t9: soils, water & environment research
DESCRIPTION
Prof. Dr. Aly I. N. AbdelAal, Director of Soils, Water & Environment Research Institute (SWERI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Ministry of Agriculture and land Reclamation, Land and Water Days in Near East & North Africa, 15-18 December 2013, Amman, JordanTRANSCRIPT
عليها ” انزلنا فاذا هامدة االرض وترىكل من وانبتت وربت اهتزت الماء
بهيج “زوجالعظيم الله صدق
Prof. Dr. Aly I. N. AbdelAalDirector of
Soils, Water & Environment Research Institute (SWERI),Agricultural Research Center (ARC)
Ministry of Agriculture and land Reclamation,El-Gammaa St. Giza, Egypt
Loc
atio
n o
f E
gypt
Egypt is the global heart
• Egypt forms the northeast corner of Africa
•Egypt lies within the dry tropical region, except for the northern parts that lie within the warm moderate region.
The Nile Delta and the Nile River Valley of Egypt, is one of the oldest agricultural areas in the world, having been under continuous cultivation for at least 5000 years.
The arid climate of Egypt, characterized by high evaporation rates (1500 – 2400 mm/year) and little rainfall.
Agriculture in Ancient Egyptian
The River Nile is the life of the country serving:
• Fresh water supply for agriculture, industry and domestic use
• Hydro-electric power generation• Navigation.
The agricultural sector still accounts more than 30% of the gross national product and 80% of export earnings.
Egypt, however, is now facing a challenging problem of how to increase the rate of growth in agricultural production to provide food that is sufficient for a high annual rate of population increase at about 2.5%.
The agriculture sector is the largest user and consumer of water in Egypt accounting for more than 85 percent of the total gross demand for water. On a consumptive basis, the share of agricultural demand is even higher at more than 95 percent.
Water supplies and demands in EgyptWater supplies and demands in Egypt
2025 2000 1990 I. Water supplies
57.5
6.3
8.02.4-
57.5
5.1
7.01.11.0
55.5
2.60.54.70.2-
Nile waterGroundwater: In the Delta and New Valley In the desertReuse of agricultural drainage waterTreated sewage waterManagement and saving wasted water
74.2 71.7 63.5 Total
II. Water demands
61.55.18.60.4
59.93.16.10.3
49.73.14.61.8
AgricultureHouseholdsIndustryNavigation
75.6 69.4 59.2 Total
After: Abu-Zeid, 1995, Abdel-Shafy and Aly, 2002.
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
1897
1907
1917
1927
1937
1947
1960
1966
1976
1986
1996
2006
2016
2025
2035
2050
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.52.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.55.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
Population Growth (1897-2050) Per-Capita Water Allocation
EGYPT: Population Growth & Per-Capita Water Allocation1897 - 2050
Po
pu
lati
on
Gro
wth
(M
illi
on
)
Per-C
ap
ita W
ate
r A
llo
cati
on
(1
00
0 m
3 )
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
1897
1907
1917
1927
1937
1947
1960
1966
1976
1986
1996
2006
2016
2025
2035
2050
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.52.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.55.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
Population Growth (1897-2050) Per-Capita Water Allocation
EGYPT: Population Growth & Per-Capita Water Allocation1897 - 2050
Po
pu
lati
on
Gro
wth
(M
illi
on
)
Per-C
ap
ita W
ate
r A
llo
cati
on
(1
00
0 m
3 )
Horizontal Expansion Plan Till Year 2017 (3.4 Million Feddan)
Area/fed Location
413300 Sinai
647730 East Delta
108820 Middle Delta
1012900
West Delta
99150 Middle Egypt
468100 Upper Egypt
50000Beachs of Naser lack
60000Halaib nad Shalatin
540000 Toshiky
3400000
Total
Present and Future ChallengesPresent and Future Challenges1. Desertification
2. Climatic Change
3. Waterlogged, saline and sodic soils
4. Urbanization Encroachment
5. Soil Pollution
6. Water Pollution
7. Awareness deficient
1. Desertification
A stony plain
Distribution of groundwater salinity in ppm in the lower Nile delta for 50 m depth, showing intrusion of saline water into the northeastern part and brackish water in the northwestern part including Alexandria (modified from Gaamea, 2000).
