synergy pub ad class notes

8/10/2019 Synergy Pub Ad Class Notes

1/88

Public AdministrationPublic Administration Notes

Administrative Thinkers

1.Administrative Thinkers- Introduction2.Taylor and Scientific Management- Administrative Thinkers3.Henri Fayol- Administrative Thinkers4.Principles by Gulick and Urwick- Administrative Thinkers5.Max Weber- Administrative Thinkers6.Mary Parker Follett- Administrative Thinkers7.Human Relations Approach and Elton Mayo- Administrative Thinkers8.Chester Barnard- Administrative Thinkers9.Rensis Likert and Participative Management- Administrative Thinkers10.Douglas McGregor- Administrative Thinkers11.Chris Argyris- Administrative Thinkers12.Criticisms (Classical Theory)- Administrative Thinkers

Administrative Behaviour

13.Models of Decision Making- Administrative Behaviour14.Techniques of Group Decision Making- Administrative Behaviour15.Quantitative Techniques for Decision Making- Administrative Behaviour

Leadership

16.Theories of Leadership17.Path Goal Theory of Leadership

Motivation

18.Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs- Motivation19.Herberg's Two Factor Theory20.Contemporary Theories on Motivation21.Contemporary Theories on Motvation- II22.Contemporary Theories on Motivation- III

Meaning, Scope and Nature of Public Administration

23.Meaning of Public Administration24.Scope of Public Administration25.Nature of Public Administration

26.Public Administration v. Private Administration27.Wilson's Vision on Public Administration

New Public Administration

28.New Public Administration29.Overall Character of NPA30.NPA- II or the Minnowbrook Conference- II31.Minnowbrook Conference- III32.A Projective View of the Minnowbrook Conference- IV

Public Choice Approach

33.Public Choice Approach34.Public Choice Approach Theorists
http://www.desikanoon.co.in/p/public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/administrative-thinkers-introduction.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/administrative-thinkers-introduction.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/administrative-thinkers-introduction.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/taylor-and-scientific-management.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/taylor-and-scientific-management.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/taylor-and-scientific-management.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/henri-fayol.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/henri-fayol.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/henri-fayol.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/principles-of-gulick-and-urwick.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/principles-of-gulick-and-urwick.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/principles-of-gulick-and-urwick.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/max-weber-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/max-weber-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/max-weber-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/mary-parker-follett-administrative.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/mary-parker-follett-administrative.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/mary-parker-follett-administrative.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/human-relations-approach-and-elton-mayo.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/human-relations-approach-and-elton-mayo.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/human-relations-approach-and-elton-mayo.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/chester-barnard-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/chester-barnard-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/chester-barnard-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/rensis-likert-and-participative.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/rensis-likert-and-participative.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/rensis-likert-and-participative.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/douglas-mcgregor-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/douglas-mcgregor-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/douglas-mcgregor-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/chris-argyris-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/chris-argyris-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/chris-argyris-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/criticisms-classical-theory.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/criticisms-classical-theory.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/criticisms-classical-theory.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/decision-making-today-we-will-start.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/decision-making-today-we-will-start.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/decision-making-today-we-will-start.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/techniques-of-group-decision-making.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/techniques-of-group-decision-making.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/techniques-of-group-decision-making.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/quantitative-techniques-for-decision.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/quantitative-techniques-for-decision.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/quantitative-techniques-for-decision.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/theories-of-leadership.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/theories-of-leadership.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/theories-of-leadership.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/path-goal-theory-of-leadership.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/path-goal-theory-of-leadership.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/path-goal-theory-of-leadership.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-motivation.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-motivation.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-motivation.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation-ii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation-ii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation-ii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation-iii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation-iii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation-iii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/meaning-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/meaning-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/meaning-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/scope-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/scope-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/scope-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/the-nature-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/the-nature-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/the-nature-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/public-administration-v-private.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/public-administration-v-private.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/public-administration-v-private.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/wilsons-vision-on-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/wilsons-vision-on-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/wilsons-vision-on-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/new-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/new-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/new-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/overall-character-of-npa.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/overall-character-of-npa.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/overall-character-of-npa.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/npa-ii-or-minnowbrook-conference-ii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/npa-ii-or-minnowbrook-conference-ii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/npa-ii-or-minnowbrook-conference-ii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/minnowbrook-conference-iii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/minnowbrook-conference-iii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/minnowbrook-conference-iii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/projective-view-of-minnowbrook.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/projective-view-of-minnowbrook.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/projective-view-of-minnowbrook.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/public-choice-approach.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/public-choice-approach.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/public-choice-approach.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/public-choice-approach-theorists.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/public-choice-approach-theorists.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/public-choice-approach-theorists.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/public-choice-approach-theorists.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/public-choice-approach.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/projective-view-of-minnowbrook.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/minnowbrook-conference-iii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/npa-ii-or-minnowbrook-conference-ii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/overall-character-of-npa.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/new-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/wilsons-vision-on-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/public-administration-v-private.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/the-nature-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/scope-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/meaning-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation-iii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation-ii.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/contemporary-theories-on-motivation.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/herzbergs-two-factor-theory.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs-motivation.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/path-goal-theory-of-leadership.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/theories-of-leadership.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/quantitative-techniques-for-decision.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/techniques-of-group-decision-making.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/decision-making-today-we-will-start.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/criticisms-classical-theory.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/chris-argyris-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/douglas-mcgregor-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/rensis-likert-and-participative.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/chester-barnard-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/human-relations-approach-and-elton-mayo.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/mary-parker-follett-administrative.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/max-weber-administrative-thinkers.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/12/principles-of-gulick-and-urwick.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/henri-fayol.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/taylor-and-scientific-management.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/administrative-thinkers-introduction.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/p/public-administration.html


2/88

35.Generalized Arguments relating to the Public Choice Approach

New Public Management

36.New Public Management37.Challenges to NPM

38.Digital Era in the Context of NPM39.Challenges of Globalization

Post-Weberian Thoughts

40.Post-Weberian Developments and Post-Weberian Views41.Post-Weberian Structures42.Views of various Theorists on Weberian Bureaucracy

Evolution of Public Administration

43.Evolution of Public Administration- Introduction

1.Administrative Thinkers- An Introduction

Administrative Thinkers

I will start with my notes on Administrative Thinkers.

