progress in developing a practical environmental accounting system that can be integrated with the national economic accounts. It is argued that the information generated from an environmental management accounting system might be of a financial nature perhaps facilitating the quantification of environmental costs or it might be provided in physical terms (such as the amount of electricity used within a particular process. Either way, the motivation for developing such a system would be to provide a foundation for an organization to improve both its environmental and financial performance. Betianu (2005), regretted that Information on environmental performance might be available to some extent but decision makers of internal company as well as those in public authorities are seldom able to link environmental information to economic variables and are crucially lacking environmental cost information. Also, much of the use of environmental accounts has been in industrialized countries, especially Europe, Australia, and Canada. There is grave need for environmental accounting systems in organizations to extend beyond conventional costs to include potentially hidden, future, contingent and image/ relationship costs. There is also need for companies to track environmental costs that result from their activities but for which they are not accountable, referred to as societal or external costs. The operational activities of manufacturing companies especially oil companies have caused an extensive hazard to the environment. This spans from destruction of wildlife and biodiversity pollution of air, water farmland to damage of the aquatic ecosystem. This has caused much health and economic problems to the inhabitants. Consequent upon this, responsible environmental management has become an important focus of companies throughout the world. This was followed up by enactment of series of environmental regulations. Government requires management to consider the environmental implications of virtually


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every decision facing their company. Environmental cost constitutes a subset of the cost of operating a business. This cost of managing the environment were formerly considered a social cost, an externally but regulations have resulted in internalization of some of these environmental externalities. With environmental externalities becoming internalized, a new cost emerges. If this new costs are not captured by the cost accounting system, product cost will not be accurate and this will not facilitate sound decision making on product pricing, product retention and product mix, continually cost and improving environmental. it seems that the magnitude of environmental performance costs are generally underestimated and their impact on product or process cost is often obscured through inaccurate overhead accounting. Betianu (2005) observed that companies are spending significant amount of money on pollution abatement and control. in most cases he said that these costs represent the most obvious and most easily measured environmentally related cost but it is only a top of an ice berg. he noted that hidden environmental cord may be greater than expenditures to pollution abstinent and control and uncovering these hidden cost can provide significant opportunities for decision making and business planning. One wonders whether these companies have a supportive corporate culture which forms the foundation for developing a successful environmental cost accounting system with capacity to capture this hidden cost. Betianu (2005), concluded that management of these companies are crucially lacking environmental cost information and that the decision makers are seldom able to make use of the extent available to link environmental information to economic variables. one is bordered that the scenario will consequently and make decision makers to fail to recognize the economic value of natural resources as assets and integrate environmental concern in decision making. There seems to be the risk of companies not been able to determine the impact of an environmental cost on net profit and conversion cost as dearth of environmental information will unable then to allocate embedded environmental cost to appropriate product or processes. Environmental accounting advocates the identification prioritization, quantification or

qualification and incorporation of environmental cost into business decision, including informing decision related to product mix, product retention and product pricing. This will be farfetched without formal schedules on the extent to which companies have developed their environmental cost accounting systems to track, control and report all environmental costs. It is also becomes important to examine if the use of environmental accounting in managerial decision making will enrich the quality of decision making and the application of full cost environmental accounting in firms. It is against this background that the present study has embedded. The main objective of this study is to examine companies’ environmental policies so as to determine if they are environmentally friendly in line with green accounting concepts. LITERATURE REVIEW Overview of Environment Sustainability in Nigeria Despite all efforts that has been made in Nigeria since the Rio Conference to address the core environmental issue; environmental degradation has remained the greatest problem in Nigeria. In addition, it has witnessed a high level of water and air pollution (oil spills, gas flaring) while efforts to reduce the rate of natural resources depletion and desertification is yet to yield significant results (Sada and Demerho, 1998). According to Worgu (2000), major oil spills and industrial waste disposal heavily contaminates marines shorelines, causing severe localized ecological damage to the near-shore community. The harmful efforts of these on the environment are many. These spillages and disposals destroy plants and animals in the estuarine zone. It settles on beaches and kills organisms and marine animals like fishes, crabs and other crustaceans. It endangers fish hatcheries in coastal waters and as well contaminates the flesh of commercially valuable fish. Oil spillages poison algae, disrupts major food chains and decreases the yield of edible crustaceans. Oil on water surface also interferes with gaseous interchange at the sea surface and the oxygen levels will thereby be lowered. This will in no doubt reduce the life span of marine animals. Nwankwo and Ifeadi (1988) noted that in a bid to clean oil spills by the use of oil dispersants, serious toxic effects will be exerted on plankton thereby


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poisoning marine animals. This can further lead to food poisoning and loss of lives. Another effect of oil spill is loss of economic resources to the government. When spilled, oil is not quickly recovered; it will be dispersed by the combined action of tides, wind and current. The oil will therefore spread into thin films, dissolve in water and undergo photochemical oxidation, which will lead to its decomposition. Successful business strategies depend on the quality and comprehensiveness of information available to decision-makers. In line with this, Betianu (2005) conceptualized an environmental management accounting system as a management accounting system that has been refined so as to enable users of the system to be provided with information that reflects the environmental performance of the organization. According to the United Nations Division for sustainable development, environmental management accounting simply means, “doing better, more comprehensive management accounting, while wearing an environmental hat that opens the eyes for hidden costs”. Boje (1999), explained that environmental accounting refers to the identification, prioritization, quantification or qualification, and incorporation of environmental costs into business decisions and falls into three types namely national income account (GDP and done using the Generally accepted accounting Principles (GAAP rules), financial accounting (reports used by lenders and investors or managerial accounting) for management decisions). The Institute of Management Accountants defines environmental accounting as the identification, measurement and allocation of environmental costs, the integration of these environmental costs into business decisions, and the subsequent communication of the information to a company’s stakeholders. Identification includes a broad examination of the impact of corporate products, services and activities on all corporate stakeholders. After companies identify the impacts on stakeholders as far as they can, they measure those impacts (costs and benefits) as precisely as possible in order to permit informed management decision-making. Measurements might be quantified in physical units or monetized equivalents. After their environmental impacts are identified and measured, companies develop reporting systems to inform internal and external decision makers. The amount

and type of information needed for management decisions will differ substantially from that required for external financial disclosures and for annual environmental reports. In its 2013 Annual environmental report, NEC noted that environmental accounting represents the costs (expenditures) and the effects (revenues) associated with the environmental activities and evaluating the results from economic viewpoints. The report listed the objectives of environmental accounting thus: Enhance cost awareness by evaluating the economic effects of environmental activities; Share the recognition of the importance of sustainable business development and use the results for revitalization and efficiency improvements in environmental activities; Use the information as part of the environmental information that is to be provided to the stakeholders; Use environmental accounting for improvements and reforms in the in- house operations. The basic concept on the implementation of environmental accounting comprises the following:

1. Scope of aggregation: domestic production hubs, design and development business sites, and major overseas production hubs.

2. Concept of cost calculation: cost here refers to the amount incurred over several terms of environmental conservation whose effects are sustained during those terms. Cost items that are generated for environmental conservation include: facility depreciation allowance and rental/ lease expenditure, personnel expenditure, running cost, maintenance management costs and other expenditures.

3. Concept of economic effects: economic effects can be viewed in two respects as saving results such as energy savings, resource savings and waste reduction or saving effects by reducing the cost while maintaining the quality of the activities. Further, economic effects are calculated in two ways: amount of energy purchased before the activity- Amount of energy purchased after the activity or assumed amount of energy purchased without the activity”- amount of energy purchased after the activity”.

