t he inter face be tween metallurgy and mechanics in ...foundrygate.com/upload/artigos/the interface...
TRANSCRIPT
Tin
MSchDepmja
MSchEs
AB
buEnhohetforthecircrewhassme KE
fra IN
bodasshomsituAnexathedefpla
H
he intern materi
. N. Jameshool of Marineepartment of Mames@plymou
. Newby hool of Marineskom Research
BSTRACT. Tht which is a
ngineering cmogeneous terogeneousrm of a genue differing cumstances eep, environhere weldingsociated withetallurgical fa
EYWORDS. Cacture; enviro
NTRODUCTIO
istoricanalysof unc
dies) have besessments fomogeneous, uations arise. nalytical compample, the ine presence oformation) anasticity and f
H
rface beial perfo
s e Science & E
Mechanical Enguth.ac.uk
e Science & Eh and Innovati
his paper coa determinincomponents
and geners and often nuine interfacphilosophiewhere envir
nmentally-assg is used to jh cracking aactors in me
Continuum onment.
ON
cally, the educsing the behacracked bodieeen very power engineeringisotropic co
plexity is alsocrease in rigo
of a crack. nd hydrostatfracture are f
etween mormance
Engineering, Ungineering, Nel
Engineering, Uion Centre, Ro
nsiders an imng factor in m
and structrally continunon-continuce between mes of desigronmental insisted crackioin compon
and uses caseechanical per
mechanics;
cation of mecaviour of strues subject to eerful in advang artefacts.
ontinuum, an
o introduced aour necessitat
Three dimetic (which refundamentall
M. N. James e
metallue
University of Plylson Mandela
University of Plyosherville, Joha
mportant topmany aspecttures must, uum aspectsuum reality omaterial and
gn have to nfluences haing, or corronents, or whe study examrformance o
non-continu
chanical enginuctures and mexternal load ncing our abil The key a
nd considerab
as the appliedted by a movensional stresesist plastic dly controlled
et alii, Frattura e
urgy and
lymouth, PlymMetropolitan
lymouth, Plymannesburg, Sou
pic, and onets of the ser
of necessis of appliedof material sd environme
be mergedave a key roosion), wherehere tribologymples drawnof materials.
uum materia
neers has hadmaterials. In p
or deformatility to calcula
assumptions ble complexi
d loading or dve from unidiss states candeformation
by inhomog
ed Integrità Strut
d mecha
mouth (UK) University, P
mouth (UK) uth Africa
e that is oftervice performity, provide d load andstructure anent, e.g. at a d. The inole in determe performany plays a rol
n from engin
als; metallur
d a strong foparticular, soion fields) anate internal stin solid meity is introd
deformation irectional loa
n be resolvedand promotegeneous, non
tturale, 14 (2010
anics
Port Elizabeth
n poorly undmance of m
a bridge bd displacemed behavioursurface, or
nterface has mining perfonce is dominle. The papeneering prac
rgical param
cus on continolid mechanicd fracture meresses and str
echanics are uced into an
field becomeading to triaxid into deviae fracture) sn-isotropic a
0) 5-16; DOI: 10
(South Africa
derstood or metals (and o
between theent, and thr. This bridcan be a virparticular
ormance chanated by fatier focuses o
ctice to illust
meters; case
nuum mechancs (dealing wiechanics (dealrains and to musually that
nalysis when
es more realisial constraintatoric (whichtress compo
and non-cont
0.3221/IGF-ESIS.
a)
misinterpreother materie macrosco
he microscodge can take rtual one whimportance
aracteristics (igue or fracton the probletrate the role
studies; fatig
nics as a toolith the behavling with cracmake realistict the body n more com
stic; consider,t which occurh promote shnents. As btinuum mate
14.01
5
eted, als).