Every organization is associated with a phenomenon called administration. The state will

become successful only when the administration is good. The goal of the state is society

itself. Hence, administration assumes criticality in a state. State is considered to be a

deliberately created institution in order to achieve the goals of the society.

The study relating to public administration has been taking place from quite some time. In the

due course of time, there have come up a number of crystallized ideas. These ideas explain

what, why and when of good government administration.There have been hundreds of individual efforts in this subject. They can be divided into three

broad categories.

1. Classical- Classical group has tried to explain this phenomenon by focusing on 2- Ms

(Machine and Method). They have focused on the non-living or inanimate aspect of the

organization.

a. ScientificManagement- Taylor

b. Administrative Management- Henry Fayol, Gulick & Urwick

c. Weberian- Max Weber

2. Humanistic-Bernard, Herbert Simon, McGregor, Chris Argyris, Likert- Humanist Group

has tried to explain this phenomenon by focusing on Mani.e. the living or the animateaspect of the organization.
http://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/generalized-arguments-relating-to.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/generalized-arguments-relating-to.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/generalized-arguments-relating-to.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/new-public-management.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/new-public-management.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/new-public-management.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/challenges-to-npm.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/challenges-to-npm.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/challenges-to-npm.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/digital-era-governance-in-context-of-npm.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/digital-era-governance-in-context-of-npm.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/digital-era-governance-in-context-of-npm.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/challenges-of-globalization.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/challenges-of-globalization.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/challenges-of-globalization.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/post-weberian-development-and-post.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/post-weberian-development-and-post.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/post-weberian-development-and-post.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/post-weberian-structures.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/post-weberian-structures.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/post-weberian-structures.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/views-of-various-theorists-on-weberian.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/views-of-various-theorists-on-weberian.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/views-of-various-theorists-on-weberian.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/evolution-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/evolution-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/evolution-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/administrative-thinkers-introduction.htmlhttp://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9Pt76mmlaBg/ULTqJuXYCqI/AAAAAAAAAKk/JfOQtGQNOr4/s1600/Administrative+Thinkers.pnghttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2012/11/administrative-thinkers-introduction.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/evolution-of-public-administration.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/views-of-various-theorists-on-weberian.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/post-weberian-structures.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/post-weberian-development-and-post.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/challenges-of-globalization.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/digital-era-governance-in-context-of-npm.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/challenges-to-npm.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/new-public-management.htmlhttp://www.desikanoon.co.in/2013/01/generalized-arguments-relating-to.html


3/88

3. Contemporary- Systems Approach and Contingency Approach- Contemporary group

focuses on every aspect of the organization including the surroundings or the environment.

Other Theorists-1. Folett (This theorist is considered to be a link between classical and humanistic school of

thought)

2. Mayo(Initiated Humanistic Theory but somehow he is not considered to be in thehumanistic school of thought)

Every organization has a number of individuals. They carry certain responsibilities and at the

same time they also exercise power. But, all the individuals do not have same amount of

responsibility or same amount of power. Responsibility and power are directly proportional

to each other. This makes an organization, a layered organization or hierarchy.

In most of the organizations, we will find that at the lower level, more numbers of individualsare present. As we move to the higher layers, the numbers of individuals go on decreasing.

Thus, organizations are normally in a pyramidal form.

Every organization comprises of 3-Ms.

1. Machine- Structure of the organization (design or shape)2. Method- Process, procedure, tools or techniques through which the organization operates.3. Man- The organization operates through human beings.

Scientific Management Movement

Management is the art of getting th ings done.

There have been two important events in history which influenced the nature of the

organizations and organizational management.

1. Enlightenment (Renaissance- 16thCentury)- This was the era where there was restlessness

and rejection pertaining to control of church, irrationality, superstitions, unscientific

approaches, feudalism, monarchies etc. This era brought new concepts such as rule of law,

sovereignty, democracy, citizenship, science, justice, equality, rationality etc. Thesedevelopments had a deep impact on the nature of the state. Thereby, it affected and increased

the size and operations of the state. The responsibilities of the state increased and acquired a

positive character.

Democracy is a spiritual concept because it enshrines a society where people can live a life of

dignity and choice.

2. Industrial Revolution (17thand 18thCentury)- It replaced the hands with machines. The

production increased manifolds. They organizations became larger and more complex in

nature. The style of management which were used pre- industrial revolution continued post-

industrial revolution as well. This created incongruence between the nature of management

and the requirements of the organizations. This led to failure, malfunctioning and inefficiency

of the organizations. This worried a large number of management practitioners.

There was a concern regarding the failure of the organizations. They required a type of

response which was not available at that point of time. This concern was more visible in the

context of the functionaries or practitioners of the private industrial organizations. Few of the

important names being

1. Charles Babbage

2. R.H. Towne3. Metcalfe

4. Halsey5. Gantt

6. Gilbreth


4/88

7. Taylor

F.W. Taylor assumes importance in this regard. He is considered to be the father of scientific

management. All of the above agreed that as far as organizational management is concerned,

it should be based on the science of management. And this science of managementshould

be replacing the rule of thumb.Rule of Thumb- It refers to an approach towards work which is based on limited experience

and limited memory being devoid of scientism, professionalism and rationalism.

Science of Management- It refers to a systematized study of the part of the reality in order to

develop cause- consequence relationship of that reality. Management should be based on

scientific approach and not memory and experience or ad-hocism. It refers towards a

scientific approach to understand and explain management.

This idea became popular and acceptable to the extent that almost all the organizations(private and public) started emphasizing on science of management. It created an

environment called as Scientific Management Movement. Scientcism in Management

became popular.