Review on Environmental Accounting Environmental accounting also referred to as Green Accounting has different meanings and can be used in


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varied context. It is an inclusive field of accounting that provides reports for both internal use, generate environmental information to help make management decisions on pricing, controlling overhead and capital budgeting, and external use; disclosing environmental information of interest to the public and to the financial community. According to Steele and Powell (2002), environmental accounting is an aspect of accounting which has to do with the identification, allocation and analysis, of material streams and their related money flows by using environmental accounting systems to provide insight in environmental impacts and associated financial effects. In his contribution, Peskin (1989) viewed environmental accounting as a tool that can be employed to determine less tangible and external costs for projects and activities, such as bio-diversity, human health and aesthetic values. It is also aimed at broader issues such as implementing sustainable business practice to conserve natural resources for future generations. Bennett and James (1998) also viewed environmental accounting as the generation, analysis and use of financial and non financial information in order to optimize corporate environmental and economic performance and to achieve sustainable business. An important function of environmental accounting is to bring environmental cost to the attention of corporate stakeholders who may be able and motivated to identify ways of reducing or avoiding those costs while at the same time improving environmental quality (United State Environmental Protection Agency, 1995). According to the International Federation of Accounts (1998), environmental accounting is the management of environmental and economic performance through the development and implementation of appropriate environmental-related accounting systems and practices. While this may include reporting and auditing in some companies, environmental accounting typically involves life cycle costing, full-cost accounting, benefits assessment, and strategic planning for environmental management. Jasch (2003) viewed environmental management accounting as a combined approach which provides for the transition of data from financial accounting, cost accounting and material flow balances to increase material efficiency, reduce environmental impact, risk and reduce cost of environmental protection and this has a financial as well as physical component. Spicer

(1978) surveyed 125 listed manufacturing companies and analyzed the annual reports of these companies for the period. Findings from the study suggest firms' size as a factor influencing pollution control, as larger companies had better record than smaller firms. In line with this, Cowen et al. (1987) found that larger corporations tends to disclose more information because larger corporations are highly visible, make greater impact to the society, and have more shareholders who might be concerned with social activities undertaken by corporations. Ingram and Fraizer (1980) examined the association between the content of corporate environmental disclosure and corporate financial performance. The study was concerned with a lack of corporate social responsibility disclosures in annual reports due to their voluntary nature. The authors scored environmental disclosures in 20 pre-selected content categories along four dimensions; evidence, time, specificity, and theme. Ingram and Fraizer (1980) proxies environmental performance by a performance index devised by the Council on Economic Priorities (CEP), a non-profit organization specializing in the analysis of corporate social activities. Forty firms were selected from 50 firms that were monitored by CEP. Regression result indicated no association between environmental disclosure and environmental performance disclosures in annual reports. Corell and Shapiro (1987) relied on the corporate stakeholder theory to argue that the value of a firm depends on both the cost of explicit claims such as wage contracts and implicit claims e.g. environmental responsibility. More environmentally friendly firms and consequently, would be likely to achieve better financial performance. Mohamed (1999) investigated the effect of company size as indicated by firms assets and paid-up capital on corporate social environment accounting. Spicer (1978) suggested that firm size as factor influencing pollution cost control determination, as larger companies had better records in this regards than smaller firms. Manby (2003) studied Shell activities in Nigeria and corporate social responsibility and the Ogoni crisis. The study from its findings concludes that the level of corporate social responsibility in Ogoni-Land has been relative low compared with what they are getting from the area. Environmental accounting affects the company’s internal costs and encompasses costs to the society.


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Total quality Environmental management (TQEM supports continuous improvement of corporate environmental performance. Given the importance of accurate cost information in making decisions, the term environmental cost has been introduced into the vocabulary of environmental managers. During the environmental cost accounting cooperative benchmarking process, environmental costs was described severally as costs which have been incurred in order to comply with regulatory standards, costs which have been incurred in order to reduce or eliminate releases of hazardous substances, all other costs associated with corporate practices aimed at reducing environmental impacts and costs associated with not addressing these issues. It can therefore be deduced that:

1. Environmental costs are really a subset of the costs of operating a business

2. As environmental externalities become internalized, new costs emerge which must be captured by the cost accounting system so that product costs remain accurate enough to facilitate sound decision making.

3. The magnitude of environmental costs is greatly underestimated, and their impact on product or process costs is often obscured through inaccurate overhead accounting. Environmental costs are often hidden in overhead and underestimated.

4. Environmental cost information, like all cost information is only useful when there are decisions that are facilitated by knowing that information. Among the decisions that can be facilitated by environmental sot information is product costing. Product cost accuracy is not improved by defining costs already accurately assigned to products by the cost accounting system, regardless of whether they are called environmental. That is, the label environmental does not improve cost accuracy in this case but it may enable cost reduction of the product.

5. Many superior environmental projects are often not identified as environmental because they convey operating benefits as well pollution prevention projects which increase yields). Sometimes, the best environmental projects are not identified as environmental at all. Conversely, end of pipe treatments are

classified as environmental and are often accorded high priority by management, but may not represent the best solution to the problem. Thus, proactive environmental management often leads to higher non environments” costs and lower environmental costs.

6. Despite the existence of fledging environmental cost accounting systems, participating companies elide on techniques such as life cycle assessment and materials balancing, which do not require financial data. They claim that, in many cases, environmental cost information is less useful than non- financial, real-time measures of performance. Participating companies had difficulty providing environmental cost data relating to various types of environmental activities.

Decision-makers require precise information about the environmental costs of the Company’s products, processes and activities. The USA Environmental protection agency views environmental costs as dependent on utilization of information in a company and the environmental costs can include conventional costs (raw materials and energy costs with the environmental relevance); potentially hidden costs which are captured by the accounting system but then lose their identity in overheads. Hidden costs are environmental costs that may be potentially unrecognized by managers because of their infrequent/episodic nature or because of their collection in company overhead accounts; Hidden Cost refer to regulatory compliance or other costs that are “hidden” or lumped into a general account. According to the U.S. EPA, Potentially hidden costs result from among other factors activities undertaken to comply with environmental law. These hidden costs are obscured in overhead accounts, making it impossible for managers to manage them effectively. Examples of hidden costs are: compliance reporting; legal support; waste management; sampling and testing; and monitoring. Typically, environmental costs and associated opportunities are buried in various overhead accounts. By distorting costing and pricing across the business, this practice can result in poor investment and strategic decisions. On his part, Boje (1999) sees Environmental costs as costs relating to the use, release and regulation of materials in


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facility operations which comprises environmental management costs, opportunity costs, contingent costs and image costs. Environmental costs are categorized into waste and emission treatment, prevention and environmental management, material purchase value of non- product output, and processing costs of non- product output. Environmental costs are costs within internal management account or external financial accounts. Internal environmental costs are composed of direct costs, indirect costs and contingent costs. Direct costs are traceable to particular products, site, type of pollution or pollution prevention program; they are costs clearly and exclusively associated with a product or service and treated as such in cost accounting system while indirect costs include costs such as environmental training, research and development, record keeping and reporting. On the other hand, external costs are costs of environmental damage external to the firm; that is, all costs that are not accounted for as the direct costs of a particular process, system, product, of facility commonly polled and allocated on the basis of some formula or are not allocated at all. These externalities include environmental degradation for which firms are not legally liable. Whereas internal costs can usually be estimated and allocated using the standard costing models available to the firm, the monetary equivalent values of external costs can be assessed by the economic methods that determine the maximum amount that people would be willing to pay to avoid the damage, or the minimum amount of compensation that they would accept to incur. Given ever-changing environmental laws and the complexities of environmental management, proactive businesses recognize the need to integrate environmental considerations into decisions made throughout the organization. The challenge however lies in the identification and allocation of the environmental costs. Betianu (2005), warned that when environmental costs are not adequately allocated, cross subsidization occurs between products. In most cases, different products are made by different processes and each process tends to have a different environmental cost depending on the design of the process of production, and possible use of hazardous chemicals. As exemplified by Betianu (2005), in a facility with two processes, A and b that use the same number of direct labour hours for a

batch of product, process A, however uses hazardous chemicals while process B does not. The facility incurs environmental costs from the use of hazardous chemicals in a number of ways: specification and procurement of the chemical which includes evaluation of material safety data sheets; design of the process to minimize worker exposure; shipping costs associated with transporting hazardous chemicals; monitoring, reporting and permitting to meet applicable regulations, employee training in handling and emergency response; storage and disposal costs; and liability for the chemical from purchase to grave. While not all costs can be correctly and unambiguously identified, it is imperative to collect data relevant to decision makers as fully as possible. Full Environmental cost accounting refers to the addition of environmental cost information into existing cost accounting procedures and/ or recognizing embedded environmental costs and allocating them to appropriate products and processes. Full cost accounting is a term often used to describe desirable environmental accounting practices. It refers to the allocation of all direct and indirect costs to a product or product line for the purposes of inventory valuation, profitability analysis, and pricing decisions. Hence, full environmental cost accounting embodies the same concept as full cost accounting but highlights the environmental elements. Since the early 1990s, concerted efforts have been underway through the United Nations Statistics Division, the European Union, the OECD, the World Bank, country statistical offices, and other organizations to standardize the framework and methodologies. The Institute of Management Accountants in its 1996 report showed that methods are now available to measure, report and manage current and future environmental costs and opportunities adding that some management tools and techniques can help management isolate the sources and magnitude of previously hidden and misallocated environmental costs and facilitate better business decisions. A supportive corporate culture forms the foundation for developing a successful environmental cost accounting system. Companies like International refineries and Ciba- Geigy generate environmental cost data as part of the general ledger system.


