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SYNTAX

Truong Van AnhSenior lecturerMaster - Doctoral candidate Sai Gon University, HCMCE-mail: truongvananh@cvseas.edu.vn

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REFERENCES1. Bauer, L., (1983) English Word Formation.

Cambridge University Press 2. Bloomfield, L., Language. London: Allan and

Unwin, 19333. Cao Xuan Hao-Hoang Dung, Dictionary of

Contrastive Linguistics. Social Sciences Publishing House, 2004

4. Fromkin & others, An Introduction to Language, Thanh Nien Publishing House, 1999

5. Jackson, H., Analyzing English: An Introduction to Descriptive Linguistics. Pergamon Institute of English, 1981

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6. Jacobs, Roderick A., English Syntax. A grammar for English Language Professionals. OUP, 1995

7. Jong-Box Kim and Peter Sells, English Syntax: An Introduction. N.Y. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 2007

8. Le Van Su , English Linguistics. Dong Nai Publishing House, 2000

9. Mark Newson, Basic English Syntax with Exercises, Oxford University Press, 2009

10. Nguyen Thuy Nga, English Syntax and Morphology, Open University-Ho Chi Minh City, 2004

11. To Minh Thanh, English Syntax, VNU-HCMC, 2009

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THE SYNTAX OF ENGLISH

The term “syntax” is from the ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means “arrangement” or “setting out together”. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.

Syntax deals with how sentences are constructed.

Syntax: the grammatical principles, units, and relations involved in sentence structure.

Chapter 1Word classes

Words are combined into larger structures – phrases, clauses, and sentences. Words and word groups can be analyzed by forms and positions.

Classification of word classes:1. Major classes – nouns, verbs, adjectives,

adverbs – have a great many members. Minor classes – pronouns, numerals,

determiners, prepositions, conjunctions and so on – have few members. 5

2. Major classes tend to have referential meanings, since they involve, or allow, reference to actual things, actions, events, or properties, e.g. “Horse means that kind of animals.” uttered while pointing to a horse.Minor classes tend not to have referential meanings. That is their meanings are not easily specified by means of a neat definition, e.g. how would you define the or of?

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3. Major classes are receptive to new members. That is new words are added to some language every day. New nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs appear in every language. (open classes)Minor classes are not receptive to new members. We may not find any last new article, conjunction, pronoun or preposition. (closed classes)

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English form classesNouns:Nouns have two forms: inflectional and derivational morphemes.- Two inflectional suffixes: Noun plural morpheme: book-s, box-es Noun possessive morpheme: man’s, girls’- Noun-forming derivational suffixes: sender, happiness, booklet, use

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Verbs:Verbs have two forms: inflectional and derivational morphemes.Four verb inflectional suffixes:- Third person singular form: read-s, go-es- Present participle: Read-ing, run(n)-ing- Past simple: play-ed, went- Past participle: play-ed, goneVerb-forming derivational affixes:Acknowledge, bathe, deepen, enlarge

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Adjectives:Adjectives have two forms: inflectional and derivational morphemes.Two adjective inflectional suffixes:- Comparative form: taller, hotter- Superlative form: tallest, hottestAdjective-forming derivational suffixes: Useful, yellowish, active, readable

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Adverbs:Adverbs have two forms: inflectional and derivational morphemes.Two adverb inflectional suffixes:- Comparative form: later, earlier- Superlative form: latest, earliestAdverb-forming derivational suffixes: Usefully, happily, actively

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English positional classesThere are four positional classes: the nominal, the verbal, the adjectival and the adverbial.The words playing the role of subject, object and complement are the nominal.Any verb form, regardless of its position, is a verbal.The adjectival occupies the position between the determiner and the noun, right after an intensive verbs, and the direct object.The adverbial modifies verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses and sentences.

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Any word, whatever its form-class will be called a nominal if it occupies one of the seven noun positions.

1. The position of the subject:Upstairs is the safest hiding place.For Glenda to steal the diamond would be a shame.2. The position of the direct object:I hate learning German.He likes to drink coke.3. The position of the indirect object:She gave whomever she met different offers.She gave nobody a hand shake.

