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UNIVERSITATEA VASILE ALECSANDRI DIN BACU

FACULTATEA DE LITERE

Catedra de Limbi i literaturi strine

LIMBA ENGLEZCONTEMPORAN.

SINTAXA PROPOZIIEI

Titular curs: Lector dr. Nadia Mor

rau

Titular seminar: Asist.drd. Mircea Horube

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A.COURSE UNITS

1. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1.1. What is syntax?1.2. The grammatical hierarchy

1.2.1. Clauses in grammatical hierarchy1.2.2. Sentence across sciences1.2.3. Sentence constituency

1.2.4. Constructions1.3. Sentence structure1.3.1. Phrases as clause elements1.3.2. Syntactic functions in the phrase structure

1.4. Syntactic functions of clause elements1.5. Semantic functions of clause elements1.6. Coordination and subordination. Coordinators and subordinators (types and roles)

2. CRITERIA FOR TYPOLOGY OF SENTENCES

2.1. The criterion of structure/ composition2.1.1. Simple vs. multiple sentences

2.2. Sentence types and discourse functions2.2.1. Declaratives, interrogatives, imperatives and exclamatives

2.2.2. Discourse functions: statements, questions, directives, exclamations2.3. The criterion of status and grammatical dependence

2.3.1. Independent vs. dependent clauses2.3.2. Main vs. subordinate clauses

2.3.2.1. Functional classes of subordinate clauses

2.4. Morphological criteria2.4.1. Finite clauses vs. nonfinite clauses

2.4.1.1. Structural classes of nonfinite verb clauses2.4.2. Active and passive sentences

3. THE SUBJECT

3.1. Definition & characteristic features3.2. Ways of expressing the subject

3.3. Classification of subjects3.3.1. The criterion of semantic content3.3.2. The criterion of structure/ composition

3.4. Semantic roles of the subject3.4.1. Agentive, affected, and recipient roles3.4.2. Subject as external causer, instrument, and affected3.4.3. Locative, temporal, and eventive subjects3.4.4. Prop IT subject

4. THE PREDICATE VS. THE VERB AS CLAUSE ELEMENT

4.1. Predicate in English grammar4.2. The predicate in categorial logic4.3. Predicate in semantics

4.4. Verb and its complementation4.4.1. Definition and types4.4.2. Verbs in intransitive function4.4.3. Copular complementation4.4.4. Monotransitive complementation4.4.5. Complex transitive complementation4.4.6. Ditransitive complementation

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5. COMPLEMENTS

5.1. Predicative complements5.1.1. Subject and object complements5.1.2. Syntactic features and semantic properties

5.2. Subject complements5.2.1. Ways of expressing complements5.2.2. Nominal subject complement5.2.3. Adjectival subject complement5.2.4. Adverbial complement5.2.5. Prepositional complement

5.3. Object complements5.4. Semantic roles of complements

VI. OBJECTS

6.1. Definition & characteristic features of objects6.1.1. Criteria for direct and indirect objects6.1.2. Definition & characteristic features of prepositional objects

6.2. Ways of expressing objects6.3. Classification of direct objects6.4. Combinations of objects in complementation6.5. Semantic roles of objects

7. ADVERBIALS vs. ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS. SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC

FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS

7.1. Adverbials7.1.1. Characteristics and functions7.1.2.Types of adverbials

7.2. Adverbial modifiers7.2.1. Adverbial modifiers of time & adverbial clauses of time7.2.2. Adverbial modifiers of manner & adverbial clauses of manner7.2.3. Adverbial modifiers of comparison & adverbial clauses of comparison7.2.4. Adverbial modifiers of concession & adverbial clauses of concession7.2.5. Adverbial modifiers of condition & clauses of condition

7.2.6. Adverbial modifiers of cause/ reason & adverbial clauses of cause/reason7.2.7. Adverbials of purpose7.2.8. Adverbials of result

7.3. Syntactic and semantic functions of adverbs7.3.1. Modifier of adjective7.3.2. Modifier of adverb7.3.3. Modifier of particle, prepositional adverb, and preposition7.3.4. Modifier of pronoun, predeterminer, and numeral7.3.5. Modifier of noun phrase7.3.6. Adverb as complement of preposition7.3.7. Functional relations and semantic functions of adverbial adjuncts

B. SEMINARS

1. Sentence constituents, clause structure and diagramming2. Classification of sentences in terms of their communicative function (statement, question,

directive, exclamation)3. Variations on basic sentence patterns (inversion, emphasis, ellipsis and substitution)4. Coordination and coordinators5. Subject-verb concord6. Verb complementation (transitive vs. intransitive constructions)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar ofWritten and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.

2. Chalker, Sidney (1992):A Student's English Grammar Workbook, Longman, London.

3. Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft,Bacu.

4. DeCapua, Andreea (2008): Grammar for Teachers. A Guide to American English forNative and Non-native Speakers, Springer, New York.

5. Greenbaum, Sidney and Quirk, Randolph (1990): A Student's Grammar of the EnglishLanguage, Pearson Education Ltd.

6. Halliday, M.A.K. (1994): Functional Grammar, Arnold, London/ New York.7. Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S, Leech, G, Svartvik, J. (1985):A Comprehensive Grammar of

the English Language, London, New York, Longman.8. Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar of

Written and Spoken English Workbook, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.9. Side, R., Wellman, G. (2001): Grammar and Vocabulary for Cambridge Advanced and

Proficiency, Longman.10. Hewings, Martin (1999):Advanced Grammar in Use, Cambridge Univ. Press.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.

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1. A CONCEPTUAL FRAM EW ORK OF SYNTAX

1.1. WHAT IS SYNTAX?

the part of grammar dealing with grammatical units such as words, phrases, clauses,and sentences (Biber et al., 2002:13)

the description of how words, phrases, and clauses are constructed and combined ina language (Biber et al., 2002:460).

the study of the rules that govern the way words combine to form phrases, clauses,and sentences.1

Syntax deals with the way in which words are combined to form sentences.(Quirk et al., 1985:43)

1.2. THE GRAMMATICAL HIERARCHY

Units of grammar may be placed in a hierarchy of potential size or extensibility as

follows: highest unit: sentences, which consist of one or more clauses, which consist of

one or more phrases, which consist of one or more words, which consist of oneor more lowest unit: morphemes.

Morpheme = a minimum unit of form and meaning which may be a whole word(forget), an inflection (forget + s) or a word-formation affix (un-forget-ful).

The word = the unit which primarily relates the grammar of a language to itslexicon.

A phrase is represented by a group of words that form a grammatical unit orconstituent, e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase.

1.2.1. Clauses in grammatical h ierarchy Clause: a key structural unit of grammar, normally consisting of a verb phrase plus other

elements: subject, object, predicative, adverbial. (Biber et al., 2002:455) Clause = the smallest syntactic unit that has meaning and minimally consists of two

constituents, a noun phraseand a verb phrase. (DeCapua, 2008) A clause is a construction with one phrase constituent, typically a noun phrase that

bears the subject relation, and another constituent, the verb phrase, bearing a predicaterelation. (Jacobs, 1995: 49)

1.2.2. Sentence across sciences Grammatically, a sentence is:

the highest-ranking unit of grammar (a grammatically autonomous unit Quirk etal., 1985);

the highest grammatical unit that consists of one independent clause and two ormore related clauses (Downing and Locke, 1992/2006:272);

1www.essex.ac.uk/linguistics/clmt/MTbook/HTML/node98.html.

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Sentences are structured into successive components, consisting of single wordsor groups of words, called constituents (i.e. structural units);

Some linguists use the term 'sentence' for a clause which is part of a sentence; Semantically, a sentence (Hurford & Heasley, 1994:16) is any string of words put

together by the grammatical rules of a language. Orthographically and rhetorically, it is that unit which starts with a capital letter and ends

with a full stop, question mark or exclamation mark (Downing and Locke,1992/2006:272).

1.2.3. Sentence constituency In order to state general rules about the construction of sentences, we refer to units

smaller than the sentence itself: clause, phrase, word and morpheme. The relation between one unit and another unit of which it is a part is called

constituency. One way of indicating constituency is by bracketing; another is by a treediagram.

The evenings] [have turned] [very cold] [just recently]

unitary constituency: one unit may be the only 'part' into which another unit can beanalysed (e.g. simple sentences consist of one clause)

multiple constituency: a unit is divided into two or more immediate constituents(complex or compound sentences, which include two or more clauses).

1.2.3.2. Constituents Constituents are structural units, which refer to any linguistic form, such as words or

word groups. A constituent is one of two or more grammatical units that enter syntactically or

semantically into a construction at any level. Constituents are the basic units of a sentence, including noun, adjective, adverb,

prepositional, and verb phrases. Sentence constituents are combined in meaningful ways to form sentences.