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International refineries are addressing environmental cost accounting by identifying environmental costs through a coding system. Cida-Geigy on the other hand, describes the development of an environmental cost accounting system based on detailed overhead accounting; one which also incorporates standard cost variance analysis. This system will be useful in allocating environmental costs to the products and processes that cause them and isolating nonstandard cost performance where it occurs. In their study, Muller et al. (2011) imputes a price on air pollution emissions equal to marginal damages in order to measure the externalities from air pollution. Lange (2003) highlighted four main observations regarding how useful environmental accounts are for policy: 1. Although some countries are using the environmental accounts quite actively, the accounts are still underutilized, especially in developing countries 2. No country has truly comprehensive environmental accounts 3. International comparisons are important, but not yet possible because of differences in methodology, coverage, environmental standards, and other factors 4. For a country to fully assess its environmental impact, it must have; (a) Accounts for the trans-boundary movement into and out of the country of pollutants via air and water (b) Accounts for its major trading partners to calculate the pollution and material content of products that it imports. According to the Institute of management accountants, Organizations use environmental accounting: to help managers make decisions that will reduce or eliminate their environmental costs; to better track environmental costs that may have been previously obscured in overhead accounts or otherwise overlooked; to better understand the environmental costs and performance of processes and products for more accurate costing and pricing of products; to broaden and improve the investment analysis and appraisal process to include potential environmental impacts; and to support the development and operation of an overall environmental management system. Several studies in Europe have shown that the quantities of pollution exported and imported via air and water are very large; without accurate information about these

quantities, the use of environmental accounts for policy will be limited (Lange, 2003). Incorporating environmental considerations into decision-making throughout the organization requires the combined skills of multiple disciplines, including environmental managers, economists, engineers, operations managers’ planners, scientists, lawyers and management accountants. The management accountant has an important role to play on the corporate environmental team. The management accountant may help develop and implement better environmental analysis tools and techniques in several ways, such as: helping assess the need for new or modified management information and financial systems; developing or seeking capital investment and appraisal tools that more effectively incorporate environmental costs and benefits; isolating and computing individual environmental costs; helping resolve conflicts between environmental management and traditional financial management systems, such as those that occur in capital investment appraisal; considering the financial costs and risks associated with an investment or product/process design choice that will likely cause or increase pollution; helping improve methods for reallocating internal environmental costs to specific products and activities; training line personnel in environmental accounting reports and concepts, and in performing new procedures (e.g., coding) to implement environmental accounting processes and systems; working with other professionals in the organization to assess the potential costs of failing to undertake environmental initiatives; and offering expertise. Companies use a variety of tools and techniques in order to integrate environmental impacts into management decisions. This guideline focuses on three such management decision-making processes: costing analysis, investment analysis and performance evaluation. Costing Analysis Effective corporate environmental management is impossible without an adequate system to identify and measure environmental costs. Some of the tools and techniques that can help companies define the activities, processes and products that cause environmental costs are: allocation of environmental costs; life-cycle assessment; hierarchical cost analysis; activity-based costing; and quantification and


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monetization of externalities and full environmental cost accounting. Allocation of Environmental Costs It is generally agreed that, decades ago, the lack of understanding of the eventual environmental impacts of products and services and their related legal liabilities3 caused companies to ignore those impacts in their calculation of product costs. Remediation costs related to Superfund were caused decades ago, but are being incurred today. Thus, the products that caused those costs were under cost and probably underpriced. Companies must ensure that current costs include an estimate of total product costs, so that future generations of managers’ and products are not encumbered by those costs when they occur. METHODOLOGY AND MATERIALS Source of Data The data used in this study was obtained with the aid of a questionnaire randomly administered to 50 respondents from organizations in Nigeria Agricultural/Agro-Allied, Breweries, Chemical and paints, Health Care/pharmaceutical and Oil marketing companies in Rivers State, Nigeria. The researcher employed the purposive sampling technique in selecting respondents for the study. The rationale behind the use of the purposive sampling technique was due to the fact that the researcher wishes to target only accounting employee of the organizations. Out of the 50 questionnaires administered 46 were returned. Statistical Method The Mann-Whitney U test for Small sample size This is the non-parametric counterpart or equivalent of the independent sample t-test for equality of means. It is appropriate for use with independent samples designs and it is based on a statistic U which is linked to the sum of the ranks of each of the condition. When the number of observation is small and only two samples are available, the first thing that comes to mind would be to use the standard error-based t-test. But the t-test assumes that the populations from which the samples are taken should be normally distributed, which is not the case for survey instrument since the number of observations are small and have categorical responses; therefore,

the t-test cannot be used. Instead, the Mann-Whitney U test will be appropriate. The Mann-Whitney U test assumes that the samples are independent and from dissimilar populations. To determine the values of the U Statistic The computation of the U statistic will depend on the samples’ sizes.

The samples are small when 1

n and 2

n are both

smaller than 10. In that case,

The test statistic U will be the smallest of 1

U and

2U . If any or both of the sample sizes are greater

than 10, then U will be approximately normally distributed and we could use the Z transformation with

2

21 nn

12

)1( 2121

nnnn

Decision Rule: The decision rule is to reject the null hypothesis when the P-value is less or equal to the α=0.05, otherwise, accept the null hypothesis.

)1.....(....................2

)1(1

11211

nn

nnU

)2.....(....................2

)1(2

22212

nn

nnU

)3.........(........................................

UZ


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DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION Mann-Whitney Test on the Impact of Environmental Cost Accounting on Profitability and Success of Manufacturing H0: Environmental cost accounting does not impact positively on profitability and success of the manufacturing firms H1: Environmental cost accounting impact positively on profitability and success of the manufacturing firms

Insert Table 1,2&3 here Interpretation The result of the analysis presented in Table 1 found that majority of the respondents agree that environmental cost accounting impact positively on profitability and success of the manufacturing firms since option yes has the highest mean rank of 12.50 while option No has a mean rank of 4.50. Also found was a Mann-Whitney U test value of 0.00 which is clearly significant (U=P (0.00) <0.05). Hence, the P value of 0.00 is less than 0.05 and hence falls on the rejection region of the hypothesis (see Table 2 and Table 3). This result implies the rejection of the null hypothesis and we can conclude that there exist strong evidence of significant difference that environmental cost accounting impact positively on profitability and success of the manufacturing firms. Mann-Whitney Test on Whether Manufacturing Firms Incorporate Practices that are environmentally friendly H0: Manufacturing firms do not incorporate practices that are environmentally friendly in line with green accounting concepts as to enhance sustainable development H1: Manufacturing firms incorporates practices that are environmentally friendly in line with green accounting concepts as to enhance sustainable development

Insert Table 4,5&6 here Interpretation The result of the analysis presented in Table 4 found that majority of the respondents agree that manufacturing firms incorporates practices that are environmentally friendly in line with green accounting concepts as to enhance sustainable development since option yes has the highest mean rank of 27.97 while option No has a mean rank of 11.03. Also found was a Mann-Whitney U test value of

19.50 which is clearly significant (U=P (0.00) <0.05). Hence, the P value of 0.00 is less than 0.05 and hence falls on the rejection region of the hypothesis (see Table 5 and Table 6). This result implies the rejection of the null hypothesis and we can conclude that there exists strong evidence of significant difference that manufacturing firms incorporates practices that are environmentally friendly in line with green accounting concepts as to enhance sustainable development. CONCLUSION Environmental cost accounting is no doubt an important concept to imbibe for organization in Nigeria. This is because the protection of the environment from environmental waste by companies has been a welcome development in Nigeria though environmental policies have not yet been implemented in all departments of Nigeria organizations. The findings from this study revealed that majority of the respondents agree that environmental cost accounting impact positively on profitability and success of the manufacturing firms. It was also found that environmental cost accounting impact positively on profitability and success of the manufacturing firms. The finding further showed that majority of the respondents concur that manufacturing firms incorporates practices that are environmentally friendly in line with green accounting concepts as to enhance sustainable development, it was found that manufacturing firms incorporates practices that are environmentally friendly in line with green accounting concepts as to enhance sustainable development. From the result of the findings the researcher concludes that environmental cost accounting is expected to help firms on awareness of environmentally responsible to its operating community. Environmental cost accounting will also help companies in summarizing environmental activities report of the business area location. The disclosure of a company's environmental information and performance practice will bring about good environmental sustenance and aid in improving the company's relationship with its host community.


