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World History & Geography

Distance Learning

Directions: Read each chapter (11-13) and answer questions 1-8 at the end of each section within the

chapters. Each chapter has about 4 sections. Contact your teacher if you have any questions.*

*If you have Mr. Marvel for World History & Geography, please email Ms. Hitchens, who is Mr. Marvel’s long-term substitute.

[email protected]

The Age of Imperialism,1850–1914

Previewing Main IdeasDuring the 19th and early 20th centuries, Western

powers divided Africa and colonized large areas of Asia.Geography Study the map and time line. How many countries colonizedAfrica? Which country controlled India? the Philippines?

At the Berlin Conference in 1884–1885,European nations established rules for the division of Africa with littleconcern about how their actions would affect the African people.Geography Which two countries claimed most of Africa?

Industrialization increased the need for raw materials andnew markets. Western imperialists were driven by this need as they lookedfor colonies to acquire.Geography Compare the size of the Western countries with the areas theycolonized. Why were these Western powers interested in lands in Africaand Asia?

ECONOMICS

POWER AND AUTHORITY

EMPIRE BUILDING

• Interactive Maps• Interactive Visuals• Interactive Primary Sources

INTERNET RESOURCES

Go to classzone.com for:• Research Links • Maps• Internet Activities • Test Practice• Primary Sources • Current Events• Chapter Quiz

336

http://www.classzone.com/books/wh_modern/

Many Africans, such as these in a South African gold mine, left their farms and families behind to work in the mining centers. As a result, new towns developed and existing ones greatly expanded.

The European owners built railways and roads to connect the mining centers, bridging the huge distances between villages and towns in South Africa.

The migrant labor system that developed as a result of the mines would have a great impact on South African society and culture.

338 Chapter 11

How would you react tothe colonizers?You are a young South African living in the 1880s. Gold and diamondshave recently been discovered in your country. The European colonizersneed laborers to work the mines, such as the one shown below in an 1888photograph. Along with thousands of other South Africans, you’ve left yourfarm and rural village to work for the colonizers. Separated from yourfamily and living in a city for the first time, you don’t know what to expect.

EXAM I N I NG the I SS U ES

• What advantages and disadvantages might colonizers bring?

• What does the photograph suggest about colonization?

Discuss these questions with your classmates. In your discussion,remember what you have already learned about conquests andcultural interaction. As you read about imperialism in this chapter,look for its effects on both the colonizers and the colonized.

The New Imperialism, 1850–1914

• Colonization Europeans control land and people in areas of Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

• Colonial Economics Europeans control trade in the colonies and set up dependent cash-crop economies.

• Christianization Christianity spreads to Africa, India, and Asia.

• Nationalism To gain power, European nations compete for colonies and trade.

• Economic Competition Demand for raw materials and new markets spurs a search for colonies.

• Missionary Spirit Europeans believe they must spread their Christian teachings to the world.

Europeans exert influence over the economic, political, and social lives of people they colonize.

Causes Effects

IMPERIALISM

366 Chapter 11

TERMS & NAMESFor each term or name below, briefly explain its connection tothe imperialism of 1850–1914.

1. imperialism

2. racism

3. Berlin Conference

4. Menelik II

MAIN IDEASThe Scramble for Africa Section 1 (pages 339–344)

9. What motivated the nations of Europe to engage inimperialist activities?

10. What effect did the Boer War have on Africans?

Case Study: Imperialism Section 2 (pages 345–351)

11. What are the forms of imperial rule?

12. How did Ethiopia successfully resist European rule?

Europeans Claim Muslim Lands Section 3(pages 352–356)

13. Why were the European nations interested in controllingthe Muslim lands?

14. What methods did the Muslim leaders use to try toprevent European imperialism?

British Imperialism in India Section 4 (pages 357–361)

15. How was the economy of India transformed by the British?

16. What caused the Sepoy Mutiny?

Imperialism in Southeast Asia Section 5 (pages 362–365)

17. How did Siam manage to remain independent whileother countries in the area were being colonized?

18. Describe American attitudes toward colonizing otherlands.

CRITICAL THINKING1. USING YOUR NOTES

In a chart, tell how the localpeople resisted the demandsof the Europeans.

2. RECOGNIZING EFFECTSWhat effects did imperialism have on the

economic life of the lands and people colonized by theEuropean imperialists?

3. DRAWING CONCLUSIONSWhy do you think the British viewed the Suez Canal as thelifeline of their empire?

4. SYNTHESIZINGWhat positive and negative impact did inventions such as therailroad and the steamship have on the land and peopleconquered by the imperialists?

5. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVEWhat economic, political, and social

conditions encouraged the growth of imperialism in Africa and Asia?

EMPIRE BUILDING

ECONOMICS

Chapter11Assessment

Africa Muslim

lands

India Southeast

Asia

5. geopolitics

6. Suez Canal

7. Raj

8. Queen Liliuokalani

The Age of Imperialism 367

1. Interact with HistoryOn page 338, you considered the advantages and disadvantagesof colonialism. Now, make a chart showing the advantages anddisadvantages to a local person living in a place that became aEuropean colony. Next, make a similar chart for a European livingin a foreign place. How do they compare? Discuss withmembers of your class a way to decide whether the advantagesoutweigh the disadvantages for each group.

2. WRITING ABOUT HISTORY

Write a news article about the effectsof colonization. Be sure to address the following points:

• Provide some background on the country you’re writing about.

• Tell where the colonizers have come from.

• Describe how the colonizers treat the colonized people.

• Include quotations from both the colonizers and thecolonized.

• Draw conclusions about each side’s opinion of the other.

POWER AND AUTHORITY

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT

TEST PRACTICE Go to classzone.com

• Diagnostic tests • Strategies

• Tutorials • Additional practice

Use the quotation from the king of the Asante people andyour knowledge of world history to answer questions 1and 2.Additional Test Practice, pp. S1–S33

The suggestion that Ashanti [Asante] in its present stateshould come and enjoy the protection of Her Majesty theQueen and Empress of India, I may say this is a matter ofserious consideration, and which I am happy to say wehave arrived at the conclusion, that my kingdom of Ashantiwill never commit itself to any such conclusion, thatAshanti must remain independent as of old, at the sametime to remain friendly with all white men. I do not writethis with a boastful spirit, but in the clear sense of itsmeaning. Ashanti is an independent kingdom.KWAKU DUA III to Frederic M. Hodgson, December 27, 1889

1. What is Kwaku Dua III’s answer to the queen?

A. He would enjoy the protection of the queen.

B. He cannot commit himself at this time.

C. He is offended by her offer.

D. He refuses her offer.

2. Why do you think Kwaku Dua III responded that he wanted toremain friendly to white men?

A. He wanted his country to be placed under the protection ofwhite men.

B. He was trying to be diplomatic.

C. He wanted to adopt white men’s culture.

D. He wanted the assistance of white men.

Use the map of the British Empire and your knowledge ofworld history to answer question 3.

3. “The sun never sets on the British Empire” was a saying aboutthe British Empire at the peak of its power. What do you thinkthis saying meant?

A. The British Empire had colonies in every part of the world.

B. The British felt that the sun revolved around them.

C. The British Empire represented sunlight and hope to the restof the world.

D. The British were hard working and never slept.

NORTH

AMERICA

SOUTH

AMERICA

AFRICA

EUROPE

ASIA

AUSTRALIA

ATLANTICOCEAN

INDIANOCEAN

PACIFICOCEAN PACIFIC

OCEAN

40°N

40°S

0°

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80°E

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80°W

120°W

160°W 0°British Empire

0

0

4,000 Miles

8,000 Kilometers

The British Empire, 1900

Creating an Interactive Time LineUse the Internet and your textbook to create a time line ofthe events covered in Chapter 11. The time line on pages336–337 can serve as a guide. Use graphics software to addmaps and pictures that illustrate the events. Be sure toinclude the following on your time line:

• important events in the colonization of Africa and Asia

• efforts on the part of the colonies to resist the imperialistpowers

• people who played important roles in the events

• places where key events occurred

• visuals that illustrate the events




MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES

EMPIRE BUILDING Ignoring theclaims of African ethnic groups,kingdoms, and city-states,Europeans established colonies.

African nations continue to feelthe effects of the colonialpresence more than 100 yearslater.

• imperialism• racism• Social Darwinism• Berlin Conference

• Shaka• Boer• Boer War

1

SETTING THE STAGE Industrialization stirred ambitions in many Europeannations. They wanted more resources to fuel their industrial production. They com-peted for new markets for their goods. Many nations looked to Africa as a sourceof raw materials and as a market for industrial products. As a result, colonial pow-ers seized vast areas of Africa during the 19th and early 20th centuries. This seizureof a country or territory by a stronger country is called imperialism. As occurredthroughout most of Africa, stronger countries dominated the political, economic,and social life of the weaker countries.

Africa Before European DominationIn the mid-1800s, on the eve of the European domination of Africa, African peo-ples were divided into hundreds of ethnic and linguistic groups. Most continuedto follow traditional beliefs, while others converted to Islam or Christianity. Thesegroups spoke more than 1,000 different languages. Politically, they ranged fromlarge empires that united many ethnic groups to independent villages.

Europeans had established contacts with sub-Saharan Africans as early as the1450s. However, powerful African armies were able to keep the Europeans outof most of Africa for 400 years. In fact, as late as 1880, Europeans controlledonly 10 percent of the continent’s land, mainly on the coast.

Furthermore, European travel into the interior on a large-scale basis was vir-tually impossible. Europeans could not navigate African rivers, which had manyrapids, cataracts, and changing flows.The introduction of steam-powered river-boats in the early 1800s allowed Europeans to conduct major expeditions into theinterior of Africa. Disease also discouraged European exploration.

Finally, Africans controlled their own trade networks and provided the tradeitems. These networks were specialized. The Chokwe, for example, devotedthemselves to collecting ivory and beeswax in the Angolan highlands.

Nations Compete for Overseas Empires Those Europeans who did penetratethe interior of Africa were explorers, missionaries, or humanitarians whoopposed the European and American slave trade. Europeans and Americanslearned about Africa through travel books and newspapers. These publicationscompeted for readers by hiring reporters to search the globe for stories of adven-ture, mystery, or excitement.

The Scramble for Africa

Outlining Use an outlineto list the forces andevents surroundingimperialism in Africa.

TAKING NOTES


I. Africa BeforeEuropeanDomination

A. B.

II. Forces DrivingImperialism

340 Chapter 11

The Congo Sparks Interest In the late 1860s, David Livingstone, a missionaryfrom Scotland, traveled with a group of Africans deep into central Africa to pro-mote Christianity. When several years passed with no word from him or his party,many people feared he was dead. An American newspaper hired reporter HenryStanley to find Livingstone. In 1871, he found Dr. Livingstone on the shores ofLake Tanganyika. Stanley’s famous greeting—“Dr. Livingstone, I presume?”—made headlines around the world.

Stanley set out to explore Africa himself and trace the course of the CongoRiver. His explorations sparked the interest of King Leopold II of Belgium, whocommissioned Stanley to help him obtain land in the Congo. Between 1879 and1882, Stanley signed treaties with local chiefs of the Congo River valley. Thetreaties gave King Leopold II of Belgium control of these lands.

Leopold claimed that his primary motive in establishing the colony was to abol-ish the slave trade and promote Christianity. However, he licensed companies thatbrutally exploited Africans by forcing them to collect sap from rubber plants. Atleast 10 million Congolese died due to the abuses inflicted during Leopold’s rule.As a result of his cruelty, humanitarians around the world demanded changes. In1908, the Belgian government took control of the colony away from Leopold. TheBelgian Congo, as the colony later became known, was 80 times larger thanBelgium. The Belgian government’s seizure of the Congo alarmed France. Earlier,in 1882, the French had approved a treaty that gave France the north bank of theCongo River. Soon Britain, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were also claimingparts of Africa.

Forces Driving ImperialismThe motives that drove colonization in Africa were also at work in other lands.Similar economic, political, and social forces accelerated the drive to take over landin all parts of the globe. The Industrial Revolution in particular provided Europeancountries with a reason to add lands to their control. As European nations industri-alized, they searched for new markets and raw materials to improve their economies.

Belief in European Superiority The race for colonies also grew out of a strongsense of national pride. Europeans viewed an empire as a measure of national great-ness. As the competition for colonies intensified, each country was determined toplant its flag on as much of the world as possible.

▲ This stampcelebrates thecentenary (100th)anniversary ofStanley andLivingstone’smeeting in 1871.

Many Europeans believed that they were better than other peoples. The beliefthat one race is superior to others is called racism. The attitude was a reflection ofSocial Darwinism, a social theory of the time. In this theory, Charles Darwin’sideas about evolution and “survival of the fittest” were applied to human society.Those who were fittest for survival enjoyed wealth and success and were consid-ered superior to others. According to the theory, non-Europeans were considered tobe on a lower scale of cultural and physical development because they had notmade the scientific and technological progress that Europeans had. Europeansbelieved that they had the right and the duty to bring the results of their progressto other countries. Cecil Rhodes, a successful businessman and a majorsupporter of British expansion, clearly stated this position:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E I contend that we [Britons] are the first race in the world, and the moreof the world we inhabit, the better it is for the human race. . . . It is ourduty to seize every opportunity of acquiring more territory and weshould keep this one idea steadily before our eyes that more territorysimply means more of the Anglo-Saxon race, more of the best, themost human, most honourable race the world possesses.

CECIL RHODES, Confession of Faith, 1877

The push for expansion also came from missionaries who workedto convert the peoples of Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands toChristianity. Many missionaries believed that European rule was the bestway to end evil practices such as the slave trade. They also wanted to “civi-lize,” that is, to “Westernize,” the peoples of the foreign land.

Factors Promoting Imperialism in Africa Several factors contributed to theEuropeans’ conquest of Africa. One overwhelming advantage was the Europeans’technological superiority. The Maxim gun, invented in 1884, was the world’s firstautomatic machine gun. European countries quickly acquired the Maxim, while theresisting Africans were forced to rely on outdated weapons.

European countries also had the means to control their empire. The invention of thesteam engine allowed Europeans to easily travel on rivers to establish bases of controldeep in the African continent. Railroads, cables, and steamships allowed close com-munications within a colony and between the colony and its controlling nation.

Even with superior arms and steam engines to transport them, another factormight have kept Europeans confined to the coast. They were highly susceptible tomalaria, a disease carried by the dense swarms of mosquitoes in Africa’s interior.The perfection of the drug quinine in 1829 eventually protected Europeans frombecoming infected with this disease.

Factors within Africa also made the continent easier for Europeans to colonize.Africans’ huge variety of languages and cultures discouraged unity among them.Wars fought between ethnic groups over land, water, and trade rights also preventeda unified stand. Europeans soon learned to play rival groups against each other.

The Division of AfricaThe scramble for African territory had begun in earnest about 1880. At that time,the French began to expand from the West African coast toward western Sudan.The discoveries of diamonds in 1867 and gold in 1886 in South Africa increasedEuropean interest in colonizing the continent. No European power wanted to be leftout of the race.


AnalyzingPrimary Sources

What attitudeabout the Britishdoes Rhodes’sstatement display?

▲ Rhodes’s De BeersConsolidatedMines is thebiggest diamondcompany in theworld today.

Vocabularyscramble: a franticstruggle to obtainsomething. Theword is frequentlyused to describe thecompetition forAfrican land.

Berlin Conference Divides Africa The competition was so fierce that Europeancountries feared war among themselves. To prevent conflict, 14 European nationsmet at the Berlin Conference in 1884–85 to lay down rules for the division ofAfrica. They agreed that any European country could claim land in Africa by noti-fying other nations of its claims and showing it could control the area. TheEuropean nations divided the continent with little thought about how African eth-nic or linguistic groups were distributed. No African ruler was invited to attendthese meetings, yet the conference sealed Africa’s fate. By 1914, only Liberia andEthiopia remained free from European control.

Demand for Raw Materials Shapes Colonies When European countries begancolonizing, many believed that Africans would soon be buying European goods ingreat quantities. They were wrong; few Africans bought European goods. However,European businesses still needed raw materials from Africa. The major source ofgreat wealth in Africa proved to be the continent’s rich mineral resources. TheBelgian Congo contained untold wealth in copper and tin. Even these richesseemed small compared with the gold and diamonds in South Africa.

Businesses eventually developed cash-crop plantations to grow peanuts, palmoil, cocoa, and rubber. These products displaced the food crops grown by farmersto feed their families.

Three Groups Clash over South AfricaSouth Africa demonstrated the impact that Europeans had on African peoples. Thehistory of South Africa is a history of Africans, Dutch, and British clashing overland and resources. Although the African lands seemed empty to the Europeans,various ethnic groups had competing claims over huge areas. The local control ofthese lands, especially in the east, had been in dispute for about 100 years.

Zulus Fight the British From the late 1700s to the late 1800s, a series of localwars shook southern Africa. Around 1816, a Zulu chief, Shaka, used highly disci-plined warriors and good military organization to create a large centralized state.

Shaka’s successors, however, were unable to keepthe kingdom together against the superior arms of theBritish invaders. In 1879, after Zulu king Cetshwayorefused to dismiss his army and accept British rule, theBritish invaded the Zulu nation. Although the Zulusused spears and shields against British guns, theynearly defeated the great European army. In July 1879,however, the Zulus lost the Battle of Ulundi and theirkingdom. The Zulu nation fell to British control in 1887.Boers and British Settle in the Cape The firstEuropeans to settle in South Africa had been theDutch. The Dutch came to the Cape of Good Hope in1652 to establish a way station for their ships sailingbetween the Dutch East Indies and the Netherlands.Dutch settlers known as Boers (Dutch for “farmers”)gradually took Africans’ land and established largefarms. (The Boers are also known as Afrikaners.)When the British took over the Cape Colony perma-nently in the early 1800s, they and the Boers clashedover British policy regarding land and slaves.

ClarifyingWhat was the

purpose of theBerlin Conference?

342 Chapter 11

▼ Reinstated asruler over part ofhis formernation, KingCetshwayo wassoon drivenaway and diedin exile in 1884.

0°

40°N

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

0° Equator

A T L A N T I C

O C E A N

I N D I A N

O C E A N

Nile

R.

Niger

R.

Congo R.

Medi t erran ean Sea

Re

L. Victoria

L. Tanganyika

L. Chad

SuezCanal

Str. of Gibraltar

Tripoli

Algiers

Cairo

Fashoda

Mombasa

Cape Town

Pretoria

Johannesburg

Agadir

Dakar

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Ababa

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MA

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AN

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CH

UA

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AN

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PORTUGUESEGUINEA

RIODE

ORO

SPAIN

ITALYPORTUGAL

MOROCCO

ALGERIA

NIGERIA

CAMEROONSETHIOPIA

OTTOMANEMPIRE

LIBYA

EGYPT

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN

SUDAN

BELGIANCONGO

NORTHERNRHODESIA

SOUTHERNRHODESIA

ANGOLA

SPANISH MOROCCO TUNISIA

SIERRALEONE

CABINDA

SWAZILAND

BASUTOLAND

LIBERIA

GOLDCOAST

FRENCHEQUATORIAL

AFRICA

FRENCHEQUATORIAL

AFRICA

BRITISHEAST

AFRICA

GERMANEAST

AFRICA

GERMANSOUTHWEST

AFRICA

UNION OFSOUTHAFRICA

F R E N C H W E S T A F R I C A

FRENCHSOMALILAND

BRITISHSOMALILAND

TO

GO

CANARY ISLANDS(Sp.)

FERNANDO PO(Sp.)

MADEIRA(Port.)

PRINCIPESÃO TOMÉ

(Port.)

BAY(Br.)

ZANZIBAR(Br.)

COMORO IS.(Fr.)

IFNI(Sp.)

RIO MUNI(Sp.)

40°E0°

Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

0° Equator

INDIANOCEAN

ATLANTICOCEAN

MO

ZA

MB

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E

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ALGERIA

MelillaCeuta

EGYPT

ETHIOPIA

ANGOLA

TUNISIA

TRIPOLI

SIERRA LEONE

GOLD COAST

IVORYCOAST

LAGOS

Fernando PoPrincipe

São Tomé GABON

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CAPECOLONY

0 1,500 Miles

0 3,000 Kilometers

Imperialism in Africa, 1878

0 1,000 Miles

0 2,000 Kilometers

Ethnic groupBorders ofAfrica, 1913

Traditional Ethnic Boundaries of Africa

0 1,000 Miles

0 2,000 Kilometers

BelgianBoer

FrenchGerman

Italian

Independent states

Ottoman

SpanishPortugueseBritish

Imperialism in Africa, 1913

343

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Region How does imperialism in Africa in 1878 compare with that in 1913?2. Region What does the map of ethnic boundaries suggest about the number of

ethnic groups in Africa in 1913?

344 Chapter 11

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • imperialism • racism • Social Darwinism • Berlin Conference • Shaka • Boer • Boer War

USING YOUR NOTES 2. How did Europeans use Social

Darwinism to justify empirebuilding?

MAIN IDEAS3. Why did the Europeans control

such a small portion of Africain the 1800s?

4. What were some of the internalfactors that contributed toimperialism in Africa?

5. Why did the Boers and theBritish fight over southernAfrica?

SECTION ASSESSMENT1

INTERNET ACTIVITY

Use the Internet to find out about the population and status ofAfrikaners, or Boers, in South Africa today. Present your findings in anoral report.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. MAKING INFERENCES What can you infer about the

Europeans’ attitude toward Africans from the BerlinConference?

7. FORMING OPINIONS Why do you think Africans weren’tinterested in buying European products?

8. DEVELOPING HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE What sort ofproblems might result from combining or splitting groupsof people without regard for ethnic or linguistic traditions?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write an expositoryessay explaining which European motive behindimperialism in Africa was the most powerful.

EMPIRE BUILDING

INTERNET KEYWORDAfrikaners in South Africa

ContrastingHow was the

struggle for land inthe Boer War differ-ent from othertakeovers in Africa?


I. Africa BeforeEuropean Domination

A. B.

II. Forces DrivingImperialism

In the 1830s, to escape the British, several thousandBoers began to move north. This movement has becomeknown as the Great Trek. The Boers soon found themselvesfighting fiercely with Zulu and other African groups whoseland they were taking.

The Boer War Diamonds and gold were discovered insouthern Africa in the 1860s and 1880s. Suddenly, adven-turers from all parts of the world rushed in to make their for-tunes. The Boers tried to keep these “outsiders” fromgaining political rights. An attempt to start a rebellionagainst the Boers failed. The Boers blamed the British and,in 1899, took up arms against them.

In many ways, the Boer War (also known as the SouthAfrican War) between the British and the Boers was the firstmodern “total” war. The Boers launched commando raids andused guerrilla tactics against the British. The British counteredby burning Boer farms and imprisoning women and childrenin disease-ridden concentration camps.

Black South Africans were also involved in the war. Somefought; others served as scouts, guards, drivers, and workers.Many black South Africans were captured by the British andplaced in concentration camps, where over 14,000 died.

Britain finally won the war. In 1910, the Boer republicswere joined into a self-governing Union of South Africa,which was controlled by the British.

The establishing of colonies signaled a change in the wayof life of the Africans. The Europeans made efforts tochange the political, social, and economic lives of the peo-ples they conquered. You will learn about these changes inSection 2.

Winston Churchill and the Boer War

Winston Churchill, who served as theBritish prime minister during WorldWar II, first came to public attentionduring the Boer War.

A war correspondent, Churchill wastraveling with British soldiers whentheir train was ambushed by theBoers. Churchill pulled some of thewounded men to safety. When hereturned to help the others, however,he was arrested by a Boer soldier.(The soldier, Louis Botha, would laterbecome the prime minister of theUnion of South Africa and Churchill’sclose friend.)

Churchill managed to escapefrom the South African prison. Whenhe returned to Britain, Churchill washailed as a national hero at the ageof 26.

CASE STUDY 345


Imperialism2

Case Study: Nigeria

SETTING THE STAGE The Berlin Conference of 1884–85 was a Europeanconference. And, although black South Africans participated in it, the Boer Warwas largely a European war. Europeans argued and fought among themselvesover the lands of Africa. In carving up the continent, the European countriespaid little or no attention to historical political divisions or to the many ethnicand language groupings in Africa. Uppermost in the minds of the Europeanswas the ability to control Africa’s land, its people, and its resources.

A New Period of ImperialismThe imperialism of the 18th and 19th centuries was conducted differently fromthe explorations of the 15th and 16th centuries. In the earlier period, imperialpowers often did not penetrate far into the conquered areas in Asia and Africa.Nor did they always have a substantial influence on the lives of the people.During this new period of imperialism, the Europeans demanded more influenceover the economic, political, and social lives of the people. They were deter-mined to shape the economies of the lands to benefit European economies. Theyalso wanted the people to adopt European customs.

