syntax cr123oitoru part 1

7/28/2019 Syntax Cr123oitoru Part 1

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{1a) Ihlph made offv,ith the pictot.ictl repre.terrtcttiofi o-f me.(15) Ralph rnade ofl u'itlt the pictttre belorrgittpJ to nre.Thus- nobodv can deny the ambiguitv of these sentences once theirvarious interpretations have been pointed out.In other sentences" what appears as the subject ofthe sentence on thesurface level is not the subject on the deep level, or the Np r^,,hich appears asthe direct object ofthe verb is not the deep-level direct object Eor example:aithough the surface subject ofthe follou.i'g senrence is ihe pronoun !. thedeep-level subject ofthe verb began is the entire sentence minus the r,erbbegan: (16) I hegan to vonder rhether oilyone v,os intere.ytetl in that.that is the subject is I to wonder w'hether anyone r.l'as interested in that.Sinrilarl_v. in the sentence(17) The general cxpec;l' the ne* enet??-t, nzacltine_gtrtt lo be u,ipedout hS,,nighr./dllthe NP the next enemy machine:gun is considered the surface direct objecrbut not the deep directcbject ofexpects. The deep direct object ofexpect rsthe whole stmcture follorving the verb. i e the nixt enemy machineun tobe wiped out by nightfall

There are also cases in rvhicli certain constituents do not appear insurface structures as a result of ellipsis For example in the sentence:(18) 7he ilonl(r? put her pr-tckethook in the.fiottt.teLlr ctnd herE'oceries itt the hack selt.therugmaqJul has been elided after the conjunction andTherefo.e. ihe deep srrucrure of a senrence iinderrine, its surraeestructure, and pror.ides the fu'ctio'al inlbrmation necessar\. inundeistancin{r a sei.}ignce, ii elso shc.,i's ihe irfop?i ccnsritirerri. sin:cta;,e of-the sentence.i)eep stilctures ar-e c,;ri.;eli.cc into surli


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(10) I.


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(37Y didn'l care a dantn y.,hether he should win or lose.j3,1.5. As far as sentence negation is concerned, one of thecharactpristics ofEnglish is the presence ofonly one negation in a senrence(e.g. even in positive subordinate clauses following a nigative in the rnainciause):(38) I hat,e never fi.cn,elled anyuhere b): ship .yet.(39) No one has eyer said aq)rhing to eithei of us.(10) Nobod1., has promi.sed that anJ: of y.ou tuill be released y4.According to the same au.thors quoted above, occasioiJlv rwonegatir,:es occur in the same clause.(47) I ccut't not ohey. (I have to obey){42) Not mun), people hcne nov,here to lit,e. (Most people havesorleq'here to live)These sentences are somewhat rike the "doubre negative" of rogic, inthat each negator has its separate value and it is possible tJ nno paraphrases,Iike those gi'en above which cancel out each negative, leaving an entirelypositive sentence3.1.6. There are also sentences in which more that one negative formrs used, but the meaning rs that of a single negative.g3) He didn't gwe me a thittg"This is the case of a different kind of "muitiple negatio'', specific to

subsrandard Engiish:(.44) a. No one never soid nothirrg.which in standard English is:b. No ane evey said qnything.The difference is due to the fact that in standard English the some-anli suppletion transfcrrmation is active. By suppletioi the use ofphonetically unrelated roots and affixes is meant, e.g. some_an)..5:0 lnebody-_ -a4ybadi, someo!e-------anjione. somethirG---arggr*The some--------no suppretion transformation rr-q*fiactive aFectingsomegne-=,-----no one! soiaeihiiig______!gt!ugg. one__-__none, sorrr____to.

t.4 5 \,\i am e h ottl' sm i, so m e t h i i?g:,_ _ Np bad! sr,", i iriit i tg.3t7..r,J.a.. sL.r .ri?i rhirii(46i i arc u*t i aft trcne.s.z".hter".oeative snt*"c.' or questions are used to re(luest informatron,shouring that the speaker expefis an answer. The foilor,r,ing tipes cfquestion are inclr'ded here.t ,i]uirk, F-., Greenl-'aur:r, S , L.eech CiCorrlerriptrrary Engjish. i ongsra,;, i.ondon ang *(r;.34r-,i[ .i.. A. {-i!-.?n]mnj- Cl. tr98;q. p 378.