4. The position of the retained object:We were given the thinnest.He was bought a pen.5. The position of the (subjective) complement:The pen is his.My hope is learning/learn/to learn English. 6. The position of the (objective) complement: She made him how he is miserable.They call her whatever they like.

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7. The position of the object of a preposition:He is keen on everything.He left the room without saying a word.

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Verbals are those forms that occupy the verb positions.

He likes music.She would have been reading a book by that time.Also, any verb form taking a subject or a

complement or modified by an adverbial is a verbal, regardless of its position.

1. Becoming sad, she left the house.2. Being a monk, he looks very kind.3. Before going to school, she had breakfast.4. The teacher coming in, the students stood up.

Adjectivals, like nominals, occupy certain characteristic sentence positions.1. The position between the determiner and the noun:That happy/elected/city/smiling man helps her.2. The position right after the noun:The man sitting there is his father.3. The position right after a linking verb:He looks quiet.4. The position right after the direct object:They consider her useless.

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Adverbials are the word groups as well as the single words that occupy the adverb positions and perform the adverb functions.1. Initial position:Really, she is beautiful.Today it is cold.With some money he went to the store.When he comes home, he is very tired.2. Medial position:- Between the subject and the beginning of the verb phrase.

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He actually loves music.- After the modal/first auxiliary verb and before the main verb:He can often solve any problem.- After the main verb, especially linking verb, but before other obligatory elements of the clause.It is still four months away.He is at any event happy.

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3. Final position:- After intransitive verbs:He came last night.She drives very quickly.- After all other elements.He reads the book very fast.She has lived here for two years.Tom is hungry after he works hard.

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English minor classes:Minor/closed classes include: pronouns, numerals (ordinal and cardinal), determiners, Prepositions, conjunctions (coordinate and subordinate) and auxiliaries.

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KINDS OF VERBS(From the angle of sentence patterns)

-Transitive verbs (Vt): There must be objects behind them. Ex: eat, like, check, play, love, write, etc.- Intransitive verbs (Vi): There are no objects behind them. Ex: sleep, live, yawn, appear, work, etc.-Linking verbs (Vl): They are be, become and seem, and any verbs that can be replaced by one of these three verbs. Ex: It gets cold = It becomes cold.

1. He gets to school. (goes)2. She gets some food in the market.3. He goes to the cinema.4. His face goes red when he meets her.5. He runs a big factory.6. He runs home quickly.7. His money runs short.To and For are used in pattern 4.

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SENTENCE PATTERNS(Simple sentences)

• Pattern 1: S+ Vi (She is sleeping).

• Pattern 2: S+ Vl + C (She is a doctor)

• Pattern 3: S+ Vt+ O (She loves a doctor)

• Pattern 4: S+ Vt+Oi+ Od (He gives me a pen)

S+ Vt+Od+Prep.+ Oi (He gives a pen to me)

• Pattern 5:S+ Vt+O+C (We elect him our monitor)

* Besides S, V, O and C (main sentence elements), there are attribute (Attr.) and adverb (Adv).

Attribute: (định ngữ) modifies nouns. It stands before or after nouns.Ex: A full bag; a bag full of gold

The car in front of the buildingAdverb: (Trạng ngữ) modifies verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, phrases, clauses and sentences.Ex: She sings beautifully. He is very tall. He runs very fast. The car just in front of the building. Generally, he is reliable. 25

He gives me a pen.I am given a pen.A pen is given me. (wrong)A pen is given to me.He buys me a pen.I am bought a pen.A pen is bought me. (wrong)A pen is bought for me.

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8. She is beautiful.9. She is here.10. She likes to sing.11. They enjoy singing.12. We consider him our relative.13. We regard him as our relative.14. We consider him as our relative. (wrong)15. She makes him miserable.16. She makes him smile.17. She saw him smiling.