Forms of Control Each European nation had certain policies and goals forestablishing colonies. To establish control of an area, Europeans used differenttechniques. Over time, four forms of colonial control emerged: colony, protec-torate, sphere of influence, and economic imperialism. These terms are definedand discussed in the chart on page 346. In practice, gaining control of an areamight involve the use of several of these forms.

Methods of Management European rulers also developed methods of day-to-day management of the colony. Two basic methods emerged. Britain and othernations—such as the United States in its Pacific Island colonies—preferred indi-rect control. France and most other European nations wielded a more direct con-trol. Later, when colonies gained independence, the management method usedhad an influence on the type of government chosen in the new nation.

Indirect Control Indirect control relied on existing political rulers. In someareas, the British asked a local ruler to accept British authority to rule. Theselocal officials handled much of the daily management of the colony. In addition,

POWER AND AUTHORITYEuropeans embarked on a newphase of empire building thataffected both Africa and the restof the world.

Many former colonies havepolitical problems that are theresult of colonial rule.

• paternalism• assimilation• Menelik II

Summarizing Use aweb to record theforms and methods of European imperialismin Africa, the resistanceit met with, and itsimpact.

TAKING NOTES

Imperialismin Africa

forms andmethods

impactresistance

1. Forming and Supporting OpinionsWhich form of managing imperialinterests do you think would be mosteffective and why?

See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R20.

2. Recognizing Effects Use the Internetor library resources to research theproblems many African nations arefacing today as a result of imperialism.Report your findings to the class.

ImperialismImperialism is a policy in which one country seeks to extend its authorityby conquering other countries or by establishing economic and politicaldominance over other countries. The first chart below discusses the fourforms of imperialist authority. The second chart shows the two managementmethods that can be used to control an area.

346 Chapter 11

RESEARCH LINKS For more on imperialism, go to classzone.com

Form

Colony

Protectorate

Sphere ofInfluence

EconomicImperialism

Example

Somaliland in East Africa wasa French colony.

Britain established aprotectorate over the NigerRiver delta.

Liberia was under the sphereof influence of the UnitedStates.

The Dole Fruit companycontrolled pineapple trade inHawaii.

Definition

A country or a territorygoverned internally by aforeign power

A country or a territory withits own internal governmentbut under the control of anoutside power

An area in which an outsidepower claims exclusiveinvestment or tradingprivileges

An independent but less-developed country controlledby private business interestsrather than other governments

Forms of Imperialism

Indirect Control

• Local government officials used

• Limited self-rule

• Goal: to develop future leaders

• Government institutions are based onEuropean styles but may have localrules.

Examples:

• British colonies such as Nigeria, India,Burma

• U.S. colonies on Pacific Islands

Direct Control

• Foreign officials brought in to rule

• No self-rule

• Goal: assimilation

• Government institutions are basedonly on European styles.

Examples:

• French colonies such as Somaliland,Vietnam

• German colonies such as GermanEast Africa

• Portuguese colonies such as Angola

Imperial Management Methods

In 1905, the British Empire• was the largest and most

powerful in the world’shistory.

• covered about 11 millionsquare miles.

• had about 400 millioninhabitants.

Today, the United Kingdomhas 13 small dependentterritories and is the head ofa voluntary association of 54independent states.

African Colonization andIndependence• In 1884, Western leaders

met to divide Africa intocolonial holdings.

• By 1914, nearly all of Africahad been distributedamong European powers.

• European imperial powersset national borders inAfrica without regard forlocal ethnic or politicaldivisions. This continues tobe a problem for Africannations today.

1945

44

2003

50

IndependentAfrican Countries


each colony had a legislative council that included colonial officials as well aslocal merchants and professionals nominated by the colonial governor.

The assumption was that the councils would train local leaders in the Britishmethod of government and that a time would come when the local populationwould govern itself. This had happened earlier in the British colonies of Australiaand Canada. In the 1890s, the United States began to colonize. It chose the indirectmethod of control for the Philippines.

Direct Control The French and other European powers preferred more direct con-trol of their colonies. They viewed the Africans as unable to handle the complexbusiness of running a country. Based on this attitude, the Europeans developed apolicy called paternalism. Using that policy, Europeans governed people in aparental way by providing for their needs but not giving them rights. To accomplishthis, the Europeans brought in their own bureaucrats and did not train local peoplein European methods of governing.

The French also supported a policy of assimilation. That policy was based onthe idea that in time, the local populations would adopt French culture and becomelike the French. To aid in the transition, all local schools, courts, and businesseswere patterned after French institutions. In practice, the French abandoned theideal of assimilation for all but a few places and settled for a policy of “associa-tion,” which was similar to indirect control. They recognized African institutionsand culture but regarded them asinferior to French culture.

CASE STUDY: Nigeria

A British ColonyA close look at Britain’s rule ofNigeria illustrates the forms of impe-rialism used by European powers togain control of an area. It also showsmanagement methods used to con-tinue the control of the economic andpolitical life of the area.

Gaining Control Britain gainedcontrol of southern Nigeria throughboth diplomatic and military means.Some local rulers agreed to signtreaties of protection with Britainand accepted British residents.However, others opposed the foreignintervention and rebelled against it.The British used force to put downand defeat these rebellions.

British conquest of northernNigeria was accomplished by theRoyal Niger Company. The companygained control of the palm-oil tradealong the Niger River after the BerlinConference gave Britain a protec-torate over the Niger River delta. In1914, the British claimed the entirearea of Nigeria as a colony.

10°N

10°E

N I G E R I A

C A M E R O O N S

F R E N C H W E S T A F R I C A

G u l f o f G u i n e a

Lake

C had

Nig

er R

.

Benue R.

NigerR

.

Lagos

In 1851, British annex Lagos.

After 1884–85 BerlinConference, Britaindeclares a protect-orate over Niger Delta.

The Royal NigerCompany controlsthe palm-oil trade.

0 250 Miles

0 500 Kilometers

Hausa-FulaniIgbo

Culture Groups

YorubaBritish-imposedborder

Nigeria, 1914

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region How many major culture regions are found within the

colony of Nigeria? What sort of problems might result fromcombining or splitting groups of people?

2. Movement Why might the British want to be able to control theNiger River?

CASE STUDY 347

348 Chapter 11

Managing the Colony In this new age of imperialism, it was necessary not onlyto claim a territory but also to govern the people living there. However, managingNigeria would not prove to be easy. It was one of the most culturally diverse areasin Africa.

About 250 different ethnic groups lived there. The three largest groups were theHausa-Fulani in the north, the Yoruba in the southwest, and the Igbo in the south-east. These groups were different from one another in many ways, including lan-guage, culture, and religion. The Hausa-Fulani people were Muslim and had astrong central government. The Igbo and Yoruba peoples followed traditional reli-gions and relied on local chiefs for control.

Britain did not have enough troops to govern such a complex area. As a result,the British turned to indirect rule of the land. Ruling indirectly through local offi-cials worked well with the Hausa-Fulani. However, this management method didnot work as well with the Igbo and Yoruba peoples. Their local chiefs resented hav-ing their power limited by the British.

African ResistanceAs in Nigeria, Africans across the continent resisted European attempts to colonizetheir lands. However, the contest between African states and European powers wasnever equal because of the Europeans’ superior arms. Africans resisted the Europeanswith whatever forces they could raise and often surprised the Europeans with their

military ability. With the single exception of Ethiopia,though, all these attempts at resistance ultimately failed.Edward Morel, a British journalist who lived for a time in theCongo, made an observation about the Africans’ dilemma:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E Nor is violent physical opposition to abuse and injusticehenceforth possible for the African in any part of Africa. Hischances of effective resistance have been steadily dwindlingwith the increasing perfectibility in the killing power of modern armament.

Thus the African is really helpless against the material gods ofthe white man, as embodied in the trinity of imperialism,capitalistic exploitation, and militarism.

EDWARD MOREL, The Black Man’s Burden

Unsuccessful Movements The unsuccessful resistanceattempts included active military resistance and resistancethrough religious movements. Algeria’s almost 50-year resis-tance to French rule was one outstanding example of activeresistance. The resistance movement led by Samori Touré inWest Africa against the French is another example. Aftermodernizing his army, Touré fought the French for 16 years.

Africans in German East Africa put their faith in a spiri-tual defense. African villagers resisted the Germans’ insis-tence that they plant cotton, a cash crop for export, ratherthan attend to their own food crops. In 1905, the belief sud-denly arose that a magic water (maji-maji) sprinkled on

their bodies would turn the Germans’ bullets into water. The uprising becameknown as the Maji Maji rebellion. Over 20 different ethnic groups united to fightfor their freedom. The fighters believed that their war had been ordained by Godand that their ancestors would return to life and assist their struggle.

Samori Touré about 1830–1900

Samori Touré is a hero of theMandingo people. His empire is oftencompared to the great Mali Empire ofthe 1300s.

Touré was a nationalist who built apowerful Mandingo kingdom byconquering neighboring states. Hiskingdom became the third largestempire in West Africa.

For 16 years, Touré opposed theFrench imperialists in West Africa.The well-armed Mandingo wereFrance’s greatest foe in West Africa,and the two armies clashed severaltimes. The Mandingo Empire wasfinally brought down, not in battle,but by a famine.

SummarizingWhich forms of

imperialistic controldid Britain use inNigeria?

INTERNET ACTIVITY Draw a mapshowing the extent of the MandingoEmpire. Go to classzone.com foryour research.


However, when resistance fighters armed with spears and protected by themagic water attacked a German machine-gun post, they were mowed down by thethousands. Officially, Germans recorded 75,000 resisters dead. But more thantwice that number perished in the famine that followed. The Germans were shakenby the rebellion and its outcome. As a result, they made some government reformsin an effort to make colonialism more acceptable to the Africans.

Ethiopia: A Successful Resistance Ethiopia was the only African nation thatsuccessfully resisted the Europeans. Its victory was due to one man—Menelik II.He became emperor of Ethiopia in 1889. He successfully playedItalians, French, and British against each other, all of whom werestriving to bring Ethiopia into their spheres of influence. In themeantime, he built up a large arsenal of modern weapons pur-chased from France and Russia. In 1889, shortly after Menelik hadsigned a treaty with Italy, he discovered differences between thewording of the treaty in the Ethiopian language and in Italian.Menelik believed he was giving up a tiny portion of Ethiopia.However, the Italians claimed all of Ethiopia as a protectorate.Meanwhile, Italian forces were advancing into northern Ethiopia.Menelik declared war. In 1896, in one of the greatest battles in thehistory of Africa—the Battle of Adowa—Ethiopian forces suc-cessfully defeated the Italians and kept their nation independent.After the battle, Menelik continued to stockpile rifles and othermodern weapons in case another foreign power challengedEthiopia’s liberty.

Khartoum

FashodaDaboya

0° Equator

Tropic of Capricorn

Tropic of Cancer

40°N

40°E

40°W

GOLDCOAST

BELGIANCONGO

SOUTHERNRHODESIA

CAMEROONS

ANGOLA

ZULULAND

ETHIOPIA

UG

AN

DA

MA

DA

GA

SC

AR

BRITISHSOMALILAND

ITALIANSOMALILANDBRITISH

EASTAFRICA

GERMANEAST

AFRICA

GERMANSOUTHWEST

AFRICA

SOUTHAFRICA

FRENCH WEST AFRICA

LIBYAALGERIA

EGYPT

ANGLO-EGYPTIAN

SUDAN

TUNISIA

Nile R

. Red

Sea

A T L A N T I CO C E A N

I N D I A NO C E A N

Mediterranean Sea

L.Chad

0 1,000 Miles

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Area of resistance

Menalamba1898–1904

Algerian Berbersand Arabs1830–1884

Mashona1896

Rabih1897–1900Mandingo

1884–1898

Ndebele 1896

Asante1900

Arabi Pasha1881–1882

Maji-Maji1905–1906

Hereroand San1904–1906

Mahdist State1881–1898

Menelik II1893–1896

Resistance Movementsin Africa, 1881–1906

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region Which region had the largest area affected

by resistance?2. Region Was any region unaffected by resistance

movements?

▼ Afterdefeating Italy,Menelik IImodernizedEthiopia byconstructing arailroad andweakening thepower of thenobility.

349

350 Chapter 11

The Legacy of Colonial RuleEuropean colonial rule forever altered Africans’ lives. In some cases, theEuropeans brought benefits, but for the most part, the effects were negative.

Negative Effects On the negative side, Africans lost control of their land and theirindependence. Many died of new diseases such as smallpox. They also lost thou-sands of their people in resisting the Europeans. Famines resulted from the changeto cash crops in place of subsistence agriculture.

Africans also suffered from a breakdown of their traditional cultures. Traditionalauthority figures were replaced. Homes and property were transferred with littleregard to their importance to the people. Men were forced to leave villages to findways to support themselves and their families. Contempt for the traditional cultureand admiration of European life undermined stable societies and caused identityproblems for Africans.

The most harmful political legacy from the colonial period was the division ofthe African continent. Long-term rival chiefdoms were sometimes united, while atother times, kinship groups were split between colonies. The artificial boundariescombined or unnaturally divided groups, creating problems that plagued Africancolonies during European occupation. These boundaries continue to create prob-lems for the nations that evolved from the former colonies.

Positive Effects On the positive side, colonialism reduced local warfare.Humanitarian efforts in some colonies improved sanitation and provided hospitalsand schools. As a result, lifespans increased and literacy rates improved. Also pos-itive was the economic expansion. African products came to be valued on the inter-national market. To aid the economic growth, railroads, dams, and telephone andtelegraph lines were built in African colonies. But for the most part, these bene-fited only European business interests, not Africans’ lives.

The patterns of behavior of imperialist powers were similar, no matter wheretheir colonies were located. Dealing with local traditions and peoples continued tocause problems in other areas of the world dominated by Europeans. Resistance tothe European imperialists also continued, as you will see in Section 3.

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • paternalism • assimilation • Menelik II

USING YOUR NOTES2. Do you think the positive

effects of imperialismoutweighed the negativeimpact? Why or why not?

MAIN IDEAS3. What idea is the policy of

assimilation based on?

4. Why were African resistancemovements usuallyunsuccessful?

5. How did colonial rule cause abreakdown in traditionalAfrican culture?

SECTION ASSESSMENT2

CREATING A POSTERAfter gaining its independence from Portugal in 1975, Angola was plagued by civil war for 27years. Research to learn what role the legacy of colonialism played in Angola’s conflict.Summarize your findings on a poster using text, pictures, maps, and charts.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. FORMING OPINIONS Do you think Europeans could have

conquered Africa if the Industrial Revolution had neveroccurred? Explain your answer.

7. COMPARING How was the policy of paternalism likeSocial Darwinism?

8. ANALYZING CAUSES Why would the French and Russianssell arms to Ethiopia?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write a speechthat you might deliver to colonial rulers, expressing yourviews on European imperialism in Africa.

POWER AND AUTHORITY

CONNECT TO TODAY

DrawingConclusions

Why might theproblems caused byartificial boundariescontinue after theEuropeans left?

Imperialismin Africa

forms andmethods

impactresistance

Views of ImperialismEuropean imperialism extended to the continents beyond Africa. As imperialism spread,the colonizer and the colonized viewed the experience of imperialism in very differentways. Some Europeans were outspoken about the superiority they felt toward thepeoples they conquered. Others thought imperialism was very wrong. Even theconquered had mixed feelings about their encounter with the Europeans.

Using Primary and Secondary Sources

B P R I M A R Y S O U R C E C P R I M A R Y S O U R C EA P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

D

J. A. HobsonHobson’s 1902 book, Imperialism, madea great impression on his fellow Britons.

For Europe to rule Asia by force forpurposes of gain, and to justify that ruleby the pretence that she is civilizingAsia and raising her to a higher level ofspiritual life, will be adjudged byhistory, perhaps, to be the crowningwrong and folly of Imperialism. WhatAsia has to give, her priceless stores ofwisdom garnered from her experienceof ages, we refuse to take; the much orlittle which we could give we spoil bythe brutal manner of our giving. This iswhat Imperialism has done, and isdoing, for Asia.

Jules FerryThe following is from a speech Ferrydelivered before the French NationalAssembly on July 28,1883.

Nations are great in our times only bymeans of the activities which theydevelop; it is not simply ‘by the peacefulshining forth of institutions . . .’ that theyare great at this hour. . . . Somethingelse is needed for France: . . . that shemust also be a great country exercisingall of her rightful influence over thedestiny of Europe, that she ought topropagate this influence throughout theworld and carry everywhere that shecan her language, her customs, her flag,her arms, and her genius.

Dadabhai NaorojiDadabhai Naoroji was the first Indianelected to the British Parliament. In1871, he delivered a speech about theimpact of Great Britain on India.

To sum up the whole, the British rulehas been—morally, a great blessing;politically peace and order on onehand, blunders on the other, materially,impoverishment. . . . The natives callthe British system “Sakar ki Churi,” theknife of sugar. That is to say there is nooppression, it is all smooth and sweet,but it is the knife, notwithstanding. Imention this that you should knowthese feelings. Our great misfortune isthat you do not know our wants. Whenyou will know our real wishes, I havenot the least doubt that you would dojustice. The genius and spirit of theBritish people is fair play and justice.

This 1882 Americanpolitical cartoon, titled“The Devilfish in EgyptianWaters,” depicts Englandas an octopus. Notice thatEgypt is not yet one of theareas controlled by theBritish.

1. According to Hobson (Source A),what mistake did Europeanimperialists make in Asia?

2. What position on imperialismdoes Jules Ferry take in Source C?

3. In Source D, what does therepresentation of England suggestabout the cartoonist’s view ofBritish imperialism?

4. In what way does the view ofimperialism in Source B contrastwith that in Source D?

351

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

352 Chapter 11


EMPIRE BUILDING Europeannations expanded their empiresby seizing territories fromMuslim states.

Political events in this vitalresource area are still influencedby actions from the imperialisticperiod.

• geopolitics• Crimean War• Suez Canal

3

SETTING THE STAGE The European powers who carved up Africa also lookedelsewhere for other lands to control. The Muslim lands that rimmed theMediterranean had largely been claimed as a result of Arab and Ottoman con-quests. As you learned in Chapter 2, the Ottoman Empire at its peak stretchedfrom Hungary in the north, around the Black Sea, and across Egypt all the waywest to the borders of Morocco. (See map opposite.) But during the empire’s last300 years, it had steadily declined in power. Europeans competed with each otherto gain control of this strategically important area.

Ottoman Empire Loses PowerThe declining Ottoman Empire had difficulties trying to fit into the modernworld. However, the Ottomans made attempts to change before they finally wereunable to hold back the European imperialist powers.

Reforms Fail When Suleyman I, the last great Ottoman sultan, died in 1566, hewas followed by a succession of weak sultans. The palace government broke upinto a number of quarreling, often corrupt factions. Weakening power broughtother problems. Corruption and theft had caused financial losses. Coinage wasdevalued, causing inflation. Once the Ottoman Empire had embraced moderntechnologies, but now it fell further and further behind Europe.

When Selim III came into power in 1789, he attempted to modernize the army.However, the older janissary corps resisted his efforts. Selim III was overthrown,and reform movements were temporarily abandoned. Meanwhile, nationalistfeelings began to stir among the Ottomans’ subject peoples. In 1830, Greecegained its independence, and Serbia gained self-rule. The Ottomans’ weaknesswas becoming apparent to European powers, who were expanding their territo-ries. They began to look for ways to take the lands away from the Ottomans.

Europeans Grab TerritoryGeopolitics, an interest in or taking of land for its strategic location or prod-ucts, played an important role in the fate of the Ottoman Empire. World powerswere attracted to its strategic location. The Ottomans controlled access to theMediterranean and the Atlantic sea trade. Merchants in landlocked countries

Europeans Claim Muslim Lands

Determining Main IdeasUse a diagram to fill inthree details that supportthe main idea.

TAKING NOTES

Muslim states failedto keep Europeanimperialists out of their lands.

detail detaildetail

that lay beyond the Black Sea had to go through Ottoman lands. Russia, for exam-ple, desperately wanted passage for its grain exports across the Black Sea and intothe Mediterranean Sea. This desire strongly influenced Russia’s relations with theOttoman Empire. Russia attempted to win Ottoman favor, formed alliances withOttoman enemies, and finally waged war against the Ottomans. Discovery of oilin Persia around 1900 and in the Arabian Peninsula after World War I focusedeven more attention on the area.

Russia and the Crimean War Each generation of Russian czars launched a war onthe Ottomans to try to gain land on the Black Sea. The purpose was to give Russiaa warm-weather port. In 1853, war broke out between the Russians and theOttomans. The war was called the Crimean War, after a peninsula in the Black Seawhere most of the war was fought. Britain and France wanted to prevent theRussians from gaining control of additional Ottoman lands. So they entered the waron the side of the Ottoman Empire. The combined forces of the Ottoman Empire,Britain, and France defeated Russia. The Crimean War was the first war in whichwomen, led by Florence Nightingale, established their position as army nurses. Itwas also the first war to be covered by newspaper correspondents.

The Crimean War revealed the Ottoman Empire’s military weakness. Despitethe help of Britain and France, the Ottoman Empire continued to lose lands. TheRussians came to the aid of Slavic people in the Balkans who rebelled against theOttomans. The Ottomans lost control of Romania, Montenegro, Cyprus, Bosnia,Herzegovina, and an area that became Bulgaria. The Ottomans lost land in Africatoo. By the beginning of World War I, the Ottoman Empire was reduced in size andin deep decline.

Mecca

Constantinople(Istanbul)

40° E0°

Tropic of Cancer

40° N

Mediterranean Sea

Caspian

Sea

Red

Sea

Persian

G

u lf

Black Sea

ATLANTICOCEAN

Mesopotam

ia

(to Austria1699, 1878)

(to Russia1803, 1829)

(to Russia1783)

(to France1912)

(to France1830)

(to France1881)

(independent1817, 1913)

(to Italy1912)

(to Britain1878)

(independent1730)

(partiallyindependent

1841)

ITALY

SPAIN

FRANCE

GREECE

SE

RB

IA

AUSTRIA

R U S S I A

PERSIA

ANATOLIA

ARABIA

SYRIA

BULGARIA

ROMANIA

ALBANIA

HUNGARY

CRIMEA

MOROCCO

ALGERIA TUNISIA

TRIPOLI

EGYPT

Cyprus

BALKANS

AZERBAIJAN

0 500 Miles

0 1,000 Kilometers

Ottoman Empire at its greatest extent in 1699

Ottoman Empire in 1914Territory becomespart of

Ottoman Empire, 1699–1914

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region Approximately how much of the Ottoman Empire was lost by 1914?2. Region How many European nations claimed parts of the Ottoman Empire?

Which areas became independent?

353

MakingInferences

How did theCrimean War helplead to the declineof the OttomanEmpire?

354 Chapter 11

The Great Game For much of the 19th century, Great Britain and Russia engagedin yet another geopolitical struggle, this time over Muslim lands in Central Asia.Known as the “Great Game,” the war was waged over India, one of Britain’s mostprofitable colonies. Russia sought to extend its empire and gain access to India’sriches. Britain defended its colony and also attempted to spread its empire beyondIndia’s borders. Afghanistan, which lay between the Russian and British empires,became the center of their struggle. (See the map on page 337.)

In the 1800s, Afghanistan was an independent Muslim kingdom. Its dry, moun-tainous terrain and determined people continually frustrated the invading imperialpowers. After decades of fighting, Great Britain finally withdrew from Afghanistanin 1881. In 1921, Britain formally agreed that its empire would not extend beyondthe Khyber Pass, which borders eastern Afghanistan. The newly formed SovietUnion, meanwhile, signed a nonaggression pact with Afghanistan. That agreementwas honored until 1979, when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.

Egypt Initiates ReformsObserving the slow decline of the Ottoman Empire, some Muslim leaders decidedthat their countries would either have to adjust to the modern world or be consumedby it. Egypt initiated political and social reforms, in part to block European domi-nation of its land.

Military and Economic Reforms Modernization came to Egypt as a result of theinterest in the area created by the French occupation. Egypt’s strategic location atthe head of the Red Sea appeared valuable to France and Britain. After Napoleonfailed to win Egypt, a new leader emerged: Muhammad Ali. The Ottomans senthim as part of an expeditionary force to govern Egypt, but he soon broke away

from Ottoman control. Beginningin 1831, he fought a series of bat-tles in which he gained control ofSyria and Arabia. Through thecombined efforts of Europeanpowers, Muhammad Ali and hisheirs were recognized as thehereditary rulers of Egypt.