3,2,1. a) Yes-no quesrions are tliose that expect the ans*-er y-es or[a The subject- operator inversion is specific to these questions lninterrogative sentences containing a present tense or a past tense verbwithor-rt an operator- the do-periphrasis is used Bv placing the nuclear stressin a particular part of a yes-no question, the interrogation is focussed on aparticular item of infbrmation. Thus, the focus falls in different places in thefollowing questions'(47 ) Il'ere |hey.fi1191191; in their \nuth /(l know the-v knew each other- but were they friends then?)(48) W'ere they.lriends in thelr youilt ?(I knorn'the1' were friends-but w-as it then or later?)Yes- no question have a positive and a negative orientation. Aquestion has a positive orientatiol.t if it uses assertive forms in preference tonon -assertive ones.(49) Did sorneone cull la.vl night / (It is true that someone called)(50) .Did he v'ctit somev'here neilt" the nruseum ? (I guess he did)It means that the speaker expects an afftrmative answer and hemerely asks for confirmation. Such questions are frequently used withoffers;

(5 l) lIlould 1'ou like some cof;fee apples? Othenvise in commonyes-no questions, some-an)' suppletion transformation is active:(52) I can do sonzethingJitr yotr-('sn I vou do cotl'thingforyou'me?Yes-no questions rr ith a neqatir e orientatiolt contain a neqalir etbrm. (53) Can'r you v,sit here'.) (ls it reall.v true thal 5ou can't ){54) lstt't lhe raCio-set tarkiitg'.)(i-5) D


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such questions are similar to tag questions, or to statements showingdisbelief (e.g surely someone called last night)Declarative questions are identical in form with a statement, exceprfor the final rising question intonation.(59) Yott'te brought the stt]ffi{60) You reqlize }lthai the ri.sks' ure,ti61't He didn't drlnk yp rhe milk?-3.2.2' b) {'/h-c7uesti,n.s are trrose questions ibrmed with one r:f'thernierrogaiive woi-cis. who, whose. whom, what, ,ryhich, q,hen, where, ho.,,r,why. tl" Q *o.d may, occu!- in a prepositional phrase: the prepo"riticn isplaced bef,:re it ir foriiial Eirgiish and ai tiie enci of the senience incolloquia! English. There are scme rvavs of intensifling the emoti,,,e effectcf a wn-quesrion.i52) IIVv utt eurth s.triti thui?(.53) il'h_v. on ecrtit are they stcnding there?t61) tri'hr, tit


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3.2-3.1. Any positive -ves-no question can be converted lnto analternative question by adding or not? or a matching negative clause.(93) yes -no: Are you ctmritg tsr nol?Are "y,otr conitryl or nrett't 1.otr ?In such a question as(94) Did Dcm ar Rrsb coarc flte secrntd?the ellipted elements are.(.95) Did Dan (come the seconcl) or (ctrd) Btb conte the secorr{':)A wh-question can be used as the subject ofa complex sentence:(96) Lvho stole ilutr big piece of rnecft is vhst tve rtave rc.fird ,ut.when the questioned rvord is the subjLct and the e-erement is who, no do-penpnrasls is used.(97) Ls he sleeprng or (is he) totching I-I,.lt(98) 1s he .sleeping or u,crtching II-?where there is no repeated structure, no ellipsis is possible, the secondquestion appearing in its full fonn.(99) Is it rttrnitry ( -- ) ot, hos ir troltped i -*l l. ,3.2.4. d) Tag questions, or disjunctir,e questions, or tail questronsshow that the speaker expecrs a confirmation of the truth of his statilent. atag question is appended to.a statement: a positive statement is follow-ed bya negative tag, and a negative statement is fo110u,ed by an affirmative rag,both parts of the sentence being uttered *,ith a fa[ing tone. The statemenrexpresses an assumption and the tag question expresses an expectation.In case oftransferred negation, such as.(100') I don't sttppose he is .seriou.s. is he?the subject of the tag is taken from the that-clause. but the absence ol.negation from the tag is explained *,ith refeFnce to the negative panicie ofthe independent clause, which applies semanticaily to the trr*a1-crau-se3-2'4'1, \Arhen the staieineni c'snrains a negati.u.e a