2

Taylors Views

Some theorists say that Taylor has not been the first one to discuss Scientific Management.

Theorists like Charles Babbage, R.H Towne etc. are prior to Taylor. Taylor has also not been

the one who coined the term Scientific Management. Few other theorists have even said

that there is nothing such as Management and there is no philosophy in that regard.

Frederick Winslow Taylor

1. Life- He was very influenced by his mother, E.W. Taylor especially mothers puritan (high

morals, discipline, austerity and sincerity along with a sense of enquiry, dissatisfaction,

dissent, revolt and also an emphasis on new vision) background. Taylor was very influenced

towards mechanization; this was very visible at an early stage of his life. While playing, he

used to very frequently use mechanistic innovations in sports activities and equipments.

Taylor started working at a very early age. Before he could complete his studies as a student

of law, he started working in a firm called Enterprise Hydraulix Works as an Apprentice

Machinist. After a small period of time, he shifted to Midvalle Steel plant and started as alabourer. Within a very small span of time, he rose to the post of Chief Engineer. He started

working on his ideas in this plant. But, the final consolidation of ideas came about in

Bethlehem Steel Plant.

Taylor had a unique distinction as a functionary since he had experience at all the levels of

organization (top, mid and bottom). Taylor was a practitioner and not a theorist. Bottommost

Level of the organization is referred to as Shop Floor. It is at the Shop Floor where all the

work of the organization is done whereas at the other levels only the art of getting things

done is performed.

2.

Philosophy


5/88

a. Failures of the organizations- The responsibility for the failure of the organizations lied

both with the managers as well as the workmen. But, a greater share of responsibility lied

with the managers (Nine- Tenth of the responsibility lied with the managers and one- tenth

lied with the workmen).

i. Managers Failure- The managers were responsible for the failure because of two Is:

1. Ignorance or lack of knowledge about a good days work-The capability or potentiality of

a worker to produce an amount of work in a given day.

It is the managers responsibility to make sure that the worker is performing to the best of his

capabilities. They were not able to perform this task and suffered from ignorance.

2. Indifference towards good managerial practices- The managers were simply not

concerned and lacked a commitment about getting a higher productivity and more efficient

strategies.

The managers were managing the organization based on traditional practices. Hence, they

were indifferent towards good managerial practices. Managers were performing a driving

style of managementand unscientific incentive system. Driving Style Management means

the type of management which is based on authoritarianism and an emphasis on physicalcompulsions.

The managers were very authoritarian, thereby, leading to a disconnect between the

management and workers. The work used to be done by the manual or physical exertion or

capacity of the workers.

The incentive system was unscientific. He said that one of the incentive systems being that

thepayment is made to the position and not to the joborpaying the position, not the

joborpaying the attendance and not the performance. This type of system restricts the

productivity because in this type of system, the performance is not recognized.

Taylor has also identified another kind of incentive system. It is called as Piece Rate Wage

System. This was a wage system based on decreasing piece rate as the productivity alsocontributed towards restricting productivity.

Piece rate means for each unit produced, the worker is paid separately. But, as the number of

produced units increased, the rate per unit/piece decreased, the overall pay increased with

increased work but it acted as a demotivation since piece rate had diminishing returns, more

work did not really mean very high pay, the amount of work to increase returns beyond a

threshold was way more than the returns itself.

This traditional approach has been referred to as Initiative and Incentive Approachor an

Approach based on Lazy Managers Philosophy. He says that the initiative/effort/volition

lies with the worker and he takes up the job because he needs money/incentive.

To define the job, the responsibility lies with the manager. If a manager does not perform thisresponsibility, it is being referred to as Lazy Manager. This leads to loss of productivity.

ii. Workmens Failure- The workers were indulging in large scale soldering. Soldering

refers to restriction of work output. Taylor says that there are two types of soldering.

1. Natural Soldering- It refers to restriction of the work output because of certain inherent or

ingrained limitations with the workers like laziness, indolence, shyness etc. Natural Soldering

is a comparatively easier situation to deal with. In this case, the workers should be persuaded.

If Persuasion does not work, they should be retrenched.

2. Systematic Soldering- It refers to restriction of the work output based on Second Thought

Reasoningi.e. a deliberate or a planned approach towards reducing the productivity.

Systematic Soldering can be addressed through Scientific Management with a specialemphasis on Time and Motion Study and Differential Piece Rate System.


6/88

Systematic Soldering is a by-product of both managerial inefficiency and workers urge to

earn more wages and avoid unemployment. This problem could be rectified through

Scientific Management.

Success or Efficiency of the Organization

Organizational Success lies in bridging the gap between the 1stclass workers (Workers having

higher potential but also acting to achieve that potential) and the 2ndclass workers (Workers

who though high on potential but are not achieving that potential). It depends on a managerial

style where the managers help or enable the workers to attain their true potential.

Efficiency in Organizational Management lies in identifying and establishing the best way of

doing the job and ensuring the performance of the job in accordance to the best way. In this

context, Taylor has discussed three methodologies.

A. Time and Motion Study-

a. One best way should be established- Time and Motion Study.

b. The workers should be made to follow this one best way.

Time and Motion Study is a methodology using which the best way of performing a job can

be established. It is a mechanism to establish the optimal routine/sequence of activities alongwith technology standard and time standard (minimum time taken to complete an activity) in

order to perform the job maximally.

I. Breaking down the job into as many component acts or activities.

II. Finding out the most appropriate sequence of the component activities while eliminating

wasteful and duplicating activities.

III. Establishing the appropriate implements or tools and techniques to be used in each of the

component activities.

IV. Using a stop watch, the minimum time to perform a component activity and the whole of

the act is to be established. Time standard has to be defined for each one the sub-activities as

well as the whole activity.V. The optimal routine of the activities along with the technology standards and the time

standards is to be defined.