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Environmental cost accounting will also help firms in proper management of risk created as a result of the company's operation. RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of the present study, the following recommendation was made; 1. Government and environmental regulatory agencies should also encourage organizational managers on the need to embrace environmentally friendly practices in order to restore and guarantee a conflict free corporate atmosphere needed by managers and workers for maximum productivity. More so, funds expended in settling disputes could be applied to enhance corporate liquidity while management is able to plan better and make decisions when it is not engrossed in disputes. 2. Standard setting bodies should introduce a standard framework/guideline for the mandatory disclosure of corporate environmental information. This effort will yield to a great extent a higher level of environmental disclosures by Nigeria organizations. Also, standard setting bodies should set up guiding principles or accounting standards in order to improve the financial and non-financial environmental disclosures of listed companies. 3. The researcher advocate for adequate steps/efforts to be in place to encourage companies to imbibe the culture of corporate environmental audit. This process (corporate environmental audits) systematically assesses how well a company's environmental management practices conform to environmental sustainability goals and help diffuse waste green production practices through the organization. REFERENCES Bennett, M. & James, P. (1998). The Green Bottom Line, In Bennett, M & James, P. (Eds.), Environmental Accounting for Management: Current Practice and Future Trends, Sheffield: Greenleaf Publishers Ltd.

Betianu, L. (2005). Environmental management accounting-an essential component of business strategy, in vol. International Conference. The Impact of European Intergration on the National Economy, organized by "babes Bolyai" University of Cluj Napoca, Faculty of Economics and Business

Administration, Publishing House Risoprint, Cluj, pp. 277-284.

Boje, D. M. (1999). What are Green Accounting Concepts and Measures?. http://cbae.nmsu.edu/-dboje/sto.html.

Correll, B. & Shapiro, A. (1987). Corporate Stakeholders and Corporate Finance. Financial Management, 16, pp. 5-14.

Cowen, S.S., Ferari, L.B., and Parker, L.D. (1987). The Impact of Corporate Characteristics on Social Responsibility Disclosure, Accounting, Organizations and Society, 2(2): 111-122.

Ingram, R. W. & Frazier, K. B. (1980). Environmental Performance and Corporate Disclosure. Journal of Accounting Research, 18(2): 614-622.

International Federation of Accountants (1998). International Guidelines on Environmental Management Accounting: Exposure Draft, New York.

Jasch, C. (2003). The use of Environmental Management Accounting for Identifying Environmental Costs. Journal of Cleaner Production, 11, pp. 16.

Lang, G. (2003). Policy Applications of Environmental Accounting. The World Bank Environment Department, And Environmental Economics Series Paper No 88.

Manby, B. (2003). Shell in Nigeria. Corporate Social Responsibility in the Ogoni Crisis: Case study for the Carnegie Council and Ethics on International Affairs. Retrieved on December 3, 2013, from http://www.scf.usc.edu/~cstern/Shell%20Nigeria%20Case.pdf

Mohammed, J. (1999). Corporate Social Environmental in Malaysia: The Current State of the Art and Future Prospects. Accountant Today, May 2004, pp. 24-31.

Muller, N. Z., Mendelsohn, R. & Nordhaus, W. (2011). Environmental Accounting for Pollution in the United States Economy. American Economic Review, 101(5): 1649-1675.


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Nwankwo, N. & Ifeadi, C. N. (1988). Case Studies of Environmental Impact of Oil Production, In Sada, P. O. and Odemerho, F. O. (Eds) Environmental Issues and Management in Nigerian Development. Ibadan, Evans Brothers.

Peskin, H. M. (1989). A Proposed Environmental Accounts Framework, In Ahmad, Y. J., Serafy, S. E, and Lutz, E. (Eds) Environmental Accounting for Sustainable Development, Washington, DC the World Bank.

Sada, P. O. & Odemerho, F. O. (1998). Environmental Management and Development, Introduction of the main issues, In Sada, P. O. and Odemerho, F. O. (Eds) Environmental Issues and Management in Nigerian Development. Ibadan, Evans Brothers.

Spicer, B. H. (1978). Accounting for Corporate Social Performance: Some Problems and Issues, Journal of Contemporary Business, Winter, pp. 151-170.

Steele, A. P. & Powell, J. R. (2002). Environmental Accounting : Applications for Local Authorities to Quantify Internal and External Costs of Alternative Waste Management Strategies. Environmental Management Accounting Network Europe, Fifth Annual Conference, Gloucestershire Business School, 11/12 February.

United States Environmental Protection Agency (1995). An Introduction to Environmental Accounting as a Business Management Tool: Key Concepts and Terms, (EPA 742-R-95 001 June).

Worgu, S. O. (2000). Hydrocarbon Exploitation, Environmental Degradation and poverty in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Presented in lund Iniversity, LUMES program.


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Table 1: Ranks

Option_A N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

Response_A Yes 8 12.50 100.00

No 8 4.50 36.00

Total 16

Table 2: Test Statisticsb

Response_A

Mann-Whitney U .000

Wilcoxon W 36.000

Z -3.386

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .001

Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)] .000a

a. Not corrected for ties.

b. Grouping Variable: Option_A

Table-3 Summary of Hypothesis Test on positive impact of environmental cost accounting in the manufacturing

Firms


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Table 4: Ranks

Option_B N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks

Response_B Yes 19 27.97 531.50

No 19 11.03 209.50

Total 38

Table 5: Test Statisticsb

Response_B

Mann-Whitney U 19.500

Wilcoxon W 209.500

Z -4.711

Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .000

Exact Sig. [2*(1-tailed Sig.)] .000a

a. Not corrected for ties.

b. Grouping Variable: Option_B

Table-6

Summary of Hypothesis Test on Whether Manufacturing Firms Incorporate Practices that are environmentally friendly


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APPENDIX

Sample of Questionnaire and Responses

Section A

S/No. Question Yes No

1 Does better environmental cost accounting lead to better understanding of what particular product produce?

28 18

2 Will environmental cost accounting be of help to company on how to adjust product mix to maximize overall profitability?

44 2

3 Better understanding of environmental cost structures will lead engineers and managers to make more cost effective choices in treating and disposing waste

44 2

4 Better understanding of current environmental cost as well as that of prospective alternative will result in better capital expenditure decisions

36 10

5 Better understanding of environmental cost will enable decision makers see that their by-product can be used as inputs to other companies and co-locate with these companies

34 12

6 Understanding the cost of involving in public relations/lobbying and the cost of not participating in them will help decision makers rationalize the level of investment to be made.

30 16

7 Environmental cost information is useful for improving the management performance evaluation process

30 16

8 Better understanding of environmental cost will help manger make better decision on communities' relation problem that may lead to future cost if no resolve.

30 16

Section B

S/No. Question Yes No

1 Does your environmental cost accounting assign the proper current cost to the correct product for profit determination and inventory valuation?

35 11

2 Do you report usage and emission of the following to the government to determine duty payments e.g. (a) Water i.e. the fee to extract it from the ground and fee to dispose it. (b) Air emission i.e. monitoring and duty payment (fees and offences). (c) Soil i.e. the cost of soil analyses and duty payments?

26 20

3 Do you allocate the cost of the waste water treatment on each product according to loading and volume?

23 23


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4 Do you facilitate reporting by tracking kilos of production with cost? 16 30

5 Do you capture maintenance cost expenses incurred as a result of preventive and corrective maintenance for ecological assets and allocate product or process

28 18

6 Do you separate environmental cost from operating cost? 26 20

7 Do you relate environmental cost to financial information using your management information system?

35 11

8 Does environmentally related depreciation separated from depreciation of non-environmental assets and allocated to product or process?

26 20

9 Does it provide management with support for controlling and managing cost?

26 20

10 Does your system address issues regarding environmental cost by instituting an improve cost accounting system that accurately associates such cost with each product?

36 10

11 Does your system define responsibility and accountability? 36 10

12 Does it account for environmental cost at the location and level where individuals are responsible for them and can make decision to manage them?

30 16

13 Has your system been able to improve reporting capability for shareholders?

30 16

14 Does it provide additional details to management about health safety and environmental expenditures

31 15

15 Does it provide standardized approach to health safety and environmental data?

36 10

16 Does your system have the capability to track and define all expenditure related to health safety or environmental project?

34 12

17 Does it track penalties and fine imposed by regulatory bodies 29 17

18 Does your system have the ability to distinguish recurring cost from no-recurring cost?

29 17

19 Does your system allow data to be continuously available so that expenditure can be instantly tracked by category?

31 15


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ISSN: 2313-6758

Volume 3, Issue 7

July, 2015

Pages: 365-382

This study examined the need for team building composition amongst health worker in Nigeria. The objective of this study was to measure the resemblance on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition in two health facilities in Nigeria. The source of data for this study was questionnaire administered randomly to a sample of 200 health workers in Anambra State and a sample of 305 health workers in Delta State. The statistical tools employed include the Mantel test statistic, the Quade test Statistic and descriptive statistic. The findings of the Mantel test analysis showed that the knowledge and factors affecting team building composition between health workers in Anambra State and Delta State has a weak negative resemblance. The Quade test showed that responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Anambra State and Delta State vary significantly. It was found that health workers in Anambra State have little knowledge of team building composition and can barely identify factors affecting team building composition in their health facility.