1.2.3.2.a. Immediate vs. ultimate constituents Sentences are hierarchies of interlocking constituents. After a sentence is cut into its

constituent elements, the two parts are called immediate constituents. An immediateconstituent becomes any one of the largest grammatical units that constitute aconstruction.

The smallest grammatical unit obtained through division, or segmentation is the ultimateconstituent.

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The segmentation of the sentence up into its immediate constituents by using binarycuttings until its ultimate constituents are obtained is called Immediate Constituent

Analysis (IC Analysis). The analysis can be carried out in ways of tree diagrams,bracketing or any other.

1.2.3.3. Constituent extensibilit y

1.2.3.3.a. Embedding The phenomenon of embedding accounts for the indefinite extensibility of certain units of

grammar. The noun phrase and the prepositional phrase may be immediate constituents of a

clause, as in:E.g.Some students will be working late in their rooms.Both units can consist of more than one word and are placed at the same position in thehierarchy.

The indefinite length of noun phrases and prepositional phrases does not affect theirposition in the grammatical hierarchy:

E.g. I have been talking to some students at the college on the other side of thepark at the north end of. . . They live on the top floor of a house in the corner ofthe old square behind the church...

Embedding can be defined as the occurrence of one unit as a constituent of another unitat the same rank in the grammatical hierarchy.

1.2.3.3.b. Subordination Another kind of embedding occurs when one clause is made a constituent of another

clause: subordination.E.g.The weather has been remarkably warm since we returned from Italy last week.

Clauses which are embedded in other clauses (since we returned from Italy last week

are subordinate clauses, and they are often introduced by a subordinating conjunction(since).

Subordination of clauses is not confined to clauses which are immediate constituents ofother clauses. There are also clauses (especially relative clauses) which areconstituents of phrases, and which are only indirectly embedded within a larger clause.

1.2.3.3.c. Coordination The principle of indefinite extensibility is also present in coordination, typically signalled

by a link-word termed a coordinating conjunction. This construction consists of two or more units of the same status on the grammatical

hierarchy which constitute a single unit of the same kind (respectively clauses, phrases,

and words). COORDINATION OF CLAUSES: [[It was Christmas Day,] and [the snow lay thick

on the ground]].

COORDINATION OF PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES: You can go [[by air] or [byrail]].

COORDINATION OF NOUNS: His [[son] and [daughter]] live in Buenos Aires.

The essential principle of coordination is that units and structures may be duplicatedwithout affecting their position in the grammatical hierarchy.

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1.2.4. Constructions A construction is a relationship between constituents. Constructions are divided into two

types (Allerton, 1979:126-130):

endocentric constructions(one whose distribution is functionally equivalent tothat of its constituents). A word or a group of words act as a definable center orhead.

exocentric constructions(refer to a group of syntactically related words wherenone of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole). There is nodefinable center or head inside the group.

1.2.4.1. Endocentric construction (headed) If the total construction (head plus modification, or modification plus head) has the same

distributional characteristics as the head constituent, it is usually called endocentricconstruction.

They left because they were tied.[Within this construction, They left is the head and because they were tired is itsmodifier].

Endocentric constructions can further be divided into the two types of embedding

introduced before: subordination and coordination.

1.2.4.2. Exocentric const ruction (nonheaded) An exocentric construction is any construction that does not contain any head element

that is capable of being a syntactically adequate substitution for the whole construction.Examples of exocentric constructions2:

Prepositional phrase (neither the component preposition nor the noun phrasemay substitute for the whole prepositional phrase).

Clause (no single element of the clause may substitute for the whole).

1.3. SENTENCE STRUCTURE

One aspect of the syntactic structure of sentences is the division of a sentence intophrases, and those phrases into further phrases

The constituents which function as elements of sentence structure are either phrases orsubordinate clauses.

A phrase is represented by a group of words that form a grammatical unit or constituent,e.g. noun phrase, verb phrase, adjective phrase.

The five formal categories of phrase are verb phrases, noun phrases, adjective phrases,adverb phrases, and prepositional phrases.

1.3.1. Phrases as clause elements

Noun Phrases and prepositional Phrases In its most basic form, a noun phrase consists of just one word, a noun. The elements

that can occur in a complex noun phrase include determiners, modifiers, andprepositional phrases.

Determiners include articles, quantifiers, numbers, possessive adjectives, anddemonstrative adjectives.

2 http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnExocentricConstruction.htm.

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The headword of the noun phrase may be modified by any number of modifiers.Modifiers include determiners, other nouns, adjectives, and adverb-adjectivecombinations.

Noun phrases can also include prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases are units ofwords that begin with a preposition and include a noun phrase.

I read that book about dinosaurs.The boy from the shop is waiting at the corner.

Verb Phrases A verb phrase can consist of a single verb, a phrasal verb, auxiliary verbs + a main verb. Some grammarians expand the definition of verb phrase to include, a main verb + to

infinitive or a main verb + gerund. Finite verb phrases are marked for grammaticalcategories (mood, tense, aspect, person, voice) and indicate the status of thepredication.

Finite verb phrase: She must be tellingthe truth.

Non-finite verb phrase: He is known to have wona gold medal.Adject ive and Adverb Phrases

Adjective phrases include one or more adjectives. Adverb phrases include one or moreadverbs. Adverbs can modify verbs, adjectives, adverbs in a sentence.

They are really enthusiastic.He opened it extremely easily.

1.3.2. Syntactic functions in the phrase structure

Determination = the function of words and phrases which, determine what kind ofreference a noun phrase has: definite (like the) or indefinite (like a/an), partitive (likesome) or universal (like all).

Modification= a largely optional function performed by adjectives in the noun phrase,and by intensifying adverbs in the adverb phrase.

His (unexpected) arrival (in Warsaw) yesterday surprised us. Complementation= the function of a part of a phrase or clause which follows a word,

and completes the specification of a meaning relationship which that word implies.Complementation also overlaps with other functions, such as adverbials and modifiers.

He deceived his father verb complementationAll sales are subject to tax. adjective complementation

1.4. SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS IN THE CLAUSE The traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence,

states the part of speech each word belongs to, describes the inflexion involved, andexplains the relationship each word related to the others.

According to its relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve a certain syntacticfunction in a clause.

There are five functional categories of clause constituents (Quirk et al., 1985: 49): Subject: the part of the sentence, usually a noun or noun phrase, that acts as

the agent, doer, or experiencer of the verb.

A verb shows what a subject does, what the subject is, or what the subject islike.

Complement (subject or object complement): anything that comes after theverb to complete a sentence.

Object (direct or indirect object): A noun, pronoun, or noun phrase thatreceives the action of the verb.

Adverbial: a construction (adverb, adverb phrase, temporal noun phrase,prepositional phrase or clause) that modifies, or describes, verbs.

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1.4.1. Central and peripheral elements of the clause To describe the constituency of clauses, we need to deal with the basic elements ofclause structure: subject (S), verb (V), object (O), complement (C), and adverbial (A).

The order of the clause elements is relatively fixed, in general following the sequence in thedesignation of the clause types. The basic order is that of the canonical declarative clause.

The verb element (V) is the most 'central' element, and it is preceded by the subject (S).

Following the verb there may be one or two objects (O), or a complement (C), whichfollows the object if one is present.

The most peripheral element is the adverbial, which can occur either initially, medially orfinally.

1.5. SEMANTIC FUNCTIONS OF CLAUSE ELEMENTS

Agentive part icipant is the most typical semantic role of a subject that has a direct object (theparticipant which instigates/causes the happening denoted by the verb) (Quirk et al.,1985:740-742):

Margaret is mowing the grass.

Affected participantis the most typical role of the direct object (a participant directly involvedin some other way in the happening):

Many MPs criticized the Prime Minister. James sold his digital watch yesterday.

Recipient participant: the most typical role of the indirect object (the animate being that ispassively implicated by the happening or state):

I've found you a place. We paid them the money.

Attribute is the typical semantic role of a subject complement and an object complement; it has

two subtypes of role:IDENTIFICATION:Kevin is my brother. They called their daughter Edna.CHARACTERIZATION:The operation seemed a success. I consider the operation a success.

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1.6. COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION

In order to understand the relations within and across sentence and clause elements, weshall first expand upon two concepts that are specific to syntactic analysis.

Both coordination and subordination involve the linking of units; but in coordination the unitsare on the same syntactic level, whereas in subordination one of the units is a constituent

of a superordinate unit.They are my neighbours, but I don't know them well.[independent clauses]I don't know where they are staying. [the subordinate wh-clause is the directobject of the sentence]

Similar semantic relationships may be expressed through coordination and subordination, asin the concessive relationship expressed in the following sentences:

He tried hard, but he failed. [coordination with but]

Although he tried hard, he failed. [subordination with although]

He tried hard, yet he failed.[coordination through an adverb, such asyet]

1.6.1. COORDINATORSThree conjunctions are clearly coordinators: and, or, but. And and or are central coordinators, andbut differs from them in certain respects. On the gradient between 'pure' coordinators and 'pure'subordinators are or and so that (in the meaning 'with the result that').