Muhammad Ali began a seriesof reforms in the military and inthe economy. Without foreignassistance, he personally directeda shift of Egyptian agriculture to aplantation cash crop—cotton.This brought Egypt into the inter-national marketplace but at a costto the peasants. They lost the useof lands they traditionally farmedand were forced to grow cashcrops in place of food crops.

The Suez Canal Muhammad Ali’sefforts to modernize Egypt werecontinued by his grandson, Isma’il.Isma’il supported the constructionof the Suez Canal. The canal was ahuman-made waterway that cut

RecognizingEffects

What twoeffects did raisingcotton have onEgyptian agriculture?

▼ Muhammad Aliwas a commonsoldier who roseto leadership as aresult of his militaryskill and politicalshrewdness.

through the Isthmus of Suez. It connected the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. It wasbuilt mainly with French money from private interest groups, using Egyptian labor.The Suez Canal opened in 1869 with a huge international celebration. However,Isma’il’s modernization efforts, such as irrigation projects and communication net-works, were enormously expensive. Egypt soon found that it could not pay itsEuropean bankers even the interest on its $450 million debt. The British insisted onoverseeing financial control of the canal, and in 1882 the British occupied Egypt.

Persia Pressured to ChangeElsewhere in southwest Asia, Russia and Britain competed to exploit Persia com-mercially and to bring that country under their own spheres of influence. (See mapon page 353.) Russia was especially interested in gaining access to the Persian Gulfand the Indian Ocean. Twice Persia gave up territories to Russia, after militarydefeats in 1813 and 1828. Britain was interested in using Afghanistan as a bufferbetween India and Russia. In 1857, Persia resisted British demands but was forcedto give up all claims to Afghanistan. Britain’s interest in Persia increased greatlyafter the discovery of oil there in 1908.

Persia lacked the capital to develop its own resources. To raise money and to gaineconomic prestige, the Persian ruler began granting concessions to Western busi-nesses. These concessions allowed businesses to buy the right to operate in a certainarea or develop a certain product. For example, a British corporation, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company, began to develop Persia’s rich oil fields in the early 1900s.


Suez CanalThe Suez Canal was viewed as the “Lifeline of the Empire” becauseit allowed Britain quicker access to its colonies in Asia and Africa.In a speech to Parliament, Joseph Chamberlain explained that hebelieved Britain should continue its occupation of Egypt because of“the necessity for using every legitimate opportunity to extend ourinfluence and control in that great African continent which is nowbeing opened up to civilization and to commerce.“

This painting represents the opening celebration of the canalon November 17, 1869.

30°N

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SuezCanal

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S I N A I

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GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting MapsPlace Approximately how long is the Suez Canal?

356 Chapter 11

Battle over Tobacco Tension arose between the often corrupt rulers,who wanted to sell concessions to Europeans, and the people. Thepeople were often backed by religious leaders who feared change ordisliked Western influence in their nation. In 1890, Persian rulerNasir al-Din sold a concession to a British company to export Persiantobacco. This action outraged Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, a leader whosupported the modernization of Persia. He helped set up a tobaccoboycott by the heavy-smoking Persians. In the following quote, heexpresses his contempt for the Persian ruler:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E He has sold to the foes of our Faith the greater part of the Persian landsand the profits derived from them, for example . . . tobacco, with thechief centers of its cultivation, the lands on which it is grown and thewarehouses, carriers, and sellers, wherever these are found. . . .

In short, this criminal has offered the provinces of Persia to auctionamong the Powers, and is selling the realms of Islam and the abodes ofMuhammad and his household to foreigners.

JAMAL AL-DIN AL-AFGHANI, in a letter to Hasan Shirazi, April 1891

The tobacco boycott worked. Riots broke out, and the ruler was forced to can-cel the concession. As unrest continued in Persia, however, the government wasunable to control the situation. In 1906, a group of revolutionaries forced the rulerto establish a constitution. In 1907, Russia and Britain took over the country anddivided it into spheres of influence. They exercised economic control over Persia.

In the Muslim lands, many European imperialists gained control by using eco-nomic imperialism and creating spheres of influence. Although some governmentsmade attempts to modernize their nations, in most cases it was too little too late. Inother areas of the globe, imperialists provided the modernization. India, for exam-ple, became a colony that experienced enormous change as a result of the occupa-tion of the imperialist British. You will learn about India in Section 4.

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • geopolitics • Crimean War • Suez Canal

USING YOUR NOTES 2. What imperialistic forms of

control did the Europeans useto govern these lands?

MAIN IDEAS3. What is geopolitics?

4. Why did Great Britain want tocontrol the Suez Canal?

5. Why did the Persian peopleoppose their ruler’s policy ofselling business concessions toEuropeans?

SECTION ASSESSMENT3


Why did al-Afghani condemnthe actions of thePersian ruler?

CREATING A TIME LINE

Iran (formerly Persia) has undergone many changes since the late 1800s. Create a time lineof important events in Iran’s modern history. Include photographs that illustrate the events.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING How were the reactions

of African and Muslim rulers to imperialism similar? Howwere they different?

7. MAKING PREDICTIONS What do you think happened as aresult of Muhammad Ali’s agriculture reform?

8. ANALYZING BIAS What does the quotation in the Historyin Depth on page 355 suggest about JosephChamberlain’s view of British imperialism in Africa?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write a cause-and-effect paragraph about reform efforts undertaken inMuslim lands.

EMPIRE BUILDING

CONNECT TO TODAY

Muslim states failedto keep Europeanimperialists out of their lands.

detail detaildetail

▲ Nasir al-Dinwas killed by oneof al-Afghani’sfollowers a fewyears after theboycott.



EMPIRE BUILDING As theMughal Empire declined, Britainseized Indian territory and sooncontrolled almost the wholesubcontinent.

India, the second mostpopulated nation in the world,has its political roots in thiscolony.

• sepoy• “jewel in

the crown”

• SepoyMutiny

• Raj

4

SETTING THE STAGE British economic interest in India began in the 1600s,when the British East India Company set up trading posts at Bombay, Madras,and Calcutta. At first, India’s ruling Mughal Dynasty kept European tradersunder control. By 1707, however, the Mughal Empire was collapsing. Dozens ofsmall states, each headed by a ruler or maharajah, broke away from Mughal con-trol. In 1757, Robert Clive led East India Company troops in a decisive victoryover Indian forces allied with the French at the Battle of Plassey. From that timeuntil 1858, the East India Company was the leading power in India.

British Expand Control over IndiaThe area controlled by the East India Company grew over time. Eventually, itgoverned directly or indirectly an area that included modern Bangladesh, mostof southern India, and nearly all the territory along the Ganges River in the north.

East India Company Dominates Officially, the British government regulatedthe East India Company’s efforts both in London and in India. Until the begin-ning of the 19th century, the company ruled India with little interference fromthe British government. The company even had its own army, led by British offi-cers and staffed by sepoys, or Indian soldiers. The governor of Bombay,Mountstuart Elphinstone, referred to the sepoy army as “a delicate and danger-ous machine, which a little mismanagement may easily turn against us.”

Britain’s “Jewel in the Crown” At first, the British treasured India more for itspotential than its actual profit. The Industrial Revolution had turned Britain intothe world’s workshop, and India was a major supplier of raw materials for thatworkshop. Its 300 million people were also a large potential market for British-made goods. It is not surprising, then, that the British considered India the bright-est “jewel in the crown,” the most valuable of all of Britain’s colonies.

The British set up restrictions that prevented the Indian economy fromoperating on its own. British policies called for India to produce raw mate-rials for British manufacturing and to buy British goods. In addition,Indian competition with British goods was prohibited. For example,India’s own handloom textile industry was almost put out of business byimported British textiles. Cheap cloth and ready-made clothes fromEngland flooded the Indian market and drove out local producers.

British Imperialism in India

Recognizing Effects Usea diagram to identify theeffects of the three causeslisted.

TAKING NOTES

Cause

1. Decline ofthe MughalEmpire

2. Colonialpolicies

3. SepoyMutiny

Effect

▼ A sepoy inuniform

British Transport Trade Goods India became increasingly valuable to the Britishafter they established a railroad network there. Railroads transported raw productsfrom the interior to the ports and manufactured goods back again. Most of the rawmaterials were agricultural products produced on plantations. Plantation cropsincluded tea, indigo, coffee, cotton, and jute. Another crop was opium. The Britishshipped opium to China and exchanged it for tea, which they then sold in England.

Trade in these crops was closely tied to international events. For example, theCrimean War in the 1850s cut off the supply of Russian jute to Scottish jute mills.This boosted the export of raw jute from Bengal, a province in India. Likewise, cot-ton production in India increased when the Civil War in the United States cut offsupplies of cotton for British textile mills.

Impact of Colonialism India both benefited from and was harmed by British colo-nialism. On the negative side, the British held much of the political and economicpower. The British restricted Indian-owned industries such as cotton textiles. Theemphasis on cash crops resulted in a loss of self-sufficiency for many villagers. Theconversion to cash crops reduced food production, causing famines in the late1800s. The British officially adopted a hands-off policy regarding Indian religiousand social customs. Even so, the increased presence of missionaries and the racistattitude of most British officials threatened traditional Indian life.

On the positive side, the laying of the world’s third largest railroad network wasa major British achievement. When completed, the railroads enabled India todevelop a modern economy and brought unity to the connected regions. Along withthe railroads, a modern road network, telephone and telegraph lines, dams, bridges,and irrigation canals enabled India to modernize. Sanitation and public healthimproved. Schools and colleges were founded, and literacy increased. Also, Britishtroops cleared central India of bandits and put an end to local warfare among com-peting local rulers.

SummarizingOn which conti-

nents were Indiangoods beingtraded?

P A C I F I CO C E A N

I N D I A NO C E A N

Arab ian

SeaBay o f

Benga l

Sou thChina

Sea

Eas tCh ina

Sea

YellowSea

Seao f

Japan

Indu

sR

.

Ganges R.

HuangH

e

Chang

Jiang

(Yan

gtze

R.)

(Yello

wR

.)

Persian

Gulf

Delhi

Rangoon

Calcutta

Madras

Bombay

Bangkok

Beijing

Tokyo

Hong Kong(Britain)

Saigon

Manila

Hanoi

Macao(Portugal)

Singapore(Britain)

Batavia

PERSIA

ARABIA

BRITISHINDIA

BURMA

BHUTAN

TIBET

MALAYSTATES

SIAM

KOREA(Japan)

JAPAN

TAIWAN(Japan)

SARAWAK

BRITISHN. BORNEO

BRUNEI

PHILIPPINES

CHINA

NEPAL

A

FGHAN

ISTA

N

IND

OC

HIN

AFR

EN

CH

DU

TCHEAST INDIES

CEYLON

Borneo

New Guinea

HIM

ALAYAS

0° Equator

40°N

120°E

80°E

Tropic of Cancer

FranceGermanyGreat BritainThe NetherlandsUnited States

0

0

1,000 Miles

2,000 Kilometers

Western-Held Territories in Asia, 1910

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region Which nation in 1910 held the most land in colonies?2. Location How is the location of India a great advantage for trade?

Vocabularyjute: a fiber used forsacks and cord

358


The Sepoy MutinyBy 1850, the British controlled most of the Indian subcontinent. However, therewere many pockets of discontent. Many Indians believed that in addition to con-trolling their land, the British were trying to convert them to Christianity. The Indianpeople also resented the constant racism that the British expressed toward them.

Indians Rebel As economic problems increased for Indians, so did their feelings ofresentment and nationalism. In 1857, gossip spread among the sepoys, the Indian sol-diers, that the cartridges of their new Enfield rifles were greased with beef and porkfat. To use the cartridges, soldiers had to bite off the ends. Both Hindus, who con-sider the cow sacred, and Muslims, who do not eat pork, were outraged by the news.

A garrison commander was shocked when 85 of the 90 sepoys refused to acceptthe cartridges. The British handled the crisis badly. The soldiers who had disobeyedwere jailed. The next day, on May 10, 1857, the sepoys rebelled. They marched toDelhi, where they were joined by Indian soldiers stationed there. They captured thecity of Delhi. From Delhi, the rebellion spread to northern and central India.

Some historians have called this outbreak the Sepoy Mutiny. The uprising spreadover much of northern India. Fierce fighting took place. Both British and sepoys triedto slaughter each other’s armies. The East India Company took more than a year toregain control of the country. The British government sent troops to help them.

The Indians could not unite against the British due to weak leadership and seri-ous splits between Hindus and Muslims. Hindus did not want the Muslim MughalEmpire restored. Indeed, many Hindus preferred British rule to Muslim rule. Mostof the princes and maharajahs who had made alliances with the East India

RecognizingEffects

Look back atElphinstone’s com-ment on page 357.Did the SepoyMutiny prove himcorrect?

Social Class in IndiaIn the photograph at right, a British officer is waited on byIndian servants. This reflects the class system in India.

British ArmySocial class determined the way of life for the British Armyin India. Upper-class men served as officers. Lower-classBritish served at lesser rank and did not advance past therank of sergeant. Only men with the rank of sergeant andabove were allowed to bring their wives to India.

Each English officer’s wife attempted to re-createEngland in the home setting. Like a general, shedirected an army of 20 to 30 servants.

Indian ServantsCaste determined Indian occupations. Castes were dividedinto four broad categories called varna. Indian civil servantswere of the third varna. House and personal servants wereof the fourth varna.

Even within the varna, jobs were strictly regulated,which is why such large servant staffs were required. Forexample, in the picture here, both servants were of thesame varna. However, the person washing the Britishofficer’s feet was of a different caste than the persondoing the fanning.

360 Chapter 11

RecognizingEffects

In what waysdid the SepoyMutiny change thepolitical climate ofIndia?

▼ This engravingshows sepoysattacking theBritish infantryat the Battle ofCawnpore in1857.

Company did not take part in the rebellion. The Sikhs, a religious group that hadbeen hostile to the Mughals, also remained loyal to the British. Indeed, from thenon, the bearded and turbaned Sikhs became the mainstay of Britain’s army in India.

Turning Point The mutiny marked a turning point in Indian history. As a result ofthe mutiny, in 1858 the British government took direct command of India. The partof India that was under direct British rule was called the Raj. The term Raj referredto British rule over India from 1757 until 1947. A cabinet minister in Londondirected policy, and a British governor-general in India carried out the govern-ment’s orders. After 1877, this official held the title of viceroy.

To reward the many princes who had remained loyal to Britain, the Britishpromised to respect all treaties the East India Company had made with them. Theyalso promised that the Indian states that were still free would remain independent.Unofficially, however, Britain won greater and greater control of those states.

The Sepoy Mutiny fueled the racist attitudes of the British. The British attitudeis illustrated in the following quote by Lord Kitchener, British commander in chiefof the army in India:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EIt is this consciousness of the inherent superiority of the European which has won for usIndia. However well educated and clever a native may be, and however brave he mayprove himself, I believe that no rank we can bestow on him would cause him to beconsidered an equal of the British officer.

LORD KITCHENER, quoted in K. M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance

The mutiny increased distrust between the British and the Indians. A politicalpamphlet suggested that both Hindus and Muslims “are being ruined under thetyranny and oppression of the . . . treacherous English.”

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • sepoy • “jewel in the crown” • Sepoy Mutiny • Raj

USING YOUR NOTES 2. Which of the effects you listed

later became causes?

MAIN IDEAS3. Why did Britain consider India

its “jewel in the crown”?

4. Why didn’t Indians uniteagainst the British in the SepoyMutiny?

5. What form did British rule takeunder the Raj?

SECTION ASSESSMENT4

CREATING A POLITICAL CARTOON

In 1947, India was divided into two countries: mostly Hindu India and mostly Muslim Pakistan.However, the two countries maintain a tense relationship today. Research to learn about thecause of this tension and illustrate it in a political cartoon.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. MAKING INFERENCES How did economic imperialism

lead to India’s becoming a British colony?

7. EVALUATING DECISIONS What might the decision togrease the sepoys’ cartridges with beef and pork fatreveal about the British attitude toward Indians?

8. SYNTHESIZING How did imperialism contribute to unityand to the growth of nationalism in India?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write an editorial toan underground Indian newspaper, detailing grievancesagainst the British and calling for self-government.

EMPIRE BUILDING

CONNECT TO TODAY


Analyzing MotivesWhy would the

British think thatdividing the Hindusand Muslims intoseparate sectionswould be good?

Nationalism Surfaces in IndiaIn the early 1800s, some Indians began demanding more modernization and agreater role in governing themselves. Ram Mohun Roy, a modern-thinking, well-educated Indian, began a campaign to move India away from traditional practicesand ideas. Sometimes called the “Father of Modern India,” Ram Mohun Roy sawarranged child marriages and the rigid caste separation as parts of religious life thatneeded to be changed. He believed that if the practices were not changed, Indiawould continue to be controlled by outsiders. Roy’s writings inspired other Indianreformers to call for adoption of Western ways. Roy also founded a social reformmovement that worked for change in India.

Besides modernization and Westernization, nationalist feelings started to surfacein India. Indians hated a system that made them second-class citizens in their owncountry. They were barred from top posts in the Indian Civil Service. Those whomanaged to get middle-level jobs were paid less than Europeans. A British engineeron the East India Railway, for example, made nearly 20 times as much money as anIndian engineer.

Nationalist Groups Form This growing nationalism led to the founding of twonationalist groups, the Indian National Congress in 1885 and the Muslim Leaguein 1906. At first, such groups concentrated on specific concerns for Indians. By theearly 1900s, however, they were calling for self-government.

The nationalists were further inflamed in 1905 by the partition of Bengal. Theprovince was too large for administrative purposes, so the British divided it into aHindu section and a Muslim section. As a result, acts of terrorism broke out. In1911, yielding to pressure, the British took back the order and divided the provincein a different way.

Conflict over the control of India continued to develop between the Indians andthe British in the following years. Elsewhere in Southeast Asia, the same strugglesfor control of land took place between local groups and the major European pow-ers that dominated them. You will learn about them in Section 5.

Cause

1. Decline ofthe MughalEmpire

2. Colonialpolicies

3. SepoyMutiny

Effect

362 Chapter 11


ECONOMICS Demand for Asianproducts drove Westernimperialists to seek possessionof Southeast Asian lands.

Southeast Asian independencestruggles in the 20th centuryhave their roots in this period ofimperialism.

• Pacific Rim• King

Mongkut• Emilio

Aguinaldo

• annexation• Queen

Liliuokalani

5

SETTING THE STAGE Just as the European powers rushed to divide Africa,they also competed to carve up the lands of Southeast Asia. These lands formpart of the Pacific Rim, the countries that border the Pacific Ocean. Westernnations desired the Pacific Rim lands for their strategic location along the searoute to China. Westerners also recognized the value of the Pacific colonies assources of tropical agriculture, minerals, and oil. As the European powers beganto appreciate the value of the area, they challenged each other for their own partsof the prize.

European Powers Invade the Pacific RimEarly in the 18th century, the Dutch East India Company established control overmost of the 3,000-mile-long chain of Indonesian islands. The British establisheda major trading port at Singapore. The French took over Indochina on theSoutheast Asian mainland. The Germans claimed the Marshall Islands and partsof New Guinea and the Solomon islands.

The lands of Southeast Asia were perfect for plantation agriculture. The majorfocus was on sugar cane, coffee, cocoa, rubber, coconuts, bananas, and pine-apple. As these products became more important in the world trade markets,European powers raced each other to claim lands.

Dutch Expand Control The Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1602,actively sought lands in Southeast Asia. It seized Malacca from the Portugueseand fought the British and Javanese for control of Java. The discovery of oil andtin on the islands and the desire for more rubber plantations prompted the Dutchto gradually expand their control over Sumatra, part of Borneo, Celebes, theMoluccas, and Bali. Finally the Dutch ruled the whole island chain of Indonesia,then called the Dutch East Indies. (See map opposite.)

Management of plantations and trade brought a large Dutch population to theislands. In contrast to the British, who lived temporarily in India but retired inBritain, the Dutch thought of Indonesia as their home. They moved to Indonesiaand created a rigid social class system there. The Dutch were on top, wealthyand educated Indonesians came next, and plantation workers were at the bot-tom. The Dutch also forced farmers to plant one-fifth of their land in specifiedexport crops.

Imperialism in Southeast Asia

Clarifying Use a spidermap to identify a Westernpower and the areas itcontrolled.

TAKING NOTES

Western powersin Southeast Asia

British Take the Malayan Peninsula To com-pete with the Dutch, the British sought a tradingbase that would serve as a stop for their shipsthat traveled the India-China sea routes. Theyfound a large, sheltered harbor on Singapore, anisland just off the tip of the Malay Peninsula.The opening of the Suez Canal and the increaseddemand for tin and rubber combined to makeSingapore one of the world’s busiest ports.

Britain also gained colonies in Malaysia and inBurma (modern Myanmar). Malaysia had largedeposits of tin and became the world’s leading rub-ber exporter. Needing workers to mine the tin andtap the rubber trees, Britain encouraged Chinese toimmigrate to Malaysia. Chinese flocked to thearea. As a result of such immigration, the Malayssoon became a minority in their own country.Conflict between the resident Chinese and thenative Malays remains unresolved today.

French Control Indochina The French hadbeen active in Southeast Asia since the 17th cen-tury. They even helped the Nguyen (nuh•WIN)dynasty rise to power in Vietnam. In the 1840s,during the rule of an anti-Christian Vietnamese emperor, seven French missionar-ies were killed. Church leaders and capitalists who wanted a larger share of theoverseas market demanded military intervention. Emperor Napoleon III orderedthe French army to invade southern Vietnam. Later, the French added Laos,Cambodia, and northern Vietnam to the territory. The combined states would even-tually be called French Indochina.

Using direct colonial management, the French themselves filled all importantpositions in the government bureaucracy. They did not encourage local industry.Four times as much land was devoted to rice production. However, the peasants’consumption of rice decreased because much of the rice was exported. Anger overthis reduction set the stage for Vietnamese resistance against the French.

Colonial Impact In Southeast Asia, colonization brought mixed results.Economies grew based on cash crops or goods that could be sold on the world mar-ket. Roads, harbors, and rail systems improved communication and transportationbut mostly benefited European business. However, education, health, and sanita-tion did improve.

Unlike other colonial areas, millions of people from other areas of Asia and theworld migrated to work on plantations and in the mines in Southeast Asia. The regionbecame a melting pot of Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and Buddhists. The resultingcultural changes often led to racial and religious clashes that are still seen today.

Siam Remains IndependentWhile its neighbors on all sides fell under the control of imperialists, Siam (present-day Thailand) maintained its independence throughout the colonialperiod. Siam lay between British-controlled Burma and French Indochina. (Seemap above.) France and Britain each aimed to prevent the other from gaining con-trol of Siam. Knowing this, Siamese kings skillfully promoted Siam as a neutralzone between the two powers.


Analyzing MotivesWhy do you

think so manyChinese moved toMalaysia?

INDIANOCEAN

PACIFICOCEANSouth

ChinaSea

BURMA

CHINA

MALAYPENINSULA

SIAMIN

DO

CH

INA

FR

EN

CH

DUTCH EAST INDIES

PH

ILIP

PIN

ES

Singapore

Batavia

Saigon

Manila

MacaoHong Kong

Bangkok

Rangoon

Sumatra Borneo

Bali

Celebes

Timor

Mol

uccas

Java

120°

E

Tropic of Cancer

0° Equator

BritishDutchFrenchPortugueseSpanishIndependentstate

0 500 Miles

0 1,000 Kilometers

Colonies in SoutheastAsia, 1895

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Location What was Siam’s location relative to the

nearest European colonies?2. Region Which European country could access both

the Indian and the Pacific oceans from its colony?

Siam modernized itself under the guidance of King Mongkut and his sonChulalongkorn. In a royal proclamation, King Chulalongkorn showed his under-standing of the importance of progress:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EAs the times and the course of things in our country have changed, it is essential topromote the advancement of all our academic and technical knowledge and to preventit from succumbing [giving in] to competition from the outside. In order to achieve this,it is imperative to make haste in education so that knowledge and ability will increase.

KING CHULALONGKORN, “Royal Proclamation in Education”

To accomplish the changes, Siam started schools, reformed the legal system, andreorganized the government. The government built its own railroads and telegraphsystems and ended slavery. Because the changes came from their own government,the Siamese people escaped the social turmoil, racist treatment, and economicexploitation that occurred in other countries controlled by foreigners.

U.S. Imperialism in the Pacific IslandsBecause Americans had fought for their independence from Britain, most of themdisliked the idea of colonizing other nations. However, two groups of Americanswere outspoken in their support of imperialism. One group of ambitious empirebuilders felt the United States should fulfill its destiny as a world power, coloniz-ing like the Europeans. The other group, composed of business interests, welcomedthe opening of new markets and trade possibilities.