opic, opic,
the here e in (e.g. ture, ems e of
gue;
l for viour cked c life is a plex
, for rs in hear both erials
M.N
6
behSevprostreproAnplasimscadismetheThpreAssguiof Ththedefsurof serThtemmeamcreto oncpos CR
fatimotheIt condurfraccraproof Thin twaelemK’ spe
T
N. James et alii,
haviour it miveral factors ocess in whichess concentraomote 3D strnother importasticity is verymplified. Wheale yielding, mtribution and
echanics, disloe concepts of he fundamentedicting fractsessment of idance for ena component
hus, in conside fact that thefect populatiorface conditiothe applied
rvice crackinghis paper willmperature. Aechanical engi
mbient tempereep mechanismbe properly sce a critical csition that is d
RACK TIP STR
he first crack grin many
igue crack grore accurate Ke elastic modewas noted bnsiderations, ring crack grocture (with a
acking of struovides the begthe 20th centu
hese stress andthe 1950’s ons governed bment from thwith fracture
ecimen. The
T
Frattura ed Inte
ight be anticserve to mitigh Poisson’s ration factors ress states andtant factor is y extensive there plasticity metallurgical d size; heat trocation mech
f uncertainty, tal role of plature using a the Integrity
ngineering critt or structure
dering the beheir macroscopon), the environ (roughnessfield (e.g. pr
g in materials l focus on thAlthough noineering pracratures is oftems is time-descheduled. Scrack size is difficult to in
RESS FIELD
issue worth rowth by the y circumstancrowth. An inK-solutions oel for crack tipby Griffith [4and that fracowth. This a
a magnitude euctures becauginning of a sury was the and energy strann crack tip strby the first tehe crack tip. e occurring ae stress inten
egrità Strutturale
cipated that pgate these peratio is 0.5 an
that arises frd increase plathe relative s
he design criteis limited fracfactors (e.g.
reatment and hanics and plstatistics and
asticity in cracFailure Ana
of Structurestical assessmeto fracture an
haviour of mpic behaviourronment in ws, chemical croportional ois truly a cutt
he metallurgin-metallic m
ctice is conceren experienceependent andSub-critical crreached (whi
nspect) fast fra
S IN THE PR
briefing conpresence of a
ces but underncreasing em
or improved fp stresses can4] in a classicture occurredapproach explequal to the vuse of the cosound undersnalysis of cracnds were broress fields [7]rm in a serieThis led to dat a critical msity factor is
e, 14 (2010) 5-1
prediction oferturbations; od this tends t
from plastic fastic constrainsize of criticaerion is likely cture will domcrystal struchardness; su
lasticity theorreliability hav
cking of metalysis Diagras containing ent of defectsnd to plastic aterials underr reflects their
which they opomposition,
or non-propoting edge intecal-mechanic
materials are brned with theed as a suddend the damageracks may groich may be eacture occurs
RESENCE OF
nsidering cona plastic enclarpin the cont
mphasis on mfatigue life prn be improvedic paper thatd when the elicitly links crvalue of the complexity in standing of thck tip stress f
ought togethe. He recogni
es expansion, defining the nmaterial consused in situa
16; DOI: 10.3221/
f structural bone is the facto promote 2flow. Howevnt (the move fal defects at fto be plastic
minate and mcture; slip beurface conditiry. Many anave to be factotallic alloys haam (FAD), wDefects [1], s [e.g. 2]. Thcollapse and r applied loadr microscopicerate (temperresidual stres
ortional multirface between
cs interface inboth intereste behaviour on and unfore can often beow very sloweither relatives in metals at
F PLASTICIT
cerns the peave surroundtinuing contr
multi-parameterediction modd to include it the phenomnergy releaserack size, appcritical strain quantifying
he driving forfields performer to lay the fised that the ithrough a 1/
numerator in stant value Kations where
/IGF-ESIS.14.01
behaviour woct that plasticD stress statever, increase from plane st
fracture compcollapse of th
material behavehaviour; graiion; residual alytical and nored into the as led to the which was dand has been
he FAD approplots this statd or deformac compositionrature, chemiss state) as weiaxial loadingn metallurgy, n relation toting and impof metals. It eseen phenome monitored
wly via fatigueely small in tespeeds which
TY
rturbations imding the crackroversy surroer characterisdels, brings ininfluences arimenon of rued by crack explied stress an
energy releaand measurin
rce for crackinmed by Inglis foundations ointensity of th/√r dependenthis first stre
KC appropriat the overall
ould generallc deformationes, whilst a sein compone
tress to planepared with zohe structure a
viour will reflein and phasestress state).