Coordinators, subordinators, and conjuncts are all LINKERS.There are six features that apply tothe central coordinators and and or in connections between clauses.

1.6.1.1. SYNTACTIC FEATURES OF COORDINATORS

(a) Clause coordinators are restricted to clause-initial position

And, or, and but are restricted to initial position in the second clause:John plays the guitar, and his sister plays the piano.

This is generally true of both coordinators and subordinators, but it is not true of mostconjuncts:

John plays the guitar; his sister, moreover, plays the piano.NOTE There are three subordinators (as, that, and though) which are exceptional in that they can

occur non-initially: Thoughhe is poor, he is happy. Poor thoughhe is, he is happy.

(b) Coordinated clauses are sequentially fixedClauses beginning with and, or, and but are sequentially fixed in relation to the previous

clause, and therefore cannot be transposed without producing unacceptable

sentences, or at least changing the relationship between the clauses:They are living in England, or they are spending a vacation there.

(c) Coordinators are not preceded by a conjunction

The coordinators and, or, and but and the subordinators/or and so that ('with the result that')do not allow another conjunction to precede them. Other subordinators as well asconjuncts can usually be preceded by conjunctions:

He was unhappy about it, and yet he did as he was told.

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(d) Coordinators can link clause constituents

And, or, and but may link constituents smaller than a clause, for example predicates:

I may see you tomorrow or may phone late in the day.

The exceptions are the conjunct yet and (in informal spoken English) the conjunct so andthe time adverb then ('after that'):

They didn't like it, yet said nothing.They were tired, so left early.They went home, then went straight to bed.

(e) Coordinators can l ink subord inate clauses

As well as linking two main clauses, and and or can link subordinate clauses:

I wonder whether you should go and see her or whether it is better to write to her.

Such linking is not possible for conjuncts or for the other conjunctions except but. But,however, is restricted to linking a maximum of two clauses and even so it can link onlycertain types of subordinate clauses.

She said that John would take them by car but (that) they might be late.

(f) Coordinators can link more than two clauses

And and or can link more than two clauses, and the construction may then be called oneof MULTIPLE COORDINATION.All but the final instance of these two conjunctions can beomitted.

The battery may be disconnected, the connections may be loose, or the bulbmay be faulty.

Coordination of clauses and lesser constituents

But an important distinguishing characteristic of coordinators is that they can also be used tolink elements that are parts of clauses:

The weather will be cold and cloudy. [1]The warm but windy weather will continue for several more days. [2]

In this respect, however, some linking words that are not coordinators resemble coordinators.Certain concessive subordinators and conjuncts, in particular, are capable of replacing but in [2]and in similar linkings of adjectives and other constituents:

Tim's squat yet ferocious bulldog could be heard growling on the patio.I immediately recognized Sarah's bold if barely legiblehandwriting.Martin was inclined to boast about his rich though disreputableancestors.

THE USES OF COORDINATORSTheuses of and

indicates that there is some relation between the contents of the linked clauses. The relation cangenerally be made explicit by the addition of an adverbial, as indicated in parentheses inthe examples:

(a) The event in the second clause is chronologically SEQUENT to that in the first:I washed the dishes and (then) I dried them.

(b) The event in the second clause is a CONSEQUENCE or RESULT of the event in the first:

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He heard an explosion and he {therefore)phoned the police.(c) The second clause introduces a CONTRAST:

Peter is secretive and (in contrast) David is open.(d) The first clause has CONCESSIVE force:

She tried hard and (yet) she failed.(e) The first clause is a CONDITION of the first:

Give me some money and (then) I'll do the shopping.(f) The second clause makes a point SIMILAR to the first:

A trade agreement should be no problem, and (similarly) a cultural exchange couldbe easily arranged.

(g) The second clause is a 'pure'ADDITION to the first:He has long hair and (also) he often wears jeans.

(h) The second clause adds an appended COMMENT on, or EXPLANATION of, the first:They disliked John - and that's not surprising in view of his behaviour.There's only one thing to do now - and that's to apologize.

The uses of or

(a) Typically, or is EXCLUSIVE:it excludes the possibility that the contents of both clauses aretrue or are to be fulfilled:

You can sleep on the couch in the lounge or you can go to a hotel.Even when both alternatives are clearly possible, or is normally interpreted as exclusive:

You can boil yourself an egg or (else) you can make some sandwiches.The exclusive meaning can be strengthened by the conjuncts else or alternatively.(b) Sometimes or is INCLUSIVE.We can add a third clause that makes this inclusive meaning

explicitly:You can boil an egg, {or) you can make some sandwiches, or you can do both.

And can replace or in its inclusive meaning.(c) The alternative expressed by or may also be a restatement or a CORRECTIVE to what is

said in the first conjoin:

They are enjoying themselves, or (at least)/(rather) they apppear to be enjoyingthemselves.

(d) In addition to introducing alternatives as indicated above, or may imply a NEGATIVECONDITION.Thus in:

Switch on the radio or we'll miss the news.The conditional use of or is thus the negative analogue of the conditional use of and. Unlike

and, however, or typically follows a negative imperative clause:Don't be too long, or you'll miss the bus.

In this case, the most appropriate paraphrase with an if-clause is positive instead ofnegative:

If you are too long, you'll miss the bus.In written varieties of the language where precision is required (e.g. in official instructions),

the third possibility can be explicitly included by the use of both coordinators (usuallywritten and/or):

If the appliance is defective, write directly to the manufacturer and/or complain toyour local consumer protection service.

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The uses of but

But expresses a contrast.

(a) The content of the second clause is unexpected in view of the content of the first:

John is poor, but he is happy.

In this use, but can be replaced by and yet.

(b) The second clause expresses in positive terms what the negation in the first clauseconveys:

Jane did not waste her time before the exam, but (on the contrary) studied hardevery evening.I am not objecting to his morals, but (rather) to his manners.

In this use, but can be emphasized by the conjuncts on the contrary or rather. It normallydoes not link two clauses, but two lesser constituents.

CORRELATIVES

Either... or, both ... and, neither... nor

The three pairs either or, both ... and, and neither... nor are correlatives. The first word is anENDORSING ITEM and the second is a coordinator.

Either . . . or emphasizes the exclusive meaning of or. The linked units may becomplete clauses or lesser constituents:

Either the room is too small or the piano is too large.You may either stand up or sit down.Either Sylvia or her sister will be staying with us.

Both . . . andemphasizes the additive meaning of and:

David both loves Joan and wants to marry her.

This new machine will both accelerate the copying process and improve the quality

of reproduction.Both Mary and Peter washed the dishes.

The regulations are both very precise and very detailed.

It also singles out the segregatory meaning of and rather than the combinatory meaning:

Both David and Joan got divorced, [not from each other]

Neither... nor is the negative counterpart of both ... and. It emphasizes that thenegation applies to both units:

David neither loves Joan, nor wants to marry her.Mary was neither happy nor sad. Neither Peter nor his wife wanted theresponsibility.

Unlike either . . . or, both . . . and and neither . .. nor cannot link complete clauses:

*Both Mary washed the dishes and Peter dried them. *Neither Peter wanted theresponsibility, nor his wife did.

Nor and neither as negative adverbs

Nor and neither, followed by subject-operator inversion, can be used without being acorrelative pair. They generally presuppose that a previous clause is negative eitherexplicitly or implicitly:

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He did not receive any assistance from the authorities, neither did he believe theirassurance that action would soon be taken.(rather formal)

All the students were obviously very miserable. Nor were the teachers satisfiedwith the conditions at the school.(formal)

The morphology of nor suggests that it is the equivalent of or plus not, but in fact both nor

and neither are nearer to being the equivalent of and not:All the students were obviously very miserable.And (also) the teachers were notsatisfied with the conditions at the school.

Not (only) ... but

The negator not/n't or the combination not/n't only may be correlative with a following but:

He didn't come to help, but to hinder us.['but rather']They not only broke into his office and stole his books, but (they) (also) tore uphis manuscripts.

Their status as correlatives is even clearer when the negative particle is moved out of itsnormal position to make the two units parallel:

Not only did they break into his office and steal his books, but they also tore uphis manuscripts.

FORMAL INDICATORS OF SUBORDINATION

Subordination is generally marked by a signal in the subordinate clause. The signal may beof various kinds:

a subordinating conjunction;

a wh-element, the item that;

subject-operator inversion in declarative clauses;

(negatively) the absence of a finite verb.

SUBORDINATORSSUBORDINATORS (or, more fully, SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS) are the most important

formal device of subordination.