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SII\,tP,/\.// \

\r

(-tlAT t |-t( +i triiviEDiATE C Oh{STiTUEr\T S AF{ALY Si S

4.1. Introducing the concent. In IC analysis, sentences are divided rntoiheir plncipai iarts cr irimedrair cLln5tiiueiir.s':eih ci ti)L-se ccn:tiiuuirr5. i!then dir,'icjed anri suhiiivicecj rintii the riitimatc constiiuents of the sentenccare rtaclicdl.-'.=,-,''n::i,r r,-' Tr-:rrr.g Ilr'r'-..-l-.,ri A ,+1--- .-.'+" ,-.i.^.1"+ .=-'-== .l:=':l- r11:3!LV: +ili$ !!! J'!3rjit! f !!l iluL:rr , ru: LriLr uuii i:ii*!:i i: t t:: U! t i!it ii16piurai morpiremes, the iniiectionai- ed, the sufi-ix-l-v etc.Reiationsi:ips holding bet'ween the iCs ma'/ be anaij.zed andidentified a{ier each cut is mad. in the irst syarnpie. the frrst cur .,iei,isstructures that F;nctrcn as subiect and rredicate

IKelrexl\ eNP

I t\PicnR.eilexi-"'s

Yr;u1s.-ifiu tirat iirev, sircw tite s?rme siruciriicilatterns ar.

In pcint sf ',.cice. a

i ttc U(*tr'5Sti.;ctures. i'ioi;nplras:E.;rctinrrc ti::i'i:rt

BehaveCutririia;r{,'is,l sssllrbie siaieulclisand crder ofthe constituents The basicS1";. Rea,j

^L-.1-. r^_-^L^rSiiYlV LULlliiLi

3-r'A. ir-i:* i,:els.SVC: Be reasonable.SVOA. Lay ir on the sheiiUsually there ls no tense or aspect distrncticnpassive is rare:

r1- ^ _. _..- -.ij tqj LrLi ! rt) !

The secorid cut --vie1,3s strictuies tliai fai:icticii as verbal elerneiit aiid.;orrrpiement (cr ob;eci) .xithirt 'rhe p,eri.iea'';e.The boys shyly touched the puppvStruct'.rres: Verb phrase Noun phraseFunctions. Verbal element lComplementiobject)/

The final cuts yields.The boys shyly touched the puppyStructures;Determiner NounFunctions:Modifier Head

(I19) Be .seated.(12Q) Be preTtared.For emphasis, commands usually have the subjecr you{121) You conrc herel(122) Ycru be quiet.t(123) You stop talkiu.qlThev often express strong irritation.Adverb Verb\,{odifier Head

Determiner liounModrfier Head4.1.1. This type of analysis gives rise to the practice of referring tonoun-headed structures and yelb+qadd_jlructuryl when speaking ofclusters or phrases where the construction is one of modification. Theadjectives and adverbs shor.r' similarities in syntactic function Therelationships holding between the determiners and nouns above are the same

as that holding between the adveib and verb.In the following erample. the first cut yields stnlctures that function assubject and predicate.Smallptppies are fat and frisfu,'.' Herndon, J., Structural Analysis of English Sy$ani, in A Sur-r'eyModern Grammars, Hoit, Rinehart and Winston, USA. 1976. of