Keywords: Team building, Health, Mantel test, Quade test, Knowledge, factors,

*Aronu, C. O.1

Okoli, C. N.2

Ogbogbo, G. A.3

Stressing the Need for Team Building Composition

amongst Health Workers in Nigeria

1&2. Department of Statistics, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli Campus-Nigeria 3. Department of Statistics, Delta State Polytechnic, Otefe-Oghara, Nigeria

Email for correspondence: co_aronu.ansu.edu.ng

Team Building Composition Aronu et al

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INTRODUCTION

A team can be referred to as a group that has a task to execute, whether as paid participants or as volunteers. It is a group that is expected to gain cohesiveness overtime and the team’s strength can be found in the relationships among the team members. It is a group with a common objective, whose members are very clear about working towards a purpose; a group whose members are interdependent. Whereas other groups may recognize the strengths of each member, team members often rely on the strengths of each member to accomplish the objective. Nazzaro and Strazzabosco (2009) explained that a team is a group that has spent some time together, whether in smaller increments over a long period of time, or by spending a weekend or more working together on something. In basic terms, a team can be defined as a small number of people, with a set of performance goals, who have a commitment to a common purpose and an approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable (Katzenbach & Smith 1993). This definition suggests that teams must be of a manageable size and that all team members must be committed to reach team goals. Furthermore, the team members must be jointly accountable for their actions and the outcomes of these actions. Put simply, efficient team performance requires a balance between autonomy and decentralization of power on one hand, for the sake of both motivation and flexibility, and centralized control on the other hand, for the sake of coordination and predictability (Argote & McGrath 1993). According to Salas et al. (2008), team processes describe subtle aspects of interaction and patterns of organizing that transform input into output in an establishment. This includes communication, co-ordination, cohesion, decision-making, conflict management, social relationships and performance feedback. World Health Organization (2012) reported that in the healthcare sector there are different types of teams; these include labor and delivery units, primary health care teams, intensive care units, teams assembled for a specific task such as an emergency response team or inter-professional teams such as multidisciplinary cancer care team. The following, (a) clear goals; (b) decision making authority; (c) accountability and responsibility; (d) effective leadership; (e) training and development; (f) resources; (g) organizational support; and (h) rewards for team success which embraces both critical

elements of teams and enabling factors can facilitate the successful implementation of teams (Harvey et al., 1998). Clear goals Goals should be specific enough to enable the team steer a direction. A clear protocol describing the responsibilities of each member and the responsibilities which are shared amongst members of a team becomes a precious tool for all. A goal should also state the ends, rather than the means. This gives teams the freedom to work out how best to achieve the goal (Carr, 1992). Associated with providing clear goals is the development of meaningful and acceptable performance measures so that the team members can feel confident in their own achievements. Decision making authority Teams require decision making authority and, therefore, a certain level of empowerment is required in order to carry out their work efficiently. Without this authority they would need to get approval for their ideas and these ideas may be rejected before they are either proven or not proven. For innovation to occur, teams must be allowed to experiment and explore. However, to avoid costly mistakes, it is appropriate to give teams this authority within certain boundaries. It may also be necessary to hand over authority on a gradual basis so that team members are not overwhelmed by their newly-acquired authority (Brower, 1995). People are able to empower themselves through a clear focus and the removal of the sense of fear in what they do (Wilson, 1996). Accountability and responsibility If teams are to enjoy decision making authority, they must also be prepared to be accountable and responsible for their actions. This does not suggest that some failures are not permitted. It does suggest that teams need to monitor customer expectations and also their own performance. If their goals are not being met or customer expectations are not being satisfied, then their approach and methods will need some adjustment (Brower, 1995). The acceptance of accountability and responsibility is also associated with the establishment of a positive and productive set of group norms. Work teams can behave similarly


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to adults in a family environment by developing norms that improve cohesion of the group (Wilson 1996). Such norms may include sensibility, responsibility, supporting each other, and having fun. Effective leadership Managers and supervisors who become team leaders experience a significant change of role. Team leaders do not direct or control work, but instead work as coaches and mentors (Carr, 1992). Effective communication, leadership and consulting skills will be required which may necessitate training and development. Team leaders concerned with a loss of power need to understand that their new role is pertinent to the success of the teams, and that their knowledge is required now more than ever. The issue is not about the erosion of power, but a shift in the source of power from legitimate to knowledge based (Robbins, 1998). Training and development The previous paragraph highlighted the importance of training for team leaders. However, most, if not all, team members are likely to require training (IRS Employment Review, 1995). Employees may need to learn new skills such as budgeting, computing, public relations and marketing, as well as skills which allow them to work together effectively, such as effective communication, confliction resolution and problem solving. Training and development are enabling factors that allow team members and leaders to take on new responsibilities. Where team members possess inadequate work skills and knowledge, teams are less likely to succeed. Resources To guarantee effectiveness of team, teams must have access to resources. These resources can include money, time, equipment, technology, people and information (Robbins, 1998). Provision of resources requires trust on the part of the organization and responsibility on the part of the team members. Like authority, resources should not, and cannot, be unlimited and should perhaps be given to employees gradually (Brower, 1995). Organizational support Teams cannot operate without the support and commitment of middle and upper management

(Brower, 1995). Therefore, changes must be initiated by those from the top of the organizational hierarchy, rather than those on the shop floor. Any improvements that result from a shop floor initiative may be seen as management incompetence and are not likely to be supported by management (Field & Swift, 1996). A nurturing environment with a collaborative climate provides the support and encouragement that teams need for job performance (Margulies & Kleiner, 1995). Rewards for team success An emphasis on individual rewards undermines the effectiveness of team-based work and encourages team members to strive for individual performance goals that may not be congruent with the goals of the team. A team-based reward system should reward employees for teamwork and contributions to team success. One example of such a system is a gain sharing plan whereby ideas that are successful and profitable result in the entire team being rewarded (Margulies & Kleiner, 1995; Harvey et al., 1998). A problem that may occur with team-based rewards is the problem of social loafing. This occurs when the efforts of one or more members of the team decreases and is more likely to occur in teams that are excessively large (Bettenhausen, 1991; Robbins, 1998). Where team-based rewards are used, social loafers are rewarded similarly to other team members who are responsible for the group performance. This is not an argument for a reward system based on individual efforts, but rather an argument for the necessity of team-based discipline to accompany the team-based reward system. An ideal team has a number of distinct characteristics, and they fall into three areas: their feedback and communication behaviors, their behavior and conduct courtesies, and their ways of approaching tasks and problems.

1. Feedback and communication behaviors of a team describes how the members interact with one another, clarify their expectations, and react to each other’s ideas and offer their perceptions and contribute their opinion. In an ideal team, the members:

(a) Ask for help from other members when it is

needed and do not waste precious time struggling alone;


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(b) Give positive comments to each other

regularly and often, because they know it motivates teammates;

(c) Give negative observations when necessary, but do it constructively;

(d) Receive negative observations from another member without becoming defensive, because they know the comments are not meant to be insulting, but are meant to help the team accomplish its goals;

(e) Support other team members in times of crisis;

(f) Offer help to others when their own work is

completed.

2. Behavior and conduct courtesies explain the protocols which members of the team agreed to as a responsibility of being a member of the team. In an ideal team, the members:

(a) Are ambassadors of that team, and represent the team, not just themselves;

(b) Remain open-minded and receptive to all ideas, ideas which might be different from their own;

(c) Give another member time to get his idea out, and paraphrase the idea to assure they understand the intended message;

(d) Take turns speaking and encourage full participation by all members;

(e) Do not have side conversations during a discussion, because participants might miss something important (and because it is disrespectful of the others);

(f) Stay focused on the task at hand, and do not engage in distracting behaviors;

(g) Call a time-out if they feel another member’s behavior is disruptive;

(h) Make the team meeting a priority so that attendance is consistent;

(i) Begin and end meetings on time, so members can use their time most efficiently;

(j) Obtain closure on topics and get a decision;

(k) Summarize and clarify the meeting at the end.

3. Ways of approaching tasks and problems by the team. In an ideal team, the members:

(a) Accept every problem as a team problem, not one belonging only to one member;

(b) Determine the action items that any decision requires, or think through how to carry out decisions;

(c) Share failures as a team, never blaming only one or two members;

(d) Look at failures as a way to improve the team functioning, because we can always learn something from failure;

(e) Share all information, so that everyone is working from the same body of information;

(f) Use consensus for major decisions, which results in finding the most acceptable decision for everyone, as opposed to voting, in which there are clear winners and losers;

(g) Stay focused on the purpose of the team, which is to accomplish something together.