1. Single-word (simple) subordinatorsafter, although, as, because, before, lest (esp AmE),like (informal, esp AmE), once, since,

that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, whereupon, wherever,while, whilst (esp. BrE)

2. Multi-word (complex) subordinators

A. ending with that: but that, in that, in order that, insofar that (informal, rare), in the eventthat, save that (literary), such that

ending with optional that:(a) participle form: assuming, considering, excepting, given, granting, provided, providing,

seeing, supposing thatb) others: except, for, all, now, so + (that)B. ending with as: according as, as far as, as long as, as soon as, forasmuch as(formal),

inasmuch as (formal), insofar as, insomuch as (formal)Others: as if, as though, in case

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3. Correlative subordinatorsas ...soas/ so/ such asso/ such thatless/ more (/-er) thanno sooner than. . . than, when (informal)

barely/ hardly/ scarcely. . . when, than (informal)the. . . thewhether/ if or

There are also optional conjuncts that endorse the meaning of a subordinator that introducesthe preceding clause: although/ even if/ even though/ while yet/ nevertheless, etc; if/once/ unless then; because/ seeing (that) therefore.

Nonfinite clauses (except bare infinitive clauses) and verbless clauses may have thesubordinators with and without, which are required to introduce the subject:

Without you to consult, I would be completely lost.With the mortgage paid, they could afford to go abroad for their vacation.With you as my friend, I don't need enemies.

Bare infinitive clauses are limited to the two synonymous subordinators rather than and soonerthan:

He paid the fine rather than appeal to a higher court.As a subordinator with infinitive clauses foris restricted to clauses with their own subject and

indeed is often obligatory:It would be an absurd idea for them to move to another house at this stage of theircareers.

Marginal subordinatorsThere are also three types of borderline cases of multi-word subordinators:

habitual combinations of a subordinator with a preceding or following adverb (eg: even if,if only);

temporal noun phrases (e.g.: the moment (that), every time (that)), but the followingclause is better analysed as a restrictive relative clause;

prepositional phrases ending in the fact that (e.g.: because of the fact that, in spite of thefact that), but the subordinate clause is better analyzed as in apposition to the precedingnoun phrase.

Other indicators of subordinationWe now turn to other indicators of subordination apart from subordinators.(i) WH-elementsare initial markers of subordination in subordinate interrogative clauses

and subordinate exclamative clauses, in wh-relative clauses and in conditional-concessive clauses.

(ii) The relative pronoun that, which can often replace wh-pronouns, is a subordinationmarker in restrictive relative clauses.

(iii) Subject-operator inversionis a marker of subordination in certain clauses, particularly inconditional clauses. It is typical of a literary and elevated style. The operators that permitthe inversion are had, were, should, and (less commonly) could and might:

Were she here, she would support the motion.Inversion of a different kind- the fronting of the whole or part of the predication - may occur

with the subordinators as, though and that in concessive and reason clauses.(iv)The absence of a finite verb is itself an indicator of subordination, since nonfinite and

verbless clauses are generally subordinate.

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Bibliography

Allerton, D.J. (1979): Essentials of Grammatical Theory: a Consensus View of Syntaxand Morphology, Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Biber D.; Johansson, S.; Leech, G., Conrad, S. (2002): Longman Student Grammar ofWritten and Spoken English, Longman (Pearson Education Ltd), London.

Cmeciu, Camelia (2007): Lectures on Concepts of English Syntax, Ed. EduSoft, Bacu.

DeCapua, Andreea (2008): Grammar for Teachers. A Guide to American English forNative and Non-native Speakers, Springer, New York.

Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., Svartvik, J. (1985):A Comprehensive Grammar ofthe English Language, London, New York, Longman.

www.essex.ac.uk/linguistics/clmt/MTbook/HTML/node98.html.

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAnExocentricConstruction.htm.

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2 . CRITERI A FOR TH E TYPOLOGY OF SENTEN CES

2.1.THE CRITERION OF STRUCTURE/COMPOSITION

2.1.1. SIMPLE AND MULTIPLE SENTENCES(Quirk et al., 1985:719)

2.1.1.a. A simp le sentenceconsists of a single independent clause.

We use the term 'simple sentence' for a clause that does not have another clause

functioning as one of its elements. However, a simple sentence may have a clause

functioning within a phrase. In that case the complexity is at the level of the phrase, not at

the level of the sentence or clause.

You can borrow the car that belongs to my sister.

The simple declarative sentence is the canonical form of sentence, in terms of which other

types of sentence, including both those which are more complex ('complex' and 'compound'

sentences) and those which are more simple ('reduced' sentences), may be explained byreference to such operations as conjunction, insertion, inversion, substitution, and

transposition (sentence processes). (Quirk et al., 1985:78)

A multiple sentence contains one or more clauses as its immediate constituents. Multiple

sentences are either COMPOUND or COMPLEX.

In a compound sentencethe immediate constituents are two or more COORDINATEclauses.

The syntactical way of forming this sentence is by coordination (homogeneity), using

coordinating conjunctions.

Dan knew the truth, but he did not want to disclose it to us. In a complex sentenceone or more of its elements, such as direct object or adverbial, are

realized by a SUBORDINATE clause.

Even though Dan knew the truth, he refused to disclose the secret to us.

A complex sentence with one subordinate clause can be analysed once for the sentence as a

whole and once for the subordinate clause included within the sentence.

You can borrow my car if you need it.

A COMPLEX sentence is like a simple sentence in that it consists of only one MAIN clause,

but unlike a simple sentence it has one or more SUBORDINATE clauses functioning as an

element of the sentence. For example, [1] is a simple sentence in that the sentence

consists of one main clause without any subordinate clauses:

I reject her conclusions. [1]

On the other hand, [2] is a complex sentence because the main clause contains a

subordinate clause functioning as an adverbial:

Although I admire her reasoning, I reject her conclusions. [2]

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Other grammarians consider that, sometimes, rather than joining two simple sentences

together, a coordinating conjunction joins two complex sentences, or one simple sentence

and one complex sentence. In this case, the sentence is called a compound-complex

sentence:

The package arrived in the morning, but the courier left before I could check the

contents.

Therefore, a compound-complex sentence contains at least two clauses and at least one

dependent clause (a combination of a compound and a complex sentence).

2.2. SENTENCE TYPES AND DISCOURSE FUNCTIONS

2.2.1.Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic types differentiated by their

form. Their use correlates with different discourse functions (Quirk et al., 1985:803-853).

declarativesare sentences in which the subject is present and generally precedes the

verb: Mary bought her sister a hat from Paris.

interrogativesare sentences which are formally marked in one of two ways:

o yes-no interrogatives: the operator is placed in front of the subject:

Did Mary buy her sister a hat from Paris?

o wh-interrogatives: the interrogative wh-element is positioned initially and there is

a general subject-verb inversion:

What did Mary buy her sister from Paris?

imperatives are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and

whose verb has the base form: Buy Mary a hat from Paris.

exclamativesare sentences which have an initial phrase introduced by what or how,

usually with subject-verb order: What a fancy hat she received from her sister!

Associated with these four sentence types are four classes of discourse functions (also

identified as semantic types):

STATEMENTS are primarily used to convey information;

QUESTIONS are primarily used to seek information on a specific point;

DIRECTIVES are primarily used to instruct somebody to do something;

EXCLAMATIONS are primarily used for expressing the extent to which the speaker is

impressed by something.

Although direct association between syntactic type and discourse class is the norm, the two do

not always match. For example, a rhetorical question is syntactically an interrogative, but

semantically a statement.

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2.2.1.a. DECLARATIVE SENTENCESnormally contain a verb phrase and at least one noun

phrase (Quirk et al., 1985:719).

He was of medium height, with curly hair and light-blue eyes.

Their degree of assertiveness depends on the presence of strengthening or emphatic adverbs

(certainly, undoubtedly). To express doubt or probability, there are used adverbial modifiers

such as probably, perhaps, maybe.

2.2.1.b. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCESrequire a strict word order in English. Questions can

be divided into three major classes according to the type of reply they expect:

1 Those that expect affirmation or negation, as in Have you finished the book? are YES-NO

QUESTIONS.

2Those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies, as in What is your

name? or How old are you?, are WH-questions.

3 Those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the question, as

in Would you like to go for a WALK or stay at HOME?,areALTERNATIVE questions.

A. YES/NO QUESTIONS

Form of yes-no questions

Yes-no questions are usually formed by placing the operator before the subject and giving the

sentence a rising intonation:

The boat has LEFT.~ Has the boat LEFT?

If there is no item in the verb phrase that can function as operator, DO is introduced, as with

negation:

They live in Sydney. ~ Do they live in Sydney?Again as with negation, main verb BE functions as operator; in BrE main verb HAVE often acts as

operator, but informally HAVE . . . got is more common:

Patrick was late. ~ Was Patrick late?

Positive yes-no questions

Like negative statements, yes-no questions may contain nonassertive items such as any and

ever. The question containing such forms is generally neutral, with no bias in expectation

towards a positive or negative response.

STATEMENT QUESTIONSomeone called last night. Did anyone call last night?

The boat has left already. Has the boat left yet?