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Structures: NounphraseFunctions: SubjectThe second cut yields:Smctll puppie^t LTre

\rerb phrasePredicate

fat cod.frisrr\.the successive immediate constituents can be analysed. Old or father(adjective or noun) alone could be substituted for old f-ather (adjective *noun); for old f'ather Thames could be substituted a singie lloun water, John,"Tt, o, an article + noun group iike the river (itself an erpansion of singlenoun constituent); for keeps roiling aiong could be substituted keeps rolling,and for keeps rolling could be substituted flqwl runs, etc (single verbs)a.Z.l. ltre patterns common to large numbers of sentences may becalled favourite sentence t]'pes A basic syntactic structure is the simpiestform of any favourite sentence type, from u'hich innumerable longersentences can be built up by series of expansions at various structuralolaces. Sentences are. horvever, found in all languages, that do not conformto and are not reducible to on of the basic syntactic structures. Some suchsentences may be frequent in utterances, but as types they underlie very fbwexpanded siructures or longer sentences. Sentences of this sort may bereierred to as non-favourite. or--mln!Irtll!3[19l! sentences. They lall intotwo main classes as R.H.Robins lclassifies them.

1) Those which may be a part of a ionger sentence which arestructurally independent of a previous sentence and which ma-v initiate adiscourse or conversation. Such sentences are often exciamatory:(5). John!(6) Hello!(7) Dratl(8\ Gracious!Some ofthem can be expanded in certain directions:(9) Poor old ,Johrrl'1rA) Hello there!(| l) Drat thal natse i(12) Good gracious nte.t

Others may be gnomic such as:(13i Easi' cGiiie, c..t.i: go.(14'l The sooner, tirc lleiti.They are lexically restricted, and littie or no variation of the words inthem is non'naily permitted.

2) Sentences thai are referabie io longer sentences contaitdng titesarne $iord or sequerlce 3f r.r.,s1'Js. The;,' r:suaiiy collsiitule :3sponsss lc) aprevious utterunce, particularly a question(l5j Ollhere do you lire?) In ,4shlorC.

Structures: Verb Compound AdiectiveFunctions: \'erbalelement ComplementThe fi'al cut yields one structure composed of head and modifier.and another composed of two coordinates joined by the conjunction andserving as a connectorSmall puppies Ne fat and fiisky,Structures: Adj r'rloun Verb Adj Conj AdjFunctions: Modifier Head \zerbal coordinate connector coordinateIf a prepositional phrase is placed in a different position in thesentence- the meaning or the stylistic effect is different. For eramole.(1') The bo1'played nrarbles on his hrce.s.(2) T'he bo1,


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But sentencslike here! . hcinds iip.t . qil i.ight!, f'i.itcen ui! (in tennisscoring's,.Jotl-t' vtell done! can all be understood irrespective of the prev.iousl!tterancp in nn annronriete qifrrctiorrTher ciff-er frcrn the fbrmer in rhat the.r-rna', be:-epreced bi e lcngcr andmcre explicit sentence {of a fa'"'ourite t;.pe) of .*hich thei mav be a part.(16) We liw in Ashfbr.d.(.17\ The sgl>1"g ic fift.,sn stti 18) that w,rs1z!b, yt'e!! dotre.'i'i-^ ^^-.^-_--

{19} Poor.iohri rtat *tcii.i: :nade i.ii; ,,.i it.rc s.,'nta.ctic e unsiiiurtiirPc,ci -'icha anc ran a=v!ay, each of thesc ccrrstit"r.renis is it;eif ccrni;csed clii.;,;ecnsiitucnis pc.gf ar.J;c,hn on ine .jlie i-.and, anii i-Gn G.i-rd.iii,i-i:_ n11 titu Citi,:,.Pccr -I+!* is a ccii:titueEt of the sa1:re c3tegcry, called i'{p {:icun phr:rsc}. a:;iohn, mr' irtq4{ ihe emperor's i'hvourue so!, sne. il}9_iunrLlliql_r!_lcg rhe'*oli- eti. Simiiai-ii- rair a1r.,a:\'is a consiiiiitlli of iir. sa:r1tr.:)^!cgL\j...,,,;?riecVP {veih ohrase). as*cA-i!!e, sleot. we-nt_tcr p,a-fis. iiit the lroy etcEacir ci tl-r.r:;e l\Ps airi -.,.?s in:..v i]e siinpie iccnsisiing