B. Differential (non-uniform) Piece Rate System- This system ensures that workers follow

the best method mention above. It is an incentive system by Taylor in which he has

emphasized on a wage system where the payment will be for performance rather than for

attendance. He said that Group performance should not be incentivized; rather individual

performance should be incentivized. Taylor has promoted two types of Wage Rate System.

a. Extraordinary Wage Rate- It is a higher wage rate. Workers who will be able to achieve

the target within a given time frame will be eligible for Extraordinary Wage Rate.

b. Ordinary Wage Rate- It is a lower wage rate. Workers who will achieve the targetexceeding a given time frame will be eligible for Ordinary Wage Rate.

Piece Rate refers to the concept of work more, get paid more and work less, get paid less.

Lower productivity needs to be discouraged and higher productivity needs to be rewarded

and recognized.

C. Functional Foremanship- It is a type of supervision that Taylor has promoted at the Shop

Floor Level which is based on the idea of multiple supervision on account of functional

specialization. While establishing the concept of Functional Foremanship, he rejected the

well- established principle of his time of Unity of Command(It refers to a type of

supervision where a subordinate receives from one super-ordinate).

Functional Foremanship is a type of supervision which is based on multiple supervisors onaccount of functional specialization. Each supervisor will be specializing only in one


7/88


8/88

A. The Science of Management- Taylor is emphasizing that an organization can be efficiently

run provided the rule of thumb is replaced by the Science of Management. The manager

should systematically study the job or scientifically investigate the job in order to establish

the best way of doing each job along with bringing in such condition to enable the workers to

pursue the best way to become maximally productive.

B. Scientific Selection, Training and Development of the Workers- The manager should

recruit the workers while preferring the brain workers over the hand workers. Workers,

according to their suitability towards the job, should be recruited and once recruited, workers

should be adequately trained and educated to handle the job.

C. Bringing Science of Work and the Workers Together- Science of work refers to Manager.

This principle refers to bringing the managers and workers and together. This is the core of

Taylors theory. It forms the heartand soul of his philosophy. It has been explained through

the concept of Mental Revolution. It is the wilful cooperation between the manager and

the worker. Taylor says that:

As the various tools and techniques of management such as Time and Motion Study, Piece

Rate System, Functional Foremanship, Tools standardization, High Speed cutting of steel,use of stop watch and mnemonic classification are the appendages of my scientific

management are also the appendages of other scientific management. The idea that makes

my scientific management different from others is the concept of Mental Revolu tion. Mental

Revolution requires a psychological reorientation of the managers towards the workers and

vice-versa. In order to realize it, instead of focusing on sharing the surplus, the managers

and workers should focus on increasing the size of the surplus. The Mental Revolu tionwill

increase the wages of the labour, the profits of the managers and bring satisfaction to the

customers.

The Mental Revolution is the key concept in the Taylors Arc of Scientific Management. The

manner in which the managers are psychologically disposed towards the workers and vice-versa should change. The mutual suspicion and lack of cooperation between workers and

managers is self- defeating. It is required that the traditional and stereotypical mind set of the

workers and the managers should change and there should be a psychological reworking

leading to mutual cooperation and no suspicion.

In order to bring about Mental Revolution, one should stop thinking about the sharing of

surplus rather they should focus on increasing the size of the surplus.

The traditional approach of the management and the workers towards the surplus has been

based on Zero Sum Gain Approachof Constant Sum Gain Approach. Under this

approach, the value under consideration is considered to be constant and the competing

parties striving to share the value believe that each of their respective gain can be only at thecost of the other.

TaylorsMental Revolutionis based on the concept ofVariable Sum Gain Approach.

Under this approach, the value under consideration is considered to be variable and can be

increased. Thus, the size of the surplus will increase leading to better goods and services at a

lower cost. It is a win-win situation for both, managers and workers as well as the customers.

D. Equal distribution of work and responsibility between the management and workers-

This principle is a mere extension of the last principle. The manager should willingly take up

his part of responsibility without shifting it towards the workers and the worker should also

take up his part of responsibility. The responsibility of the manager is the science of

management i.e. to establish the best way of doing job and the responsibility of the worker isto willingly follow the directions given by the management.


9/88

Taylor says that if these principles are followed, the rule of thumbwill be replaced by

the science of management, discord will be replaced by harmony, individualism will be

replaced by cooperation and restricted output will be replaced by maximum output.

b. Solutions

i. Methods- Already covered.

ii. Scientific Management Movement- Already covered.

3

Fayol is considered to be the father of Modern Science of Management. Fayol, as a theorist,

has been contemporary to Taylor. But, Taylors ideas got recognized much earlier to Fayol.Fayol being French wrote his ideas in French making them inaccessible to the outside world.

Fayols idea got due recognition only when it got translated in English. What is Taylor to

America is Fayol to Europe.

Fayol has been a multi-faceted personality because he was a geologist, a mining engineer and

he went on to win a Nobel Prize in metallurgy in 1921. At the same time, he was a very

successful administrator and a renowned administrative philosopher. He penned down his

ideas out of his successful experience as being a functionary in a private industrial

organization. Unlike Taylor, Fayol did not have the experience of whole of the organization.

Fayol started his career as a Manager and went on to occupy the highest position in the

organization. This difference in experience contributed towards difference in orientationtowards the Organizational Management.

Fayol, as a theorist, considered management and administration to be the same. According to

him, in essence, both of these words represent same type of activity. Fayol believed that

whatever mechanism works in the context of the private organizations works in the same

manner in the context of government organizations. The manner of managing a private

organization is same as that of manner of managing a government organization. He

developed a generic view of administration or management. Fayol promoted this generic

view of administration.

Administration is administration, nothing public about it.- Anonymous- Wherever there

is administration (small organization or big organization), administration carries essentiallythe same meaning and the same character. In this statement, public refers to government. The

statement is trying to emphasize that if administration is being carried out in the context of

the government, it wont make any difference and the nature and character of the

administration shall remain unchanged.