The Philippines Change Hands The United States acquired the PhilippineIslands, Puerto Rico, and Guam as a result of the Spanish-American War in 1898.Gaining the Philippines touched off a debate in the United States over imperialism.President McKinley’s views swayed many to his side. He told a group of Methodistministers his intention to “educate Filipinos, and uplift and Christianize them.”

Filipino nationalists were not happy to trade one colonizer—the Spanish—foranother, the Americans. Emilio Aguinaldo (eh•MEE•lyoh AH•gee•NAHL•doh),leader of the Filipino nationalists, claimed that the United States had promisedimmediate independence after the Spanish-American War ended. The nationalistsdeclared independence and established the Philippine Republic.

The United States plunged into a fierce struggle withthe Filipino nationalists in 1899 and defeated them in1902. The United States promised the Philippine peoplethat it would prepare them for self-rule. To achieve thisgoal, the United States built roads, railroads, and hospi-tals, and set up school systems. However, as with otherSoutheast Asian areas, businessmen encouraged grow-ing cash crops such as sugar at the expense of basic foodcrops. This led to food shortages for the Filipinos.

Hawaii Becomes a Republic U.S. interest in Hawaiibegan around the 1790s when Hawaii was a port on theway to China and East India. Beginning about the1820s, sugar trade began to change the Hawaiian econ-omy. Americans established sugar-cane plantations andbecame highly successful. By the mid-19th century,American sugar plantations accounted for 75 percent ofHawaii’s wealth. At the same time, American sugarplanters also gained great political power in Hawaii.

VocabularyFilipino: an inhabi-tant of thePhilippine Islands

364 Chapter 11

▼ Thisphotographshows Americansoldiers fightingthe Filipinonationalists inthe early years ofthe war.


TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Pacific Rim • King Mongkut • Emilio Aguinaldo • annexation • Queen Liliuokalani

USING YOUR NOTES 2. Which Western power do you

think had the most negativeimpact on its colonies?

MAIN IDEAS3. How were the Dutch East India

Trading Company and theBritish East India Companysimilar?

4. What changes took place inSoutheast Asia as a result ofcolonial control?

5. Why did some groups believethat the United States shouldcolonize like the Europeans?

SECTION ASSESSMENT5

DRAWING A BAR GRAPH

Research to find out about the economic situation of Southeast Asian countries today. Rankthe economies and present your findings in a bar graph.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How did the reforms of the

Siamese kings help Siam remain independent?

7. ANALYZING BIAS What does President McKinley’s desireto “uplift and Christianize” the Filipinos suggest about hisperception of the people?

8. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why do you think Sanford Dolewanted the United States to annex Hawaii?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Compose a letter to theeditor expressing a Hawaiian’s view on the U.S.businessmen who pushed for the annexation of Hawaiifor economic gain.

ECONOMICS

CONNECT TO TODAY

Then in 1890, the McKinley Tariff Act passed by the U.S.government set off a crisis in the islands. The act eliminatedthe tariffs on all sugar entering the United States. Now,sugar from Hawaii was no longer cheaper than sugar pro-duced elsewhere. That change cut into the sugar producers’profits. Some U.S. business leaders pushed for annexationof Hawaii, or the adding of the territory to the United States.Making Hawaii a part of the United States meant thatHawaiian sugar could be sold for greater profits becauseAmerican producers got an extra two cents a pound fromthe U.S. government.

About the same time, the new Hawaiian ruler, QueenLiliuokalani (luh•LEE•uh•oh•kuh•LAH•nee), took thethrone. In 1893, she called for a new constitution that wouldincrease her power. It would also restore the political powerof Hawaiians at the expense of wealthy planters. To preventthis from happening, a group of American businessmenhatched a plot to overthrow the Hawaiian monarchy. In1893, Queen Liliuokalani was removed from power.

In 1894, Sanford B. Dole, a wealthy plantation owner andpolitician, was named president of the new Republic ofHawaii. The president of the new republic asked the UnitedStates to annex it. At first, President Cleveland refused. In1898, however, the Republic of Hawaii was annexed by theUnited States.

The period of imperialism was a time of great power anddomination of others by mostly European powers. As the 19thcentury closed, the lands of the world were all claimed. TheEuropean powers now faced each other with competing claims.Their battles would become the focus of the 20th century.

Queen Liliuokalani1838–1917

Liliuokalani was Hawaii’s only queenand the last monarch of Hawaii. Shebitterly regretted her brother’s loss ofpower to American planters andworked to regain power for theHawaiian monarchy. As queen, sherefused to renew a treaty signed byher brother that would have givencommercial privileges to foreignbusinessmen. It was a decision thatwould cost her the crown.

RESEARCH LINKS For more on QueenLiliuokalani, go to classzone.com

Western powersin Southeast Asia


TransformationsAround the Globe,1800–1914

Previewing Main IdeasDuring the 19th and early 20th centuries, Great Britain,

other European nations, the United States, and Japan sought political andeconomic influence over other countries.Geography What foreign powers were involved in China in the late 1800s?

Imperialism brought new religions, philosophies,and technological innovations to East Asia and Latin America. People in theseareas resisted some Western ideas and adopted or adapted others.Geography What geographic factors might explain why certain parts ofChina were under Japanese, Russian, and French influence?

Both China and Japan struggled to deal with foreigninfluence and to modernize. Mexico underwent a revolution that broughtpolitical and economic reforms.Geography Japan built up its navy as a step toward modernization. Whydo you think Japan wanted a strong navy?

REVOLUTION

CULTURAL INTERACTION

EMPIRE BUILDING

368


INTERNET RESOURCES



370 Chapter 12

Why might you seek out orresist foreign influence?You are a local government official in 19th-century China. You are proud ofyour country, which produces everything that its people need. Like otherChinese officials, you discourage contact with foreigners. Nevertheless, peoplefrom the West are eager to trade with China.

Most foreign products are inferior to Chinese goods. However, a fewforeign products are not available in China. You are curious about these items.At the same time, you wonder why foreigners are so eager to trade with Chinaand what they hope to gain.

▲ Finely made lanterns were among the Chinese goods favored by Western merchants.

EXAM I N I NG the I SS U ES

• How might foreign products affect the quality of life inChina both positively and negatively?

• What demands might foreigners make on countries theytrade with?

As a class, discuss these questions. Recall what happened in otherparts of the world when different cultures came into contact for thefirst time. As you read this chapter, compare the decisions variousgovernments made about foreign trade and the reasons they madethose decisions.

394 Chapter 12

TERMS & NAMESFor each term or name below, briefly explain its connection tothe changes in global power between 1800 and 1914.

1. Opium War 5. Monroe Doctrine

2. Boxer Rebellion 6. Spanish-American War

3. Meiji era 7. Benito Juárez

4. Russo-Japanese War 8. Porfirio Díaz

MAIN IDEASChina Resists Outside Influence Section 1 (pages 371–375)

9. Why was China traditionally not interested in trading withthe West?

10. Although Guangxu’s effort at reform failed, what changesdid it finally set in motion?

Modernization in Japan Section 2 (pages 376–381)

11. What events caused Japan to end its isolation and beginto westernize?

12. What were the results of Japan’s growing imperialism atthe end of the 19th century?

U.S. Economic Imperialism Section 3 (pages 382–387)

13. How were Latin American caudillos able to achieve powerand hold on to it?

14. What effects did the Monroe Doctrine and the RooseveltCorollary have on Latin America?

Turmoil and Change in Mexico Section 4 (pages 388–393)

15. What were the major causes of tension between theMexicans and the American colonists who settled in Texas?

16. What roles did Francisco “Pancho” Villa and EmilianoZapata play in the Mexican Revolution?


On a time line, indicate the major events of Santa Anna’smilitary and political career in Mexico. Why do you think hewas able to remain in power for so long?

2. MAKING INFERENCESDo you think that Emperor Guangxu would have been able toput his reforms into practice if the Dowager Empress Cixi hadnot intervened? Why or why not?

3. COMPARINGHow do Japan’s efforts at

westernization in the late 1800s compare with Japan’s culturalborrowing of earlier times?

4. EVALUATING COURSES OF ACTIONConsider what you have learned in this and

other chapters about Latin American colonial history and abouthow countries undergo change. What are the pros and cons ofusing both military strategies and peaceful political means toimprove a country’s economic, social, and political conditions?

REVOLUTION


Chapter12 Assessment

1820s

Fights for independence from Spain

Transformations Around the Globe 395

1. Interact with HistoryOn page 370, you considered whether you would seek out orresist foreign influence. Now that you have learned how severalcountries dealt with foreign influence and what the results were,would you change your recommendation? Discuss your ideas ina small group.


Write a dialogue that might have takenplace between a conservative member of the Dowager EmpressCixi’s court and an official in Emperor Mutsuhito’s Meijigovernment. In the dialogue, have the characters discuss

• the kinds of foreign intervention their countries faced.

• the actions their leaders took to deal with this foreignintervention.

EMPIRE BUILDING


Use the excerpt—which deals with changes made duringthe Meiji era in Japan—and your knowledge of worldhistory to answer questions 1 and 2.Additional Test Practice, pp. S1–S33

In the second and third years of Meiji, the demand forforeign goods remarkably increased. Those who formerlylooked upon them with contempt changed their mindsand even dressed in foreign clothes. Our males adoptedthe European style. They put on fine tall hats instead ofwearing large [queues] on their heads, and took to carryingsticks after discarding their swords. They dressed in coatsof the English fashion and trousers of the American. Theywould only eat from tables and nothing would satisfy thembut French cookery.

Tokyo Times, 1877

1. According to the excerpt, what happened in the second andthird years of Meiji?

A. The Japanese ate only French food.

B. The Japanese wore only European clothes

C. The demand for foreign goods increased.

D. The demand for Japanese goods decreased.

2. Which statement best sums up the way the writer feels aboutthe Japanese adoption of foreign ways?

A. The writer expresses no opinion of the matter.

B. The writer chooses to reserve judgment until a later date.

C. The writer feels that it is a good thing for Japan.

D. The writer feels that it is a bad thing for Japan.

Use the graph and your knowledge of world history toanswer question 3.




Planning a Television News SpecialOn May 5, 1862, badly outnumbered Mexican forcesdefeated the French at the Battle of Puebla. Mexicans stillcelebrate their country’s triumph on the holiday Cinco deMayo. Working in a group with two other students, plan atelevision news special on how Cinco de Mayo is celebratedby Mexicans today. Focus on celebrations in Mexico or inMexican communities in cities in the United States. Considerincluding

• information on the Battle of Puebla.

• an explanation of how and why Cinco de Mayo became anational holiday.

• images of any special activities or traditions that havebecome part of the celebration.

• interviews with participants discussing how they feel aboutCinco de Mayo.

3. In which year did tolls collected on the Panama Canal firstexceed $6 million?

A. 1917 C. 1919

B. 1918 D. 1920



Identifying Problems Use a chart to identify the internal and external problems faced by China in the 1800s and early 1900s.

TAKING NOTES

Internal External

China's Problems



CULTURAL INTERACTIONWestern economic pressureforced China to open to foreigntrade and influence.

China has become anincreasingly important memberof the global community.

• Opium War• extraterritorial

rights• Taiping

Rebellion

• sphere ofinfluence

• Open DoorPolicy

• BoxerRebellion

1

SETTING THE STAGE Out of pride in their ancient culture, the Chinese lookeddown on all foreigners. In 1793, however, the Qing emperor agreed to receive anambassador from England. The Englishman brought gifts of the West’s mostadvanced technology—clocks, globes, musical instruments, and even a hot-airballoon. The emperor was not impressed. In a letter to England’s King GeorgeIII, he stated that the Chinese already had everything they needed. They were notinterested in the “strange objects” and gadgets that the West was offering them.

China and the WestChina was able to reject these offers from the West because it was largely self-sufficient. The basis of this self-sufficiency was China’s healthy agricultural econ-omy. During the 11th century, China had acquired a quick-growing strain of ricefrom Southeast Asia. By the time of the Qing Dynasty, the rice was being grownthroughout the southern part of the country. Around the same time, the 17th and18th centuries, Spanish and Portuguese traders brought maize, sweet potatoes, andpeanuts from the Americas. These crops helped China increase the productivity ofits land and more effectively feed its huge population.

China also had extensive mining and manufacturing industries. Rich salt, tin,silver, and iron mines produced great quantities of ore. The mines provided workfor tens of thousands of people. The Chinese also produced beautiful silks, high-quality cottons, and fine porcelain.

The Tea-Opium Connection Because of their self-sufficiency, the Chinese had lit-tle interest in trading with the West. For decades, the only place they would allowforeigners to do business was at the southern port of Guangzhou (gwahng•joh). Andthe balance of trade at Guangzhou was clearly in China’s favor. This means thatChina earned much more for its exports than it spent on imports.

European merchants were determined to find a product the Chinese wouldbuy in large quantities. Eventually they found one—opium. Opium is a habit-forming narcotic made from the poppy plant. Chinese doctors had been using itto relieve pain for hundreds of years. In the late 18th century, however, Britishmerchants smuggled opium into China for nonmedical use. It took a few decadesfor opium smoking to catch on, but by 1835, as many as 12 million Chinese peo-ple were addicted to the drug.

China Resists Outside Influence

War Breaks Out This growing supply of opium caused great problems for China.The Qing emperor was angry about the situation. In 1839, one of his highest advis-ers wrote a letter to England’s Queen Victoria about the problem:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EBy what right do they [British merchants] . . . use the poisonous drug to injure theChinese people? . . . I have heard that the smoking of opium is very strictly forbidden byyour country; that is because the harm caused by opium is clearly understood. Since it isnot permitted to do harm to your own country, then even less should you let it bepassed on to the harm of other countries.

LIN ZEXU, quoted in China’s Response to the West

The pleas went unanswered, and Britain refused to stop trading opium. Theresult was an open clash between the British and the Chinese—the Opium War of1839. The battles took place mostly at sea. China’s outdated ships were no matchfor Britain’s steam-powered gunboats. As a result, the Chinese suffered a humiliat-ing defeat. In 1842, they signed a peace treaty, the Treaty of Nanjing.

This treaty gave Britain the island of Hong Kong. After signing another treatyin 1844, U.S. and other foreign citizens also gained extraterritorial rights. Underthese rights, foreigners were not subject to Chinese law at Guangzhou and fourother Chinese ports. Many Chinese greatly resented the foreigners and the bustlingtrade in opium they conducted.

Growing Internal ProblemsForeigners were not the greatest of China’s problems in the mid-19th century, how-ever. The country’s own population provided an overwhelming challenge. Thenumber of Chinese grew to 430 million by 1850, a 30 percent gain in only 60 years.Yet, in the same period of time, food production barely increased. As a result,hunger was widespread, even in good years. Many people became discouraged, andopium addiction rose steadily. As their problems mounted, the Chinese began torebel against the Qing Dynasty.

Analyzing IssuesWhat conflicting

British and Chinesepositions led to theOpium War?

Special Economic ZonesToday, as in the late 1800s, the Chinesegovernment limits foreign economic activity toparticular areas of the country. Most of theseareas, called special economic zones (SEZs), arelocated on the coast and waterways ofsoutheastern China. Established in the late1970s, the SEZs are designed to attract, but alsocontrol, foreign investment.

One of the most successful SEZs is Shanghai(pictured at right). By the late 1990s, dozens offoreign companies—including IBM of the UnitedStates, Hitachi of Japan, Siemens of Germany,and Unilever of Great Britain—had investedabout $21 billion in the building and operatingof factories, stores, and other businesses. Thisinvestment had a huge impact on the economyof Shanghai. Throughout the 1990s, it grew bymore than 10 percent each year.

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The Taiping Rebellion During the late 1830s, HongXiuquan (hung shee•oo•choo•ahn), a young manfrom Guangdong province in southern China, beganrecruiting followers to help him build a “HeavenlyKingdom of Great Peace.” In this kingdom, allChinese people would share China’s vast wealth andno one would live in poverty. Hong’s movement wascalled the Taiping Rebellion, from the Chineseword taiping, meaning “great peace.”

By the 1850s, Hong had organized a massivepeasant army of some one million people. Overtime, the Taiping army took control of large areas ofsoutheastern China. Then, in 1853, Hong capturedthe city of Nanjing and declared it his capital. Hongsoon withdrew from everyday life and left familymembers and his trusted lieutenants in charge of thegovernment of his kingdom.

The leaders of the Taiping government, however,constantly feuded among themselves. Also, Qingimperial troops and British and French forces alllaunched attacks against the Taiping. By 1864, thiscombination of internal fighting and outside assaultshad brought down the Taiping government. But China paid a terrible price. At least20 million—and possibly twice that many—people died in the rebellion.

Foreign Influence GrowsThe Taiping Rebellion and several other smaller uprisings put tremendous internalpressure on the Chinese government. And, despite the Treaty of Nanjing, externalpressure from foreign powers was increasing. At the Qing court, stormy debatesraged about how best to deal with these issues. Some government leaders called forreforms patterned on Western ways. Others, however, clung to traditional ways andaccepted change very reluctantly.

Resistance to Change During the last half of the 19th century, one person was incommand at the Qing imperial palace. The Dowager Empress Cixi (tsoo•shee) heldthe reins of power in China from 1862 until 1908 with only one brief gap. Althoughshe was committed to traditional values, the Dowager Empress did support certainreforms. In the 1860s, for example, she backed the self-strengthening movement.This program aimed to update China’s educational system, diplomatic service, andmilitary. Under this program, China set up factories to manufacture steam-poweredgunboats, rifles, and ammunition. The self-strengthening movement had mixedresults, however.

Other Nations Step In Other countries were well aware of China’s continuingproblems. Throughout the late 19th century, many foreign nations took advantageof the situation and attacked China. Treaty negotiations after each conflict gavethese nations increasing control over China’s economy. Many of Europe’s majorpowers and Japan gained a strong foothold in China. This foothold, or sphere ofinfluence, was an area in which the foreign nation controlled trade and investment.(See the map on page 374.)

The United States was a long-time trading partner with China. Americans wor-ried that other nations would soon divide China into formal colonies and shut outAmerican traders. To prevent this occurrence, in 1899 the United States declared


RecognizingEffects

What were theresults of theTaiping Rebellion?

VocabularyA dowager is awidow who holds atitle or propertyfrom her deceasedhusband.

▲ A Taiping forcesurrounds anddestroys an enemyvillage.

374 Chapter 12

the Open Door Policy. This proposed that China’s “doors” be open to merchantsof all nations. Britain and the other European nations agreed. The policy thus pro-tected both U.S. trading rights in China, and China’s freedom from colonization.But the country was still at the mercy of foreign powers.

An Upsurge in Chinese NationalismHumiliated by their loss of power, many Chinese pressed for strong reforms.Among those demanding change was China’s young emperor, Guangxu(gwahng•shoo). In June 1898, Guangxu introduced measures to modernize China.These measures called for reorganizing China’s educational system, strengtheningthe economy, modernizing the military, and streamlining the government.

Most Qing officials saw these innovations as threats to their power. They reactedwith alarm, calling the Dowager Empress back to the imperial court. On her return,she acted with great speed. She placed Guangxu under arrest and took control ofthe government. She then reversed his reforms. Guangxu’s efforts brought about nochange whatsoever. The Chinese people’s frustration with their situation continuedto grow.

The Boxer Rebellion This widespread frustration finally erupted into violence.Poor peasants and workers resented the special privileges granted to foreigners.They also resented Chinese Christians, who had adopted a foreign faith. To demon-strate their discontent, they formed a secret organization called the Society ofRighteous and Harmonious Fists. They soon came to be known as the Boxers.Their campaign against the Dowager Empress’s rule and foreigner privilege wascalled the Boxer Rebellion.

P A C I F I C

O C E A N

Bay ofBengal

YellowSea

Huang

He

Ganges R.

LakeBaikal

LakeBalkhash

SouthChina

Sea

Chang Jiang

Sea

of

Japan

Bangkok

Rangoon

Manila

TokyoBeijing

GuangzhouXiamen

Fuzhou

Ningbo

Shanghai

CHINA

JAPAN

KOREA

MANCHURIA

RUSSIA

MONGOLIA

I N D I A

PHILIPPINES(U.S.)

TAIWAN

BURMA

BHUTAN

SIAM

TIBET

NEPA

L

FRENCH

INDOCHINA

Sakh

alin40°N

140°E

160°E

120°E100°

E

80°E

20°N

60°E

0

0

1,000 Miles

2,000 Kilometers

BritishFrenchGermanJapaneseRussian

Original port openedby Treaty of Nanjing(1842)Treaty port openedby 1900Major city

Spheres of Influence

Treaty Ports

China: Spheres of Influence and Treaty Ports, c. 1900

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Human-Environment Interaction Which countries had spheres

of influence in China?2. Location What foreign power shown on the map had access to

inland China? What geographic feature made this possible?

In the spring of 1900, the Boxers descended onBeijing. Shouting “Death to the foreign devils,”the Boxers surrounded the European section of thecity. They kept it under siege for several months.The Dowager Empress expressed support for theBoxers but did not back her words with militaryaid. In August, a multinational force of 19,000troops marched on Beijing and quickly defeatedthe Boxers.

Despite the failure of the Boxer Rebellion, astrong sense of nationalism had emerged in China.The Chinese people realized that their countrymust resist more foreign intervention. Even moreimportant, they felt that the government mustbecome responsive to their needs.

The Beginnings of Reform At this point, eventhe Qing court realized that China needed to makeprofound changes to survive. In 1905, the Dowager Empress sent a select group ofChinese officials on a world tour to study the operation of different governments.The group traveled to Japan, the United States, Britain, France, Germany, Russia,and Italy. On their return in the spring of 1906, the officials recommended thatChina restructure its government. They based their suggestions on the constitu-tional monarchy of Japan. The empress accepted this recommendation and beganmaking reforms. Although she convened a national assembly within a year, changewas slow. In 1908, the court announced that it would establish a full constitutionalgovernment by 1917.

However, the turmoil in China did not end with these progressive steps. Chinaexperienced unrest for the next four decades as it continued to face internal andexternal threats. China’s neighbor Japan also faced pressure from the West duringthis time. But it responded to this influence in a much different way.


TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Opium War • extraterritorial rights • Taiping Rebellion • sphere of influence • Open Door Policy • Boxer Rebellion

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which created the most

trouble for China, internalproblems or externalproblems? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. Why did the Chinese have little

interest in trading with theWest?

4. What internal problems didChina face prior to the TaipingRebellion?

5. Why did Emperor Guangxu’sefforts at reform andmodernization fail?

SECTION ASSESSMENT1

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why do you think European powers

established spheres of influence in China rather thancolonies, as they did in Africa and other parts of Asia?

7. MAKING INFERENCES What importance did spheres ofinfluence have for China?

8. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING What were thesimilarities and differences between the Taiping Rebellionand the Boxer Rebellion?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write adialogue between two of Dowager Empress Cixi’sadvisers—one arguing for continued isolation, the otherfor openness to foreign influence and trade.


INTERNET ACTIVITY

Use the Internet to find information on special economic zones inChina. Use your findings to create an annotated map showing thelocation of these zones.

Analyzing CausesWhy did the

Boxer Rebellion fail?

INTERNET KEYWORDSspecial economic zones,SEZs

Internal External

▲ A gang of Boxersattacks ChineseChristians.

376 Chapter 12


CULTURAL INTERACTION Japanfollowed the model of Westernpowers by industrializing andexpanding its foreign influence.

Japan’s continued developmentof its own way of life has madeit a leading world power.

• Treaty ofKanagawa

• Meiji era

• Russo-Japanese War

• annexation

2

SETTING THE STAGE In the early 17th century, Japan had shut itself off fromalmost all contact with other nations. Under the rule of the Tokugawa shoguns,Japanese society was very tightly ordered. The shogun parceled out land to thedaimyo, or lords. The peasants worked for and lived under the protection of theirdaimyo and his small army of samurai, or warriors. This rigid feudal systemmanaged to keep the country free of civil war. Peace and relative prosperityreigned in Japan for two centuries.

Japan Ends Its IsolationThe Japanese had almost no contact with the industrialized world during thistime of isolation. They continued, however, to trade with China and with Dutchmerchants from Indonesia. They also had diplomatic contact with Korea.However, trade was growing in importance, both inside and outside Japan.

The Demand for Foreign Trade Beginning in the early 19th century,Westerners tried to convince the Japanese to open their ports to trade. British,French, Russian, and American officials occasionally anchored off the Japanesecoast. Like China, however, Japan repeatedly refused to receive them. Then, in1853, U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry took four ships into what is now TokyoHarbor. These massive black wooden ships powered by steam astounded theJapanese. The ships’ cannons also shocked them. The Tokugawa shogun realizedhe had no choice but to receive Perry and the letter Perry had brought from U.S.president Millard Fillmore.