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Analyze the sentence patterns:1. He showed me his card.2. Mary writes some letters.3. They live in Ca Mau.4. Today it is windy.5. Jimmy will fly to London.6. Martha looks happy now.7. They call her Peggy.8. The room gets dirty.9. Don’t drink it!10. Who(m) are you phoning?

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11. He made her some milk.12. Mary does some exercises.13. They work in Da Lat.14. Today it is cloudy.15. Jimmy drove to London.16. Martha seems happy now.17. They call him Jimmy.18. The house becomes clean.19. Turn it on!20. Why are you crying?

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21. Today is Thursday.22. When will he leave for Ha Noi?23. In the room stands a man.24. There he comes.25. How fast the horse runs!26. Jack seems very excited today.27. Mai often helps them.28. They appointed her the chairman.29. Henry called her yesterday.30. The engineer will hold a meeting.31. The last will analyze sentence 31.

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22. When will he leave for Ha Noi? When will he leave Ha Noi?23. In the room stands a man. (a) In the room a man stands. (b) In the room he stands. (c) In the room stands he. (d)

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PrepositionsPrepositions Particles Adverbs- Before nouns - Before nouns - No nouns- Meaningful - Meaningless - Meaningful1. The book is in the drawer.2. He hands in his paper.3. The teacher comes in.4. Jack stands up.5. Mary looks up some new words.6. They swim up the stream.

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7. Mary sat down sadly.8. The ship went down the river.9. He looked down upon them.10. They are surprised at the news.11. We are at SGU now.12. That ‘s the news which he was amazed at.13. The machine is out of order.14. Watch out! It is dangerous.15. They found out a wicked scheme.

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16. That’s the man whom he talked to.17. He is looking forward to his parcel.18. Jack threw the ball to his friend.

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Chapter 2

Phrases, clauses and sentences Phrases

A phrase is a group of words which forms a grammatical unit. It consists of a head word and all the words clustering around the head word.

Ex: A very big black dog sleeping soundly in a corner of the room.

A phrase does not contain a finite verb. There are five main kinds of phrases: noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase, adverb phrase, and prepositional phrase.

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1. Noun phrase A noun phrase consists of a noun and all the

words and word groups that belong with the noun and cluster around it. The noun is called the headword or head, and other words and word groups are modifiers of the noun.

Functions A noun phrase can function as a(n) M Premodifier: The town hall clock Postmodifier: The newspaper, daily Tuoi Tre S The beautiful flowers are sent to the mothers

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O DO: I have just bought a new dress. IO: I bought my best friend a new shirt. OP: He is good at mathematics. C SC: She was the best student. OC: We voted him the committee chairman. M Adjectival modifier: The high heel shoes were

broken. Adverbial modifier: That day something unusual

happened.

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2. Verb phrase A verb phrase consists of a verb and all the

words and word groups that belong with the verb and cluster around it. The lexical verb is called the headword or head, and other words and word groups are the auxiliaries, modifiers and complements (DO, IO, OC, SC) of the verbs.

Ex: Soon arrive, arrive late, soon arrive at the station, may have been stolen by the cashier

Complements include DO, IO, OC and SC. Ex: Mai has been learning English for 3 years.

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Verb phrases can come in a variety of shapes.V alone: Ann cried.V+NP: Ann made a cake.V+NP+PP: Ann put the pen on the table.V+AP: Ann is happy.V+AP+PP: Ann seems friendly to us.V+NP+NP: Ann sent her friend a letter.V+Q: Ann’s complaints were many.Finite and Non-finite verb phraseA finite verb phrase is one that can be the main

verb of a sentence. A non-finite verb phrase is an infinitive, gerund or participle. The composition of the verb phrase can indicate one

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or more of the following properties: tense, finiteness, modality, aspect, voice.