Fayol says that every organization carries on six essential functions.

1. Segmental- These activities can be undertaken with relative isolation from each other.

a. Technical- Manufacturing, Production etc.

b. Commercial- Sales, Purchase, Exchange, Trade etc.

c. Financial- Optimal Utilization of the Financial Resources.

d. Accounting- Systematized Keeping of Records of Daily Expenditure and Revenue.e. Security- Protection of Life and Property of the Organization and its Members.


10/88

2. Integral- None of the functions can be undertaken in isolation from administration.

Administration pervades all other functions, Administrative activities are activities

Involving the Management of the Human Resource and enabling them to achieve their

Potential.

When an individual, moves up in the hierarchy or up in the layer, from the bottom of the

organization towards the middle of the organization, the share of the segmental activities

keeps on increasing.

At the mid-level, maximum segmental activity takes place.

But, when an individual moves from the middle of the organization to the top of the

organization, the share of the integral activities keeps on increasing. At the top level, the

activities are only integral and not segmental.

Out of the six activities mentioned above, the most important activity is administration. If

administration weak, everything will be weak and if administration is efficient, everything

will be efficient.

Fayol on Administration

Fayol emphasizes that administration to be successful requires undertaking five important

functions (POCCC).

1. P- Planning- He refers planning as prevoyance. Planning is the process that involves

envisioning the future goals and laying down the strategy or plan of action to achieve that

goal. Planning provides purpose to the organization. Without it, the organization will become

directionless.

2. O- Organizing- Organizing is a process that involves creating a dual structure of men and

material within the organization. It is a process of systematizing the human resources and

material resources within the organization. Without organizing, the organization will lack

systematization, efforts and activities will be chaotic and ultimately, there will be a loss ofpurpose.

3. C- Commanding- It is a process which involves issuing instructions or passing authoritative

communications in order to maintain the performance or activities among the personnel.

4. C- Coordinating- It is a process of bringing about harmonious operation among various

activities and efforts within the organization. The process through which complementarity is

achieved among various activities and efforts are referred to as coordination.

5. C- Controlling- It is a process that involves ensuring the compliance of the personnel

towards the activities through the threat of punishment and the allurement of reward.

Fourteen Flexible Principles of Administration

Fayol believed that there are some hidden levels in the management of an organization. Thesehidden levels or laws can be derived through experience and close observation. He refers to

these laws as principles of administration. These principles explain, equally, the success of

every organization.

He calls them flexible because Fayol believes that these principles have the capacity to adjust

and accommodate itself to every kind of organization irrespective of the nature and the size

of the organization.

1. Division of Work- Fayol believes that division of work or division of responsibilities among

the individuals within the organization results into increase in the ability and accuracy,

thereby, increasing the overall productivity. Thus, every organization should bring about

division of work. Division of Work belongs to the Natural Order. As the organizationincreases in size and operation, the division of work emerges spontaneously or naturally. But,


11/88

the division of work should not be overdone; rather, it should be maintained at the right

proportion. Overdoing will lead to overlapping of the responsibilities, confusion, conflict of

interest and inefficiency in the organization.

2. Authority and Responsibility- Within the organization, there should be a rational

distribution of duties among various positions within the organization. Along with that, there

should be allocation of a co-equal amount of authority. When authority is more than

responsibility, it leads towards authoritarianism or dictatorship. On the other hand, when the

responsibility is more than authority, it leads towards anarchism.

3. Discipline- It refers to compliance by personnel towards the laws, rules and regulations of

the organization. Adequate mechanism should be put in place to ensure discipline and

penalties should be imposed on behaviour which violates the code of conduct.

4. Remuneration- The payment should be made on the basis of fairness i.e. the performance

should be rewarded.

5. Unity of Command- It is a kind of supervision which provides that a subordinate should

receive command only from one superordinate. If there is more than one boss, it would lead

to confusion, conflict of responsibility and possibly, the subordinate playing onesuperordinate against the other.

6. Unity of Direction- He says that as far as group of activity is concerned, there should be one

single established goal. In the absence of a clearly established goal, the activities will lose

direction and might operate at cross- purpose. Unity of Command cannot be there without

Unity of Direction but does not flows from it.

7. Centralization- Centralization belongs to the natural order. When an organization grows in

size and operation, numbers of intermediaries emerge between the management and the

workers which result into the tendency on part of the management to standardize the jobs and

activities, thus giving rise to centralization. The degree of centralization or decentralization

should depend upon the nature of workers. Here, standardization of work means defining thework in advance. If employees are sincere and competent, the manager should give them

freedom and space to work.

8. Equity- Equity as a principle on the same plane is a broader concept than remuneration. He

emphasizes that management should treat the functionaries of the organization on the basis of

fairness. The overall approach of the management towards the functionaries should be based

on fairness.

9. Order- He refers to the idea of placement i.e. the right man at the right position.

Management should recruit on the basis of the skill and the job should be assigned on the

basis of the persons skill.

10. Scalar Chain- The communication within the organization should always follow the lines ofhierarchy. The communication should not break or jump the hierarchy as that will create

indiscipline, insubordination and mismanagement. The formal line of communication should

not be followed at the cost of organizational interest. In such cases, there should be level

jumping.

Gang Plank- If information arises at Level A and requires communication to Level D. Fayol

says the communication must travel through proper channel. The communication should go

to level B, from level B to level C and from Level C to level D. But, sometimes, this time

consuming process might jeopardize the interest of the organization. As a normal rule, this

line should be followed but in cases of urgent information, an exception needs to be

created.A horizontal line of communication should be built across the departments between


12/88

the concerned positions provided the required approval or permission is obtained from the

respective immediate bosses.

11. Initiative- Management should encourage the functionaries to undertake voluntary decisions

and comply with those decisions.

12. Stability of Tenure- The managers should allow functionaries to occupy and operate in their

position for a considerable period of time. This is required not for emotional but professional

reasons.