Fillmore’s letter politely asked the shogun to allow free trade between theUnited States and Japan. Perry delivered it with a threat, however. He wouldcome back with a larger fleet in a year to receive Japan’s reply. That reply wasthe Treaty of Kanagawa of 1854. Under its terms, Japan opened two ports atwhich U.S. ships could take on supplies. After the United States had pushed openthe door, other Western powers soon followed. By 1860, Japan, like China, hadgranted foreigners permission to trade at several treaty ports. It had alsoextended extraterritorial rights to many foreign nations.

Meiji Reform and Modernization The Japanese were angry that the shogun hadgiven in to the foreigners’ demands. They turned to Japan’s young emperor,Mutsuhito (moot•soo•HEE•toh), who seemed to symbolize the country’s sense of

Modernization in Japan

Analyzing Causes List the steps that Japantook towardmodernization and theevents that contributedto its growth as animperialistic power.

TAKING NOTES

Modernization

Imperialism

China• Remains committed

to traditional values• Loses numerous

territorial conflicts• Grants other

nations spheres ofinfluence withinChina

• Finally acceptsnecessity for reform

pride and nationalism. In 1867, the Tokugawa shogun stepped down, ending the mil-itary dictatorships that had lasted since the 12th century. Mutsuhito took control ofthe government. He chose the name Meiji for his reign, which means “enlightenedrule.” Mutsuhito’s reign, which lasted 45 years, is known as the Meiji era.

The Meiji emperor realized that the best way to counter Western influence wasto modernize. He sent diplomats to Europe and North America to study Westernways. The Japanese then chose what they believed to be the best that Western civ-ilization had to offer and adapted it to their own country. They admired Germany’sstrong centralized government, for example. And they used its constitution as amodel for their own. The Japanese also admired the discipline of the German armyand the skill of the British navy. They attempted to imitate these European powersas they modernized their military. Japan adopted the American system of universalpublic education and required that all Japanese children attend school. Their teach-ers often included foreign experts. Students could go abroad to study as well.

The emperor also energetically supported following the Western path of indus-trialization. By the early 20th century, the Japanese economy had become as mod-ern as any in the world. The country built its first railroad line in 1872. The trackconnected Tokyo, the nation’s capital, with the port of Yokohama, 20 miles to thesouth. By 1914, Japan had more than 7,000 miles of railroad. Coal production grewfrom half a million tons in 1875 to more than 21 million tons in 1913. Meanwhile,large, state-supported companies built thousands of factories. Traditional Japaneseindustries, such as tea processing and silk production, expanded to give the coun-try unique products to trade. Developing modern industries, such as shipbuilding,made Japan competitive with the West.

Imperial JapanJapan’s race to modernize paid off. By 1890, the country had several dozen war-ships and 500,000 well-trained, well-armed soldiers. It had become the strongestmilitary power in Asia.

Japan had gained military, political, and economic strength. It then sought toeliminate the extraterritorial rights of foreigners. The Japanese foreign ministerassured foreigners that they could rely on fair treatment in Japan. This was becauseits constitution and legal codes were similar to those of European nations, heexplained. His reasoning was convincing, and in 1894, foreign powers accepted the

377

▲ The Dowager Empress Cixi(1862–1908)

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts1. Contrasting According to the diagram, in what ways did China and Japan

deal differently with Western influence?2. Comparing What similar responses did each country share despite the

different paths they followed?

Japan• Considers

modernization to benecessary

• Borrows and adaptsWestern ways

• Strengthens itseconomic and military power

• Becomes an empirebuilder

China and Japan Confront the West

▲ The Meiji Emperor Mutsuhito

(1867–1912)

• Have well-establishedtraditionalvalues

• Initially resistchange

• Oppose Westernimperialism

Both

abolition of extraterritorial rights for their citizens living in Japan. Japan’s feelingof strength and equality with the Western nations rose.

As Japan’s sense of power grew, the nation also became more imperialistic. Asin Europe, national pride played a large part in Japan’s imperial plans. TheJapanese were determined to show the world that they were a powerful nation.

Japan Attacks China The Japanese first turned their sights to their neighbor,Korea. In 1876, Japan forced Korea to open three ports to Japanese trade. ButChina also considered Korea to be important both as a trading partner and a mili-tary outpost. Recognizing their similar interests in Korea, Japan and China signeda hands-off agreement. In 1885, both countries pledged that they would not sendtheir armies into Korea.

In June 1894, however, China broke that agreement. Rebellions had broken outagainst Korea’s king. He asked China for military help in putting them down.Chinese troops marched into Korea. Japan protested and sent its troops to Korea tofight the Chinese. This Sino-Japanese War lasted just a few months. In that time,Japan drove the Chinese out of Korea, destroyed the Chinese navy, and gained afoothold in Manchuria. In 1895, China and Japan signed a peace treaty. This treatygave Japan its first colonies, Taiwan and the neighboring Pescadores Islands. (Seethe map on page 369.)

Russo-Japanese War Japan’s victory over China changed the world’s balance ofpower. Russia and Japan emerged as the major powers—and enemies—in EastAsia. The two countries soon went to war over Manchuria. In 1903, Japan offeredto recognize Russia’s rights in Manchuria if the Russians would agree to stay outof Korea. But the Russians refused.

In February 1904, Japan launched a surprise attack on Russian ships anchoredoff the coast of Manchuria. In the resulting Russo-Japanese War, Japan drove

MakingInferences

Why did Japan become imperialistic?

Warlike JapanCartoonists often use symbols to identify thecountries, individuals, or even ideas featured intheir cartoons. Russia has long been symbolizedas a bear by cartoonists. Here, the cartoonist usesa polar bear.

Prior to the Meiji era, cartoonists usuallypictured Japan as a fierce samurai. Later, however,Japan often was symbolized by a caricature ofEmperor Mutsuhito. Here, the cartoonist hasexaggerated the emperor’s physical features tomake him look like a bird of prey.

SKILLBUILDER:Interpreting Political Cartoons1. Clarifying How does the cartoonist signify

that Japan is warlike?2. Making Inferences In their fight, Russia

and Japan appear to be crushing someone.Who do you think this might be?

378 Chapter 12

VocabularySino: a prefix mean-ing “Chinese”

Russian troops out of Korea and captured most of Russia’sPacific fleet. It also destroyed Russia’s Baltic fleet, which hadsailed all the way around Africa to participate in the war.

In 1905, Japan and Russia began peace negotiations. U.S.president Theodore Roosevelt helped draft the treaty, whichthe two nations signed on a ship off Portsmouth, NewHampshire. This agreement, the Treaty of Portsmouth, gaveJapan the captured territories. It also forced Russia to with-draw from Manchuria and to stay out of Korea.

Japanese Occupation of Korea After defeating Russia,Japan attacked Korea with a vengeance. In 1905, it madeKorea a protectorate. Japan sent in “advisers,” who grabbedmore and more power from the Korean government. TheKorean king was unable to rally international support for hisregime. In 1907, he gave up control of the country. Withintwo years the Korean Imperial Army was disbanded. In1910, Japan officially imposed annexation on Korea, orbrought that country under Japan’s control.

The Japanese were harsh rulers. They shut down Koreannewspapers and took over Korean schools. There theyreplaced the study of Korean language and history withJapanese subjects. They took land away from Korean farm-ers and gave it to Japanese settlers. They encouragedJapanese businessmen to start industries in Korea, but for-bade Koreans from going into business. Resentment of Japan’s repressive rulegrew, helping to create a strong Korean nationalist movement.

The rest of the world clearly saw the brutal results of Japan’s imperialism.Nevertheless, the United States and other European countries largely ignored whatwas happening in Korea. They were too busy with their own imperialistic aims, asyou will learn in Section 3.


TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Treaty of Kanagawa • Meiji era • Russo-Japanese War • annexation

USING YOUR NOTES2. Do you think that Japan could

have become an imperialisticpower if it had not modern-ized? Why or why not?

MAIN IDEAS3. How was the Treaty of

Kanagawa similar to thetreaties that China signed withvarious European powers?

4. What steps did the Meijiemperor take to modernizeJapan?

5. How did Japan begin its questto build an empire?

SECTION ASSESSMENT2

CREATING A SYMBOL

Conduct research to discover the name that Akihito, the present emperor of Japan, chose forhis reign. Then create a symbol that expresses the meaning of this name.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. ANALYZING CAUSES What influences do you think were

most important in motivating Japan to build its empire?

7. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS In your view, wasJapan’s aggressive imperialism justified? Support youranswer with information from the text.

8. ANALYZING BIAS How did Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War both explode and create stereotypes?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY In the role of aJapanese official, write a letter to the government of aWestern power explaining why you think it is necessaryfor your country to build an empire.

EMPIRE BUILDING

CONNECT TO TODAY

Western Views of the EastThe Japanese victory over theRussians in 1905 exploded a strongWestern myth. Many Westernersbelieved that white people were asuperior race. The overwhelmingsuccess of European colonialism andimperialism in the Americas, Africa,and Asia had reinforced this belief.But the Japanese had shownEuropeans that people of other raceswere their equals in modern warfare.

Unfortunately, Japan’s militaryvictory led to a different form ofWestern racism. Influenced by theideas of Germany’s Emperor WilhelmII, the West imagined the Japaneseuniting with the Chinese andconquering Europe. The resultingracist Western fear of what was calledthe yellow peril influenced worldpolitics for many decades.

Vocabularyprotectorate: acountry under thepartial control andprotection ofanother nation

Modernization

Imperialism

ClarifyingHow did Japan

treat the Koreansafter it annexed thecountry?

380 Chapter 12

Japanese WoodblockPrintingWoodblock printing in Japan evolved from black-and-white prints createdby Buddhists in the 700s. By the late 1700s, artists learned how to createmulticolor prints.

Woodblock prints could be produced quickly and in large quantities,so they were cheaper than paintings. In the mid-1800s, a Japanese personcould buy a woodblock print for about the same price as a bowl ofnoodles. As a result, woodblock prints like those shown here became awidespread art form. The most popular subjects included actors, beautifulwomen, urban life, and landscapes.

RESEARCH LINKS For more on Japanese woodblock printing, go to classzone.com

▲ Naniwaya OkitaThe artist Kitagawa Utamaro created many prints of attractivewomen. This print shows Naniwaya Okita, a famous beauty ofthe late 1700s. Her long face, elaborate hairstyle, and many-colored robes were all considered part of her beauty.

▲ Carving the BlockThese photographs show a modern artistcarving a block for the black ink. (The artistmust carve a separate block for each colorthat will be in the final print.)

Carving the raised image requiresprecision and patience. For example, DavidBull, the artist in the photographs, makesfive cuts to create each strand of hair. Oneslip of the knife, and the block will beruined.


1. Making Inferences What personalqualities and skills would an artistneed to be good at makingwoodblock prints?


2. Forming and Supporting OpinionsHokusai’s print of the wave, shownabove, remains very popular today.Why do you think this image appealsto modern people?

▲ Under the Wave off KanagawaKatsushika Hokusai was one of the mostfamous of all Japanese printmakers. This sceneis taken from his well-known series Thirty-SixViews of Mount Fuji. Mount Fuji, which manyJapanese considered sacred, is the small peakin the background of this scene.

▲ PrintingAfter the carved block is inked, the artist presses paper on it, printing apartial image. He or she repeats this stage for each new color. The artistmust ensure that every color ends up in exactly the right place, so thatno blocks of color extend beyond the outlines or fall short of them.

381

FollowingChronologicalOrder Use a time lineto list the major eventsin U.S. involvement inLatin America.

TAKING NOTES

1823 1898 1903 1914

382 Chapter 12


EMPIRE BUILDING The UnitedStates put increasing economicand political pressure on LatinAmerica during the 19thcentury.

This policy set the stage for20th-century relations betweenLatin America and the UnitedStates.

• caudillo• Monroe

Doctrine• José Martí• Spanish-

American War

• PanamaCanal

• RooseveltCorollary

3

SETTING THE STAGE Latin America’s long struggle to gain independencefrom colonial domination between the late 18th and the mid-19th centuries leftthe new nations in shambles. Farm fields had been neglected and were overrunwith weeds. Buildings in many cities bore the scars of battle. Some cities hadbeen left in ruins. The new nations of Latin America faced a struggle for eco-nomic and political recovery that was every bit as difficult as their struggle forindependence had been.

Latin America After IndependencePolitical independence meant little for most citizens of the new Latin Americannations. The majority remained poor laborers caught up in a cycle of poverty.

Colonial Legacy Both before and after independence, most Latin Americansworked for large landowners. The employers paid their workers with vouchersthat could be used only at their own supply stores. Since wages were low andprices were high, workers went into debt. Their debt accumulated and passedfrom one generation to the next. In this system known as peonage, “free” work-ers were little better than slaves.

Landowners, on the other hand, only got wealthier after independence. Manynew Latin American governments took over the lands owned by native peoplesand by the Catholic Church. Then they put those lands up for sale. Wealthylandowners were the only people who could afford to buy them, and theysnapped them up. But as one Argentinean newspaper reported, “Their greed forland does not equal their ability to use it intelligently.” The unequal distributionof land and the landowners’ inability to use it effectively combined to preventsocial and economic development in Latin America.

Political Instability Political instability was another widespread problem in19th-century Latin America. Many Latin American army leaders had gainedfame and power during their long struggle for independence. They often contin-ued to assert their power. They controlled the new nations as military dictators,or caudillos (kow•DEE•yohz). They were able to hold on to power because theywere backed by the military. By the mid-1800s, nearly all the countries of LatinAmerica were ruled by caudillos. One typical caudillo was Juan Vicente Gómez.

U.S. Economic Imperialism

He was a ruthless man who ruled Venezuela for nearly 30 years after seiz-ing power in 1908. “All Venezuela is my cattle ranch,” he once boasted.

There were some exceptions, however. Reform-minded presi-dents, such as Argentina’s Domingo Sarmiento, made strong com-mitments to improving education. During Sarmiento’s presidency,between 1868 and 1874, the number of students in Argentina dou-bled. But such reformers usually did not stay in office long. Moreoften than not, a caudillo, supported by the army, seized control ofthe government.

The caudillos faced little opposition. The wealthy landownersusually supported them because they opposed giving power to thelower classes. In addition, Latin Americans had gained little experiencewith democracy under European colonial rule. So, the dictatorship of acaudillo did not seem unusual to them. But even when caudillos were not inpower, most Latin Americans still lacked a voice in the government. Votingrights—and with them, political power—were restricted to the relatively few mem-bers of the upper and middle classes who owned property or could read.

Economies Grow Under Foreign InfluenceWhen colonial rule ended in Latin America in the early 1800s, the new nationswere no longer restricted to trading with colonial powers. Britain and, later, theUnited States became Latin America’s main trading partners.

Old Products and New Markets Latin America’s economies continued todepend on exports, no matter whom they were trading with. As during the colonialera, each country concentrated on one or two products. With advances in technol-ogy, however, Latin America’s exports grew. The development of the steamship andthe building of railroads in the 19th century, for example, greatly increased LatinAmerican trade. Toward the end of the century, the invention of refrigerationhelped increase Latin America’s exports. The sale of beef, fruits and vegetables,and other perishable goods soared.

But foreign nations benefited far more from the increased trade than LatinAmerica did. In exchange for their exports, Latin Americans imported Europeanand North American manufactured goods. As a result, they had little reason todevelop their own manufacturing industries. And as long as Latin America remainedunindustrialized, it could not play a leading role on the world economic stage.

IdentifyingProblems

What difficul-ties did lower-class Latin Amer-icans continue to face afterindependence?

▲ Argentinereformer DomingoSarmiento

▼ Workers unloadcoffee beans at aplantation in Brazil.Until recently,Brazil’s economydepended heavilyon the export ofcoffee.

Analyzing MotivesWhy did the

United States jointhe Cuban war forindependence?

Outside Investment and Interference Furthermore, Latin American countriesused little of their export income to build roads, schools, or hospitals. Nor did theyfund programs that would help them become self-sufficient. Instead, they oftenborrowed money at high interest rates to develop facilities for their export indus-tries. Countries such as Britain, France, the United States, and Germany were will-ing lenders. The Latin American countries often were unable to pay back theirloans, however. In response, foreign lenders sometimes threatened to collect thedebt by force. At other times, they threatened to take over the facilities they hadfunded. In this way, foreign companies gained control of many Latin Americanindustries. This began a new age of economic colonialism in Latin America.

A Latin American EmpireLong before the United States had any economic interest inLatin American countries, it realized that it had strong linkswith its southern neighbors. Leaders of the United Stateswere well aware that their country’s security depended onthe security of Latin America.

The Monroe Doctrine Most Latin American colonies hadgained their independence by the early 1800s. But theirposition was not secure. Many Latin Americans feared thatEuropean countries would try to reconquer the newrepublics. The United States, a young nation itself, fearedthis too. So, in 1823, President James Monroe issued whatcame to be called the Monroe Doctrine. This documentstated that “the American continents . . . are henceforth notto be considered as subjects for future colonization by anyEuropean powers.” Until 1898, though, the United Statesdid little to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. Cuba provided areal testing ground.

Cuba Declares Independence The Caribbean island ofCuba was one of Spain’s last colonies in the Americas. In1868, Cuba declared its independence and fought a ten-yearwar against Spain. In 1878, with the island in ruins, theCubans gave up the fight. But some Cubans continued toseek independence from Spain. In 1895, José Martí, a writerwho had been exiled from Cuba by the Spanish, returned tolaunch a second war for Cuban independence. Martí waskilled early in the fighting, but the Cubans battled on.

By the mid-1890s, the United States had developed sub-stantial business holdings in Cuba. Therefore it had an eco-nomic stake in the fate of the country. In addition, the Spanishhad forced many Cuban civilians into concentration camps.Americans objected to the Spanish brutality. In 1898, theUnited States joined the Cuban war for independence. Thisconflict, which became known as the Spanish-AmericanWar, lasted about four months. U.S. forces launched theirfirst attack not on Cuba but on the Philippine Islands, aSpanish colony thousands of miles away in the Pacific.Unprepared for a war on two fronts, the Spanish militaryquickly collapsed. (See the maps on the opposite page.)

José Martí 1853–1895

José Martí was only 15 in 1868 whenhe first began speaking out forCuban independence. In 1871, theSpanish colonial governmentpunished Martí’s open oppositionwith exile. Except for a brief return tohis homeland in 1878, Martíremained in exile for about 20 years.For most of this time, he lived inNew York City. There he continuedhis career as a writer and arevolutionary. “Life on earth is ahand-to-hand combat . . . betweenthe law of love and the law of hate,”he proclaimed.

While in New York, Martí helpedraise an army to fight for Cubanindependence. He died on thebattlefield only a month after the warbegan. But Martí’s cry for freedomechoes in his essays and poems andin folk songs about him that are stillsung throughout the world.

RESEARCH LINKS For more on JoséMartí, go to classzone.com

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In 1901, Cuba became an independent nation, at least in name. However, theUnited States installed a military government and continued to exert control overCuban affairs. This caused tremendous resentment among many Cubans, who hadassumed that the United States’ aim in intervening was to help Cuba become trulyindependent. The split that developed between the United States and Cuba at thistime continues to keep these close neighbors miles apart more than a century later.

After its defeat in the Spanish-American War, Spain turned over the last of itscolonies. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines became U.S. territories. Havingbecome the dominant imperial power in Latin America, the United States next setits sights on Panama.

Connecting the Oceans Latin Americans were beginning to regard the UnitedStates as the political and economic “Colossus of the North.” The United Stateswas a colossus in geographic terms too. By the 1870s, the transcontinental railroadconnected its east and west coasts. But land travel still was time-consuming anddifficult. And sea travel between the coasts involved a trip of about 13,000 milesaround the tip of South America. If a canal could be dug across a narrow sectionof Central America, however, the coast-to-coast journey would be cut in half.

The United States had been thinking about such a project since the early 19thcentury. In the 1880s, a French company tried—but failed—to build a canal acrossPanama. Despite this failure, Americans remained enthusiastic about the canal.And no one was more enthusiastic than President Theodore Roosevelt, who led thenation from 1901 to 1909. In 1903, Panama was a province of Colombia. Rooseveltoffered that country $10 million plus a yearly payment for the right to build a canal.When the Colombian government demanded more money, the United States


VocabularyA colossus is a hugestatue that towersover the surround-ing area.

SouthChina

SeaPACIFICOCEAN

April 25–April 30, 1898

May

1, 1898

Hong Kong (Br.)

Manila

Luzon

Mindanao

Mindoro

NegrosPalawan

Samar

Panay

PHILIPPINE

ISLANDS

20°N

120°

E

0

0

400 Miles

800 Kilometers

U.S. forcesBattle

The Spanish-American War,1898: the Philippines

C a r i b b e a n S e a

ATLANTICOCEAN

June 14–July 1, 1898

May , 1898

Tampa

Havana

Santiago

BAHAM

AS

(Br.)

C U B A

DOMINICANREPUBLICHAITI

JAMAICA(Br.)

PUERTORICO

FLORIDA

20°N

80°W

U.S. forcesU.S. blockadeSpanish forcesBattle

0

0

400 Miles

800 Kilometers

The Spanish-American War,1898: the Caribbean

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Location Where is Cuba located in relation to the United States?2. Location In the war, the United States launched its first attack against the Philippine

Islands. Why might this have surprised the Spanish?

Panama CanalThe Panama Canal is considered one of the world’sgreatest engineering accomplishments. Its completionchanged the course of history by opening a worldwidetrade route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Asshown in the diagram below, on entering the canal, shipsare raised about 85 feet in a series of three locks. Onleaving the canal, ships are lowered to sea level byanother series of three locks.

The canal also had a lasting effect on othertechnologies. Since the early 1900s, ships have been built to dimensions that will allow them to pass throughthe canal’s locks.

RESEARCH LINKS For more on the Panama Canal, go to classzone.com

1. Identifying Problems Whatdifficulties did workers face inconstructing the canal?


2. Evaluating Decisions In the morethan 90 years since it was built, doyou think that the benefits of thePanama Canal to world trade haveoutweighed the costs in time, money,and human life? Explain your answer.

• The canal took ten years tobuild (1904–1914) and cost$380 million.

• During the construction ofthe canal, workers dug upmore than 200 million cubicyards of earth.

• Thousands of workers diedfrom diseases while buildingthe canal.

• The trip from San Franciscoto New York City via thePanama Canal is about9,000 miles shorter than thetrip around South America.

• The 51-mile trip through thecanal takes 8 to 10 hours.

• The canal now handlesmore than 13,000 ships ayear from around 70 nationscarrying 192 million shorttons of cargo.

• Panama took control of the canal on December 31, 1999.

Canal Facts

Sea level

51 miles

Atlantic Ocean Pacific Ocean

Gatún Lake

Gatún Locks Gaillard Cut

Miraflores Lake

Pedro Miguel Locks

Miraflores Locks85' 85'

▲ This cross-section shows thedifferent elevations and locks thata ship moves through on the tripthrough the canal.

▲ Ships passing through the Pedro Miguel Locks

Panama Canal Cross-section

ColónCristóbal

BalboaPanama City

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

GatúnLake

MaddenLake

MirafloresLake

Chagres R.

Gaillard Cut

GatúnDam

MaddenDam

GatúnLocks

MirafloresLocks

Pedro MiguelLocks

80°W

9°N

Canal routeCanal Zone

20 Kilometers 0

0 10 Miles

Panama Canal

386


responded by encouraging a revolution in Panama. The Panamanians had been try-ing to break away from Colombia for almost a century. In 1903, with help from theUnited States Navy, they won their country’s independence. In gratitude, Panamagave the United States a ten-mile-wide zone in which to build a canal.

For the next decade, American engineers contended with floods and witheringheat to build the massive waterway. However, their greatest challenge was the disease-carrying insects that infested the area. The United States began a campaignto destroy the mosquitoes that carried yellow fever and malaria, and the rats thatcarried bubonic plague. The effort to control these diseases was eventually suc-cessful. Even so, thousands of workers died during construction of the canal. ThePanama Canal finally opened in 1914. Ships from around the world soon beganto use it. Latin America had become a crossroads of worldtrade. And the United States controlled the tollgate.

The Roosevelt Corollary The building of the Panama Canalwas only one way that the United States expanded its influencein Latin America in the early 20th century. Its presence inCuba and its large investments in many Central and SouthAmerican countries strengthened its foothold. To protect thoseeconomic interests, in 1904, President Roosevelt issued acorollary, or extension, to the Monroe Doctrine. TheRoosevelt Corollary gave the United States the right to be “aninternational police power” in the Western Hemisphere.