Team building composition can be defined as interventions designed to improve effectiveness in working together by confronting and resolving problems. Team building composition is a specific intervention to address issues relating to the development of interpersonal relations, improved productivity or better alignment with organizational goals. Tierney (2002) defined team building as a process by which members of a group diagnose how they work together and plan changes which improve their effectiveness. Team building represents a varied concept for different professional groups with a


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common agreement that team building is a process aimed at improving the performance of a group. Team processes describe subtle aspects of interaction and patterns of organizing that transform input into output. Team processes can be described in terms of seven characteristics; coordination, communication, cohesion, decision making, conflict management, social relationships and performance feedback (Mickan and Rodger, 2000). Teams require the right number of members with the appropriate mix and diversity of task and interpersonal skills. A balance between homogeneity and heterogeneity of members’ skills, interests and backgrounds is preferred (Hackman, 1990). Team building is a new concept used in business circles and amongst business executives to stimulate work teams. Its objective is to build team spirit, team synergy or to consolidate teams. Developed at the beginning of the 1980’s in the United States, team building has become the most popular group and leadership training approach in both Europe and North America. The majority of middle and large businesses use this type of activity at one time or another (Phaneuf, 2007). Homogenous teams are composed of similar individuals who complete tasks efficiently with minimal conflict. In contrast, heterogeneous teams incorporate membership diversity and therefore facilitate innovation and problem solving. Healthcare teams are often large, due to norms of professional representation, regardless of contribution to patient care. In the healthcare sector, human resources for health have been defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as those who promote and preserve health as well as those who diagnose and treat diseases. Also included are health management and support workers who help to make the health system functional but do not provide health services directly. This definition includes the medical doctors, nurses, nutritionists, psychologists, social health workers, health record keepers, administrators and security personnel, among others. Oandasan et al. (2006) defined a team as a collection of individuals who are interdependent in their tasks, who share responsibility for outcomes, who see themselves and who are seen by others as intact social entity embedded in one or larger social system and who manage their relationships across organization borders. Health professionals perception as to whether or not they belong to a team varies as in

some cases these professionals see themselves as working in uni-professional teams ( for example a nursing team) while others see themselves as inter-professional team working in institutionally based teams such as a stroke team comprised of a range of professionals. Speaking on the impact of inter-professional teambuilding, Coster et al. (2008) noted that attitudes of undergraduate’s health profession post-course evaluation after 4 years showed that 61% of the participants rated the course to be very beneficial. They also added that ratings of contacts among participants was high immediately after training and declined over the four years period. Gallangher et al., (2010) in their contribution on knowledge and attitudes towards the healthcare team reported that there exists a significant difference in knowledge areas with increase in awareness of community agencies that provide healthcare services, increase in awareness of the skills and strengths of other healthcare team members and increase in the amount of experience from working with other healthcare professionals. Kvarnstrom (2008) using qualitative analysis observed that majority of the primary care organizations in England and Wales identified the need to develop a strategic approach of inter-professional teamwork, to meet educational needs of primary care professionals, for fruitful alignment of objectives to be rewarding for participants. Mickan and Rodger (2000) noted that the ability to trust originates from self-knowledge and competence. Trust must be slowly built up across team members who have different competencies, assumptions and priorities, through developing confidence in each other’s competence and reliability. Trusting individuals are willing to share their knowledge and skills without fear of being diminished or exploited. They added that self-knowledge and an ability to trust others are the building blocks of commitment. Commitment to a unified set of team goals and values provides direction and motivation for individual members. Healthcare teams generate commitment through a shared goal of comprehensive patient care and a common belief that the team is the best way to deliver this coordinated care. Committed individuals are more willing to invest personally in the team, contribute to the decision making and respect the balance of interdependence and collaboration.


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The steps in a team building process Team building is a process of change which requires certain steps for its fulfillment:

i. The first step is to recognize the current situation and to reflect on what the team is experiencing.

ii. The next step is to identify what is functional and what needs to be improved.

iii. This enables one to arrive at a more formal

manner at a diagnosis. The team should ask itself where they are as far as team spirit is concerned and their objectives of work sharing. It is a step to the observation of the existent reality.

iv. Then follows the stage of questioning to

get a feel of where the other team members wish to go, what they wish to accomplish together. Bearing in mind that it is important not to go astray in theoretical discussions.

v. The next step is to gird ourselves for action

where the team decides what specifically needs to be done

Speaking on the challenges of team building composition, Ogbimi & Adebamowo (2006) explained that the problem of poor inter-professional collaboration is seriously threatening the expected outcomes of team building in the healthcare sector as corroborated by a survey of doctors and nurses working in four university teaching hospitals in Southern Nigeria with results that nurse-doctor working relationships were significantly statistically affected by poor social interaction, staff shortages, activist unionism, disregard for ones profession and hospital management and government policies. They added that team building training is the set of tools and methods that form an instructional strategy, which provide team members with the opportunities to practice skills and receive feedback in a rich learning environment. Team building composition comes to life when available tools (for example, team task analysis, performance measurement or task simulation and exercises), delivery methods (for example information, demonstration or practice-

based) and content (for example knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSAs)) are combined. Process intervention activities are designed to assist individuals and groups to examine, diagnose, and act upon their behavior and interpersonal relationships. The ideal end results of these activities are improved team attitudes and effectiveness. Team building consists of four components: goal setting, interpersonal relationships, role clarifications and problem-solving (Salas et al., 2008). The need for team building among health disciplines is crucial to patient care, team morale and administrative efficiency has been supported in numerous Medicine, Nursing and public health journals (Hope, et al., 2005, Oandasan et al., 2006). This study aims to measure the resemblance on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition between health workers in Anambra state and Delta State. Also, to address the need for training of healthcare workers on team building composition among healthcare workers in Nigeria for quality healthcare and to advocate for enhanced inter-professional team building for effective teamwork in order to contribute in developing formal inter-professional education programmes for healthcare workers in Nigeria. MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY Data Collection Data used for this study was generated using questionnaire administered randomly to a sample of 200 workers at Nnamdi Azikiwe University Teaching Hospital, Nnewi-Anambra State and a sample of 305 workers at the Federal Medical Centre, Asaba, Delta State from a population size of 402 workers and 1288 workers respectively using the Yamene’s sample Size formula (Yamene, 1967). The sample includes workers from departments such as Community Medicine, Internal Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Surgery, Paediatrics, General Medical practice, Nursing, Pharmacy, Institute of Human Virology of Nigeria, Medical Laboratory, Nutrition and Dietetics, and Administration of the two health facilities. Simple Mantel Test The mantel test is a permutation technique that estimates the resemblance between two proximity matrices computed about the same object. The matrices must be of the same rank, but not necessarily


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symmetric, though from practice this is often the case. The Mantel technique was first introduced as a solution to the epidemiological question where interest is on whether case of diseases that occurred close in space also tends to be close on time. Legendre (2000) explained that multivariate tables of observations are usually condensed into resemblance matrices among any sampling unit of interest computed using proximity measure; in this present study the canonical measure was used as a measure as was displayed by the DA (distance over objects of group A) and DB (distance over objects of group B). Hence, the technique was used to compare matrix of spatial distances in a generalized regression approach by (Mantel, 1967). Since (Mantel & Valand, 1970), the Mantel test has always included any conceivable proximity matrices (Hubert & Schultz, 1976, Aronu & Ebuh, 2013, Aronu et al., 2013a).

Letting ij

dA andij

dB represent the distance

observational units i and j as derived from the

observations for variables Aand B , where, AD =

ij

dA and BD =

ij

dB denote the corresponding

nn distance matrices. The normalized Mantel statistic, defined as the product – moment coefficient

between distance matrices AD and BD , is

(1)

Where denotes the double summation over i

and j which ranges from one to n and i < j by

symmetry of AD and BD , and Ad and Bd are

means of distances derived from the Aand B raw data respectively.

The testing procedure is given as stated by (Aronu et al., 2013b);

1. Considering two symmetric resemblance

matrices (similarities) A and B , of size ( nn), whose rows and columns correspond to the

same set of objects. Compute the Pearson correlation (alternatively, the spearman correlation) between the corresponding objects of the upper-triangular (or lower-triangular) portions of these matrices, obtaining the mantel correlation (often called the

standardized Mantel statistic) ABrM

,

which will be used as the reference value in test.

2. Permute at random the rows and corresponding columns of one of the matrices,

say A , obtaining a permuted matrix *A . This procedure is called ‘matrix permutation’.