13. Esprit de Corps- Managers should strive to maintain harmony within the organization. They

should not go for divide and rule because it weakens the organization.

14. The Subordination of the Individual Interest to the General Interest- In case of the

contradiction of the views between various units or entities within the organization. The view

of the higher unit will prevail over the lower unit or the view of the lower unit has to be

sacrificed for the view of the higher unit.

Fayol says these fourteen principles are not exhaustive in nature. Through further

observations, new principles can be generated. Fayol wrote his theory at a time when there

was a concept of Engineer Managers i.e. engineers themselves were the managers. At thatpoint of time, a separate cadre of managers or administrators did not exist. The general belief

was that any individual with an able mind can handle administration or management. Fayol

rejected this view while emphasizing that administration or management is a specialized area

of activity and thereby, an individual without adequate training and education in management

cannot manage an organizational effectively. Thus, he emphasised on the training and

education for administration or management. He was one of the initial theorists to emphasize

on the professionalization of administration.

Fayol v. Taylor

1. Both have penned down their theories out of their experiences as successful functionaries.

2. Both are from Private Industrial Undertakings.3. Both believed in the generic view of administration (administration as a activity is same in

every organization (private and public).

4. Both emphasized on science of management or administration.

Differences

1. Taylor while focusing upon the organizational efficiency, he focused on the efficiency on

account of production (efficiency in doing the activities). Thus, Taylor focused on the shop

floor level of the organization. In order to explain the efficiency, he has referred to the

knowledge of engineering (use of stop watch, time and motion study, high speed cutting of

steel etc.)

2. Fayol while trying to explain organizational efficiency, he believed that organizationalefficiency is dependent on the administration i.e. the art of getting things done. Thereby, he

focused on the higher level of the organization. Thus, he has referred more to the knowledge

of management.

4


13/88

Now, I will discuss the principles given by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick. I won't be discussingtheir theories in detail. I will simply give the eight important principles given by them.

Principles by Gulick and Urwick- Eight Most Important Principles for the Organization

1. Fitting people into the Structure- They say that the first important managerial activity is tocreate a proper structure of the organization and subsequent to that, to recruit people on the

basis of their suitability towards the job and thereby, placing them at the right position.

2. Principle of Specialization

3. One Top Executive- This is also being referred to as Unity of Leadership. The whole of the

organization is to be headed by one executive. The organization when headed by a board or a

commission, then in case of the things going wrong, there would be nobody to ask and

nobody to kick. It also delays the decision making.

4. Unity of Command- A subordinate should follow the orders of only one superior or super-

ordinate.

5. Span of Control- This principle is developed with regard to supervision. Under this principle, Gulickemphasizes that for supervision to be effective, the number of subordinates should be limited which should

be at most five or six.

Gulick, while being influenced by V.A. Graicunas and his formula, has emphasized that while the number of

subordinates grow arithmetically, the amount of supervision multiplies. It is so because the supervisor has

to supervise three types of relations.

1. Direct single relation

2. Direct group relation

3. Cross relation.

Total Relationships that a supervisor has to supervise when the number of subordinates is n,

T = n (2^n/2 + n1)When the subordinates are undertaking similar type of activity, the span of control will be more in comparison

to a situation where the subordinates are undertaking dissimilar type of activity.

6. Line and Staff

a. General Staff Functionaries- There are certain staff functionaries who are involved in

assisting the line functionaries on account of managerial functions such as planning, co-

ordinating etc.

b. Special Staff Functionaries- They are involved in assisting the line functionaries on account

of technical functions.

7. Delegation- Within the organization, the managers should go for delegation. One of the

major failures of the organization is lack of delegation or lack of knowledge about what to

delegate and how to delegate.

8. Matching Responsibility with Authority- Principle of Authority- He says that the location of the

Supreme Authority within the organization should be clearly established and the line of command and line

of authority running from the top of the organization till the bottom of the organization should be clearly

laid out. Principle of Responsibility- He says that the superordinate should be responsible for the acts of

the subordinate.

Later theorists have referred Gulick and Urwick as Structuralists while Fayol has been

referred to as a Functionalist. Fayol was not completely blind towards the structural aspect of

the organization; he discussed them in his fourteen principles. Similarly, Gulick and Urwick

have not been blind about the functional aspect of the organization. Gulick while being


14/88

influenced by POCCC came out with a new acronym called as POSDCORBto elaborate the

functional aspect of the organization. This acronym was also adopted by Urwick.

P- Planning

O- Organizing

S- Staffing

D- Directing

CO- Co-Ordinating

R- Reporting (Keeping the superior regularly informed)

B- Budgeting

5

Weber was primarily a sociologist. Referring to his work, he can be referred to at most as a

political sociologist or a political economist. His contribution to Administration has been

incidental to his sociological studies. His study on rationality and process of rationalization in

the modern world has contributed towards the theory on bureaucracy. His theory on

bureaucracy has gained status to the extent that the name Weber and the concept of

Bureaucracy is being treated synonymous. Weber is the first theorist who took the concept

bureaucracy out of its pejorative meaning.

Unlike the other theorists of the classical period, Weber was an academician. He developed

his theory in the context of the government organizations. Since, he also believed in the

generic view of administration, his theory of bureaucracy was also applicable to the private

organizations.

One of the important characteristics of the modern western society is rationalization. It is a

process that involves consistency, logic or reason. It also involves a logical correlation

between the means and the end.

Weber says that Rationalization is a process that does not involve magical elements. Weber

came across a phenomenon called as Domination.Domination is a relationship between

the ruler and the ruled whereby the ruler has the right to rule and the ruled has the duty to

obey.

Weber has studied domination in the context of various organizations such as religiousbodies, economic bodies, government bodies etc. While studying in the context of religious

and economic bodies, he referred to domination being based on theconstellation of

interest. While studying in the context of government bodies, he referred to domination as

authority.