The United States used the Roosevelt Corollary many timesin the following years to justify U.S. intervention in LatinAmerica. U.S. troops occupied some countries for decades.Many Latin Americans protested this intervention, but theywere powerless to stop their giant neighbor to the north. TheU.S. government simply turned a deaf ear to their protests. Itcould not ignore the rumblings of revolution just over its bor-der with Mexico, however. You will learn about this revolutionin Section 4.


Analyzing MotivesWhy was the

United States sointerested in build-ing the PanamaCanal?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • caudillo • Monroe Doctrine • José Martí • Spanish-American War • Panama Canal • Roosevelt Corollary

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which event do you think was

most beneficial to LatinAmerica? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. Why did the gap between rich

and poor in Latin America growafter independence?

4. What economic gains andsetbacks did Latin Americancountries experience afterindependence?

5. Why was the United States sointerested in the security ofLatin America?

SECTION ASSESSMENT3

CREATING A DATAFILE

Conduct research to find statistics on the ships and cargo that travel through the PanamaCanal. Use your findings to create a datafile for usage of the canal in a recent year.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why do you think upper-class Latin

Americans favored governments run by caudillos?

7. FORMING OPINIONS Do you think that U.S. imperialismwas more beneficial or harmful to Latin American people?Explain.

8. CONTRASTING How was the principle of the RooseveltCorollary different from that of the Monroe Doctrine?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Assume the role of aCuban fighting for independence from Spain. Design apolitical poster that shows your feelings about the UnitedStates joining the struggle for independence.

REVOLUTION

CONNECT TO TODAY

1823 1898 1903 1914

▼ This cartoon suggests that theRoosevelt Corollaryturned theCaribbean into aU.S. wading pool.

Comparing Use a chartto compare the majoraccomplishments of theMexican leadersdiscussed in this section.

TAKING NOTES

LeaderMajor

Accomplishment

388 Chapter 12


REVOLUTION Political,economic, and socialinequalities in Mexico triggereda period of revolution andreform.

Mexico has moved towardpolitical democracy and is astrong economic force in theAmericas.

• Antonio Lópezde Santa Anna

• Benito Juárez• La Reforma• Porfirio Díaz

• FranciscoMadero

• “Pancho” Villa• Emiliano

Zapata

4

SETTING THE STAGE The legacy of Spanish colonialism and long-term polit-ical instability that plagued the newly emerging South American nations causedproblems for Mexico as well. Mexico, however, had a further issue to contendwith—a shared border with the United States. The “Colossus of the North,” as theUnited States was known in Latin America, wanted to extend its territory all theway west to the Pacific Ocean. But most of the lands in the American Southwestbelonged to Mexico.

Santa Anna and the Mexican WarDuring the early 19th century, no one dominated Mexican political life more thanAntonio López de Santa Anna. Santa Anna played a leading role in Mexico’sfight for independence from Spain in 1821. In 1829, he fought against Spainagain as the European power tried to regain control of Mexico. Then, in 1833,Santa Anna became Mexico’s president.

One of Latin America’s most powerful caudillos, Santa Anna was a cleverpolitician. He would support a measure one year and oppose it the next if hethought that would keep him in power. His policy seemed to work. Between 1833and 1855, Santa Anna was Mexico’s president four times. He gave up the presi-dency twice, however, to serve Mexico in a more urgent cause—leading theMexican army in an effort to retain the territory of Texas.

The Texas Revolt In the 1820s, Mexico encouragedAmerican citizens to move to the Mexican territory ofTexas to help populate the country. Thousands ofEnglish-speaking colonists, or Anglos, answeredthe call. In return for inexpensive land, theypledged to follow the laws of Mexico. As theAnglo population grew, though, tensions devel-oped between the colonists and Mexico over sev-eral issues, including slavery and religion. As aresult, many Texas colonists wanted greater self-government. But when Mexico refused to grantthis, Stephen Austin, a leading Anglo, encouraged arevolt against Mexico in 1835.

Turmoil and Change in Mexico

▼ Mexican leaderSanta Anna

Santa Anna led Mexican forces north to try to hold on to the rebellious territory.He won a few early battles, including a bitter fight at the Alamo, a mission in SanAntonio. However, his fortunes changed at the Battle of San Jacinto. His troopswere defeated and he was captured. Texan leader Sam Houston released SantaAnna after he promised to respect the independence of Texas. When Santa Annareturned to Mexico in 1836, he was quickly ousted from power.

War and the Fall of Santa Anna Santa Anna regained power, though, and foughtagainst the United States again. In 1845, the United States annexed Texas. OutragedMexicans considered this an act of aggression. In a dispute over the border, theUnited States invaded Mexico. Santa Anna’s army fought valiantly, but U.S. troopsdefeated them after two years of war. In 1848, the two nations signed the Treaty ofGuadalupe Hidalgo. The United States received the northern third of what was thenMexico, including California and the American Southwest. Santa Anna went intoexile. He returned as dictator one final time, however, in 1853. After his final fall,in 1855, he remained in exile for almost 20 years. When he returned to Mexico in1874, he was poor, blind, powerless, and essentially forgotten.

Juárez and La ReformaDuring the mid-19th century, as Santa Anna’s power rose and fell, a liberalreformer, Benito Juárez (HWAHR•ehz), strongly influenced the politics ofMexico. Juárez was Santa Anna’s complete opposite in background as well as ingoals. Santa Anna came from a well-off Creole family. Juárez was a poor ZapotecIndian who was orphaned at the age of three. While Santa Anna put his own per-sonal power first, Juárez worked primarily to serve his country.

Juárez Rises to Power Ancestry and racial background were important elementsof political power and economic success in 19th-century Mexico. For that reason,the rise of Benito Juárez was clearly due to his personal leadership qualities. Juárezwas raised on a small farm in the Mexican state of Oaxaca. When he was 12, hemoved to the city of Oaxaca. He started going to school at age 15, and in 1829, heentered a newly opened state-run university. He received a law degree in 1831.


ContrastingIn what ways

did Benito Juárezdiffer from SantaAnna?

Santa Anna’sarmy met withstrong resistancefrom the defendersof the Alamo.

▲

390 Chapter 12


What doesPonciano Arriagathink is Mexico’sgreatest problem?

He then returned to the city of Oaxaca, where he opened a law office. Most ofhis clients were poor people who could not otherwise have afforded legal assis-tance. Juárez gained a reputation for honesty, integrity, hard work, and good judg-ment. He was elected to the city legislature and then rose steadily in power.Beginning in 1847, he served as governor of the state of Oaxaca.

Juárez Works for Reform Throughout the late 1840s and early 1850s, Juárezworked to start a liberal reform movement. He called this movement La Reforma.Its major goals were redistribution of land, separation of church and state, andincreased educational opportunities for the poor. In 1853, however, Santa Annasent Juárez and other leaders of La Reforma into exile.

Just two years later, a rebellion against Santa Anna brought down his govern-ment. Juárez and other exiled liberal leaders returned to Mexico to deal with theircountry’s tremendous problems. As in other Latin American nations, rich landown-ers kept most other Mexicans in a cycle of debt and poverty. Liberal leaderPonciano Arriaga described how these circumstances led to great problems forboth poor farmers and the government:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EThere are Mexican landowners who occupy . . . an extent of land greater than the areas ofsome of our sovereign states, greater even than that of one of several European states. Inthis vast area, much of which lies idle, deserted, abandoned . . . live four or five millionMexicans who know no other industry than agriculture, yet are without land or the meansto work it, and who cannot emigrate in the hope of bettering their fortunes. . . . How cana hungry, naked, miserable people practice popular government? How can we proclaimthe equal rights of men and leave the majority of the nation in [this condition]?

PONCIANO ARRIAGA, speech to the Constitutional Convention, 1856–1857

Not surprisingly, Arriaga’s ideas and those of the other liberals in governmentthreatened most conservative upper-class Mexicans. Many conservatives responded

Juárez: Symbol of MexicanIndependenceIn 1948, more than 75 years after BenitoJuárez’s death, Mexican mural painter JoséClemente Orozco celebrated him in the frescoJuárez, the Church and the Imperialists. Aportrait of Juárez, which accentuates his Indianfeatures, dominates the work. The supporters ofEmperor Maximilian, carrying his body, areshown below Juárez. To either side of Juárez,the soldiers of Mexican independence prepareto attack these representatives of imperialism.By constructing the fresco in this way, Orozcoseemed to suggest that Juárez was both asymbol of hope and a rallying cry for Mexicanindependence.

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources1. Contrasting How is Orozco’s portrayal of the

imperialists different from his portrayal of the forces of independence?

2. Drawing Conclusions Based on this fresco, how do you think Orozco felt about Benito Juárez?

by launching a rebellion against the liberal government in 1858. They enjoyed someearly successes in battle and seized control of Mexico City. The liberals kept up thefight from their headquarters in the city of Veracruz. Eventually the liberals gainedthe upper hand and, after three years of bitter civil war, they defeated the rebels.Juárez became president of the reunited country after his election in 1861.

The French Invade Mexico The end of the civil war did not bring an end toMexico’s troubles, though. Exiled conservatives plotted with some Europeans toreconquer Mexico. In 1862, French ruler Napoleon III responded by sending alarge army to Mexico. Within 18 months, France had taken over the country.Napoleon appointed Austrian Archduke Maximilian to rule Mexico as emperor.Juárez and other Mexicans fought against French rule. After five years under siege,the French decided that the struggle was too costly. In 1867, Napoleon ordered thearmy to withdraw from Mexico. Maximilian was captured and executed.

Juárez was reelected president of Mexico in 1867. He returned to the reforms hehad proposed more than ten years earlier. He began rebuilding the country, which hadbeen shattered during years of war. He promoted trade withforeign countries, the opening of new roads, the building ofrailroads, and the establishment of a telegraph service. He setup a national education system separate from that run by theCatholic Church. In 1872, Juárez died of a heart attack. Butafter half a century of civil strife and chaos, he left his coun-try a legacy of relative peace, progress, and reform.

Porfirio Díaz and “Order and Progress”Juárez’s era of reform did not last long, however. In the mid-1870s, a new caudillo, Porfirio Díaz, came to power. LikeJuárez, Díaz was an Indian from Oaxaca. He rose through thearmy and became a noted general in the civil war and the fightagainst the French. Díaz expected to be rewarded with a gov-ernment position for the part he played in the French defeat.Juárez refused his request, however. After this, Díaz opposedJuárez. In 1876, Díaz took control of Mexico by ousting thepresident. He had the support of the military, whose power hadbeen reduced during and after the Juárez years. Indians andsmall landholders also supported him, because they thoughthe would work for more radical land reform.

During the Díaz years, elections became meaningless.Díaz offered land, power, or political favors to anyone whosupported him. He terrorized many who refused to supporthim, ordering them to be beaten or put in jail. Using suchstrong-arm methods, Díaz managed to remain in poweruntil 1911. Over the years, Díaz used a political sloganadapted from a rallying cry of the Juárez era. Juárez hadcalled for “Liberty, Order, and Progress.” Díaz, however,wanted merely “Order and Progress.”

Díaz’s use of dictatorial powers ensured that there wasorder in Mexico. But the country saw progress under Díaztoo. Railroads expanded, banks were built, the currency sta-bilized, and foreign investment grew. Mexico seemed to bea stable, prospering country. Appearances were deceiving,

Porfirio Díaz 1830–1915

To control all the various groups inMexican society, Porfirio Díaz adoptedan approach called pan o palo—“bread or the club.” The “bread” heprovided took many forms. Topotential political opponents, heoffered positions in his government. Tobusiness leaders, he gave hugesubsidies or the chance to operate asmonopolies in Mexico. And he wonthe support of the Church and wealthylandowners simply by promising notto meddle in their affairs. Those whoturned down the offer of bread andcontinued to oppose Díaz soon feltthe blow of the club. Thousands werekilled, beaten, or thrown into jail.

His use of the club, Díaz admitted,was harsh and cruel—but alsonecessary if Mexico was to havepeace. That peace, Díaz argued,enabled the country to progresseconomically. “If there was cruelty,” hesaid, “results have justified it.”


however. The wealthy acquired more and more land, which they did not put to gooduse. As a result, food costs rose steadily. Most Mexicans remained poor farmersand workers, and they continued to grow poorer.

Revolution and Civil WarIn the early 1900s, Mexicans from many walks of life began to protest Díaz’s harshrule. Idealistic liberals hungered for liberty. Farm laborers hungered for land.Workers hungered for fairer wages and better working conditions. Even some ofDíaz’s handpicked political allies spoke out for reform. A variety of political par-ties opposed to Díaz began to form. Among the most powerful was a party led by

Francisco Madero.

Madero Begins the Revolution Born into one of Mexico’sten richest families, Francisco Madero was educated in theUnited States and France. He believed in democracy andwanted to strengthen its hold in Mexico. Madero announcedhis candidacy for president of Mexico early in 1910. Soonafterward, Díaz had him arrested. From exile in the UnitedStates, Madero called for an armed revolution against Díaz.

The Mexican Revolution began slowly. Leaders arose indifferent parts of Mexico and gathered their own armies. Inthe north, Francisco “Pancho” Villa became immenselypopular. He had a bold Robin Hood policy of taking moneyfrom the rich and giving it to the poor. South of MexicoCity, another strong, popular leader, Emiliano Zapata,raised a powerful revolutionary army. Like Villa, Zapatacame from a poor family. He was determined to see thatland was returned to peasants and small farmers. He wantedthe laws reformed to protect their rights. “Tierra yLibertad” (“Land and Liberty”) was his battle cry. Villa,Zapata, and other armed revolutionaries won important vic-tories against Díaz’s army. By the spring of 1911, Díazagreed to step down. He called for new elections.

Mexican Leaders Struggle for Power Madero waselected president in November 1911. However, his policieswere seen as too liberal by some and not revolutionaryenough by others. Some of those who had supportedMadero, including Villa and Zapata, took up arms againsthim. In 1913, realizing that he could not hold on to power,Madero resigned. The military leader General VictorianoHuerta then took over the presidency. Shortly after, Maderowas assassinated, probably on Huerta’s orders.

Huerta was unpopular with many people, including Villaand Zapata. These revolutionary leaders allied themselveswith Venustiano Carranza, another politician who wanted tooverthrow Huerta. Their three armies advanced, seizing theMexican countryside from Huerta’s forces and approachingthe capital, Mexico City. They overthrew Huerta only 15months after he took power.

Carranza took control of the government and then turnedhis army on his former revolutionary allies. Both Villa andZapata continued to fight. In 1919, however, Carranza lured

Emiliano Zapata 1879–1919Shortly after Francisco Madero tookoffice, he met with Emiliano Zapata,one of his leading supporters.Madero’s reluctance to quickly enactreal land reform angered Zapata. Heleft the meeting convinced thatMadero was not the man to carrythrough the Mexican Revolution.

A few days later, Zapata issued thePlan of Ayala. This called for theremoval of Madero and theappointment of a new president. Theplan also demanded that the largelandowners give up a third of theirland for redistribution to the peasants.Zapata’s rallying cry, “Land andLiberty,” grew out of the Plan of Ayala.

When Venustiano Carranza ordered Zapata’s assassination, heexpected Zapata’s revolutionary ideason land reform to die with him.However, they lived on and wereenacted by Alvaro Obregón, afollower of Zapata, who seized powerfrom Carranza in 1920.

RecognizingEffects

What effectsdid Díaz’s rule haveon Mexico?

INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a shortbiographical dictionary of leaders of the Mexican Revolution. Go toclasszone.com for your research.

392 Chapter 12


Zapata into a trap and murdered him. With Zapata’s death, the civil war also cameto an end. More than a million Mexicans had lost their lives.

The New Mexican Constitution Carranza began a revision of Mexico’s constitu-tion. It was adopted in 1917. A revolutionary document, that constitution is still ineffect today. As shown in the chart above, it promoted education, land reforms, andworkers’ rights. Carranza did not support the final version of the constitution, how-ever, and in 1920, he was overthrown by one of his generals, Alvaro Obregón.

Although Obregón seized power violently, he did not remain a dictator. Instead,he supported the reforms the constitution called for, particularly land reform. Healso promoted public education. Mexican public schools taught a common lan-guage—Spanish—and stressed nationalism. In this way, his policies helped unitethe various regions and peoples of the country. Nevertheless, Obregón was assas-sinated in 1928.

The next year, a new political party, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI),arose. Although the PRI did not tolerate opposition, it initiated an ongoing periodof peace and political stability in Mexico. While Mexico was struggling towardpeace, however, the rest of the world was on the brink of war.


TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Antonio López de Santa Anna • Benito Juárez • La Reforma • Porfirio Díaz • Francisco Madero • “Pancho” Villa • Emiliano Zapata

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which leader do you think

benefited Mexico most? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. In what ways was Santa Anna

a typical caudillo?

4. How did Porfirio Díaz changethe direction of government inMexico?

5. How were “Pancho” Villa andEmiliano Zapata different fromother Mexican revolutionaryleaders?

SECTION ASSESSMENT4

DESIGNING A CAMPAIGN POSTER

Conduct research on the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) today, particularly its politicalplatform. Use your findings to design a campaign poster for the PRI in an upcoming election.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. MAKING INFERENCES Why might Benito Juárez’s rise to

power be considered surprising?

7. ANALYZING CAUSES Why did Villa and Zapata turn against Madero?

8. SUPPORTING OPINIONS The revision of Mexico’sconstitution is considered revolutionary. Do you agreewith this characterization? Why or why not?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Juárez’s motto was“Liberty, Order, and Progress.” Díaz’s slogan was “Orderand Progress.” Write an expository essay explaining whatthis difference in goals meant for the people of Mexico.

REVOLUTION

CONNECT TO TODAY

SummarizingWhat were

Obregón’s accom-plishments?

LeaderMajor

Accomplishment

• Breakup of largeestates

• Restrictions onforeign ownershipof land

• Governmentcontrol ofresources (oil)

• Equal pay forequal work

• Limited legal rightsfor women(spending moneyand bringinglawsuits)

• State takeover of landowned by the Church

• Minimum wagefor workers

• Right to strike• Institution of

labor unions

Reforms of Mexican Constitution of 1917

Land Religion Labor Social Issues

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts1. Making Inferences Which reforms do you think landowners resented?2. Recognizing Effects Which reforms benefited workers?

The Great War, 1914–1918

Previewing Main IdeasAdvances in weaponry, from improvements

to the machine gun and airplane, to the invention of the tank, led to massdevastation during World War I.Geography Which Allied nation could the Central Powers invade only byairplane?

The war affected many European economies. Desperate forresources, the warring governments converted many industries to munitionsfactories. They also took greater control of the production of goods.Geography According to the map, why might Russia have struggled toobtain resources from its allies?

The quest among European nations for greaterpower played a role in causing World War I. By the turn of the 20th century,relations among these countries had grown increasingly tense.Geography Which alliance may have had the greater challenge, given thegeography of the conflict? Why?

POWER AND AUTHORITY

ECONOMICS

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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INTERNET RESOURCES


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Should you always support an ally?World War I has begun. You are the leader of a European country and mustdecide what to do. Your nation is one of several that have agreed to supporteach other in the event of war. Some of your allies already have joined the fight.You oppose the thought of war and fear that joining will lead to even more liveslost. Yet, you believe in being loyal to your allies. You also worry that yourrivals want to conquer all of Europe—and if you don’t join the war now, yourcountry may end up having to defend itself.

EXAM I N I NG the I SSU ES

• Should you always support a friend, no matter what he orshe does?

• What might be the long-term consequences of refusing tohelp an ally?

As a class, discuss these questions. In your discussion, consider the various reasons countries go to war. As you read about WorldWar I in this chapter, see what factors influenced the decisions ofeach nation.

▲ A World War I poster urges nations to come to the aid of Serbia.

The Great War 407


POWER AND AUTHORITY InEurope, military buildup,nationalistic feelings, and rivalalliances set the stage for acontinental war.

Ethnic conflict in the Balkanregion, which helped start thewar, continued to erupt in thatarea in the 1990s.

• militarism• Triple

Alliance

• KaiserWilhelm II

• TripleEntente

1

SETTING THE STAGE At the turn of the 20th century, the nations of Europehad been largely at peace with one another for nearly 30 years. This was no acci-dent. Efforts to outlaw war and achieve a permanent peace had been gainingmomentum in Europe since the middle of the 19th century. By 1900, hundredsof peace organizations were active. In addition, peace congresses convened reg-ularly between 1843 and 1907. Some Europeans believed that progress had madewar a thing of the past. Yet in a little more than a decade, a massive war wouldengulf Europe and spread across the globe.

Rising Tensions in EuropeWhile peace and harmony characterized much of Europe at the beginning of the1900s, there were less visible—and darker—forces at work as well. Below thesurface of peace and goodwill, Europe witnessed several gradual developmentsthat would ultimately help propel the continent into war.

The Rise of Nationalism One such development was the growth of national-ism, or a deep devotion to one’s nation. Nationalism can serve as a unifying forcewithin a country. However, it also can cause intense competition among nations,with each seeking to overpower the other. By the turn of the 20th century, a fiercerivalry indeed had developed among Europe’s Great Powers. Those nations wereGermany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia, Italy, and France.

This increasing rivalry among European nations stemmed from severalsources. Competition for materials and markets was one. Territorial disputeswere another. France, for example, had never gotten over the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1870). Austria-Hungary andRussia both tried to dominate in the Balkans, a region in southeast Europe.Within the Balkans, the intense nationalism of Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians,and other ethnic groups led to demands for independence.

Imperialism and Militarism Another force that helped set the stage for war inEurope was imperialism. As Chapter 11 explained, the nations of Europe com-peted fiercely for colonies in Africa and Asia. The quest for colonies sometimespushed European nations to the brink of war. As European countries continuedto compete for overseas empires, their sense of rivalry and mistrust of oneanother deepened.

Marching Toward War

Summarizing Create a time line of major events that led to the start of World War I.

TAKING NOTES

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Yet another troubling development throughout the early years of the 20th centurywas the rise of a dangerous European arms race. The nations of Europe believedthat to be truly great, they needed to have a powerful military. By 1914, all theGreat Powers except Britain had large standing armies. In addition, militaryexperts stressed the importance of being able to quickly mobilize, or organize andmove troops in case of a war. Generals in each country developed highly detailedplans for such a mobilization.

The policy of glorifying military power and keeping an army prepared for warwas known as militarism. Having a large and strong standing army made citizensfeel patriotic. However, it also frightened some people. As early as 1895, FrédéricPassy, a prominent peace activist, expressed a concern that many shared:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EThe entire able-bodied population are preparing to massacre one another; though noone, it is true, wants to attack, and everybody protests his love of peace anddetermination to maintain it, yet the whole world feels that it only requires someunforeseen incident, some unpreventable accident, for the spark to fall in a flash . . .and blow all Europe sky-high.

FRÉDÉRIC PASSY, quoted in Nobel: The Man and His Prizes

Tangled AlliancesGrowing rivalries and mutual mistrust had led to the creationof several military alliances among the Great Powers asearly as the 1870s. This alliance system had been designedto keep peace in Europe. But it would instead help push thecontinent into war.

Bismarck Forges Early Pacts Between 1864 and 1871,Prussia’s blood-and-iron chancellor, Otto von Bismarck,freely used war to unify Germany. After 1871, however,Bismarck declared Germany to be a “satisfied power.” Hethen turned his energies to maintaining peace in Europe.

Bismarck saw France as the greatest threat to peace. Hebelieved that France still wanted revenge for its defeat in theFranco-Prussian War. Bismarck’s first goal, therefore, wasto isolate France. “As long as it is without allies,” Bismarckstressed, “France poses no danger to us.” In 1879, Bismarckformed the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary. Three years later, Italy joined the two countries,forming the Triple Alliance. In 1881, Bismarck took yetanother possible ally away from France by making a treatywith Russia.

Shifting Alliances Threaten Peace In 1890, Germany’sforeign policy changed dramatically. That year, KaiserWilhelm II—who two years earlier had become ruler ofGermany—forced Bismarck to resign. A proud and stub-born man, Wilhelm II did not wish to share power with any-one. Besides wanting to assert his own power, the newkaiser was eager to show the world just how mightyGermany had become. The army was his greatest pride. “Iand the army were born for one another,” Wilhelm declaredshortly after taking power.

Kaiser Wilhelm II1859–1941

Wilhelm II was related to the leadersof two nations he eventually wouldengage in war. Wilhelm, George V ofGreat Britain, and Nicholas II ofRussia were all cousins.

The kaiser thought a great deal ofhimself and his place in history.Once, when a doctor told him hehad a small cold, Wilhelm reportedlyresponded, “No, it is a big cold.Everything about me must be big.”