Sea-water Intrusion
2) Effect of Climatic Changes2) Effect of Climatic Changes
Shoreline Erosion
Shoreline Erosion
Land Productivity Declined
Land Productivity Declined
Map of the Nile delta shows main vulnerability degree (15% artificially protected sectors, 30% unprotected sectors and 55% naturally protected sectors) and the existing structural mitigations along the Nile delta coastal zone.
Salt Affected Soils
4) Urbanization Encroachment
Due to the high increase in population and the dominant of social living the urban encroachment is occurred.
5) Soil, Water and Air Pollution5) Soil, Water and Air Pollutiona) Soil pollution:
• Agricultural area in Egypt is 4% of the total area (3.2 million ha) • Agriculture is very intensive (2-3 crops/year).• The demand for raising productivity led to an increase in fertilizer
use • High imbalances in crop nutrition in favour of nitrogen (absence of
accurate information on nutrient needs for different crops under different conditions)
CCoouunnttrryy NN PP22OO55 KK22OO FFrruuiitt yyiieelldd ((ttoonnnneess//hhaa))
kkgg//ttoonnnnee UUnniitteedd SSttaatteess 2.3 1.5 2.5 > 48 MMoorrooccccoo 4.6 3 4.5 36–48 EEggyypptt 19.5 4 0.5 14–20
Amounts of nutrients applied to produce one tonne of orange and yield in different countries
Agriculture in Egypt has always been confined to the Nile Valley and Delta which comprise only 3.6% of the country’s land surface.
Exceptions are a few oases in the western Desert and some recently reclaimed desert lands adjacent to the River Valley and Delta.
Soils, Water & Environment Res.
Inst., ARC, Established in 1903
The cultivated area in Egypt to 8.4 million feddans, representing only 5% of Egypt total area (I million Km2)
Soil Resources Management
Rehabilitation of irrigation systems
Wide furrow
FurrowLining of irrigation
canalGated pipes
Wide furrow
SOIL AND WATER MANAGEMENT
Modern Irrigation Systems
Land Leveling
Soil Amendments
Wastes Agricultural Recycling Biogas Technology
Compost To Produce Energy
Seanobactreen
okadin
Mixed bacteria solution
Seanobactreen
okadin
Mixed bacteria solution
Ascobeen
Phosphoreen
Microbeen
Serialeen
Ascobeen
Phosphoreen
Microbeen
Serialeen
Nemales
Potaples Solutions
Yeast Active
Pioveen
Nemales
Potaples Solutions
Yeast Active
Pioveen
Bio-Fertilizers and Biological Agents
Drainage Save Egyptian Soil From Deterioration
The pilot areas and drainage technology deals with research topics covered over a decade of activities varied among design, implementation and maintenance problems which originate from the field practices of drainage project in Egypt.
• A number of pilot areas have been constructed in the Nile Delta
The Main Research Objectives:• Evaluation of the impact of drainage on
agriculture
Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology
The Main Research Objectives:• Evaluation of the impact of drainage on agriculture in
relation to: (i). Degree of watertable control under various agricultural,
hydrological and soil condition (ii). Degree of salinity control under various irrigation
practices and subsequent drainage rates• Assessment of the impact of future drainage projects on
crop production and water use under various design and/or construction concept
• Evaluation and testing of different drainage material and auxiliary structure, installation techniques, operation controls and maintenance equipment
• Development of monitoring methods to evaluate the effectiveness of the drainage projects.
Pilot Areas and Drainage Technology
Case Study
Salty Clay Soils under Saline Shallow Watertable Depth
in The Northern Eastern Nile
Delta, Egypt
INTRODUCTION• Most of deteriorated salty clay soils are found
throughout the northern periphery of the Nile Delta.• The clay cap is about 40 meters. • It is the highly saline shallow ground water, which
creates soil water logging, salinity and/or alkalinity associated with severe decline in soil structure and soil aeration.