Domination based on Authority

Power is the ability to get things done irrespective of resistance in a communal or social

situation.

Legitimacyrefers to exercise of power based on values those are accepted by the subjects in

a society.

A legitimateexercise of poweris Authority. (Power + Legitimacy = Authority)


15/88

In order to study Authority, he used a methodology called as Ideal Type. Ideal Type is

not something which is perfect or could be considered as a role model or something which is

average. It is derived from the concept of idea.Ideal Type is a mental construct or a

mental map of the researcher or it is a one sided exaggeration of the reality or it is a

researchers imagination in order to act as a reference point so as to observe compare and

classify the reality so as to derive hypothesis and generalizations. It is a utopia which is

though derived from reality is not found in reality.

Webers study was very comprehensive. It was both, historical and contemporaneous. It was

based on both primary sources and secondary sources. It was historical in the sense that

Weber undertook his studies during the latter part of the 19 thcentury. By that time, a lot of

study had already taken place on these subjects. It was contemporaneous in the sense that he

took present existing conditions into regard.

By using Ideal Type, Weber came out with a Threefold Classification of Authority.

1. Traditional Authority- Weber refers to a type of authority, obedience to which is based on

tradition, customs and conventions. It is a type of authority which is based on the fact that

certain things are to be obeyed because those are used to be obeyed. It emphasized on theimportance of the eternal past.

a. Patriarchal Traditional Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is

based on age. The individual who is the eldest exercises the power. Most of the societies are

male dominated so normally the eldest male exercises the power.

b. Patrilineal Traditional Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is

based on lineage.

2. Charismatic Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is based on the

extraordinary qualities or exceptional personality.

3. Legal Rational Authority- It refers to a type of authority obedience to which is based on

law. According to Weber, this is the most rational form of authority. He says laws areestablished through a process and carries a purpose.

Charismatic Authority is the most temporary or provisional form of authority. Charismatic

Authority is based on the exception qualities which are relevant to the situation. Weber says

situation changes and as the situation changes, the charismatic authority comes under threat.

The charismatic authority which comes under threat will either dismantle itself or it might

decide to continue. If it decides to continue, it can continue by converting itself into

traditional authority or legal rational authority. But, in modern society, it mostly converts

itself into legal rational authority. This is the process through which charismatic authority

continues itself. This is referred to as routinization of charismaor institutionalization of

charisma.Weber has considered the charismatic authority of being capable of bringing about fastest

possible changes because under the traditional authority, change affects the source of

authority and under the legal rational authority; the change has to follow the due process. But,

charismatic authority has little limitations.

Weber was not only interested in understanding the relationship between the ruler and the

ruled but also the manner in which the ruler exercised their rule over the ruled. In that

particular context, he entered into the domain of administration. In this context, in order to

understand administration, he also used the Ideal TypeMethodology.

Administrative Systems

1. Traditional Authority


16/88

a. Patrimonial Administrative System- It is a highly centralized administrative system. The

functionaries are treated as the personal servants of the Supreme Authority. Various

functionaries derive their power out of their loyalty towards the Supreme Authority. It is

based on the principle ofloyalty is bartered with power. It is a type of system where there

is a heightened importance of primordialidentities such as region, caste, language etc.

A good example is that of Monarchical Administration. In such a system, king is considered

to be the supreme authority. Every other functionary owes his/her position to the king.

b. Feudal Administrative System- It is a comparatively autonomous administrative system.

Functionaries for their remuneration are not dependant on the Supreme Authority rather they

have their own source of remuneration. Rest of the characteristics of this system are in close

resemblance with that of the Patrimonial System. Weber has conceivedFeudal

Administrative Systemin the background of the Western European Feudalism.

Western European Feudalism- In Western Europe, Kingship System was prevalent. The

head of the state was the King. The kingdom was divided into various feudal areaswhich

were ownedby the Feudal Lords. A king might himself be a feudal lord of any feudal area.

The entire authority relating to the Feudal Area was vested with Feudal Lords. Feudal Lordsused to raise taxes and were not dependent upon the king for remuneration. Feudal Lords

shared a part of their taxes with the King and in turn, King provided them protection through

his army.

2. Charismatic Authority- It has no Administrative System. There are only followers and

disciples. There have been certain exceptions where the charismatic authority tried to

establish administrative system and wherever it had been, it had been the Patrimonial

Administrative System.

3. Legal Rational Authority- The administrative system under this type of authority is called

as Bureauor Bureaucracy. Weber says that Bureaucracy is the most rational form of

organization. Even though Weber was not the first one to theorize on bureaucracy nor did hecoin the term bureaucracy nor did he define bureaucracy, both prior to Weber and post-

Weber, his idea on bureaucracy has been one of the most important conceptualization on

bureaucracy. Yet, his theory assumes critical significance. His importance lies in providing a

detailed, elaborate, functional and structural characterization of bureaucracy.

a. Bound by Impersonal Law- Bureaucracy is a type of organization in which the

functionaries do no act as per their own choices or whims and fancies. Rather, they act as per

the prescriptions of the law or the provisions of the law. These laws are impersonal or neutral

to various individuals occupying the positions within the organization.

b. Sphere of Competence- Within bureaucracy, every position carries a defined area of

responsibility while carrying the required authority and skill.c. Hierarchy- Bureaucracy is a hierarchic or layered organization in which there is a clearly

established relationship between the superordinate and the subordinate. Further, the line of

authority from the top of the organization to the bottom of the organization is clearly

established.

d. Meritocracy-The recruitment into bureaucracy is based on expertise or ability. Further, the

individual within the organization operates with a contractual relation i.e. while individual

remains under obligation towards the job but personally remains free.

e. Impersonal Detachment-Within bureaucracy, there is a separation between the personal

office and the public officeand personal property and private property.

f. Career Service-For an individual functionary, the occupation in bureaucracy is a career i.e.a lifelong engagement and the engagement in bureaucracy is the only engagement.