3. Compute the standardized Mantel statistic

BArM

* between matrices *A and B ,

obtaining a value *M

r of the test statistic under

permutation. 4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 a large number of times

to obtain the distribution of *M

r under

permutation; then, add the reference value

ABrM

to the distribution.

5. For a one – tailed test involving the upper tail

(i.e., H 1+: distances in matrices A and B are positively correlated), calculate the probability

(p – value) as the proportion of values *M

r

greater than or equal to ABrM

. For a test

in the lower tail, the probability is the

proportion of values *M

r smaller than or equal

to ABrM

.

Note that for symmetric distance matrices, only the upper (or lower) triangular portions are used in the calculations while for non symmetric matrices, the upper and lower triangular portions are included. The main diagonal elements need not be included in the calculation, but their inclusion does not change the p- value of the test statistic. The Quade Test Quade test is a nonparametric test statistic for performing multiple comparisons (Quade, 1979;

22BddBAddA

BddBAddAABr

ijij

ijij

M


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Trawinski et al., 2012). The Quade test is an extension of Wilcoxon signed ranks test to be applied for several samples. The Quade test (Quade, 1979; Conover, 1999) has a similar design than the Friedman test, but the test statistic is somewhat different. This test statistic take into account the fact that some observations are more difficult or that the differences registered on the run of various algorithms over them are larger (Derrac et al., 2011). This implies that the rankings computed on each observation could be scaled depending on the differences observed in the algorithms performed, obtaining as a result; a weighted ranking analysis of the sample result. Concurring with the argument above, (Auranen, 2002) explained that in the Quade test statistic, the sample range is also accounted for which makes the different blocks more comparable with each other if there are huge variations between blocks. The Quade test has one additional assumption to those of the Friedman test: the sample range may be determined within each block, so that the blocks may be ranked. In the framework of this study, the randomized complete block design would be applied so that the number of blocks equals the number of subjects and the number of observations, or treatments within the block, equal the number of the comparable situations. As the Quade test uses weighted rankings, it compensates fairly well the effects that are caused by the different options patterns of different items/questions.

Suppose ),,,( 21 ikii XXX are mutually independent

k-variate random variables, that are referred to as blocks, i= 1, 2, ... , n. The k variations may depend on each other and are called treatments (Trawinski et al., 2012; Derrac et al., 2011). The effects of the responses can be tested using the Quade test procedure stated below. 2.3.1 Procedure for calculating the Quade test

1. Suppose there are n sample ranges, one for each block

2. Ranks are also assigned to the blocks according to the sample ranges, so that the block with the smallest range gets the rank 1, second smallest rank 2, and finally the block having the largest range, gets the rank n.

3. If the ranks obtained in (2) above are

),,,( 21 nQQQ respectively. The block rank iQ is

multiplied by a difference between the rank within block i, )( ijXR , and the average rank

within blocks, 2

)1( k .

4. ijS which represents the relative size of each

observation within the block adjusted to reflect the relative significance of the block in which it appears is given as;

)]2

1()([

kXRQS ijiij

(2)

5. jS denotes the sum for each treatment:

n

i

ijj SS1

, for j= 1, 2, ... , k.

6. Hence, the test statistic for Quade test is of the form

BA

BnTQ

)1(

(3)

Where the terms A and B are

n

i

k

j

ijSA1 1

2and

k

j

jSn

B1

21

7. Note that if A=B, the point is considered to be in the critical region and the P-value should be

calculated as

1

!

1

n

k([14]).

Decision Rule The decision rule is reject the null hypothesis when the P-value is less or equal to the α=0.05, otherwise, accept the null hypothesis.

Data Presentation (See Appendix for Table 1 and Table 2)


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ANALYSIS AND RESULT

Mantel Analysis on the knowledge and factors affecting team building composition between health workers in Anambra and Delta State Research Hypothesis is stated as H01: There is no significant difference on the knowledge and factors affecting team building composition between health workers in Anambra and Delta States H11: There is significant difference on the knowledge and factors affecting team building composition between health workers in Anambra and Delta States

Inputting the data in Table 1 and Table 2 on R 2.13.0 command window; (Dalgaard, 2002), where Agreefacility1, Undecidedfacility1, Disagreefacility1, and Notapplicablefacility1 are objects of matrix A; these are responses obtained from Anambra State workers (see Table 1) while Agreefacility2, Undecidedfacility2, Disagreefacility2, and Notapplicablefacility2 are objects of matrix B; these are responses obtained from workers of Delta State (see Table 2).

R> Agreefacility1=c(30, 25, 31, 20, 127, 120, 27, 26, 30)

R>Undecidedfacility1=c(120, 150,119, 130, 43, 50, 148, 149, 145)

R >Disagreefacility1=c(0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0)

R >Notapplicablefacility1=c(50, 25, 50, 50, 30, 30, 25, 25, 25)

R >Agreefacility2=c(280, 291, 250, 275, 292, 294, 256, 250, 261)

R >Undecidedfacility2=c(20,9, 50, 30, 8, 6, 44, 50, 39)

R >Disagreefacility2=c(0, 2, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 2)

R >Notapplicablefacility2=c(5, 3, 4, 5, 5, 4, 5, 5, 3)

R >A=matrix(c(Agreefacility1, Undecidedfacility1, Disagreefacility1, Notapplicablefacility1), nrow= 4, byrow=TRUE)

R >B=matrix(c(Agreefacility2, Undecidedfacility2, Disagreefacility2, Notapplicablefacility2), nrow= 4, byrow=TRUE)

R >DA=dist.quant(A, method = 1)

R >DB=dist.quant(B, method = 1)

Below is the elements of distance matrices DA which contains objects of matrix A on a class distances based on the canonical measure (method =1). Where the result displayed by DA expressed that the distance between Agreefacility1 (1) and Undecidedfacility1 (2) is 313.8790; Agreefacility1 (1) and Disagreefacility1 (3) is 188.9974; Agreefacility1 (1) and Notapplicablefacility1 (4) is 138.5641; Undecidedfacility1 (2) and Disagreefacility1 (3) is 370.7290; Undecidedfacility1 (2) and Notapplicablefacility1 (4) is 277.7769; Disagreefacility1 (3) and Notapplicablefacility1 (4) is 108.6278.

R > DA

1 2 3

2 313.8790

3 188.9974 370.7290

4 138.5641 277.7769 108.6278

Similarly, below are the elements of distance matrices DB which contains objects of matrix B on a class distances based on the canonical measure (method =1). Where the result displayed by DB expressed that the distance between Agreefacility2 (1) and Undecidedfacility2 (2) is 313.8790; Agreefacility2 (1) and Disagreefacility2 (3) is 188.9974; Agreefacility2 (1) and Notapplicablefacility2 (4) is 138.5641; Undecidedfacility2 (2) and Disagreefacility2 (3) is 370.7290; Undecidedfacility2 (2) and Notapplicablefacility2 (4) is 277.7769; Disagreefacility2 (3) and Notapplicablefacility2 (4) is 108.6278.

R > DB

1 2 3

2 738.22558

3 815.95159 98.20387

4 805.01180 88.63972 12.04159


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The mantel.rtest function was used to perform the mantel test for 10000 permutations, where “nrept” represents the number of permutations;

R > mantel.rtest(DA, DB, nrepet = 10000)

Monte-Carlo test

Observation: -0.1772934

Call: mantel.rtest(m1 = DA, m2 = DB, nrepet = 10000)

Based on 10000 replicates

Simulated p-value: 0.5465453

Quade Test Analysis on responses of knowledge and factors affecting team building amongst health workers in Anambra State H02: There is no significant difference on responses of knowledge and factors affecting team building amongst health workers in Anambra State H12: There is significant difference on responses of knowledge and factors affecting team building amongst health workers in Anambra State

The R-programming 2.13.0 listing of code for Quade test analysis for testing the equality of responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Anambra State is written as (where “Anambraresponse” represents responses on items of Questionnaire for health workers in Anambra State);

R>Anambra response =matrix(c(30, 120, 0, 50, 25, 150, 0, 25, 31, 119, 0, 50, 20, 130, 0, 50, 127, 43, 0, 30, 120, 50, 0, 30, 27, 148, 0, 25, 26, 149, 0, 25, 30, 145, 0, 25), nrow=9, byrow=TRUE)

R >quade.test(Anambraresponse)

The Quade test result for “Anambraresponse” is presented below as given;

Quade test data: Anambraresponse Quade F = 18.0857, num df = 3, denom df = 24, p-value = 2.361e-06

Quade Test Analysis on responses of knowledge and factors affecting team building amongst health workers in Delta State H03: There is no significant difference on responses of knowledge and factors affecting team building amongst health workers in Delta State H13: There is significant difference on responses of knowledge and factors affecting team building amongst health workers in Delta State