• Since leaching water may pass only through macro-pores and not within clay peds. Consequently improving leaching efficiency through artificial re-structure would be a possible solution.
Drainage Experimental Field
Manzala Lake
The clay about 60%The hydraulic conductivity is 0.0669 m/day. The average water table salinity is 25dS/m
The Aims
• The aim is to study crop production as affected by drainage types for evaluating improvement soil condition to sustain land use for maximizing crop production and prevent soil deterioration.
General and long-term objectives
• Developing locally applicable and easy techniques for reclamation and sustainable land use.
• Avoiding soil deterioration.
• Improvement of the socio-economic situation of small-scale farmers.
• Improvement of international cooperation.
Specific objective to be achieved by the proposal
• Improve the management of irrigated soils by introducing mole drainage.
• To study the stability and suitability of the fine textured Egyptian soils for mole drainage.
• Develop suitable tillage and mole drainage techniques for:
- the reclamation of saline and sodic soils, and - the continuous control of groundwater tables and salinity.• To solve the complex management of the
problem areas of heavy clay saline soils with shallow saline water table in the northern part of Egypt by testing new auxiliary drainage techniques.
Drainage Experimental Field
Manzala Lake
Mole Experiment
Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
I II III IV V
Before Moling AfterMoling
20 m Drain Spacing
Seasons
Dra
wdo
wn
rate
mm
/ day
Above Below
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
I II III IV V
Before Moling AfterMoling
40 m Drain Spacing
Seasons
Dra
wdo
wn
rate
mm
/ day
Drawdown rate before and after moljng under different drain spacing treatments
Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt
Soil salinity before and after moling under different drain spacing treatments.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
I II III IV V
Before Moling AfterMoling
20 m Drain Spacing
Seasons
EC
, dS
m
-
1
Upper layerDeeper layer
0
24
6
8
10
12
14
I II III IV V
Before Moling AfterMoling
40 m Drain Spacing
Seasons
EC
, dS
m
-
1
Open Drainage - Moling for desalinization of Salty Clay Soils in Northeastern Egypt
Mean groundwater depth (cm) and salinity in the successive years for both
drainage treatments.
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0I II III IV IV
Seasons
Wat
erta
ble
dept
h c
m
20m 40 m
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
I II III IV IV
Seasons
Wa
tert
ab
le s
ali
nit
y
( dS
/ m )
20m 40 m
Mole Drainage for Maximizing Soil Productivity under Saline Groundwater Table, Egypt
No 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 mNo 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m
20032002
20012000
19990
4
8
12
16
20
EC
dS
m
Mole drain spacing
Without Gypsum With Gypsum
Soil salinity (EC) as affected with mole drainage and gypsum addition treatments.
Desalinization Process
Soil alkalinity (ESP) as affected with mole drainage and gypsum addition treatments.
No 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 mNo 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m
20032002
20012000
19990
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Exc
han
geab
le S
odiu
m P
erce
nta
ge
Mole Drain Spacing
Without Gypsum With GypsumDesodification Process
Rice yields (Ton/fd) as affected with mole drainage and gypsum addition treatments
No 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 mNo 3.0 m 2.0 m 1.5 m
20032002
20012000
1999
0
1
2
3
4
5
Ric
e Y
ield
(T
on
/fed
dan
)
Mole Drain Spacing
Without Gypsum With GypsumRice Grain Yield
Subsoilin
g + Dra
inage Experi
ment
• The experimental Treatment Design • Three drain spacing treatments separated by buffer zones:• (i) 15 m. spacing (calculated spacing according to the
steady state formula, (Houghoudt, 1940);• (ii) 30 m. spacing (conventional spacing adopted in the
surrounding areas); and• (iii) 60 m. spacing (double of the conventional spacing for
future secondary drainage treatments).• The sub-treatments are two types of subsoiling; the
distance between plowing 1.5 meters and the depth is 50 cm. There are:
• (i). One direction: Parallel orientation subsoiling type and perpendicular on tile drains, and
• (ii). Two directions: Net structure- subsoiling type.