Negative yes-no questions

Negative questions are always conducive. Negative orientation is found in questions which

contain a negative form of one kind or another:

Don't you believe me? Have they never invited you home?

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Hasn't he told you what to do? Has nobody called?

If a negative question has assertive items, it is biased towards positive orientation:

Didn't someone call last night?['I expect that someone did.']

Hasn't the boat left already'?['Surely it has.']

B. WH-QUESTIONS

Form of Wh-questions

Wh-questions are formed with the aid of one of the following simple interrogative words (or WH-

words): who/ whom/ whose, what, which, when, where, how, why.

Unlike yes-no questions, wh-questions generally have falling intonation. There are two

principles governing the form and use of such questions:

1. the wh-element (ie the clause element containing the wh-word) comes first in the

sentence

2. the wh-word itself takes first position in the wh-element.

The main exception to the second principle occurs when the wh-word is within a prepositional

complement. Non-formal style generally requires that the wh-word comes first, but formal style

requires that the wh-element as a whole comes first.

On what did you base your prediction?(formal) What did you base your prediction on?

Function o f wh-element

The following sentences exemplify the various clause functions in which the wh-element

operates:

Who is coming to the PARty? [wh-element: S]

What did you buy for your sister? [wh-element: Od]

Whose beautiful anTiQUES are these? [wh-element: Cs]How wide did they make the BOOKcase? [wh-element: C0]

When will you be proMOTed? [wh-element: A]

Where shall I put the GLASses? [wh-element: A]

Why didn't you TELL me? [wh-element: A]

How did you MEND it?[wh-element: A]

How much does he CARE?[wh-element: A]

How long have you been WAiTing? [wh-element: A]

How often do you visit New YORK? [wh-element: A]

C. ALTERNATIVE QUESTIONS

They refer to the questions based on the presence of several possibilities, or one alternative at

least. They may be divided into:

limited/ finite questions. They give a finite set of possibilities, thus having the

nature of a closed list.

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Would you like some WNE or some BER? [the former term has a rising tone, while the

latter a falling tone]

Do you want to go by BS or by TRM?

open/ unlimited questions. The number of possibilities is larger than those listed.

When would you like to come? On Mnday, on TEsday or some other DY?

According to Quirk et al. (1985), there are two types of alternative questions. The first resembles

yes-no question, and the second a wh-question:

Would you like CHOcolate, vaNilLa, or STRAwberry (icecream)? [1]

Which ice-cream would you LIKE?CHOcolate, vaNiLla or STRAwberry? [2]

The first type differs from yes-no question only in intonation; instead of the final rising tone, it

contains a separate nucleus for each alternative: a rise occurs on each item in the list, except

the last, on which there is a fall, indicating that the list is complete.

A: Shall we go by BUS or TRAIN?

B: By BUS.

The second type of alternative question is really a compound of two separate questions: a wh-

question followed by an elliptical alternative question.

D. DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS ORTAG-QUESTIONS

For the most common types of tag question, the tag question is negative if the statement is

positive and vice versa. The tag question has the form of a yes-no question consisting of merely

an operator and a subject pronoun, the choice of operator and pronoun depending on the

statement. The nuclear tone of the tag occurs on the operator and is either rising or falling.

Below are the four main types of tag questions, which vary according to whether the statement

is positive or negative, and whether the tag question is rising or falling:

POSITIVE STATEMENT + NEGATIVE TAG

(i) RISING TONE on tag (iii) FALLING TONE on tag

He likes his JOB.DOEsn't he? He likes his JOB,DOESn't he?

NEGATIVE STATEMENT + POSITIVE TAG

(ii) RISING TONE on tag (iv) FALLING TONE on tag

He doesn't like his JOB,DOES he? He doesn't like his JOB,DOES he?

The meanings of these sentences, like their forms, involve a statement and a question; each of

them, that is, asserts something, then invites the listener's response to it.

There is a further, less common, type of tag question in which both statement and question are

positive: Your car is outsiDE, is it? You've had an Accident, HAVE you?

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D. OTHER TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Rhetorical questionsare interrogative in structure, but have the force of a strong assertion. An

answer is not generally expected. A positive rhetorical yes-no question with a rising tone

resembles a strong negative assertion, while a negative question seems a strong positive one.

(Quirk, 1985: 825-826).Do you see him Hre?[the implication: Surely you dont see him here.]

Didnt you PHone him? [the implication: Surely you didnt]

Who SMKED in here?[A negative subject is implied Nobody smoked here.]

What can H do for me?[the implication: It is not he/ him who will do something for me.]

Exclamatory questions are interrogative in structure, but have the force of an exclamatory

sentence. They resemble a yes-no question with a final falling tone. The meaning of these

questions is positive, inviting the hearer to agree to a statement on which the speaker has

strong feelings. (Quirk, 1985: 825)

Isnt he Grgeous!

Wasnt it a wonderful PRty!

Echo questions/utterances repeat part or all of what has been said.

Replicatory echo questions do so as a way of having their content confirmed:

A: The Browns are emigrating. B: Emigrating?

A: He's a dermatologist. B: WHAT is he?

A: I'll pay for it. B: You'll WHAT?

Explicatory echo questions, which are always wh-questions, ask for clarification. They have a

falling tone on the wh-word:

A: Take a look at this! B: Take a look at WHAT?

A: He's missed the bus again. B: WHO'S missed the bus?

2.2.1.c.IMPERATIVE SENTENCES, in their typical form, contain no subject or operator: they consist

simply of a predication with an imperative verb, ie a verb in its base form:

Be quiet!

Search the room carefully!

Since an imperative normally refers to some future action which the hearer is urged to perform, its

subject is semantically predictable, and therefore dispensable, while the verb phrase is required to

make no distinctions of tense, number, and person (Quirk et al., 1985:87).

In Modern English, the subject expressed by the personal/ indefinite pronoun you/

everybody, or by a proper name/ common noun is used when it is emphasized, in order to

avoid any confusion, or with an emotive function:

I can't manage this,you try!

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You, Cynthia, fetch the flowers,and you, Paul, the chairs!

Have a good timeeverybody!

Nobody move!

Boys and girls, hurry up! It's getting late, let's go home!

Verbless sentenceshave the effect of brusque commands or requests:

- adverbials:Here!; Slower!; This way!; Back to work!

- noun phrase + adverbial:Everybody outside! Children on the floor! Hands up!

- adverbial + with-phrase:Out with you![get out!]; Off with her head! [cut off

her head]; Up with the Liberal Party! [approval]; Down with the Democrats!

[disapproval]

- noun phrases: Taxi!; Shears!; A loaf of bread, please![a polite request]

Negative imperatives

To negate imperatives, one simply adds an initial Don't or Do not, replacing assertive by

nonassertive items where necessary:

Open the door. Don't open the door.

Get some wine. Don't get any wine.

You open the door. Don't you open the door.

Someone open the door. Don't anyone open the door.

Do with po sitive imperatives

A positive imperative can be made more persuasive or insistent (esp. in BrE) by adding do

before the verb (when the subject is absent or when let's is present):

DO have some more tea. DO let's go for a walk.

2.2.1.d. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES

The means of expression (Quirk, 1985:833-834) for an exclamatory sentence as a formal

category are wh-element and how-element. Unlike wh-question or how-question, there is no

subject-operator inversion.

1. as subject: What a smell came off!

2. as object: What a meal he ate!

3. as complement: How careless he might be!

4. as adverbial: How he loathed her!; How carelessly he drove!

The subject or the operator can be omitted in exclamatory sentences:

What a fool! How depressing![the ellipsis of the subject and the operator to be]They denote two types of attitudes:

- positive/ superlative attitudes: admiration, joy, enthusiasm, happiness, satisfaction;

- negative attitudes: horror, terror, disgust, sadness, grief.

Exclamatives as a formal category of sentence are restricted to the type of exclamatory

utterance introduced by what or how. The WH-element is fronted, but in contrast to wh-

questions there is no subject-operator inversion:

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What a time we've had today!

How delightful her manners are!

How quickly you eat!

How I used to hate geography!

When the WH-element is the complement of a preposition, the preposition is normally left in final

position: What a mess we're in!

2.2.1.e. IRREGULAR SENTENCES

IRREGULAR sentences do not conform to the regular patterns of clause structures or to the

variations of those structures in the major syntactic classes.

A. Sentences with optati ve sub junctive

The formulaic (or 'optative') subjunctive, one use of the base form of the verb, survives in a few

fossilized expressions. It is combined with subject-verb inversion (induced by the initial adverb)

in, for example:

Long live the Republic! So help me God.

It is found without inversion in, for example:

God save the Queen! God forbid!

A less archaic formula (with subject-verb inversion) for expressing wishes has may in front:

May the best man win! May you always be happy!

B. Irregular Wh-questions

There are several kinds of irregular wh-questions, which occur mainly in conversation, for

example:

How about another kiss? What about coming to my place? How come you're so late?Why listen to him? Why all the noise? What if it rains?