The R-programming 2.13.0 listing of code for Quade test analysis for testing the equality of responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Delta State is written as (where “Deltaresponse” represents responses on items of Questionnaire for health workers in Delta State);

R >Deltaresponse=matrix(c(280, 20, 0, 5, 291, 9, 2, 3, 250, 50, 1, 4, 275, 30, 0, 5, 292, 8, 0, 5, 294, 6, 1, 4, 256, 44, 0, 5, 250, 50, 0, 5, 261, 39, 2, 3), nrow=9, byrow=TRUE)

R >quade.test(Deltaresponse)

The Quade test result for “Deltaresponse” is presented below as given;

Quade test data: Deltaresponse Quade F = 30, num df = 3, denom df = 24, p-value = 2.741e-08

Insert Figure-1 here DISCUSSION From the result obtained, it was observed that there exists a weak negative resemblance on the knowledge and factors affecting team building composition in Anambra State and Delta State with an association of -17.73% which on the mantel.rtest function result was indicated as observation = -0.1773 and a P-value of 0.55 which falls on the acceptance region of the hypothesis assuming a significance level of 5% (α = 0.05); this implies that there is no significant difference on the knowledge and factors affecting team building composition in the two health facilities. Hence, the null hypothesis was accepted since p-value = 0.55 is


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greater than α=0.05 assuming a 95% confidence interval level. The result of the Quade test analysis for testing the equality of responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Anambra State showed that there is a significant difference on responses of knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Anambra State since the Quade F statistic measure was obtained as 18.09 and a p-value of 0.00, which falls on the rejection region of the hypothesis. Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected

since the p-value= 0.00 05.0 , assuming a 95% confidence interval. This result implies that responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Anambra State vary significantly.

The result of the Quade test analysis for testing the equality of responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Delta State showed that there is a significant difference on responses of knowledge and factors affecting team building amongst health workers in Delta State since the Quade F statistic measure was obtained as 30 and a p-value of 0.00, which falls on the rejection region of the hypothesis. Hence, the null hypothesis was rejected since the p-

value= 0.00 05.0 , assuming a 95% confidence interval. This result implies that responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Delta State vary significantly.

From the graphical display in Figure 1, it was found that majority of the health workers in Delta State have knowledge of teambuilding composition and can identify factors affecting team building composition in their facility. This is true because greater percentage of the respondents in Delta State agree on the items while responses from workers in Anambra State range from undecided to not applicable. Hence, we can deduce from the result that health workers at Delta State have better knowledge of team building composition and can identify factors affecting team building composition in their facility than health workers at Anambra State.

CONCLUSION

This study examined the need for team building composition amongst health workers in Nigeria. Team building composition is no doubt an intervention that is designed to help improve effectiveness in working together by facing and solving problems. The major interest of team building composition is to address issues relating to the development of interpersonal relations, improved productivity or better alignment with organizational goals. The findings of the Mantel test analysis showed that the knowledge and factors affecting team building composition between workers of Anambra State and Delta State has weak negative resemblance. The Quade test result revealed that responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Anambra State vary significantly. Also, the result further revealed that responses on knowledge and factors affecting team building composition amongst health workers in Delta State are significantly different. It was found that majority of the health workers in Delta State have knowledge and can identify the factors affecting team building composition in their facility than health workers at Anambra State. This result implies that workers in Anambra State has less knowledge of team building composition unlike health workers in Delta state who have been implementing the approach of team building composition. Since it was found that health workers in Anambra State have little knowledge of team building composition and can barely identify factors affecting team building composition in their health facility, the researcher suggests that the management of health sector in Anambra State should encourage the practice of team building by either sponsoring the training of staff on team building or organising seminars that to the practice of team building composition thereby keying into the benefits of team building composition which includes achieving cohesiveness, improving team attitude, effectiveness and enhanced productivity.

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APPENDIX

Table-1 Distribution Responses on knowledge and Factors affecting Team Building from Workers in Anambra State

S/No. Question Agree Undecided Disagree Not Applicable

1 Team building could be defined as the process of helping a work group becomes more efficient in accomplishing its tasks and in satisfying the needs of the group members

30 (15%)

120 (60%) 0 (0%) 50 (25%)

2 Inter-professional team building means purposeful activities bringing members of different professionals / departments together as a team

25 (12.5%)

150 (75%) 0 (0%) 25 (12.5%)

3 The following Case /care management, Clinical knowledge, Management knowledge Organisational goals and strategies, Organisational politics, Roles of team members, Self-awareness, Team development, Understanding of individual persons, are the knowledge competencies that a member of inter-professional healthcare team should possess to be effective

31 (15.5%)

119 (59.5%) 0 (0%) 50 (25%)

4 Will team building events and activities result in benefits to your department/ organisation

20 (10%)

130 (65%) 0 (0%) 50 (25%)

5 Will you participate in an inter-professional team building activities/ training if you have an opportunity

127 (63.5%)

43 (21.5%) 0 (0%) 30 (15%)

6 Will you recommend inter-professional team building activities/ training to your department’s professionals to improve working/ interpersonal relationships

120 (60%)

50 (25%) 0 (0%) 30 (15%)


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with professionals of other departments

7 The factors that affect team building are: Practice level factors which may be individual professional factors, Organizational level factors like style of management and Systemic factors like policy of government

27 (13.5%)

148 (74%) 0 (0%) 25 (12.5%)

8 The factors that make a team effective are Team structure /size , Recognition, Managing the team ,Ability to perform ,Accountability ,Temperament, Managing stress, Creating the environment ,Defined Common purpose, Measureable goals Goals/Objectives, Effective Leadership, Good Cohesion/ commitment to team , Mutual respect and Effective communication.

26 (13%)

149 (74.5%) 0 (0%) 25 (12.5%)

9 Factors that act as barriers to effective team work are: Larger team size, Difficulty in combining responsibility for residents in-training professionals and clinical obligations to patient-care, Absenteeism from meetings, Disorganized teams, Too little time for team building ,Unwillingness to accommodate fellow member, Policy of government, and Organizational management style like fund-holding practice.

30 (15%)

145 (72.5%) 0 (0%) 25 (12.5%)


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Table-2 Distribution Responses on knowledge, attitude and Factors affecting Team Building from Workers in Delta

State

S/No. Question Agree Undecided Disagree Not Applicable

1 Team building could be defined as the process of helping a work group becomes more efficient in accomplishing its tasks and in satisfying the needs of the group members

280 (91.80%)

20 (6.55%) 0 (0%) 5 (1.63%)

2 Inter-professional team building means purposeful activities bringing members of different professionals / departments together as a team

291 (95.40%)

9 (2.95%) 2 (0.65%) 3 (0.98%)

3 The following Case /care management, Clinical knowledge, Management knowledge Organisational goals and strategies, Organisational politics, Roles of team members, Self-awareness, Team development, Understanding of individual persons, are the knowledge competencies that a member of inter-professional healthcare team should possess to be effective

250 (81.96%)

50 (16.39%) 1 (0.32%) 4 (1.31%)

4 Will team building events and activities result in benefits to your department/ organisation

275 (90.16%)

30 (9.88%) 0 (0%) 5 (1.63%)

5 Will you participate in an inter-professional team building activities/ training if you have an opportunity

292 (95.73%)

8 (2.62%) 0 (0%) 5 (1.63%)

6 Will you recommend inter-professional team building activities/ training to your department’s professionals to improve working/ interpersonal relationships with professionals of other departments

294 (96.39%)

6 (1.96%) 1 (0.32%) 4 (1.31%)


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7 The factors that affect team building are: Practice level factors which may be individual professional factors, Organizational level factors like style of management and Systemic factors like policy of government

256 (83.93%)

44 (14.42%) 0 (0%) 5 (1.63%)

8 The factors that make a team effective are Team structure /size , Recognition, Managing the team ,Ability to perform ,Accountability ,Temperament, Managing stress, Creating the environment ,Defined Common purpose, Measureable goals Goals/Objectives, Effective Leadership, Good Cohesion/ commitment to team , Mutual respect and Effective communication.

250 (81.96%)

50 (16.39%) 0 (0%) 5 (1.63%)

9 Factors that act as barriers to effective team work are: Larger team size, Difficulty in combining responsibility for residents in-training professionals and clinical obligations to patient-care, Absenteeism from meetings, Disorganized teams, Too little time for team building ,Unwillingness to accommodate fellow member, Policy of government, and Organizational management style like fund-holding practice.

261 (85.57%)

39 (12.78%) 2 (0.65%) 3 (0.98%)


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Figure-1: Percentage Distribution of Responses for Health workers in Delta State and Anambra State on Team Building Composition

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