He also could be sly and deceitful.After forcing the popular Bismarck toresign, Wilhelm pretended to beupset. Most people, however,including Bismarck, were not fooled.

RESEARCH LINKS For more onWilhelm II, go to classzone.com

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Wilhelm let his nation’s treaty with Russia lapse in 1890. Russia responded byforming a defensive military alliance with France in 1892 and 1894. Such analliance had been Bismarck’s fear. War with either Russia or France would makeGermany the enemy of both. Germany would then be forced to fight a two-frontwar, or a war on both its eastern and western borders.

Next, Wilhelm began a tremendous shipbuilding program in an effort to makethe German navy equal to that of the mighty British fleet. Alarmed, Great Britainformed an entente, or alliance, with France. In 1907, Britain made another entente,this time with both France and Russia. The Triple Entente, as it was called, didnot bind Britain to fight with France and Russia. However, it did almost certainlyensure that Britain would not fight against them.

By 1907, two rival camps existed in Europe. On one side was the TripleAlliance—Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. On the other side was the TripleEntente—Great Britain, France, and Russia. A dispute between two rival powerscould draw all the nations of Europe into war.

Crisis in the BalkansNowhere was that dispute more likely to occur than on the Balkan Peninsula. Thismountainous peninsula in the southeastern corner of Europe was home to anassortment of ethnic groups. With a long history of nationalist uprisings and eth-nic clashes, the Balkans was known as the “powder keg” of Europe.

A Restless Region By the early 1900s, the Ottoman Empire, which included theBalkan region, was in rapid decline. While some Balkan groups struggled to free themselves from the Ottoman Turks, others already had succeeded in breaking away from their Turkish rulers. These peoples had formed new nations,including Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro,Romania, and Serbia.

Nationalism was a powerful force inthese countries. Each group longed toextend its borders. Serbia, for example,had a large Slavic population. It hoped toabsorb all the Slavs on the BalkanPeninsula. Russia, itself a mostly Slavicnation, supported Serbian nationalism.However, Serbia’s powerful northernneighbor, Austria-Hungary, opposed suchan effort. Austria feared that efforts to cre-ate a Slavic state would stir rebellionamong its Slavic population.

In 1908, Austria annexed, or took over,Bosnia and Herzegovina. These were twoBalkan areas with large Slavic popula-tions. Serbian leaders, who had sought torule these provinces, were outraged. In theyears that followed, tensions betweenSerbia and Austria steadily rose. TheSerbs continually vowed to take Bosniaand Herzegovina away from Austria. Inresponse, Austria-Hungary vowed tocrush any Serbian effort to undermine itsauthority in the Balkans.

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Analyzing IssuesWhat were the

reasons for the hos-tility betweenAustria-Hungaryand Serbia?

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Place What region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire was

located along the Adriatic Sea?2. Location Based on the map, why might Serbia have

staked a claim to Bosnia and Herzegovina?

A Shot Rings Throughout Europe Into this poisonedatmosphere of mutual dislike and mistrust stepped the heirto the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand,and his wife, Sophie. On June 28, 1914, the couple paid astate visit to Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. It would betheir last. The royal pair was shot at point-blank range asthey rode through the streets of Sarajevo in an open car. Thekiller was Gavrilo Princip, a 19-year-old Serbian and mem-ber of the Black Hand. The Black Hand was a secret societycommitted to ridding Bosnia of Austrian rule.

Because the assassin was a Serbian, Austria decided touse the murders as an excuse to punish Serbia. On July 23,Austria presented Serbia with an ultimatum containingnumerous demands. Serbia knew that refusing the ultimatumwould lead to war against the more powerful Austria. There-fore, Serbian leaders agreed to most of Austria’s demands.They offered to have several others settled by an interna-tional conference.

Austria, however, was in no mood to negotiate. Thenation’s leaders, it seemed, had already settled on war. OnJuly 28, Austria rejected Serbia’s offer and declared war. Thatsame day, Russia, an ally of Serbia with its largely Slavic pop-ulation, took action. Russian leaders ordered the mobilizationof troops toward the Austrian border.

Leaders all over Europe suddenly took notice. The frag-ile European stability seemed ready to collapse into armedconflict. The British foreign minister, the Italian govern-ment, and even Kaiser Wilhelm himself urged Austria andRussia to negotiate. But it was too late. The machinery ofwar had been set in motion.

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TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • militarism • Triple Alliance • Kaiser Wilhelm II • Triple Entente

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which event do you consider

most significant? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. What were the three forces at

work in Europe that helped setthe stage for war?

4. Who were the members of theTriple Alliance? the TripleEntente?

5. What single event set in motionthe start of World War I?

SECTION ASSESSMENT1

CREATING A TIME LINE

Working with a partner, use the library and other resources to create a time line of key eventsin the Balkans from 1914 until today. Limit your time line to the six to eight events youconsider most significant.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. ANALYZING CAUSES Which of the forces at work in

Europe played the greatest role in helping to prompt theoutbreak of war?

7. ANALYZING ISSUES Was the description of the Balkans asthe “powder keg” of Europe justified? Explain.

8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Do you thinkWorld War I was avoidable? Use information from the textto support your answer.

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write a briefletter to the editor of a European newspaper expressingwhat your views might have been about the coming war.

POWER AND AUTHORITY

CONNECT TO TODAY

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INTERNET ACTIVITY Create a chart orgraphic about any aspect of modernArmenian culture. Go to classzone.comfor your research.

VocabularyAn ultimatumis a list of demandsthat, if not met, willlead to serious consequences.

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CaspianSea

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AZER.

AZER.TURKEY

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The Armenian MassacreOne group insoutheasternEurope thatsuffered greatly for itsindependenceefforts was theArmenians. By

the 1880s, the roughly 2.5 millionArmenians in the Ottoman Empire hadbegun to demand their freedom. As aresult, relations between the groupand its Turkish rulers grew strained.

Throughout the 1890s, Turkishtroops killed tens of thousands ofArmenians. When World War Ierupted in 1914, the Armenianspledged their support to the Turks’enemies. In response, the Turkishgovernment deported nearly 2million Armenians. Along the way,more than 600,000 died of starvationor were killed by Turkish soldiers.

The Great War 411


SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGYOne European nation afteranother was drawn into a largeand industrialized war thatresulted in many casualties.

Much of the technology ofmodern warfare, such as fighterplanes and tanks, wasintroduced in World War I.

• CentralPowers

• Allies• Western

Front

• SchlieffenPlan

• trenchwarfare

• EasternFront

2

SETTING THE STAGE By 1914, Europe was divided into two rival camps.One alliance, the Triple Entente, included Great Britain, France, and Russia. Theother, known as the Triple Alliance, included Germany, Austria-Hungary, andItaly. Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war against Serbia set off a chain reactionwithin the alliance system. The countries of Europe followed through on theirpledges to support one another. As a result, nearly all of Europe soon joined whatwould be the largest, most destructive war the world had yet seen.

The Great War BeginsIn response to Austria’s declaration of war, Russia, Serbia’s ally, began movingits army toward the Russian-Austrian border. Expecting Germany to join Austria,Russia also mobilized along the German border. To Germany, Russia’s mobi-lization amounted to a declaration of war. On August 1, the German governmentdeclared war on Russia.

Russia looked to its ally France for help. Germany, however, did not even waitfor France to react. Two days after declaring war on Russia, Germany alsodeclared war on France. Soon afterward, Great Britain declared war on Germany.Much of Europe was now locked in battle.

Nations Take Sides By mid-August 1914, the battle lines were clearly drawn.On one side were Germany and Austria-Hungary. They were known as theCentral Powers because of their location in the heart of Europe. Bulgaria andthe Ottoman Empire would later join the Central Powers in the hopes of regain-ing lost territories.

On the other side were Great Britain, France, and Russia. Together, they wereknown as the Allied Powers or the Allies. Japan joined the Allies within weeks.Italy joined later. Italy had been a member of the Triple Alliance with Germanyand Austria-Hungary. However, the Italians joined the other side after accusingtheir former partners of unjustly starting the war.

In the late summer of 1914, millions of soldiers marched happily off to battle,convinced that the war would be short. Only a few people foresaw the horrorahead. One of them was Britain’s foreign minister, Sir Edward Grey. Staring outover London at nightfall, Grey said sadly to a friend, “The lamps are going outall over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”

Europe Plunges into War

Outlining Use an outlineto organize main ideasand details.

TAKING NOTES

I. The Great War Begins A. B.

II. A Bloody Stalemate

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A Bloody Stalemate It did not take long for Sir Edward Grey’s prediction to ring true. As the summerof 1914 turned to fall, the war turned into a long and bloody stalemate, or dead-lock, along the battlefields of France. This deadlocked region in northern Francebecame known as the Western Front.

The Conflict Grinds Along Facing a war on two fronts, Germany had developeda battle strategy known as the Schlieffen Plan, named after its designer, GeneralAlfred Graf von Schlieffen (SHLEE•fuhn). The plan called for attacking anddefeating France in the west and then rushing east to fight Russia. The Germansfelt they could carry out such a plan because Russia lagged behind the rest ofEurope in its railroad system and thus would take longer to supply its front lines.Nonetheless, speed was vital to the Schlieffen Plan. German leaders knew theyneeded to win a quick victory over France.

Early on, it appeared that Germany would do just that. By early September,German forces had swept into France and reached the outskirts of Paris. A majorGerman victory appeared just days away. On September 5, however, the Alliesregrouped and attacked the Germans northeast of Paris, in the valley of the MarneRiver. Every available soldier was hurled into the struggle. When reinforcementswere needed, more than 600 taxicabs rushed soldiers from Paris to the front. Afterfour days of fighting, the German generals gave the order to retreat.

Although it was only the first major clash on the Western Front, the First Battleof the Marne was perhaps the single most important event of the war. The defeat

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1st Marne, Sept. 19142nd Marne, July 1918 Verdun,

Feb. 1916

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Limanowa,Dec. 1914

Lodz,Nov. 1914

Czernowitz, June 1916

Gallipoli, Feb. 1915–Jan. 1916

Kovel, June 1916

Kerensky Offensive,July 1917

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Armistice Line, Nov. 1918

World War I in Europe, 1914–1918

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Location In which country was almost all of the war in the West fought?2. Location What geographic disadvantage did Germany and Austria-Hungary face in fighting

the war? How might this have affected their war strategy?

of the Germans left the Schlieffen Plan in ruins. A quick victory in the west nolonger seemed possible. In the east, Russian forces had already invaded Germany.Germany was going to have to fight a long war on two fronts. Realizing this, theGerman high command sent thousands of troops from France to aid its forces inthe east. Meanwhile, the war on the Western Front settled into a stalemate.

War in the Trenches By early 1915, opposing armies on the Western Front haddug miles of parallel trenches to protect themselves from enemy fire. This set thestage for what became known as trench warfare. In this type of warfare, soldiersfought each other from trenches. And armies traded huge losses of human life forpitifully small land gains.

Life in the trenches was pure misery. “The men slept in mud, washed in mud,ate mud, and dreamed mud,” wrote one soldier. The trenches swarmed with rats.Fresh food was nonexistent. Sleep was nearly impossible.

The space between the opposing trenches won the grim name “no man’s land.”When the officers ordered an attack, their men went over the top of their trenchesinto this bombed-out landscape. There, they usually met murderous rounds ofmachine-gun fire. Staying put, however, did not ensure one’s safety. Artillery firebrought death right into the trenches. “Shells of all calibers kept raining on our sec-tor,” wrote one French soldier. “The trenches disappeared, filled with earth . . . theair was unbreathable. Our blinded, wounded, crawling, and shouting soldiers keptfalling on top of us and died splashing us with blood. It was living hell.”

The Western Front had become a “terrain of death.” It stretched nearly 500 milesfrom the North Sea to the Swiss border. A British officer described it in a letter:

P R I M A R Y S O U R C EImagine a broad belt, ten miles or so in width, stretching from the Channel to theGerman frontier near Basle, which is positively littered with the bodies of men andscarified with their rude graves; in which farms, villages and cottages are shapelessheaps of blackened masonry; in which fields, roads and trees are pitted and torn andtwisted by shells and disfigured by dead horses, cattle, sheep and goats, scattered inevery attitude of repulsive distortion and dismemberment.

VALENTINE FLEMING, quoted in The First World War

413

RecognizingEffects

Why was theBattle of the Marneso significant?

▼ Allied troopscrawl through atrench along theWestern Front.

414 Chapter 13

VocabularyIn war, a casualtyis anyone killed,injured, captured, or considered missing in action.

Military strategists were at a loss. New tools of war—machine guns, poisongas, armored tanks, larger artillery—had not delivered the fast-moving war they had expected. All this new technology did was kill greater numbers of peoplemore effectively.

The slaughter reached a peak in 1916. In February, the Germans launched amassive attack against the French near Verdun. Each side lost more than 300,000men. In July, the British army tried to relieve the pressure on the French. Britishforces attacked the Germans northwest of Verdun, in the valley of the SommeRiver. In the first day of battle alone, more than 20,000 British soldiers were killed.By the time the Battle of the Somme ended in November, each side had sufferedmore than half a million casualties.

What did the warring sides gain? Near Verdun, the Germans advanced aboutfour miles. In the Somme valley, the British gained about five miles.

The Battle on the Eastern FrontEven as the war on the Western Front claimed thousands of lives, both sides weresending millions more men to fight on the Eastern Front. This area was a stretchof battlefield along the German and Russian border. Here, Russians and Serbs bat-tled Germans and Austro-Hungarians. The war in the east was a more mobile warthan that in the west. Here too, however, slaughter and stalemate were common.

Early Fighting At the beginning of the war, Russian forces had launched an attackinto both Austria and Germany. At the end of August, Germany counterattackednear the town of Tannenberg. During the four-day battle, the Germans crushed the

The New Weapons of War Poison GasSoldiers wore masks like those shown at leftto protect themselves from poison gas. Gaswas introduced by the Germans but used byboth sides. Some gases caused blindness orsevere blisters, others death by choking.

Machine GunThe machine gun, which fires ammunitionautomatically, was much improved by thetime of World War I. The gun, shown to theleft, could wipe out waves of attackers andthus made it difficult for forces to advance.

TankThe tank, shown to the left, was an armoredcombat vehicle that moved on chain tracks—and thus could cross many types of terrain. Itwas introduced by the British in 1916 at theBattle of the Somme.

SubmarineIn 1914, the Germans introduced thesubmarine as an effective warship. Thesubmarine’s primary weapon against shipswas the torpedo, an underwater missile.

invading Russian army and drove it into full retreat. Morethan 30,000 Russian soldiers were killed.

Russia fared somewhat better against the Austrians.Russian forces defeated the Austrians twice in September1914, driving deep into their country. Not until Decemberof that year did the Austrian army manage to turn the tide.Austria defeated the Russians and eventually pushed themout of Austria-Hungary.

Russia Struggles By 1916, Russia’s war effort was nearcollapse. Unlike the nations of western Europe, Russia hadyet to become industrialized. As a result, the Russian armywas continually short on food, guns, ammunition, clothes,boots, and blankets. Moreover, the Allied supply shipmentsto Russia were sharply limited by German control of theBaltic Sea, combined with Germany’s relentless submarinecampaign in the North Sea and beyond. In the south, theOttomans still controlled the straits leading from theMediterranean to the Black Sea.

The Russian army had only one asset—its numbers.Throughout the war the Russian army suffered a stagger-ing number of battlefield losses. Yet the army continuallyrebuilt its ranks from the country’s enormous population.For more than three years, the battered Russian army man-aged to tie up hundreds of thousands of German troops in the east. As a result, Germany could not hurl its fullfighting force at the west.

Germany and her allies, however, were concerned withmore than just the Eastern or Western Front. As the war raged on, fighting spreadbeyond Europe to Africa, as well as to Southwest and Southeast Asia. In the years afterit began, the massive European conflict indeed became a world war.

The Great War 415

SynthesizingWhy was

Russia’s involve-ment in the war soimportant to theother Allies?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Central Powers • Allies • Western Front • Schlieffen Plan • trench warfare • Eastern Front

USING YOUR NOTES2. What were some of the

conditions that soldiers on thefront lines had to face?

MAIN IDEAS3. Which countries comprised

the Central Powers? Whichcountries comprised the Allies?

4. What were the characteristicsof trench warfare?

5. What factors contributed toRussia’s war difficulties?

SECTION ASSESSMENT2

PRESENTING AN ORAL REPORT

Find an image of a World War I monument from any one of the combatant countries. In anoral report, present the image to the class and provide details about its origin and purpose.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING How was war on the

Western and Eastern Fronts different? How was it thesame?

7. ANALYZING CAUSES Why did the Schlieffen Planultimately collapse? Cite specific details from the text.

8. MAKING INFERENCES Why might it be fair to say thatneither side won the battles of the Somme or Verdun?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY In anexplanatory essay, describe the effects of the newtechnology on warfare. Use examples from your reading.


CONNECT TO TODAY

I. The Great WarBegins

A. B.

II. A Bloody Stalemate

The Frozen FrontFor soldiers on the Eastern Front, likethose shown above, the overall miseryof warfare was compounded by deadlywinters. “Every day hundreds froze todeath,” noted one Austro-Hungarianofficer during a particularly brutal spell.

Russian troops suffered too, mainlydue to their lack of food and clothing. “I am at my post all the time—frozen[and] soaked . . . ,” lamented onesoldier. “We walk barefoot or in rope-soled shoes. It’s incredible that soldiersof the Russian army are in rope-soled shoes!”

416

1. Drawing Conclusions Why wouldcommunication with someoneoutside the plane be important forpilots of World War I and today?

See Skillbuilder Handbook, Page R11.

2. Comparing Using the Internet andother resources, find out more abouta recent innovation with regard tofighter planes and explain itssignificance.

▲ A World War I pilot showsoff an early air-to-groundcommunication device.

Two Top Fighter Planes: A Comparison

Military AviationWorld War I introduced airplane warfare—and by doing so, ushered in an era oftremendous progress in the field of military aviation. Although the plane itself wasrelatively new and untested by 1914, the warring nations quickly recognized itspotential as a powerful weapon. Throughout the conflict, countries on both sidesbuilt faster and stronger aircraft, and designed them to drop bombs and shoot at oneanother in the sky. Between the beginning and end of the war, the total number ofplanes in use by the major combatants soared from around 850 to nearly 10,000.After the war, countries continued to maintain a strong and advanced airforce, asthey realized that supremacy of the air was a key to military victory.

Designers kept nearly all weight in the center, giving the planes tremendous maneuverability.

A timing device enabled machine guns to fire through the propeller.

Engines were continuously strengthened for greater speed and carrying capability.3

2

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Fokker D VII (German)

Sopwith F1Camel (British)

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RESEARCH LINKS For more on militaryaviation go to classzone.com

The Great War 417


ECONOMICS World War Ispread to several continents andrequired the full resources ofmany governments.

The war propelled the UnitedStates to a new position ofinternational power, which itholds today.

• unrestrictedsubmarinewarfare

• total war

• rationing• propaganda• armistice

3

SETTING THE STAGE World War I was much more than a European conflict.Australia and Japan, for example, entered the war on the Allies’ side, while Indiasupplied troops to fight alongside their British rulers. Meanwhile, the OttomanTurks and later Bulgaria allied themselves with Germany and the Central Powers.As the war promised to be a grim, drawn-out affair, all the Great Powers lookedfor other allies around the globe to tip the balance. They also sought new warfronts on which to achieve victory.

War Affects the WorldAs the war dragged on, the main combatants looked beyond Europe for a way toend the stalemate. However, none of the alliances they formed or new battle-fronts they opened did much to end the slow and grinding conflict.

The Gallipoli Campaign A promising strategy for the Allies seemed to be toattack a region in the Ottoman Empire known as the Dardanelles. This narrowsea strait was the gateway to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople. By securingthe Dardanelles, the Allies believed that they could take Constantinople, defeatthe Turks, and establish a supply line to Russia.

The effort to take the Dardanelles straitbegan in February 1915. It was known as theGallipoli campaign. British, Australian,New Zealand, and French troops maderepeated assaults on the Gallipoli Peninsulaon the western side of the strait. Turkishtroops, some commanded by German offi-cers, vigorously defended the region. ByMay, Gallipoli had turned into anotherbloody stalemate. Both sides dug trenches,from which they battled for the rest of theyear. In December, the Allies gave up the

campaign and began to evacuate. They had suffered about 250,000 casualties.

Battles in Africa and Asia In various parts of Asia and Africa, Germany’s colonialpossessions came under assault. The Japanese quickly overran German outposts in

A Global Conflict

Constantinople

B l a c k S e a

Sea ofMarmara

Dardanelles

Bosporus

AegeanSea

GallipoliPeninsula

GR

EE

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MA

NE M P I R E

0 100 Miles

0 200 Kilometers

Recognizing Effects Usea web diagram to showthe effects of World War I.

TAKING NOTES

Effects of WWI

Gallipoli Campaign

418 Chapter 13

China. They also captured Germany’s Pacific island colonies. English and Frenchtroops attacked Germany’s four African possessions. They seized control of three.

Elsewhere in Asia and Africa, the British and French recruited subjects in theircolonies for the struggle. Fighting troops as well as laborers came from India,South Africa, Senegal, Egypt, Algeria, and Indochina. Many fought and died on thebattlefield. Others worked to keep the front lines supplied. To be sure, some colo-nial subjects wanted nothing to do with their European rulers’ conflicts. Others vol-unteered in the hope that service would lead to their independence. This was theview of Indian political leader Mohandas Gandhi, who supported Indian participa-tion in the war. “If we would improve our status through the help and cooperationof the British,” he wrote, “it was our duty to win their help by standing by them intheir hour of need.”

America Joins the Fight In 1917, the focus of the war shifted to the high seas.That year, the Germans intensified the submarine warfare that had raged in theAtlantic Ocean since shortly after the war began. In January 1917, the Germansannounced that their submarines would sink without warning any ship in the watersaround Britain. This policy was called unrestricted submarine warfare.

The Germans had tried this policy before. On May 7, 1915, a German subma-rine, or U-boat, had sunk the British passenger ship Lusitania. The attack left 1,198people dead, including 128 U.S. citizens. Germany claimed that the ship had beencarrying ammunition, which turned out to be true. Nevertheless, the Americanpublic was outraged. President Woodrow Wilson sent a strong protest to Germany.After two further attacks, the Germans finally agreed to stop attacking neutral andpassenger ships.

NORTH

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ZEALAND

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Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Capricorn

160°E

The United Statesenters the war onthe side of theAllies in 1917.

Brazil is the only SouthAmerican country toenter the war. It supportsthe Allies with warshipsand personnel.

The European coloniesthroughout Africa becomea battlefield as the warringparties strike at one another’scolonial possessions.

India provides about1.3 million men to fightand labor alongsidetheir British rulersthroughout Europe.

Both countries fight onthe side of the Allies andcontribute many troops tothe 1915 Gallipoli campaignin Southwest Asia.

Japan declares war onGermany in 1914; seizesGerman colonies inChina and the Pacific.

War rages inSouthwest Asia asArab nationalistsbattle their Turkishrulers.Main fighting of

the war occurs onWestern andEastern Fronts.0

0

4,000 Miles

8,000 Kilometers

The World at War, 1914–1918

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps 1. Region Which countries were aligned with the European Allies?2. Location Outside of Europe, where was World War I fought?

Desperate for an advantage over the Allies, however, the Germans returned tounrestricted submarine warfare in 1917. They knew it might lead to war with theUnited States. They gambled that their naval blockade would starve Britain intodefeat before the United States could mobilize. Ignoring warnings by PresidentWilson, German U-boats sank three American ships.

In February 1917, another German action pushed the United States closer towar. Officials intercepted a telegram written by Germany’s foreign secretary,Arthur Zimmermann, stating that Germany would help Mexico “reconquer” theland it had lost to the United States if Mexico would ally itself with Germany.

The Zimmermann note simply proved to be the last straw. A large part of theAmerican population already favored the Allies. In particular, America felt a bondwith England. The two nations shared a common ancestry and language, as well assimilar democratic institutions and legal systems. More important, America’s eco-nomic ties with the Allies were far stronger than those with the Central Powers. OnApril 2, 1917, President Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany. TheUnited States entered the war on the side of the Allies.

War Affects the Home FrontBy the time the United States joined the Allies, the war had been raging for nearlythree years. In those three years, Europe had lost more men in battle than in all thewars of the previous three centuries. The war had claimed the lives of millions andhad changed countless lives forever. The Great War, as the conflict came to beknown, affected everyone. It touched not only the soldiers in the trenches, but civil-ians as well.