numerical appanalysis. adoption of
developed forn adopted in oach conjointte on a failureation, full conn and conditiical species, cell as the mog). The pred
materials scie cracking pr
portant, it reis also the c
menon, whilstin service allo
e or environmerms of the sh can reach ar
mposed on tk. These pertunding plastisation of cranto sharper fsing from plaupture in solxtension was nd the concepase rate GC), bng the work ng. Other im[5] and West
of fracture mehe applied strncy where r iess term (σ√a)te to the parstress-strain
ly be difficuln is largely a econd is the lent or structu strain situati
ones of local and the analyect interactione dimensions This is the r
proaches are
a two paramr the CEGBsimilar Britis
tly considers e locus diagransideration haion (heat trea
contact with ode, frequencydiction and uence and mecoblems in m
emains true tase that failut failure by coowing repair
mentally-assisscale of the sround Mach 0
the elastic strturbations areicity-induced ck tip stresse
focus the queasticity. lids was govequal to the
pt of a materibut was difficto fracture.
mportant worktergaard [6]. echanics in thress field neais the distanc) to be the ‘strticular state constitutive b
lt and imprecconstant volu
local reductioural size tendons). plasticity. W
ysis can be grens between sms; inclusion trealm of fracapproximate
meter approachB R6 documsh and Europthe susceptib
am. as to be givenatment, hardnother parts), ty and compleunderstandingchanics.
metals at ambthat the bulk
ure by crackinorrosion, weaand replacemted cracking, structure, or 0.4 [3].
ress field drive relatively mshielding du
es, to give eiestion of whe
verned by enenergy absorial’s resistanccult to extend Nonetheles
k in the early
he work by Irar the tip of cce of the stretress intensity fa
of stress in behaviour of
cise. ume
on in ds to
When eatly mall type, cture
and
h to ment, pean bility
n to ness, their exity g of
bient k of ng at ar or ment
but in a
ving minor uring ither ether
ergy rbed ce to d to ss, it part
rwin rack ssed
factor, the
f the
crastreas plaLinin ceve(vialevthegovof areinteExablSatwitwoplaplaconstredrivcradifT-sThthe
whpla
wh
whcrainteplacomCofun
Dis
acked body is ess concentrarecognised in
ane strain thisnear elastic frcracked and sents from thea the Irwin pl
vels should bee K concept verned by thethe applied st
ea of fatigue ensity approa
xtremely interle to providetisfactory ansth plasticity-inork on this isastic ‘inclusionasticity-inducenstant volumesses must exving crack gr
ack tip, and afference in pristress) or four
he stress variae Williams sol
Nf
h
here the two uane. The 4-te
Nf
h
here the four u
Nf
h
here the four uack growth Kensity acting
astic interfacemparable with
onsidering disnction is given
2 u
splacement fi
linear and elaation at the crn the case of s relationship racture mechastressed struce bulk appliedlastic zone coe a relatively to fatigue c
e stress intentress intensitycrack growth
aches. resting (and lae an adequatwers to thesenduced shieldssue [12-14] cn’ representined closure) a
me process wixist at the inrowth forwara shear-induceincipal stresser-term solutio
ant of the equlution. The W
2y x
unknown coerm solution i
2y x
unknowns are
2y x
unknowns arKF, T-stress, a
to retard crac (leading to ah photoelasticsplacement fin by:
iv z
ields can be s
astic, i.e. wherack tip). Crif plane stress becomes G =
anics and the ctures with and elastic field. orrection to alow fraction
crack growth nsity factor, thy, ΔK = Kmax h and life pre
argely ignoredte characterise questions wding of the crconsiders theng the plasticand compatibth Poisson’s
nterface. Therds KF, a retaed stress intees [14], usingons to the Weuation represeWilliams solut
1
2xyi Az
efficients are is:
xyi A z
e A, B, C and1
2xyi Az
re A, B, C anda crack flank ck growth KR
a KS term). Tc data. ields, both p
'z z z
ubstituted int
M. N. James e
ere there is a litical values oby the equat
= K2/(1 – ν2)Estress intens
n associated d Plasticity is
apparent crack(perhaps < 0rate on the
hen sub-critic– Kmin. With ediction und
d) questions sation of phewould seem lirack tip durine boundary cc enclave surrbility-inducedratio ν = 0.5
e CJP modelarding stress ensity KS. Ang full-field phoestergaard or enting the CJtion for 2-term
3