The successive cultivated cropsThe successive cultivated crops were
wheat, sorghum, and clover. Total yield including straw and grains were determined. Sorghum plant samples were taken randomly from each plot to determine fresh weight and dry matter. For clover, berseem cut was measured for fresh and dry weight. The crop production data is analyzed statistically.
Wheat• Plant heights as well as dry content are highly
significant increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments. Subsoiling types are highly significant on the plant height (Figure1a & b). The total number of tillers per plant is highly significant increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments.
• The total yield is relatively (Wheat grain and straw) is relatively increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments (Figure 1c, 1d).).
• The net treatment is more effective for wheat traits and yield than parallel treatment.
Figure (1). Wheat as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling treatment, winter season 96/97: (a) Plant height. (b) Dry matter. (C) Grain Yield and (d) Straw Yield.
(a). (b).
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
20
30
40
50
Ave
rage
of
whe
at p
lant
hei
ght
(cm
)
SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
0.3
0.5
0.7
0.9
1.1
Ave
rage
of
wh
eat
dry
mat
ter
(g/p
lan
t)
SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
(c).
(d).
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
1
1.5
2
2.5
Av
era
ge
of
wh
eat
gra
in y
ield
(T
on
/fd
)
SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
2
3
4
Ave
rage
of w
heat
str
aw y
ield
(Ton
/fd)
SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
(b).
Sorghum• Plant heights as well as dry matter are relatively increased
with decreasing drain spacing treatments (Figure 2a &b); the net subsoiling is the highest treatment for increasing the plant height. The best treatment is net subsoiling combined with drain spacing at 15 m; while the worst treatment 60 m without any subsoiling treatments.
• The soil treated with 60 m drain spacing combined with net subsoiling is much similar to the treatment of 15 m drain spacing on the sorghum plant height. The yields are relatively increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments (Figure 2c) and highly significant effect of subsoiling types on the sorghum yield. The net subsoiling is more increasing sorghum yield than the parallel treatments. The best treatment for increasing sorghum yield is drain spacing at 15 m combined with net subsoiling while the least treatment is drain spacing at 60 m.
Figure (2). Sorghum as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling treatment, summer season 96/97: (a) Plant height. (b) Dry matter and ( C) Sorghum Yield.
(a).
(b). (c).
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
90
110
130
150
170A
vera
ge o
f sor
ghum
pla
nt h
eigh
t (cm
)Subsoiling
No Parallel Net
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
2
4
6
8
10
12
Ave
rage
of s
orgh
um d
ry m
atte
r (g
/pla
nt) Subsoiling
No Parallel Net
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
2
4
6
8
10
12
Sorgh
um Yi
eld (T
on/fd
)
SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
Clover
• The fresh and dry weight content at second and third cut as affected by drain spacing combined subsoiling type (Figure 3a &b and Figure4a &b)) is relatively increased with decreasing drain spacing treatments. There is a highly significant on fresh weight. The net treatments are mostly affected on increasing fresh weight more than the other treatments.
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
6
7
8
9
10
11
12A
vera
ge o
f cl
over
fre
sh w
eigh
t, s
econ
d c
ut
( T
on/f
d)
SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
Av
era
ge
of
clo
ver
dry
ma
tter
,sec
on
d c
ut,
(T
on
/fd
)
SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing
5
6
7
8
9
10
Aver
age
of c
love
r fr
esh
wei
ght,
thir
d cu
t (To
n/fd
)
SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
15 m 30 m 60 m
Subsoiling
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
Ave
rage
of c
love
r dr
y m
atte
r w
eigh
t (To
n/fd
) SubsoilingNo Parallel Net
Figure (3). Clover fresh weight [(a) second & (b) third cut] versus drain spacing and subsoiling treatments.
Figure (4). Clover dry weight [(a) second & (b) third cut] versus drain spacing and subsoiling treatments.