C. Subordinate clauses as sentences

Several kinds of subordinate clauses are used as sentences, generally with exclamatory force:

That I should live to see such ingratitude! To think that you might have been killed! Well,

if it isn't Susan! ['It is indeed Susan!'] If only I'd listened to my parents!

D. Aphoristic sentences

Many proverbs have an aphoristic sentence structure, in which two short constructions are

balanced against each other:

The more, the merrier.First come, first served.

Waste not, want not.

2.2.1.f. BLOCK LANGUAGE

Block language appears (especially in writing) in such functions as labels, titles, newspaper

headlines, headings, notices, and advertisements.

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A. Simple block-language messagesoften consist of a noun phrase in isolation:

Entrance 50 mph limit English Department The New York Times

For Sale No dogs without leash

B. Newspaper headlines commonly contain block language because of pressure on space,

and they are imitated on radio and television news broadcasts: PRESIDENT CALLS FOR CALM[SVA]

C. Elliptical sentences are common inconversation and in written dialogue; they respond to,

comment on, or question previous sentences spoken by another speaker:

A: Is your daughter at home?

B: Probably.[A -She is probably at home.]

A: Who sent you?

B: The manager.[S - The manager sent me.]

D. Abbreviated sentences are typical in instructional writing

In informal conversation many types of phrases occur as complete utterances:

The things they get up to!; You and your ideas!; Of all the stupid things to say!;

Taxi!; More coffee?; Your name?; No news.

2.2.1.g. NONSENTENCES

Nonsentences, usually but not exclusively noun phrases, occur frequently in speech, mostly in

informal conversation.

The things they get up to! Attention! Taxi!

In addition there are many formulae used for stereotyped communication situations; for

example: Good morning; Goodbye; How do you do?; Thanks; Happy Birthday.

Interjectionsare purely emotive words which do not enter into syntactic relations. Among the

common interjections areAh, Boo, Oh, Ouch, Sh, Wow.

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2.3. THE CRITERION OF STATUS AND GRAMMATICAL DEPENDENCE

This criterion refers to the status of dependence or independence and to the position of some

constituents in relation to the others.

2.3.1. Independent vs. dependent clausesIndependent clausesare isolated simple sentences: It will rain. He is coming.

Independent clauses are also part of a compound sentence. They are linked together by

coordinating conjunctions, but without being dependent on each other, thus preserving their

equal status.

There were not so many carts now 1/ andvery few on foot 2/, butthe old man was still

there 3/.

According to Biber et al. (2001:248-249), independent clauses are used to perform speech-act

functions. There is a general correspondence between four basic speech-act functions and the

structural types of independent clauses.

Major classi fication of independent clauses

speech-act funct ional clause structural example

informing statement declarative clause SV structure It's strong

eliciting question interrogative clause VS structure Is it strong?

wh-word + VS structure Where is she?

wh-word structure Who was there?

directing command imperative clause V structure (no S) Be strong.'

expressing exclamation exclamative clause wh-word + SV structure How good she

is!Dependent clausesare clauses which cannot stand alone without another clause, called the

main clause (Biber et al., 2001:31)

Ihate to see that. We have 30 men who are working.

2.3.2. Main vs. subordinate clauses

Main clauses are also called head clauses, being the elements that rank first in the hierarchy

established as part of a complex sentence. This means that they have subordinate clauses and

regent clauses in their subordination.

Regent clauseshave a twofold nature:

oof governing, when the complex sentence is more diversified;

oof being subordinated to the main clause.

If you can make it 1/, there are trucks on the road 2/ where it forks for Tortosa.3/ (E.

Hemingway Old Man at the Bridge)

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Subordinate clauses cannot stand on their own as sentences. Besides the main clauses, they

represent the compulsory element in any complex sentence.

I cannot think 1/whatwill become of others2/.

Jacobs (1995:65, apud Cmeciu, 2007) differentiates between:

Embedded clausesfunction either as subjects or as objects of regent clauses, meaning

that they are obligatory elements. The clauses that contain embedded clauses are calledcontainer or matrix clauses.

For Mary to lie about her whereabouts1/ will be a real disaster2/.

They didnt realize 1/ that Mary had been lying to them 2/.

Subordinate clauses function as adjuncts, namely as optional elements in a clause.

The role of subordinators such as because, when, while, after, if etc. is to assign the

clauses a lesser grammatical status. That is why the clause to which it is attached is

called superordinate clause.

I will give him the money 1/ ifhe returns it some day 2/.

He raised his hand 1/ to pull the bell 2/.

Functional classes of subordinate clauses

On the basis of their potential functions, we distinguish several major categories of subordinate

clauses. The functional classification resembles to some extent that of subclausal units such as

noun phrases and adverbs.

NOMINAL CLAUSES have functions that approximate to those of noun phrases: subject, object,

complement, appositive, and prepositional complement. Every nominal clause may function

in some or all of these functions. Unlike noun phrases, however, nominal clauses may also

function as adjective complementation without a preposition:

I'm not sure that lean remember the exact details.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSESfunction mainly as adjuncts or disjuncts. In those functions they are

like adverb phrases, but in their potentiality for greater explicitness, they are more often

like prepositional phrases:

We left after the speeches ended. We left after the end of the speeches. We left

afterwards.

RELATIVE CLAUSES generally function as restrictive or nonrestrictive modifiers of noun

phrases and are therefore functionally parallel to attributive adjectives.

Compare: a man who is lonely~ a lonely man

But they are positioned like postmodifying prepositional phrases: tourists who come fromItaly~ tourists/raw Italy

COMPARATIVE CLAUSESresemble adjectives and adverbs in their modifying functions:

He's not as clever a man as I thought. I love you more deeply than I can say.

Semantically, the comparative clauses together with their correlative element (eg: more,

as, -er) are equivalent to degree adverbs.

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2.4. MORPHOLOGICAL CRITERIA

2.4.1. Finite vs. nonfinite clauses

There is another parameter (morphological) that we take into account when analysing

sentences/clauses: finiteness.

Clauses that have either modal auxiliaries or verbs indicating past, present or futuretenses are finite clauses(independent or dependent).

They should have come by now.

He behaves as if he had known everything.

Nonfinite clausesrefer to those clauses where the verb is not finite (infinitives, gerunds

or participles).

It is necessary 1/ for Tom to study 2/. He was afraid 1/ of smoking in here2/.

Coming home1/, I realized 2/ I had forgot to buy bread 3/.

For Quirk et al. (1985:150), a clause with a finite verb phrase as its verb element is called a'finite verb clause' or, more tersely, a 'finite clause'. Similarly, a clause with a nonfinite verb as

its verb element is called a 'nonfinite (verb) clause'.

In some grammars, nonfinite constructions (which have a nonfinite verb as their verb element) are

considered phrases rather than clauses. Nonfinite clauses themselves are intrinsically subordinate

and therefore do not constitute simple sentences in the canonical forms.

FINITE CLAUSE:a clause whose verb element is finite (such as takes, took, can work, has

worked, is writing, was written):

I can't go out with you because lam studying this evening.

NONFINITE CLAUSE:a clause whose verb element is nonfinite (such as to work, having worked,

taken):

Knowing my temper, I didn't reply.

VERBLESS CLAUSE: a clause that does not have a verb element, but is nevertheless

capable of being analysed into clause elements:

Although always helpful, he was not much liked.

Structural classes of nonfinite verb clauses

The nonfinite clause may be with or without a subject. The classes of nonfinite verb phrase

serve to distinguish four structural classes of nonfinite verb clauses:

(i) TO-INFINITIVE

without subject: The best thing would be to tell everybody.

with subject: The best thing would be for you to tell everybody.

The infinitive clause with to plus a subject is found characteristically in constructions

with anticipatory it, for being used to introduce the subject: It would be better for you

to tell everybody.

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EXERCISES

Identify the following sentences in terms of structure/ composition/ form:

While the present century was in its teens, and on one sunshiny morning in June, there

drove up to the great iron gate of Miss Pinkerton's academy for young ladies, on Chiswick Mall,

a large family coach, with two fat horses in blazing harness []. A black servant, who reposedon the box beside the fat coachman, uncurled his bandy legs as soon as the equipage drew up

opposite Miss Pinkerton's shining brass plate, and as he pulled the bell at least a score of

young heads were seen peering out of the narrow windows of the stately old brick house.