2Bz z C
A (A+B = 0
1 3
2 2z z z
d D, while the1 3
2 2Bz z
d D and D+Econtact stre
R) and a compThis provides
perpendicular
' z
to Eq. 4 to gi
et alii, Frattura e
limited extentof stress intention G = K2/E. sity approach decoupling ofprimarily conk length), stre0.6) of the yie
basis that ifcal crack grow
the developmer cyclic load
remain as toenomena thaikely to assistg fatigue crac
conditions tharounding the d stresses at 5, whilst in ell [12, 14] forintensity KR
nalysis of its otoelastic datWilliams [15]P model is gims, K and T-
0Cz
0) and C and
1 1
2 2(B z z
e CJP model i1
0 2Cz Dz l
E = 0. This mess with a 1/patibility-indufringe pattern
and parallel
ive:
ed Integrità Strut
t of crack tip nsity factor an/E where E
have provenf local crack tnsidered throuess state and eld strength of critical cracwth under cycment of fractuding has beco
why, and hoat explicitly at in resolvingck growth [10at would be crack. Thesthe elastic-pllastic deformr crack tip str
which captucapability in
ta, indicate a l] equations. iven below alstress is:
z is the coo
102 )z Cz D
is given as: 3
2lnz Ez zln
model allows√r distributio
uced shear strns for differe
to the crack
tturale, 14 (2010
plasticity (whnd strain eneris the elastic
n very useful itip microstruugh its influethrough the sof the alloy. ck growth unclic loading mure mechanicome the prim
ow, an elasticarise from plg a number o0, 11]. The eximposed on e arise from lastic interfac
mation ν ≈ 0.3resses leads t
ures wake concharacterisin
lower fitting
long with 2-t
rdinate of a s
( )D z z
nz
for calculatioon behind thress as a bounence in princi
k face, the M
0) 5-16; DOI: 10
hich arises frorgy release ramodulus of
in characteriscture and plances on specistipulation thParis [8] ext
nder monotomay be govercs into a matume applicatio
c approach tolastic deform
of controversixplanation adthe applied crack wake cce. Plastic d3 and plasticito a modifiedntact influenc
ng near-tip frierror than eit
erm and 4-te
stressed poin
on of a stresshe crack tip (ndary conditiipal stresses w
Muskhelishvil
0.3221/IGF-ESIS.
om the high lte are equivalthe material.
sing critical stasticity controimen complia
hat nominal stended the usonic loading ned by the raure discipline,on area for st
o crack growtmation proces
ies [9] associdvanced in reelastic field b
contact (so-cadeformation ity-induced shd stress intences ahead of
ringe patternsther two- (K
erm equations
(1)
nt in the com
(2)
(3)
s intensity driv(leading to stion at the elawhich are dire
li complex st
(4)
14.01
7
local lent, . In
tates olled ance tress se of
was ange , the tress
th is sses. ated cent by a alled is a hear nsity f the s for plus
s for
plex
ving tress stic-ectly
tress
M.N
8
wh u,v
z A, CasexaKS,fou
It ipla
N. James et alii,
2 u
z
Az
here:
,z z
B, C, D, E, Fsting the CJPample, using , KR and the Tund as compo
Figure 1:full-fiel
l
l
l
I r
Sr
R r
X
y
K
K
K
T
T
is not yet cleaasticity-induce
Frattura ed Inte
iv
2B E z
1/2 1/2Dz ln
= s = f = h
= a
= cF = uP model in thdigital imageT-stress as foonents Tx in x
Displacementld fitting betwe
a crack 29.3
0
0
0
im 2
lim 2
lim 2
r
r
r
r
r
r
C
F
ar whether theed growth rat
egrità Strutturale
2 2B E z
1/2 1/2Ez ln
1/22nz Dz
shear modulufunction of Pohorizontal and
auxiliary funct
complex coorunknown coehese terms allo correlation t
ollows (note tx-direction an
t field around aeen model andmm long und
3
2
2
y
xy
y
Eln r
e CJP model,te perturbatio
e, 14 (2010) 5-1
1 1
2 24z Ez
4
C Fnz
2
C Fz
us, MPa oisson’s ratiod vertical disp
tions in Musk
rdinate in the fficients and ows direct cotechniques (Fthat when usind Ty in y-dire
a crack tip mead experimental er a load of 12
3
2
2
3
r
A B
D E
, based on theons, or lead to
16; DOI: 10.3221/
1
22C
Ez lnz
o ν placements
khelishvili‘s m
plane z=x+iyD+E = 0
omparison wiFig. 1). Expring displacemection):
asured using Ddata. A 2 mm
20 N. The mea
3 8A B E
e plastic incluo a reconciliat
/IGF-ESIS.14.01
4
C Fz
model
y
ith full field cressions can bment data rath
DIC techniquesm thick aluminiasurement regi
E
usion concepttion of conflic
crack tip dispbe directly obher than stres
s. The pattern ium specimen iion is 17.7 mm
t, will providecting views o
placement fielbtained from ss data, the T
of points is usis used which c
m by 13.2 mm.