Governments Wage Total War World War I soon became a total war. Thismeant that countries devoted all their resources to the war effort. In Britain,Germany, Austria, Russia, and France, the entire force of government was dedi-cated to winning the conflict. In each country, the wartime government took con-trol of the economy. Governments told factories what to produce and how much.

The Great War 419

The Influenza EpidemicIn the spring of 1918, a powerfulnew enemy emerged, threateningnations on each side of World War I.This “enemy” was a deadly strain ofinfluenza. The Spanish flu, as it waspopularly known, hit England andIndia in May. By the fall, it had spreadthrough Europe, Russia, Asia, and tothe United States.

The influenza epidemic killedsoldiers and civilians alike. In India, atleast 12 million people died ofinfluenza. In Berlin, on a single day inOctober, 1,500 people died. In theend, this global epidemic was moredestructive than the war itself, killing20 million people worldwide.

City officials and street cleaners in Chicago guard against the Spanish flu.

▼

420 Chapter 13

Numerous facilities were converted to munitionsfactories. Nearly every able-bodied civilian wasput to work. Unemployment in many Europeancountries all but disappeared.

So many goods were in short supply that gov-ernments turned to rationing. Under this sys-tem, people could buy only small amounts ofthose items that were also needed for the wareffort. Eventually, rationing covered a widerange of goods, from butter to shoe leather.

Governments also suppressed antiwar activity,sometimes forcibly. In addition, they censorednews about the war. Many leaders feared that hon-est reporting of the war would turn people againstit. Governments also used propaganda, one-sidedinformation designed to persuade, to keep upmorale and support for the war.

Women and the War Total war meant thatgovernments turned to help from women asnever before. Thousands of women replaced

men in factories, offices, and shops. Women built tanks and munitions, plowedfields, paved streets, and ran hospitals. They also kept troops supplied with food,clothing, and weapons. Although most women left the work force when the warended, they changed many people’s views of what women were capable of doing.

Women also saw the horrors of war firsthand, working on or near the front linesas nurses. Here, American nurse Shirley Millard describes her experience with asoldier who had lost both eyes and feet:

A P R I M A R Y S O U R C EHe moaned through the bandages that his head was splitting with pain. I gave himmorphine. Suddenly aware of the fact that he had [numerous] wounds, he asked: “Sa-ay! What’s the matter with my legs?” Reaching down to feel his legs before I couldstop him, he uttered a heartbreaking scream. I held his hands firmly until the drug I hadgiven him took effect.

SHIRLEY MILLARD, I Saw Them Die

The Allies Win the WarWith the United States finally in the war, the balance, it seemed, was about to tipin the Allies’ favor. Before that happened, however, events in Russia gave Germanya victory on the Eastern Front, and new hope for winning the conflict.

Russia Withdraws In March 1917, civil unrest in Russia—due in large part towar-related shortages of food and fuel—forced Czar Nicholas to step down. In hisplace a provisional government was established. The new government pledged tocontinue fighting the war. However, by 1917, nearly 5.5 million Russian soldiershad been wounded, killed, or taken prisoner. As a result, the war-weary Russianarmy refused to fight any longer.

Eight months after the new government took over, a revolution shook Russia(see Chapter 14). In November 1917, Communist leader Vladimir Ilyich Leninseized power. Lenin insisted on ending his country’s involvement in the war. Oneof his first acts was to offer Germany a truce. In March 1918, Germany and Russiasigned the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which ended the war between them.

SummarizingHow did the

governments of thewarring nationsfight a total war?

▲ A woman reliefworker writes a letter home for awounded soldier.

The Central Powers Collapse Russia’s withdrawal from the war at last allowedGermany to send nearly all its forces to the Western Front. In March 1918, theGermans mounted one final, massive attack on the Allies in France. As in the open-ing weeks of the war, the German forces crushed everything in their path. By lateMay 1918, the Germans had again reached the Marne River. Paris was less than 40miles away. Victory seemed within reach.

By this time, however, the German military had weakened. The effort to reachthe Marne had exhausted men and supplies alike. Sensing this weakness, theAllies—with the aid of nearly 140,000 fresh U.S. troops—launched a counterat-tack. In July 1918, the Allies and Germans clashed at the Second Battle of theMarne. Leading the Allied attack were some 350 tanks that rumbled slowly for-ward, smashing through the German lines. With the arrival of 2 million moreAmerican troops, the Allied forces began to advance steadily toward Germany.

Soon, the Central Powers began to crumble. First the Bulgarians and then theOttoman Turks surrendered. In October, revolution swept through Austria-Hungary. In Germany, soldiers mutinied, and the public turned on the kaiser.

On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm II stepped down. Germany declared itselfa republic. A representative of the new German government met with FrenchCommander Marshal Foch in a railway car near Paris. The two signed an armistice,or an agreement to stop fighting. On November 11, World War I came to an end.

The Legacy of the WarWorld War I was, in many ways, a new kind of war. It involved the use of newtechnologies. It ushered in the notion of war on a grand and global scale. It alsoleft behind a landscape of death and destruction such as was never before seen.

Both sides in World War I paid a tremendous price in terms of human life.About 8.5 million soldiers died as a result of the war. Another 21 million werewounded. In addition, the war led to the death of countless civilians by way of

The Great War 421

ComparingHow was the

Second Battle ofthe Marne similarto the first?

P R I M A R Y S O U R C E P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

Allied View of ArmisticeNews of the armistice affected the Allied and Centralpowers differently. Here, a U.S. soldier named HarryTruman, who would go on to become president, recalls the day the fighting stopped.

German Reaction to ArmisticeOn the other side of the fighting line, German officerHerbert Sulzbach struggled to inform his troops of thewar’s end.

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS1. Summarizing What is the main difference between these two excerpts?2. Drawing Conclusions How did Herbert Sulzbach’s vision of the armistice differ from

what actually occurred?

Every single one of them [the French soldiers] had tomarch by my bed and salute and yell, “Vive PresidentWilson, Vive le capitaine d’artillerie américaine!” Nosleep all night. The infantry fired Very pistols, sent up all the flares they could lay their hands on, fired rifles,pistols, whatever else would make noise, all night long.

HARRY TRUMAN, quoted in The First World War

“Hostilities will cease as from 12 noon today.” This wasthe order which I had to read out to my men. The waris over. . . . How we looked forward to this moment;how we used to picture it as the most splendid event of our lives; and here we are now, humbled, our soulstorn and bleeding, and know that we’ve surrendered.Germany has surrendered to the Entente!

HERBERT SULZBACH, With the German Guns

422 Chapter 13

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • unrestricted submarine warfare • total war • rationing • propaganda • armistice

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which effect do you think was

most significant? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. What factors helped prompt

the United States to join thewar for the Allies?

4. What role did women play inthe war?

5. What was the significance ofthe Second Battle of theMarne?

SECTION ASSESSMENT3

CREATING A GRAPHIC

Using the library and other resources, compare the role of women in combat today in anytwo countries. Display your comparison in a chart or other type of graphic.

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. ANALYZING ISSUES In what ways was World War I truly a

global conflict?

7. FORMING OPINIONS Do you think governments arejustified in censoring war news? Why or why not?

8. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Which of the non-Europeancountries had the greatest impact on the war effort?Explain.

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Write a paragraphexplaining how the concept of total war affected thewarring nations’ economies.

ECONOMICS

CONNECT TO TODAY

Effects of WWI

starvation, disease, and slaughter. Taken together, these figures spelled tragedy—an entire generation of Europeans wiped out.

The war also had a devastating economic impact on Europe. The great conflictdrained the treasuries of European countries. One account put the total cost of thewar at $338 billion, a staggering amount for that time. The war also destroyed acresof farmland, as well as homes, villages, and towns.

The enormous suffering that resulted from the Great War left a deep mark onWestern society as well. A sense of disillusionment settled over the survivors. Theinsecurity and despair that many people experienced are reflected in the art and lit-erature of the time.

Another significant legacy of the war lay in its peace agreement. As you willread in the next section, the treaties to end World War I were forged after greatdebate and compromise. And while they sought to bring a new sense of securityand peace to the world, they prompted mainly anger and resentment.

World War I Statistics

Battlefield Deaths of Major CombatantsTotal Number of Troops Mobilized USA

116,000

Germany1.8 million

Russia1.7 million

France1.3 million

Ottoman Empire325,000

Italy650,000

Austria-Hungary1.2 million

British Empire908,000

*

Source: Encyclopaedia Britannica

* Includes troops from Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, and South Africa

Allied Powers: 42 million

Central Powers: 23 million

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphs1. Comparing Which Allied nation suffered the greatest number of battlefield deaths?2. Analyzing Issues Which four nations accounted for about 75 percent of all battlefield deaths?

Views of WarWhen World War I broke out, Europe had not experienced a war involving all the majorpowers for nearly a century, since Napoleon’s defeat in 1815. As a result, people had anunrealistic view of warfare. Many expected the war to be short and romantic. Many menenlisted in the army because of patriotism or out of a desire to defend certaininstitutions. What the soldiers experienced changed their view of war forever.

Using Primary and Secondary Sources

C P O E T R YB F I C T I O NA P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

D P R I M A R Y S O U R C E

Woodrow WilsonOn April 2, 1917, President Wilsonasked Congress to declare war so thatthe United States could enter WorldWar I. This excerpt from his speechgives some of his reasons.

The world must be made safe fordemocracy. Its peace must be plantedupon the tested foundations of politicalliberty. We have no selfish ends toserve. We desire no conquest, nodominion. We seek no indemnities forourselves, no material compensationfor the sacrifice we shall freely make.We are but one of the champions ofthe rights of mankind. We shall besatisfied when those rights have beenmade as secure as the faith and thefreedom of nations can make them.

Erich MariaRemarqueIn the German novel All Quiet on theWestern Front, Erich Maria Remarquedraws upon his own wartimeexperience of trench warfare.

No one would believe that in thishowling waste there could still bemen; but steel helmets now appear onall sides of the trench, and fifty yardsfrom us a machine-gun is already inposition and barking.

The wire entanglements are torn topieces. Yet they offer some obstacle.We see the storm-troops coming. Ourartillery opens fire. . . .

I see [a French soldier], his faceupturned, fall into a wire cradle. Hisbody collapses, his hands remainsuspended as though he were praying.Then his body drops clean away andonly his hands with the stumps of hisarms, shot off, now hang in the wire.

Wilfred OwenThe English poet Wilfred Owen waskilled in the trenches just one weekbefore World War I ended. Thisexcerpt from his poem “Dulce etDecorum Est” describes a gas attack.

Gas! GAS! Quick, boys!—An ecstasy offumbling,

Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time;But someone still was yelling out and

stumbling,And flound’ring like a man in fire or

lime . . .Dim, through the misty panes and

thick green light,As under a green sea, I saw him

drowning.

In all my dreams, before my helplesssight,

He plunges at me, guttering, choking,drowning.

1. What reasons does WoodrowWilson (Source A) give forentering the war?

2. What emotions does the Frenchposter (Source D) try to arouse?

3. Judging from Sources B and C,what was it like for the averagesoldier in the trenches? Explainhow you think such experiencesaffected the average soldier’s view of war.

423

Maurice Neumont France, 1918This French poster is titled, “TheyShall Not Pass, 1914–1918.”Translated into English, the text atthe bottom reads, “Twice I havestood fast and conquered on theMarne, my brother civilian. Adeceptive ‘peace offensive’ willattack you in your turn; like me youmust stand firm and conquer. Bestrong and shrewd—beware ofBoche [German] hypocrisy.”

424 Chapter 13


POWER AND AUTHORITY Afterwinning the war, the Alliesdictated a harsh peacesettlement that left manynations feeling betrayed.

Hard feelings left by the peacesettlement helped cause WorldWar II.

• WoodrowWilson

• GeorgesClemenceau

• Fourteen Points

• self-determination

• Treaty ofVersailles

• League of Nations

4

SETTING THE STAGE World War I was over. The killing had stopped. Theterms of peace, however, still had to be worked out. On January 18, 1919, a con-ference to establish those terms began at the Palace of Versailles, outside Paris.Attending the talks, known as the Paris Peace Conference, were delegates repre-senting 32 countries. For one year, this conference would be the scene of vigor-ous, often bitter debate. The Allied powers struggled to solve their conflictingaims in various peace treaties.

The Allies Meet and Debate Despite representatives from numerous countries, the meeting’s major decisionswere hammered out by a group known as the Big Four: Woodrow Wilson of theUnited States, Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of GreatBritain, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy. Russia, in the grip of civil war, was not rep-resented. Neither were Germany and its allies.

Wilson’s Plan for Peace In January 1918, while the war was still raging,President Wilson had drawn up a series of peace proposals. Known as theFourteen Points, they outlined a plan for achieving a just and lasting peace.

The first four points included an end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas,free trade, and reduced national armies and navies. The fifth goal was the adjust-ment of colonial claims with fairness toward colonial peoples. The sixth throughthirteenth points were specific suggestions for changing borders and creatingnew nations. The guiding idea behind these points was self-determination. Thismeant allowing people to decide for themselves under what government theywished to live.

Finally, the fourteenth point proposed a “general association of nations” thatwould protect “great and small states alike.” This reflected Wilson’s hope for anorganization that could peacefully negotiate solutions to world conflicts.

The Versailles Treaty As the Paris Peace Conference opened, Britain andFrance showed little sign of agreeing to Wilson’s vision of peace. Both nationswere concerned with national security. They also wanted to strip Germany of itswar-making power.

The differences in French, British, and U.S. aims led to heated arguments amongthe nations’ leaders. Finally a compromise was reached. The Treaty of Versailles

A Flawed Peace

Clarifying Use a chart to record the reaction by variousgroups to the Treaty of Versailles.

TAKING NOTES

Reaction to Treaty

Germany

Africans& Asians

Italy& Japan

y

between Germany and the Allied powers wassigned on June 28, 1919, five years to the dayafter Franz Ferdinand’s assassination in Sarajevo.Adopting Wilson’s fourteenth point, the treatycreated a League of Nations. The league was tobe an international association whose goal wouldbe to keep peace among nations.

The treaty also punished Germany. Thedefeated nation lost substantial territory and hadsevere restrictions placed on its military opera-tions. As tough as these provisions were, theharshest was Article 231. It was also known as the“war guilt” clause. It placed sole responsibilityfor the war on Germany’s shoulders. As a result,Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies.

All of Germany’s territories in Africa and thePacific were declared mandates, or territories tobe administered by the League of Nations.Under the peace agreement, the Allies wouldgovern the mandates until they were judgedready for independence.

A Troubled TreatyThe Versailles treaty was just one of five treatiesnegotiated by the Allies. In the end, these agree-ments created feelings of bitterness andbetrayal—among the victors and the defeated.

The Creation of New Nations The Westernpowers signed separate peace treaties in 1919 and1920 with each of the other defeated nations:Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the OttomanEmpire. These treaties, too, led to huge land lossesfor the Central Powers. Several new countries werecreated out of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslaviawere all recognized as independent nations.

The Ottoman Turks were forced to give up almost all of their former empire.They retained only the territory that is today the country of Turkey. The Alliescarved up the lands that the Ottomans lost in Southwest Asia into mandates ratherthan independent nations. Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan came under British con-trol; Syria and Lebanon went to France.

Russia, which had left the war early, suffered land losses as well. Romania andPoland both gained Russian territory. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, for-merly part of Russia, became independent nations.

“A Peace Built on Quicksand” In the end, the Treaty of Versailles did little tobuild a lasting peace. For one thing, the United States—considered after the war tobe the dominant nation in the world—ultimately rejected the treaty. ManyAmericans objected to the settlement and especially to President Wilson’s Leagueof Nations. Americans believed that the United States’ best hope for peace was tostay out of European affairs. The United States worked out a separate treaty withGermany and its allies several years later.

The Great War 425

VocabularyReparations ismoney paid by adefeated nation tocompensate fordamage or injuryduring a war.

Woodrow Wilson1856–1924Wilson was tall and thin andoften in poor health. Hesuffered from terribleindigestion and sometimeshad to use a stomach pumpon himself. A scholarly man,Wilson once served aspresident of PrincetonUniversity in New Jersey.

Passionate aboutinternational peace, he took on the U.S. Senateafter it vowed to reject the Treaty of Versailles.During the political battle, he suffered a strokethat disabled him for the rest of his term.

Georges Clemenceau1841–1929The near opposite of Wilson,Clemenceau had a compactphysique and a combativestyle that earned him thenickname “Tiger.” He hadworked as a physician andjournalist before enteringthe political arena.

Determined to punishGermany, Clemenceau rarely

agreed with Wilson and his larger quest forworld peace. He once remarked of Wilson, “Hethinks he is another Jesus Christ come uponearth to reform men.”

RESEARCH LINKS For more on WoodrowWilson and Georges Clemenceau, go toclasszone.com

50°N

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Europe Pre-World War I

Europe Post-World War I

GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps1. Region Which Central Powers nation appears to have lost the most territory?2. Location On which nation’s former lands were most of the new countries created?

426

In addition, the treaty with Germany, in particular the war-guilt clause, left alegacy of bitterness and hatred in the hearts of the German people. Other countriesfelt cheated and betrayed by the peace settlements as well. Throughout Africa andAsia, people in the mandated territories were angry at the way the Allies disre-garded their desire for independence. The European powers, it seemed to them,merely talked about the principle of national self-determination. European colo-nialism, disguised as the mandate system, continued in Asia and Africa.

Some Allied powers, too, were embittered by the outcome. Both Japan andItaly, which had entered the war to gain territory, had gained less than theywanted. Lacking the support of the United States, and later other world powers,the League of Nations was in no position to take action on these and other com-plaints. The settlements at Versailles represented, as one observer noted, “a peacebuilt on quicksand.” Indeed, that quicksand eventually would give way. In a littlemore than two decades, the treaties’ legacy of bitterness would help plunge theworld into another catastrophic war.

The Great War 427

Analyzing IssuesWhat com-

plaints did variousmandated coun-tries voice aboutthe Treaty ofVersailles?

TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Woodrow Wilson • Georges Clemenceau • Fourteen Points • self-determination • Treaty of Versailles • League of Nations

USING YOUR NOTES2. Which group was most

justified in its reaction to thetreaty? Why?

MAIN IDEAS3. What was the goal of Woodrow

Wilson’s Fourteen Points?

4. What was the “war guilt” clausein the Treaty of Versailles?

5. Why did the United Statesreject the Treaty of Versailles?

SECTION ASSESSMENT4

CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING6. FORMING OPINIONS Were the Versailles treaties fair?

Consider all the nations affected.

7. ANALYZING MOTIVES Why might the European Allies havebeen more interested in punishing Germany than increating a lasting peace?

8. EVALUATING DECISIONS Was the United States right toreject the Treaty of Versailles? Why or why not?

9. WRITING ACTIVITY Create a list of five interview questions a reporter might ask Wilsonor Clemenceau about the Paris Peace Conference. Thenwrite the possible answers to those questions.

POWER AND AUTHORITY

INTERNET ACTIVITY

Use the Internet to explore a recent achievement or activity by theUnited Nations, the modern-day equivalent of the League of Nations.Present your findings in a brief oral report to the class.

INTERNET KEYWORDUnited Nations

• International peaceorganization; enemyand neutral nationsinitially excluded

• Germany and Russiaexcluded

• Sole respon-sibility for thewar placed onGermany’sshoulders

• Germany forcedto pay the Allies$33 billion inreparations over30 years

• Germany returnsAlsace-Lorraine toFrance; French borderextended to west bankof Rhine River

• Germany surrenders allof its overseas coloniesin Africa and the Pacific

• Limits set on the size ofthe German army

• Germany prohibited from importing or manu-facturing weapons or war material

• Germany forbidden tobuild or buy submarinesor have an air force

The Treaty of Versailles: Major Provisions

League of Nations Territorial Losses Military Restrictions War Guilt

SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts1. Analyzing Issues In what ways did the treaty punish Germany?2. Clarifying What two provinces were returned to France as a result of the treaty?

Reaction to Treaty

Germany

Africans& Asians

Italy& Japan

y

The Great War

Long-Term Causes

• Nationalism spurs competition among European nations.

• Imperialism deepens national rivalries.

• Militarism leads to large standing armies.

• The alliance system divides Europe into two rival camps.

Immediate Causes

• The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 prompts Austria to declare war on Serbia.

• The alliance system requires nations to support their allies.

Immediate Effects

• A generation of Europeans is killed or wounded.

• Dynasties fall in Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia.

• New countries are created.

• The League of Nations is established to help promote peace.

Long-Term Effects

• Many nations feel bitter and betrayed by the peace settlements.

• Forces that helped cause the war— nationalism, competition—remain.

WORLD WAR I

428 Chapter 13

Chapter13Assessment

TERMS & NAMESFor each term below, briefly explain its connection to World War I.

1. Triple Alliance 5. total war

2. Triple Entente 6. armistice

3. Central Powers 7. Fourteen Points

4. Allies 8. Treaty of Versailles

MAIN IDEASMarching Toward War Section 1 (pages 407–410)

9. How did nationalism, imperialism, and militarism help set the stage forWorld War I?

10. Why was the Balkans known as “the powder keg of Europe”?

Europe Plunges into War Section 2 (pages 411–416)

11. Why was the first Battle of the Marne considered so significant?

12. Where was the Western Front? the Eastern Front?

13. What were the characteristics of trench warfare?

A Global Conflict Section 3 (pages 417–423)

14. What was the purpose of the Gallipoli campaign?

15. What factors prompted the United States to enter the war?

16. In what ways was World War I a total war?

A Flawed Peace Section 4 (pages 424–427)

17. What was the purpose of the League of Nations?

18. What was the mandate system, and why did it leave many groupsfeeling betrayed?


Trace the formation of the two major alliance systems that dominatedEurope on the eve of World War I by providing the event that correspondswith each date on the chart.

2. EVALUATING DECISIONSHow did the Treaty of Versailles reflect the

different personalities and agendas of the men in power at the end ofWorld War I?

3. CLARIFYINGHow did the war have both a positive and negative impact on

the economies of Europe?

4. ANALYZING ISSUESOne British official commented that the Allied victory in World War I hadbeen “bought so dear [high in price] as to be indistinguishable fromdefeat.” What did he mean by this statement? Use examples from the textto support your answer.

ECONOMICS

POWER AND AUTHORITY

1879 1892,18941887

1882 1890 1907

The Great War 429

1. Interact with HistoryOn page 406, you examined whether it is always right tosupport an ally or friend. Now that you have read the chapter,reevaluate your decision. If you chose to follow your ally intoWorld War I, do you still feel it was the right thing to do? Why orwhy not? If you decided to stay out of war, what are yourfeelings now? Discuss your opinions with a small group.


Explain in several paragraphs whichone of the new or enhanced weapons of World War I you thinkhad the greatest impact on the war and why. Consider thefollowing:

• which weapon might have had the widest use

• which weapon might have inflicted the greatest damage onthe enemy



Use the quotation about Germany’s sinking of the Britishpassenger ship Lusitania and your knowledge of worldhistory to answer questions 1 and 2.Additional Test Practice, pp. S1-S33.

The responsibility for the death of so many Americancitizens, which is deeply regretted by everyone in Germany,in a large measure falls upon the American government. Itcould not admit that Americans were being used as shieldsfor English contraband [smuggled goods]. In this regardAmerica had permitted herself to be misused in adisgraceful manner by England. And now, instead of callingEngland to account, she sends a note to the Germangovernment.

from Vossische Zeitung, May 18, 1915

1. Which of the following statements best describes thesentiments of the writer?

A. The sinking of the Lusitania was a tragic mistake.

B. America was right to blame Germany for the attack.

C. The American government failed to protect its citizens.

D. England should keep its vessels off the Atlantic Ocean.

2. The sinking of the Lusitania ultimately played a role inprompting Germany to

A. abandon the Schlieffen Plan.

B. halt unrestricted submarine warfare.

C. declare war on the United States.

D. begin a widespread rationing program.

Use this anti-German (Hun) World War I poster and yourknowledge of world history to answer question 3.

3. Which of the following best describes the depiction of theGerman soldier in this poster?

A. noble and courageous

B. weak and disorganized

C. cruel and barbaric

D. dangerous and cunning




Conducting Internet Research While World War I was extremely costly, staying prepared forthe possibility of war today is also expensive. Work in groupsof three or four to research the defense budgets of several ofthe world’s nations. Have each group member be responsiblefor one country. Go to the Web Research Guide atclasszone.com to learn about conducting research on theInternet. Use your research to

• examine how much money each country spends ondefense, as well as what percentage of the overall budgetsuch spending represents.

• create a large comparison chart of the countries’ budgets.

• discuss with your classmates whether the amounts spent formilitary and defense are justified.

Present your research to the class. Include a list of your Webresources.

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