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This remark may seem terribly annol,in-e; to that boyEach point in the tree is called a node, and each node represenrs aconstituent, i e. a syntactic unit. As the tree diagram show.s us- the words ofthis sentence are not only the syntactic units, i.e. the constituents oi. thesentence" but also the phrases [this remark], [te*ibly annoying], [thatboyl, [to that boy] and fseem terribty annoying-ro thaiboy]5 I 3. The fact must be mentioned here that a tree-diag.am pror,'idesa representation of the constituent structure of a sentence, i.e of the basicsyntactic units, but it does not provide any information about whichconstituents are constituents of the same type. Thus, r.ve cannot considerremark and this in sentence (1) as constituents of the same type. Remarkis the same kind of words as a boy, with the difference that boy:'has personalreference lvhile remark has non-personal reference.This is the same kind of worci as that, the, a, etc. The traditional

way of dealing with the sinrilarities and dissimilarities between constituentsis that of including them within categories of various types. For e*ampre,words like boy. remark are traditionally included r.vithin the caiegory ofnouns, whereas words iike this, that are traditionally considered toietoneto !19 category of Deferminers. The word seem is considered by thitraditional grammar as being the same kind of word as goo feel appearcalled main, or lexical, cr full-rneanins Vert .But the word may is the sanie kincj of must, might, can, will,would, shall, shculd. i.e. Modal(Auxiliary) VerbTo is rhe same kind cf ccnstiiuent as at, in, for, with, from etc. i e.a Piepcsitlon. The v','oids ierriiiiy is iike extreraei-r-. awfiliip-, rrighr-v,:rc.traditicnaii',; caiied as ad'erb {interrsifieri" a'd annoying is the sarrie kinci asboring, exciting, etc, traditionally labelled as Aciiectlve.A-s it hes zlrezci'been menlioned, r.rcrds do iiot paiiern diieciiy iiilosentences, that is there are sonle inten'ening levels of organization b*tr"eenrvords anci sentences. These inter.,.ening units betr.veen Ju,ord anc sentecceare called phr*se arrd c!:luse

5.2. Phrase-Markers. Labelled Bracketine- 5.2.1 . Phrases are equivalent to the word groupings we have aireadyreferred to, and clauses to the larger units. So words pattern into phrases,okases into clauses and clauses into sentences.In much the same waY as r.vords belong to different categories, so doohrases.For erample, the phrases [this remark] and [that boy] seem to beohrases of the same kind, and in both of them the head, i.e the keyionstituent of the phrase is a Noun. Therefore, these tw'o constituents can beassigned the categorial status of Noun Phrases. The phrase [terriblyannlyingl is a constitue't of the same type as [highly exciting], fver-vhandiome] etc. that is a phrase whose head is an adjective [annoying.handsome, excitingl, so it mav be called Adjectival phrase The phrase [tothat boyl is of the same type as [with her sister], [from that man], fforJohn], whose head is a preposition, so it is called a Prepositional Phrase .The phrase [seem terribty annoying to that boy] is of the sametype as [behave rather rudely to his wife]' [send a parcel to John], [goUacL to school], that is a constituent whose head is a Verb, so it isconsidered a Verb Phrase. Finally, the u'hole sequence [This remark ma,vseem terribly annoying to that boy] is a special t}pe of constituenttraditionally labelled as Clause or Sentence'