e a means of cf plasticity-in
(5)
lds measured,Eq. 5 giving
T-stress has to
sed for the contains
characterisingnduced crack t
, for g KF, o be
g tip
shifitt IN
depdisstruthrThsam
Thand[19asycangrosusAnof allolighincborfatimelevincIn par
I
ielding. It doting error whe
NTERGRANU
ntergranulaalloys, e.g. consequen
pendent on tlocations, whucture of a ½ree 1/6[1 1 1] his leads to slme as that req
Figurperiod
he motion of sd {1 1 2} slip9] and ultra-loymmetry given then form aowth along exsceptible alloyn interesting e
bcc steels usoys have to bht weight andcreased formaron and nitroigue loading,echanism outlvels of P and creased P andthe case of IFrticularly duri
I
es, however, en compared
ULAR FATIGU
ar faceting ducertain α-iron
nce of crystaltemperature, hich are less
½[111] screw fractional dislip asymmetryquired to mov
re 2: Core of a dically repeating
The arrows ar
screw dislocap planes. Intow interstitials rise to shapalong grain bxtended crackys subjected texample of thsed in the au
balance severad are likely toability and deeogen, typically, however, llined above. Mn in solid
d lower interstF steels, desping crack init
capture influwith photoel
UE
uring fatigue ns and ultra-ll structure astrain rate anmobile thandislocation inlocations whiy whereby thve it in the op
½[111] screw g the three (11re the relative (
ations hence dterstitial atoml atom contenpe changes ofboundaries wk paths plastito fully revershis phenomenutomotive indal conflicting o be subject tep-drawing cy 10-200 wt plow interstitia IG crackingsolution. Su
titial C, B or Nite plastic deftiation and lo
M. N. James e
uences of plaslastic full-field
is a second low carbon stand dislocationd interstitial
n non-screw n a bcc alloy ich also sprea
he shear strespposite directi
dislocation pa1) layers (distin(screw) displac
depends on stms present in nt (e.g. C, B, Nf bcc grains u
which favours ic deformatiosed loading innon occurs industry for forrequirements
to reversed cyapability are a
ppm (0.001 wal content (
g may also beusceptibility tN [16]. formation beiong life fatig
et alii, Frattura e
ticity that havd fringe data.
plasticity-indteels with a bon movemenl atom contedislocations is non-planar
ad asymmetriss to move a ion on the sa
arallel to the plnguished by dicements of neig
tress-assistedthe cores of N) would theundergoing futhe nucleatio
on may be strn high cycle fan interstitial-frrming thin gas, i.e. deep-dryclic loading assisted by ve
wt % to 0.02 w< 40 ppm) e promoted wto brittle frac
ing strongly lgue, the fatigu
ed Integrità Strut
ve, up to now
duced phenomody-centred c
nt [16]. Slipent and are gand which mr, lying in thrically on threedislocation i
ame plane.
ane of the figuifferent colourghbouring atom
d thermally acf screw dislocerefore promully reversed on of intergrrongly localisatigue where lree (IF) steelsauge sheet brawing capabiin service. Tery low amouwt %). At thpromotes IG
with high strecture has bee
localised at grue performan
tturale, 14 (2010
w, largely been
menon that ocubic (bcc) crp mechanismgoverned by make cross-slree {1 1 1} pe {1 1 2} planin one directi
ure. The atomiced atoms) alonms along the disl
tivated genercations appare
mote slip asymcyclic deform
ranular fatigused within gralevels of plas
s which constody panels. ility, fatigue r
The conflict inunts of intersthe small plastG cracking ength IF steeen shown to
rain boundarince is little d
0) 5-16; DOI: 10
n ignored and
occurs infrequrystal structur
ms in bcc allthe behavioulip more difflanes (Fig. 2)nes in the twiion on a slip
c block is formng the dislocatilocation line [17]
ration of kinkently make th
mmetry in bccmation. Strese cracks. Duain boundarietic strain rangtitute one of tIn performa
resistance, tenn requirementitial elementstic strains typthrough the
el grades conbe higher in
ies, which leadifferent to o
0.3221/IGF-ESIS.