Soil Salinity• The closer drain spacing with net subsoiling
realizes desalinization of the surface soil layers. There is also highly significant effect on lowering soil surface salinity by drain spacing and subsoiling (Figure 6). The drainage system should be combined with subsoiling in purpose to keep at least salinity in rootzone layer at a convenient level to sustain soil productivity and plant growth. This method is highly recommended for such condition to increase losing soil between drain spacing. The subsoiling either net or parallel helps increasing the watertable draw down for raising drainage efficiency. However, a narrow spacing could be expressive and not practical
Figure (6 ). Surface soil salinity as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling in the year of: ( 96/97 & 97/98. [(a) Drain Spacing & (b) subsoiling treatments.
15 m 30 m 60 m
Drain spacing treatment
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
To
ta
l so
ula
ble sa
lts %
Wheat 96/97
Clover 97/98
F **LSD (5%) 0.12 (1%) 0.016
NO Parallel Net
Subsoiling
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Total S
olu
ble S
alts (%
)
Wheat 96/97
Clover 97/98
F **LSD (5%) =0.012 (1%) =0.016
(a)
(b)
Watertable depths
• The importance of the different water table depths is the positions of them midway between drains during two- interval irrigations (Figure5).
• The drainage treatments have an enhancing effect on lowering the water table, particularly under narrow spacing between drains combined with subsoiling especially net treatment. Increasing downward water movement after irrigation gives the chance for the effective root zone to dry, shrink and form water pathways.
6 12 18 6 12 18 6 12 18 6 12 18 6 12 18 6 12 18
Days after irrigation
0
-30
-60
-90
-120
-150
Wat
er t
able
dep
ths
(cm
)
Drain spacing15 m 30 m 60 m
Parellel subsoiling
Net Subsoiling
winter96/97 winter96/97summer 1997 summer 1997winter97/98 winter97/98
The groundwater table depth during different seasons as affected by drain spacing and subsoiling type treatments.
ConclusionThe best treatment is drain spacing at 15 m
combined with net subsoiling. However, it is worthy to mention that treatment of wider drain spacing (30 m) combined with net subsoiling gives satisfactory results in lowering watertable and reducing salinity. It is also reduce drainage costs.
Auxiliary treatments must be combined with any drainage system in the management of heavy clay low permeable soil.
RECOMMENDATIONS • Alluvial soils owing heavy clay, water
logging, salts are associated with highly saline ground water and constitute a challenging problem.
• Solving must achieve lowering water table at the end of the irrigation intervals, accelerating the downward movement in the surface layers, to the drains so that irrigation water constitutes a temporary front separating the saline ground water table from the rootzone.
• The soil must not be left fallow for a long time.
The restructuring/ horizontal leaching may
provide a variable field technique for reclamation of poorly permeable saline-sodic swelling soils. Wider spacing combined with secondary drainage treatment such as moling, Subsoiling or deep ploughing is recommended.
Initial Soil State at El-Serw North Eastern Delta
General view of the selected area
Leveling using LASER
Leveling using LASER
Soil during Management
Soil After Management
Manholes to measure discharge at El-Serw Experimental field
Low soil productivity and scattered berseem plants.
Clean the surrounded open drain
Constructed an open drain in the middle of the site
General view of new constructed open drain
Gypsum Distribution process
Measuring Mole Drain distances
Tractor & Mole Drain Started from Open Drain
Penetration of Mole Drain Started from Surround Open Drain
View of Mole Plow Diameter
Constructed Mole Drain Line With an indicator in The Front
General View of Mole Lines
Barley Plant
Control
Barley Plant
3 m Mole Drain Spacing
Barley Plant
2 m Mole Drain Spacing
Barley Plant
1.5 m Mole Drain Spacing
Rice Plant
Field With Mole Drains
Rice Plant
Field With Mole Drains
Rice Plant
Field Farmer without Mole Drains
Field Farmer with Mole Drains
Scientists, Graduates and Farmers Visiting Mole Experiment
Mole Plow (Front View)
Mole Plow (Front View)
Mole Plow Connected with filling Box
Visitors