2.1. A finite verb phrase:- Has tense- Is verb of the clause- Agrees with the subject2.2. Non-finite verb phrase- Infinitive phrase (full or bare)- Present participle phrase- Past participle phrase- Gerund

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2.2.1. Infinitive phraseHead word: InfinitiveFunctions:An infinitive phrase can function as a (an)S: To live is to struggle.SC: To live is to struggle.O: I want to stay with you.Adjectival M: That day was the day to remember.Adverbial M: I learn English to get a good job.2.2.2. GerundHead word: gerund

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Functions:A gerund phrase can function as a (n)S.: Swimming is my hobby.DO.: I like swimming.IO.: I gave swimming all my time.OP.: Before swimming, don’t eat too much.SC.: My hobby is swimming.OC.: I consider living this way being in prison.2.2.3. Present participle phraseHead word: present participle

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Functions:A present participle phrase can function as

modifier as in the followings:Adjectival M: The boy sitting near the windows is

my brother.Adverbial M: She arrived smiling happily. (Verb M) Smiling happily, she said that she passed the exams. (Sentence M).2.2.4. Past participle phraseHead word: Past participle

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Functions:A past participle phrase can function as a(n)Adjectival M: The child punished by his father ran away from home.Adverbial M: Delayed by the weather, the train arrived two hours late. Frightened, he left the room.Verb M: He came back, broken by loneliness.2.2.5. Absolute phraseAn absolute phrase has all the elements of a

clause, but the verb is non-finite.

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Ex: The weather permitting, we can go out.3. Adjective phraseAn adjective phrase consists of an adjective, which

may be preceded by a “degree” word, like very, somewhat.

Head word: adjectiveFunctionsAn adjective phrase can function as a(n)Noun M.: She is a very beautiful girl.SC.: She is very beautiful.OC.: I found her very helpful.

When she came home, she rushed into the kitchen.

When her husband came home, she rushed into the kitchen.

Coming home, she rushed into the kitchen.

Her husband coming home, she rushed into the kitchen.

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4. Adverbial phraseAn adverb phrase usually consists of an adverb,

which may be preceded by one or more “degree” words.

Ex: He was received rather less enthusiastically.5. Prepositional phraseA prepositional phrase consists of a preposition

followed by a noun phrase called object of preposition.

Head word: prepositionFunctions:A prepositional phrase can function as a(n)

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S.: On the beach is better than at home.SC.: Our happy time is after dinner.OP.: The view from above the shore is

magnificent.Adjectival M.: The boy near the door is my brother.Adverbial M.: She is living near the school.Complement of adjective: I am terribly bad at

mathematics. > On the beach is a beautiful girl.

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CLAUSESA clause is a group of words containing a subject

and a finite verb. Independent clause: An independent clause is a

complete sentence. It contains a main subject and verb of a sentence. (It is also called a main clause.)

Dependent clause: A dependent clause is not a complete sentence. It must be connected to an independent clause

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1. Noun clauseA noun clause is used in the same way as a noun.1.1. Words used to introduce noun clauses. Question words: when, why, where, how, who,

whom, what, which, whose whether, if that1.2. Functions of noun clauses:1.2.1. Object of verb Lan said (that) she liked to live in HCMC. I know (that) you are the champion. He asked me where I live.

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1.2.2. Subject What you are doing is very complex. Where he is living seems interesting.1.2.3. Object of a preposition They laughed at what we said. They were thankful for what you did.1.2.4. Complement - Subject complement: The fact is that he doesn’t try. - Object complement: She made me what I am.

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1.2.5. Complement of a noun The fact that the prisoner was guilty was plain to

everyone. The news that he told you was not true.1.2.6. Complement of adjective She is very glad that you are able to come. I am afraid that we lost. 1.2.7. Real subject It is interesting that you are keen on your study. 1.2.8. Real object Jack finds it nice to talk to me.

2. Adjective clause An adjective clause is a dependent clause

that modifies a noun. It describes, identifies, or gives further information about a noun.

2.1. Words used to introduce adjective clauses

Subject pronouns: who, which, thatObject pronouns: who (m), which, thatPronoun used as object of preposition: who

(m), which, thatWhose, where, when 53

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2.2. Functions of adjective clauses:Modifier of a noun She is the finest woman that ever lived. The company hires only men who have degrees. The man whose son learns well is very proud. 3. Adverb clause An adverb clause is a dependent clause. It

cannot stand alone as a sentence. It must be connected to an independent clause. It does the work of an adverb.