The explanations given so far and the tree-diagram ofsentence (i)given in (2) prove that none of this important categorical information isiontained in this type of tree-diagram. The relevant categorial informationcan be conveyed by such a diagram if an appropriate category label isattached to each ofthe nodes in the tree, a labelled tree-diagram being theresult obtained. Consequently. the categorial constituent structure ofsentence (1) can be represented in terms ofa labelled tree-diagram in thrsform:(3) _--l ----.--t i -\-iiF in'i 'v?,,\ T l'=il--=--\*-DN A!-

AD\T An\iii L\ii.itirat irov

(21

YFr.\i-\P -httPI,J\i!\

This remark iltoY secl:l ierriLrli annovinq io


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The symbols repiesent S=clause/sentence. lrlp=Ncun phrase.N:iioun, VP:"v'erb Fhrase. !'-\'erb. AF:A


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Auxiliary Verb may,this case, the partiaidiagram (3);(8)and a VP fseem terribly nnnoyingP-marker (8) is prefened instead to that boyl. Inof the fu1l tree-

(1 l)

If we aPPIY rule (10structure (12):(t2)

0 NP --t DNRule 10 (a) generates the partial tree structure (l l)S

ImayIn partial P-markers like the one above, a friangle is commonly useclto represent constituents with a complex internal structure rve are notinterested to represent.By the use of partial bracketin_e, we can represent sentence (1) asfoliows:(9) ISINP this remarkl [M may] [VP seem terribty annoying tothat boyll.We can conclude that sentences have a hierarchical constituentstructure in w'hich sounds are grouped together into words, words intophrases and phrases into sentences. Each constituent (word or phrase) in asentence belongs to a specific syntactic categorr. Thereiore sentences havea categorial constituent structure which can be represented in the form ofa P-marker (:labelled tree-diagram), or labelled bracketing.But in case of an untrained informant, constituents and categorieshave oniy the status of theoretical constructs, because his intuitions aboutthe syntactic structure are uncertain and unreiiable.

5.3. Phtagestuctqre Rules (:PS Rules)5,3 1. Tliere is a systern of syntactic rules which inust specity whiciisequences of words form grammatical sentences and render the internalsyntactic struciure of such sentences. Thus, the goai of the syntacticcomponent mal' be reibrrculated as being that of generafi*g {i.e cfspeciff ing hor'-, ro fonn) ail the grammatical sentence siructures in aiarrguage For exampie. sfuctures such as (3) can be generated by a set cfPhrase Structure Ruies.Let us consider the tbilowing set of pS ruies. which are CategorialRules, because they speci$ =which cate-qoi1 words or phrases belong tc-{10 a) S --+}dP M \'?b) \?--i VAp ppc) A?-+.AD\? Aci).{DVP--+,+ijV

e.t PP --+ P NP

\.D

1"* terri b I v u n n or, i n frJii-iib-uy-(11) we denve the

-/--l.--'-"-PPPinto(13)

appiying ruie ( I tj e) io structure ( 1 3 ), this structure "r'iii be expa.ndedin+n /'l d\(14)

S

_'-..--=-_NP M \iP--'t\---l I -\-t\V -4P PP,'/t\ i\z\/\AD\,? ,4. P l\?iAN\Idt.-a \

NP IU VPb) to expand the \? rn

S

VApplying rule (10 c) and (10 d) to structure (12), we expand (12)


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Appl;ring rule (i0 $ to expand bothfoliowing structure will be generated:( l5)

Sh? \,r \-r

(i8)S

NPM\?Applyin,e (17 b) to structure (18). structure (19) is senerated:i rg)\' / s

\P : j 1._P----l't\--_\,' l\-r-P

Applying i-ule il7 c; tc both l.l,:s in i i9i i"iii ;"ieid ilC,;, ivhrch is ihtS-structure of sontciiccs iihc ( 15 a):\?a) \| ----]\4 \:D----^----VpP

IiBut now let us apply ruie (17 a) to generate the subtree (18) above.