d gives a lowe
uently in spere, and is a diloys are strour of long scficult. The c). It spreads inning sense plane is not
med by ion line. ].
k pairs on {1 his process eac alloys. Thisss concentratiuring subseques, particularlge are low. the major groance terms, thnsile strength nts arises becas such as carbical of high c
slip asymmntaining increan the presenc
ds to IG faceother compar
14.01
9
er
cific irect ngly crew core into [18]. t the
1 0} asier slip ions uent ly in
oups hese and
ause bon, cycle
metry ased e of
eting rable
M.N
10
alloIGto e RE
difthenumstreof wawel
ThstruparresperfatisucfroslipcycloaWeassto engsurof FroA s
R
N. James et alii,
oys which doG facets on a f
either critical
ESIDUAL STR
esidual consequof the y
fferent distancerefore also vmber of waysess and fatigustructural parke effects, lolding), mecha
Figure 3: IG
heir magnituductures produrticularly in thidual stress rformance thrigue ‘quality’ ch as the initiom interface cp processes. clic loading, tad. elding is the sessment for wpropose verygineering critrface measuremeasurementom the 1970ssynchrotron l
R
Frattura ed Inte
o not exhibit fracture surfaor sub-critica
RESSES AND
stresses arisuence of manyield or prooces over whic
varies with typs, including cue crack growrts. They als
ocal phase traanical propert
faceting near t
des can be higuced under nhe presence oprofiles durrough, for exof the comp
iation of fatigcoherency, e.g
Despite the there is still a
most commwelded jointsy conservativticality of defements, e.g. uts, alongside as onwards, thlight source i
egrità Strutturale
such IG faceace are usuallyal cracking w
D WELDS
e as a consenufacturing anof strength. ch the residupe, nature andchanges to lowth. These st
o occur as a ansformationties, microstru
the crack initiatand 0.
ghly variable;nominally simof stress concring service xample, peeniponent [23]. gue cracks andg. of intermetwidespread e
a lack of accu
monly used sts often has a ve ways of defects. A larg
using low eneran ‘innate’ coe available X-s a form of p
e, 14 (2010) 5-1
eting during cy an indicatio
would be lowe
equence of mnd fabricationThese regional stresses seld origin [20]. ad eccentricit
tresses often aconsequence
ns), and are pucture and ge
tion site in an .013Ti. The st
; both from pmilar condition
entrators suc[21]. Compng [22] or coType II stresd corrosion ptallic particlesexistence andurate 3D info
tructural joinideciding influ
ealing with rege contributiorgy X-ray sou
ontribution to-ray intensity
particle accele
16; DOI: 10.3221/
crack initiatioon that some ered. Fig. 3 sh
misfit between processes, wns of misfit clf-equilibrate. Type I mac
ty and failurearise from noe of the crackparticularly ineometry of th
IF steel contaiteel has a yield
place-to-placns. The exterh as weld toepressive residld-working tesses are intergprocesses. Tys and regions,d frequent usormation on t
ing process auence on the esidual stress on to this unurces, imprecio scatter fromy increased drerator in whic
/IGF-ESIS.14.01
n and growthform of embhows typical I
en various rewith magnitudcan occur wi. Their influerostresses cane stress durinon-uniform plk growth procnfluenced by he componen
ining 0.001C, 0strength of 17
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anes in the alwavelength os shown in Fe centre-line plate. Residuontour maps epth of 1 mmut 5 mm to thair overlay arerosion resistaned after this es and these
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ss profiles at a
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m below the su
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ds in as a
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CO
undexpundwhme AC
RE [1]
[2]
[3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9]
[10[11[12[13
[14
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ONCLUSION
his papedominatplasticity
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CKNOWLEDG
he awarassistancDanie H
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