(W. Thackeray Vanity Fair)

Identify the following sentences in terms of status and grammatical dependence:

Hester Prynne, therefore, did not flee. On the outskirts of the town, within the verge of the

peninsula, but not in close vicinity to any other habitation, there was a small thatched cottage. It

had been built by an earlier settler, and abandoned, because the soil about it was too sterile for

cultivation, while its comparative remoteness put it out of the sphere of that social activity which

already marked the habits of the emigrants. It stood on the shore, looking across a basin of the

sea at the forest-covered hills, towards the west. A clump of scrubby trees, such as alone grew

on the peninsula, did not so much conceal the cottage from view, as seem to denote that here

was some object which would fain have been, or at least ought to be, concealed. In this little

lonesome dwelling, with some slender means that she possessed, and by the licence of the

magistrates, who still kept an inquisitorial watch over her, Hester established herself, with her

infant child. A mystic shadow of suspicion immediately attached itself to the spot. (N. Hawthorne

The Scarlet Letter)

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3 . TH E SUB JECT

3.1. DEFINITION & CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES

The main difficulty in circumscribing the area of reference of the term subject resides in the

diversity of sciences/studies which use it as a key concept.

SUBJECTn[sbdkt]

1.the predominant theme or topic, as of a book, discussion, etc.

2.(Social science / Education) any branch of learning considered as a course of study;

3.(Grammar) a word, phrase, or formal expression about which something is predicated

or stated in a sentence;

4.a person or thing that undergoes experiment, analysis, treatment, etc.

5.(Government, Politics & Diplomacy) a person who lives under the rule of a monarch,

government, etc.

6. (Arts) an object, figure, scene, etc., as selected by an artist or photographer for

representation;

7. (Philosophy) a. that which thinks or feels as opposed to the object of thinking and

feeling; the self or the mind; b. a substance as opposed to its attributes;

8.(Music) a melodic or thematic phrase used as the principal motif of a fugue;

9.(Logic) a. the term of a categorial statement of which something is predicated; b. the

reference or denotation of the subject term of a statement. The subject of John is tall is

not the name John,but John himself;

10.an originating motive1.

In syntax, the subject is one of the clause elements for which we can find the greatest number of

characteristic features:

a. the subject is typically a noun phrase;

b. it normally occurs before the verb in declarative clauses and after the

operator in yes-no interrogative clauses;

c. it determines the number and person, where relevant, of the verb;

d. in finite clauses, it requires the subjective form for pronouns that have

distinctive case forms.

1Collins English Dictionary Complete and Unabridged 6th Edition 2003. William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd

1979, 1986 HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003.

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In functional grammar, the notion of subject got several interpretations. Halliday (1994:

30) mentions the following interpretations:

1. a psychological subject (the concern of the message). It is the element that the

speaker selects for grounding what (s)he is going to say.

2. a grammatical subject (something is being predicated). It was seen to determinedifferent grammatical features (case of the noun or pronoun, its agreement of person

and number with the verb).

3. a logical subject/actor (the doer of the action). It has to do with the relations

between things.

The children showed us their toys

Psychological, grammatical, logical

subject

The toys we were shown by the children

Psychological

subject (theme)

Grammatical

subject

(subject)

Logical subject

(actor)

In the latter clause, the toys is the psychological subjectbecause it is the concern of the

message. It is the point of departure when producing the clause.

We is the grammatical subjectbecause it is the one of whom the statement is predicated.

According to it, the clause is valid or not.

The children is the logical subjectbecause it is the doer of the action, the one who is said

to have carried out the process that the clause represents.

3.1.1. SUBJECT CHARACTERISTICS

1. FORM

The subject can be:

a noun phrase (NP); the head of any noun phrase may be a common noun

(common to a class of referents), a proper noun(names of particular persons,

individually or as a group; the referent is defined experientially) or a (personal)

pronoun(unique reference as proper nouns).

a subject clause (finite clauses or nonfinite clauses) (Quirk et al., 1985:724-726).

The casethat a subject is assigned is nominative.

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2. POSITION

According to the type of sentence in which the subject is used, it can be placed before

the verb (declarative sentences), after the operator/ auxiliary (interrogative sentences).

They[S] strolled [V] along the riverbank.[declarative sentence]

Did [op] they [S] stroll along the riverbank?[interrogative sentence]

3. SYNTACTIC FUNCTION

A subject is a compulsory element in finite clauses. In imperative sentences it is absent,

but semantically it is implied.

- The subject triggers the subjective forms (nominative case) for pronouns that have

distinctive case forms in English.

He[S] sat in sullen silence and refused to eat his lunch.

- The subject determines the number and person in finite clauses.

She[S] loves [V] life.

She[S] is [V] my best friend.

- The subject determines the number and the gender of the subject complement [Cs]

when that is a noun phrase.

Johnny and Alice[S] are my grandchildren.

- The subject determines the number, person and gender of the reflexive pronoun as

direct object (Od), indirect object (Oi), subject complement (Cs), or prepositional complement/

object (Cp)

Peter [S] considershimself [Od]a poet.

They [S] had a terrible temper and they [S] were afraid of themselves [Cp].

- There is a systematic correspondence between active and passive clauses: the directobject and the indirect object of an active sentence can become the subject of the passive

sentence.

He [S] can repair your tyre [Od]. Your tyre[S] can be repaired by him.

- A subjectless nonfinite clause has an implied subject which is identical with the subject

of the regent clause.

After having glared at her, / he left the room. / [after having glared at her =

subjectless nonfinite subordinate clause, adverbial clause of time]

4. SEMANTIC PROPERTIES The subject is typically the theme (or topic) of the clause.

It typically refers to information that is regarded by the speaker as given.

In a clause that is not passive, the subject is agentive if the agentive role is expressed in

the clause.

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3.2. MEANS OF EXPRESSING THE SUBJECT

The noun can be expressed in several ways:

A. NOUNS

1. common nounsThe noun phrase as a whole must be considered as a subject. This means that the

determiners and modifiers are parts of the respective noun phrases. The semantic features of

this category may include: [+/- animate], [+/- human],

[+/- concrete], [+/- abstract].

Mywife gave birth to twins.([+animate, + human])

Love was in the air.[+ abstract]

The roomreeks of tobacco. [+ concrete]

The blindfought for their rights.(substantivized adjective)

2. proper names

Billybroke off, forgetting in the intensity with which he continued to look.

Is Londonthe unhealthiest city in the world?

3. substantivized past or indefini te particip le

The dyingwanted his nephew next to him. (the man who was dying)

My belovedis Marys elder sister.

The agedmust be helped.

4. a fixed group of words(noun phrases that are names of novels, institutions etc.)

Big Benstruck seven.

Pall Mallis a fashionable street in London.

B.PRONOUNS

1. personal pronouns

We ourselves were certain of the facts.

2. possessive pronouns

My house has a wooden roof,theirshas a thatched roof.

3. demonstrative pronouns (Demonstrative and personal pronouns function as deictic

elements because they specify a subset of the semantic thing that is rendered morphologically

as a noun and syntactically as a subject)

This is my cat, theseare my tools.4. interrogative pronouns (They appear in interrogative sentences.)

Who has been wearing these shabby clothes?

What drove me here?

5. relative pronouns (They appear in declarative sentences and they introduce relative

clauses, subject clauses or other types of clauses that, together with the main clauses form a

complex sentence.)

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The visitor1/whohadcome yesterday 2/slept in this room1/.(2 = relative clause)

Who did this1/, can never be forgiven.2/(1 = nominal THAT clause)

6. indefinite pronounscan include either quantitative(much, all) or numerical (many, more,

most, several)

All is well, when it ends well.(subject, indefinite quantitative pronoun)

Some people received money, some got building materials. (subject, indefinite

numerical pronoun)

7. generic pronouns can be subdivided into absolute (one, you, he, everyone, anybody),

limited(they). The sentences including generic pronouns as subjects, must be interpreted

as general statements.

Hewho laughs last, laughs best.

Youmust not give up whenever you get grief-stricken.

Everyone has rights under the law, but theydont always know them.

8. negative pronouns

Nonedared to do this.

Nothing remains of the old house but the cellar hole.

C. NUMERALS

1. cardinal numerals

One stood up for the rights of the group.

2. ordinal numerals

Only the firsthad the courage to fight back.

D. ADVERBIAL FORMS AS SUBJECT

In certain restricted contexts (all informal) prepositional phrases, adverbs, and adverbial clauses - allof which normally realize the adverbial element in the clause - function as subject.

Two conditions allow this use of adverbials:

(i) the adverbial is a fragment of an understood clause;

(ii) the sentence can be related to one with prop it:

Slowly is exactly how he speaks. Sunday will be fine.

Will after the show be soon enough? Because Sally wants to leavedoesn't mean that

we have to.

E. NONFINITE VERBS1. infinitive constructions

To go abroad with no passport 1/ is not a wise thing2/.

He 1/seemed2/ to have lied to us1/. [Nominative + Perfect Infinitive It seemed

that he had lied to us. It is used after intransitive verbs to seem, to appear, to

happen, to turn out.]

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They are unlikelyto come. [It is unlikely that they will come. The Nominative +

Infinitive construction is a subject clause. It is triggered by adjectives such as

(un)likely, sure, certain, easy, tough, difficult, (im)possible]

2. gerundial constructions. Unlike the Infinitive in the subject position, rendering the

speakers opinion or theory, the Gerund implies the speakers or the addressees personal

experience of the action or a habit (Martinet & Thomson, 1969: 158):

Swimming in the sea 1/ is great fun2/. [Either the speaker or the addressee has

tried to swim in the sea and he/ she reached the conclusion that swimming in

the sea is great fun.]