and let us see how we could expand the \? node in (18). This time rve couidskip overthe former option in rule (17 b), i.e IVP --4' \r'NP] instead ofgoing for the latter option I V --> \r S] If lve apply this secoud part of tirerule to VP in (18), (21) is generated:(2r)

Applying rule (17 a) again to expand the embedderi (=lou'er) S in(21) into its immediate constituents I NP M V"], (22) is generated:

Noun Phrases in (2). rhe

---ll\-v ,+r.,/ \AD\,? Ai

I,i rai /i

.4.! J\,

PFP N.I'

Ti:esu ruies are saiied caieqoriai Ruies because b_v appivi'g ihem,;4irjuoris! aie expaldeci in:o other- caiegories. Finaiiv. accorcins tc. iiieLexicalisation Prineiple- anv rvord iari. iexicai iiem; listed" 1., t[*dicticrar;l as beionging ro a given -rvoid * category can be inserted uncerany coresponding (terminal) categorv node in any p_marker By apolyingthe i.exicalisation Principle, (15) will look as (3) with each woid inserrecunder each category.5.i.2 The fact must be also be added that any set of CategoriarRules used to generate sentences must alrow potentialli inf ite recursionof panicular structures. For example, one clause can be embedded insirieanother:(16) a) [S Jack rvill not ans\\,er that letter]b) [S Bob may know [S Jack will not answer to thar letter]lc) lS Dan must realize [S Bob ma1, know. [S Jack ,"iil notanswer to rhat letterllld) [S Andrew-might guess [S Dan must realize [S Bob mavknow [S Jack will not answer to that lefterj]lln this case we can consider the following system of pS rules:(17) a) S --+ NrP M \?7NPb) vP -+ v\ bciP ---r {D) NBy applying rute (17 a). the following structr-rre is _generated

}JPIIN

S-__=_/f_=____-----NP s"I \Ao."-------


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N? M\?V.S ----{-----tw x.,1 \?

If we further expand the embedded (:lower) \? in (22) into itsimnrediate constituents lV Ntr] by ru1e (i7 b), u,e derive:i-Jl q:-"*t* -P ]i{ \?

VS ---t---/' lNPMIf we then further expand all the lrps in (23) intoomitting the optional Determiner in each case, w obtain:(24)

S--*---ts

l\fD

rule (17 c)

NP ti4 \,TD/\,----i-.t-lip ta iipArt\VNP

Ifrtvhat rve Lrav gerrerate,j here is the caiesoriai ccnstituerlt stmcrrreof a sentence iike ( 16 b) (Bob rnal' know Jack ivill not ansu,er io that lerterjAnother \\.a). of generaring a scnicnce ma.; be that ,rf expandiriE VF'n i22i il-rio [\' S] b1' ruie (17 b.). Thus, assurning subsequenr reappiication ofiuies 17 a). bi anrl c), rvq qeili{ der:..'e a seltence 1i!:e

(16 c) Dan must realize Bob mav know Jack will not answer thatletter. It is obvious that by reapplying the same set of rules (17) more andmore times. more and more cornplex sentences can be generated. Therefbre,the ru1e-system (i7) can generate an infinite set of abstract sentencestructures, i.e. this system includes a finite set of rules which can generatean infinite set of sentence structures. In other lvords, its relevant property isthat of recursion, i.e. the propensity of allowing reapplication indefinitell'many times For the rule-system ( I7), the recursion consists in fact that rule(17 b) generates as part of its output the categorl symbol S, which in its turncan serve as input to rule (i5 a). whose output includes a symbol (\?)which can serye as input to ru1e (17 b): so (i7 a) and b) form a recursivesubsystem.5.3.3. We can conclude that the syntactic structure of any sentencecan be represented in the form of a Phrase-marker (i.e. a labelled tree-diagram). The speaker's syntactic competence is reflected in his knowledgeof a set of sentence-formation rules which show horv sentences arestructured out into phrases, and hor'" phrases are built up of words. The factis clear that there is potentially no limit on the number of times these mlescan be reapplied, just as there is no limit on the number of sentences that canbe generated. Thus, the syntactic cotnponent of a grammar must include afinite recursive set of Categorial Rules (Phrase Structure Rules, orConstituent Structure Rules) which generate an infinite set of sentencestructures.