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3.1. Words used to introduce adverb clausesTime: after, when, until, etc.Place: where, wherever, etc.Manner: as, as if, etc.Cause: because, as, since, etc.Concession: though, although, as, etc.Condition: if, unless, etc.Purpose: so that, in order that, etc.Ex: He learns hard so that he can enter a college.

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Result: so…that, such…that, etc.Ex: Jack is so tall that he can reach the ceiling.Comparison: as…as, than, etc.Ex: He runs as fast as a horse does.Reservation: Except thatEx: He is handsome except that he is lazy.3.2. Functions of adverb clauses:An adverb clause modifies a verb, or a sentence.Ex: When he arrives, the band will begin the show.

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Tree diagram

We use “tree” diagrams to represent phrase structure. A tree provides the following information: the word class of each word, the phrase structure of the whole sentence (what the word-groupings are, and their hierarchical structure – how they are nested or not nested inside each other), and the phrasal category of each phrase (what kind of phrase each phrase is). A tree does not show, directly, information about function of phrasal categories.

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In ordinary sentences, the sentence (S) is always subdivided into NP VP

S= NP + VP1. Noun phrase NP= Det+N’ N’= N+Modifier Modifiers a word a phrase a clause1.1. Premodifiers Premodifiers may be

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1.1.1. Adjectives NP Det N’ A N A lazy boy1.1.2. Nouns NP Det N’ N N A school boy

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1.1.3. Participles NP Det N’ Pre. Part N NP A crying girl det N’ G

N NPDet N’ A swimming pool Past Part. N

The broken window

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1.1.4. Adverbials NPDet N’ Adv N

A nearby school

NPDet N’ Adj. P. N Adj. Conj. Adj. A handsome and intelligent boy

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1.2. Post modifiers Post modifiers may be:1.2.1. Prepositional phrase NP NPDet N’ Det N’ N PP N PP Prep NP Prep NP N’ Det N’ N NThe way to school. The girl near the door

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NP Det N’ Adj. N PP Prep NP Det N’ AP N

Adj

The beautiful girl in the blue dress

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1.2.2. Participle phrase NP Det N’ N PPP Pres P PP NP Prep NP N N’ Det N’ N Adj N The school girl sitting in the front row

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1.2.3. Relative clauses NP Det N’ N S NP VP V N

The students who played tennis.

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1.2.4. Adverds NP Det N’ N Adv

A room upstairs1.2.5. Adjectives NP Pro. Adj

Something new

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2. Adverb phrase S NP VP Pro V Adv P Deg Adv She sang fairly well3. Prepositional phrase PP Prep. NP Det N’ N behind the door

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4. Verb phrase VP Aux+V’4.1. Verb phrase contents Verb phrases come in a variety of shapes as

listed below.1. V alone2. V + NP3. V + PP4. V + NP + PP5. V + AP6. V + AP + PP7. V + NP + NP8. V + Q

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4.1.1. V alone S NP VPDet N’ V NThe baby cried4.1.2. V + NP S NP VP Det N’ V NP N Det N’ NThe man built a house

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41.3. V + PP S NP VP Det N’ V PP N Prep NP Det N’ N The men live in the city 4.1.4. V NP PP VP V NP PP Det N’ Prep. NP N Det N’ NPut the pen on the table

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4.1.5. V AP S NP VP Pro V AP AdjShe is nice4.1.6. V AP PP S NP VP Pro V Adj. P PP Adj Prep NP ProThey are nice to us.

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4.1.7. V NP NP S NP VP Pro V NP NP Pro Det N’ N

We sent her a letter.

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S NP VP Pro V NP NP

Pro Det N’

N

We chose him our leader.

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4.1.8. V + Q S NP VP Det N’ V Q N Mike’s complaints were many.4.2. Auxiliary verb Auxiliaries are the “helping verb” – have, be and

modals (can, will, shall, etc.) as well as do used in negation, questions, and emphasis.

VP Aux + V’ V’ = VP without auxiliaries