Its no good1/ talking to him 2/; he never listens. [The construction with the

introductory anticipatory it is common with any/ no good; any/no use; worth/

worthless]

Seeingis believing.[saying]

Rebuilding the city 1/took years 2/.[rebuilding Gerund, no definite article]

The rebuilding of the city took years. [rebuilding Verbal Noun. Whereas a

Gerund has the features of a verb (tense, voice, adverbs and direct/

prepositional objects), a Verbal Noun presents the features of a noun (definite/

indefinite article; adjectives; plural number; the prepositional genitive)]

3. finite verbs (Subject Clauses)

What was done 1/ cant be undone2/.[1 = nominal clause; it includes a finite verb;

Indicative Mood, Past tense simple, passive voice]

What Tom washed 1/ was his shirts2/.[1 = nominal clause; this type of sentence

is typically English and it bears the name of pseudo-cleft sentence. Its

function is to highlight a string of words. The structure is the following: WH-item+.+ form of be+ FOCUS]

3.3. CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS

3.3.1. The criterion of semantic content(the meaning a subject conveys). There are three

types of subjects: grammatical subjects, logical subjects and impersonal subjects.

Grammatical subjects are directly connected with the predicate. They determine theagreement with the predicate. They are also known under the name of formal subjects.

Ahotsunis glaring down on the desert.

Logical/ real subjectsrefer to the doer of the action, and it bears the name of agent.

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Usually the grammatical subject coincides with the logical subject, but there are two cases

which are interpreted as exceptions:

A. Passive constructions

Hewas struckby thunder.[The grammatical subject does not coincide with the

logical subject. Semantically, the grammatical subject is the sufferer of the

action, thus it is a patient. The logical subject is rendered by a prepositional

object of agent.]

B. Introductory constructions

- Introductory anticipatory it .It has no syntactical function because it is used instead of

the real subject. The subject of the complex sentence is, actually, a subject clause (with a

nonfinite verb: perfect infinitive). The meaning of the respective sentence is given by the

subject clause and the predicative.

It was rude of him to have left us in the middle of the road. [The main clause

includes either verbs, such as to seem, to appear, to turn out, to look likeor

constructions such asits necessary, (im)possible, nice/ rude, importantetc.]

It was said that he had broken into my shop. [The verb in the main clause is

rendered through the passive voice of a verb of communication: to say, to tell,

to announce, to informetc.]

There was lying the village of my childhood. [There shows either existence or

absence of the real subject.]

- Announcing or exclamatory element . Its role is to put an emphasis on the real subjectwhich is to be mentioned. The construction resembles a sort of interjection and the

emphasis is put rather on the subject, than on the predicate.

There you go.

Herecomes dad.

- Emphatic constructions.Their role is to put an emphasis on a particular part from the

sentence. The respective sentence is also called cleft sentence; they are typical

English constructions and their purpose is to highlight a particular string of words. The

structure of cleft sentences is the following (Aarts, 2001: 226):

IT+ form of be+ FOCUS+ who/ that .

It was Tomwho had kicked me. [the real subject is singled out]

Itis you who I despise.[the direct object is singled out]

It was to herthat I had given that book.[the indirect object is singled out]

It was on Billythat we had wanted to rely.[the prepositional object is singled

out]

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It is gently that he spoke to me.[the adverbial modifier of manner is singled

out]

It was in the market that we had met. [the adverbial modifier of place is

singled out]

Itis at nine oclockthat the phone rang.[the adverbial of time is singled out]

Impersonal subjects refer to time and weather, distance or the state of things in

general.

time(hours, parts of the day, dates, days, months etc.)

Itwas getting into the evening. Its almost nine. Its dawn.

lapse of time

Its years since we last went for a swim.

weather & natural phenomena

Itis really hot.Ithas been drizzling for some hours. Its snowing.

distance

Its two miles to that remote village. Its a long way to obtain success.

3.3.2. The criterion of structure/ composit ion

There are four types of subjects: simple subjects, compound subjects, coordinated subjects

and complex subjects.

Simple subjectsare expressed by one word (a noun phrase or a noun equivalent)

The girlstarted and laid her hand upon the rifle at her side. Compound subjectsare expressed by two or several elements, the predicate

agreement is singular.

Chip and Dale is the best cartoon ever seen.

Coordinated subjects refer to two or more elements joined by coordinating

conjunctions. The predicate agreement is in the plural.

There were two women and six menin the bus.

Rage and humiliationhave been tormenting his soul for some minutes.

Complex subjectscan be expressed either through finite or nonfinite verb phrases.

To admit her fault1

/would mean2

/to acknowledge her weakness.3

/Their booing1/was really annoying.2/[their booing - gerund]

The victory 1/was likely2 /to be decided by them1/. [the victory + to be

decided = nominative + infinitive, passive voice]

Jack 1/was seen2/ regarding him from the back of his room1/. [Jack +

regarding = nominative + present participle]

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The fact that cats know1/how to look after themselves2/ was all the good

luck3/ that the old man would ever have.4/

What you told me1/ is a secret with me2/.

When he arrives1/ is not your cup of tea.2/

3.4. SEMANTIC ROLES OF THE SUBJECT

3.4.1.Subject as agentive

The most typical semantic role of a subject in a clause that has a direct object is that of the AGENTIVE

participant: that is, the animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by the verb:

Margaret is mowing the grass.

3.4.2. Subject as external causer, instrument, and affected

The subject sometimes has the role of EXTERNAL CAUSER; that is, it expresses the unwitting

(generally inanimate) cause of an event:

The avalanche destroyed several houses.

It may also have the role of INSTRUMENT;that is, the entity (generally inanimate) which the agent

uses in order to perform an action or instigate a process:

A car knocked them down.

With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the AFFECTEDrole elsewhere typical of

the direct object:

Jack fell down (accidentally). The pencil was lying on the table.

But we can make some further distinctions according to whether the subject complement as

attribute identifies or characterizes.

Kevin is my brother. [identified subject]

Martha was a good student.[characterized subject]

There is sometimes a regular relation, in terms of clause function, between transitive verbs

expressing CAUSATIVE meaning and corresponding intransitive verbs or adjectives. In the last

group, the company and my dog as object arc affected but as subject are agentive.

1. SVO SV

The frost has killed the flowers. The flowers have died.

Fred is waving the flag. The flag is waving (in the breeze).

2. SVO SVC

They have dimmed the lights. The lights became dim.

The sun (almost) blinded him. He (almost) went blind.

3. SVO SV

The sergeant paraded the company. The company paraded.

I am exercising my dog. My dog is exercising.

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3.4.3. Recipient and experiencer subjects

The subject may have a recipient rolewith verbs such as have, own, possess, benefit (from),

as is indicated by the following relation:

Mr Smith has given his son a radio.[So now his son has a radio.]

The perceptual verbs see and hear require an experiencer subject,in contrast to look at and

listen to, which are agentive.

The other perceptual verbs taste, smell, and feel have both an agentive meaning

corresponding to look at and an experiencer meaning corresponding to see:

I want you to taste the soup.[agentive]

I can taste the pepper in my soup.[experiencer]

The souptastes good.[affected]

Verbs indicating cognition or emotion may also require an experiencer:

I thought you were mistaken. I liked the play.

3.4.4. Positioner subject

The subject may have the role of POSITIONERwith intransitive stance verbs such as sit, stand,

lie, live ['dwell'], stay, remain, and with transitive verbs related to stance verbs such as carry,

hold, keep, wear.

The transitive verbs are causative and the direct objects that follow them have an affected role.

In this positioner role the participant is in control, but the situation is not resultative in that no

change is indicated in the positioner during the period in which the situation lasts:

I have lived in London most of my life. The hijacker was holding a revolver. They are

staying at a motel.

He kept himself upright.

3.4.5. Locative, temporal, and eventive subjects

The subject may have the LOCATIVE role of designating the place of the

state or action, or the TEMPORALrole of designating its time:

Los Angeles is foggy. ['It's foggy in Los Angeles.']

This jar contains coffee. [There's coffee in this jar.']

Yesterday was a holiday. ['It was a holiday yesterday.']An important role of the subject is EVENTIVE. The noun at the head of the noun phrase is

commonly deverbal (ie derived from a verb) or a nominalization:

The match is tomorrow.

The Norman invasion took place in 1066.

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3.4.6. Prop it subject

Prop it has also been termed 'ambient' it, in accordance with the view that it has some

generalized reference to the environment in a given context.

Another term for prop it is 'expletive' if, the term indicating the view that this it merely fills a syntactic

gap (that of subject) and is otherwise meaningless.

There are clauses in which no parti