ExercisesExercise I1. Explain what P-marker is and give examples of vour own.2. Explain what labelled bracketing is Gir,.'e examples of your ov,'n.3. Expiain whai paniai ire..'-diaqierr: ai:d paniai iabeiieii braciietirrgare. Give exampies of your oivn4. What are PS Rules ? Trv and provide a ferv exampl*r 6f r,'cr.r"^.,,- 1-,,.**1,,i-- Dc D,.r^.4PPiJrrr5 a J r\ur!r.5. What do you rneaii b.v iecursicn of PS Rules ?6. Hcw are FS Ruies applieC to emlreCded ciauses , Provide a 1b*

^,,^**i^^AOrrryl!$.

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14/14

ii

Exercise iiBuikl up i0 rvell-formed seniences wltich caiiset of'PS Rules in {1)( I ) a) S --+ t.lp t\i Vi-.

be generated irv rheCHAPTER 5

DEEP STRUCTURE. SURFACE STRUCTURE.SE NIAI{TIC iI{TERPRETATION

e.l. Chomskv's theon of gi_- rL^ j^^-j^ ",^---iiaaa +^ iiiii .4^ -:..-j^.:^-^ ^i .-^-^-^...,^iil Llig uLlcul iiuiiii.'J-, tu r -'L'' iii! ruuirusi:vrrJ \ii

As sub-systems (a) and (b) have to do w-ith syntarrtic configuration,which they either generate (Base rules), cr transform (T rules). they may becollapsed into one component, the syntactic componenr. This GTG appearsto be a three-fbld grammar, the syntactic component being taken to beinterpretative of syntactic structures.Phrase stnrcture rirles, which form a part of the Base component ofsyntax in diagram (1), are simply a formal device tbr representing thedistribution of pkases within sentences.

b) w ---+ 1' 1{ptl l+ -+ D {.q})}{d),{p-+{AD\?),\lji Atlvti ___+.iijV.. Gj.":6 exataoies of iji-il:rrrnerl sentenceq anC explail in,,vl-1at.,,.,.rljrr!iihe.,' are iii-lbrnreci-ri.ra'rL;' iii

(rive ihe iateiiec brackeling zad thc:iee-diaeiai,.r ;:f ti,re t,:1lcr^riiigse!^rteilceS. r:t'ovidine as r:rr-rch infcr"rnalion ;ls vcu iinit,,r,,:I Thc gc-;einrleitf itti3lli ry.ie.i rircii iieiiianiii2 {.icr iiusbanei rna-!, get lrer\,ousI His beliar.,io.rir riould cliarrge e:;irerneli. suCdeni_;4 fhat cassette must seem incredibly "*iiting to slch kids5 His rvife shoi;ld bu,,. a pi,eselii Rli li;r Darcnr:.6. Such tunes must sound very sweet.7 The tourists -,1'alked along the ri/all8 The oid ladr,got anriouibout her pet() The postman wili give the bo1,a parcel.l0 The president ri.ill srar ar a horel.'Exercise IVIn the bracketed structures beror.r, the lefthand nrember of each pa*of brackets has aiready been labelled First, label the riehthand member oteach pair of brackets, and then convert the bracketed siructure into a ireediagra.m, pro'iding as much (or as little) informatio' in _vour tree as rsprovided in the bracketed structure:I [S[NP Her dau-ghter ] [M must] [\? behave [Ap extremely rudelvI PP to her grandmother]lll -"'-"J ^ '2 IStl\? His niece [NI will [\,? reject [Np that proposal]11

---t' 5c;::a;rireDeap siruci,Llre:

I

I lrrielpreii]UiJlr:

syntax cr123oitoru part 1

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