17/88

Individuals in bureaucracy gradually move from lower amount of responsibility, authority

and remuneration towards higher amount of responsibility, authority and remuneration.

g. Written Records-In this administrative system, the administrative acts, decisions and rules

are maintained in writing. They are not conducted orally.

h. Non- Appointed Head- Bureaucracy is an appointed body of officials being headed by a

non-appointed official or having a political head. Weber has conceived the concept of

Bureaucracy in the context of Modern Democratic Setup.

4. Functional Characteristics of the Bureaucracy- Bureaucracy is scientific, rational,

technical, impersonal, impartial (non-discriminatory), neutral (politically unbiased), carrying

honesty and integrity and operating with precision and predictability (it operates on the basis

of impersonal laws and scientific approach). Thereby, according to Weber, it is the most

efficient form of organization.It is said that Weber is the first theorist who took out

bureaucracy from its negative meaning. But, Weber has not blind towards the limitations of

Bureaucracy.

5. Limitations of Bureaucracy

a. Problem of Alienation within the Bureaucracy- Here, Weber is referring to the separationof the individual from his own self. Weber further says that because of Impersonal

Detachmentand Career Service, the members of the bureaucracy gradually face the

problem of alienation i.e. they gradually get separated from their own self. Bureaucracy turns

out to be an iron cage from where there is no escape. This phenomenon has been referred to

as Phenomenon of Golden Cage(Golden because it provides power and privilege and

Cage because it curtails freedom and makes the person an automaton) by various other

theorists. C. Wright Mills has called this phenomenon as Prostitution of Personalities(In

order to suit the job, the person adopts a separate personality other than his own self).

b. Problem of Institutional Character of Bureaucracy- Weber has theorized his concept of

bureaucracy in light of Modern Democracy. As per Weber, the State is an instrument toachieve the purpose of the society and goals of its citizens. State is a means to an end and not

an end in itself (Staatraison- German Term). State cannot achieve its purpose without

expertise or technicism or without a disciplined group of professional manpower.

Bureaucracy is a form of organization which is ingrained in the purpose of the state.

Bureaucracy is also a means to an end rather than an end in itself. Bureaucracy is

instrumental in character.

Weber says that Bureaucracy is a professional body of official which exercises power. But,

there is a possibility that bureaucracy instead of using power or exercising power for the

purpose of the state or the society, it might misuse or abuse the power for its own private

purpose or goal. Thereby, it being instrumental in nature, it might turninstitutional.Institutionalhere refers to becoming an end in itself rather than being a means

to an end. But, Weber is not pessimistic on this account. He is optimistic about a solution for

this problem in bureaucracy. He considers certain solutions such as:

i. Separation of Power

ii. Collegiality

iii. Amateurism

iv. Direct Democracy

v. Representative Democracy

He finally accepted Representative Democracyas a viable solution to address the

problem of Institutional Bureaucracy. Representative Democracybeing a loop-baseddemocracy, the citizens will be able to control bureaucracy, its actions and intention through


18/88

the exercise of control over the representatives who in turn will control bureaucracy as per

the views and interests of the citizens and the society.

6. Emergence of Bureaucracy- According to Weber, the rise of bureaucracy has been because

of

a. Capitalism- It is a type of economic system which is based on the idea of private investment

and profit. It is a type of economic system which prefers stability in the environment.

Bureaucracy as an institutional development which is based on an impersonal law provides

stable and predictive environment. Thus, Capitalism became one of the factors for the rise of

bureaucracy.

b. Industrialization-Industrialization had a critical impact on the size and functioning of the

organizations. Organizations became big in size and large in operation. They could be no

longer managed in an unprofessional and unscientific manner. They required a scientific

approach. This provided a basis for the rise of bureaucracy.

c. Democracy- Democracy as a philosophy promotes impartiality, ensures equality and

envisages a state which works towards the welfare of the people. Democratic spirit can only

be furthered where discrimination does not exist. This is only possible when the law isimpersonal in nature. Bureaucracy works within the framework of impersonal law. Hence,

bureaucracy grew with democracy.

Democracy promotes welfare of people but this cannot be provided without the requisite

expertise or professionalism. This expertise and scientific approach can be provided by

bureaucracy. Thus, democracy provided a suitable environment for the bureaucracy to

nurture.

d. Money Economy- Money economy provided a basis for the mode of exchange. The prices

of goods and services were fixed. Bureaucracy is a hierarchic organization with a sphere of

competence i.e. every position has ad defined responsibility and authority. Bureaucracy being

hierarchic in nature, responsibility and authority within the organization is unequallydistributed. Thereby, different remuneration is given to persons performing different types of

responsibilities. This required standardization of remuneration in the mode of payment and

this standardization is only possible in case of a Money Economy. Thus, Money Economy

provided a basis for the rise of bureaucracy.

6

She was the first female administrative thinker. Though, in terms of time period, she

belonged to the classical era, but in terms of the content of her theory, she was much ahead of

her times. She discussed ideas that were subsequently discussed during the Humanistic

period and the Contemporary period. She was very dismissive of the classical theories of the

organization as being mechanistic in nature. She can be considered as a precursor to the

Humanistic Period or Behavioural Period. Unlike the theorists of her time, she was an

academician and not a practitioner. She was a lecturer in Political Science. Her theory was a

by-product of her academic research which was based on both secondary as well as primary


19/88

sources. Many of her contributions were path-breaking. She is considered as a link between

the classical theorists and the future theorists.

Her Views on various issues

1. Individual- Human being a social animal likes to associate with others. This very nature

gives rise to the formation of group. Individual previously was independent but weak,

subsequently individual became dependant but strong. As the time progressed, goals became

many and human being could not achieve those goals on his own. Human-being being an

intelligent individual and innovated his own strategy to achieve goal which was by

cooperating with others.

2. Group- The group is an outgrowth of Human Nature. Human being cannot remain in

isolation. The group is as well an outgrowth of human purpose. Group is created out of the

deliberate effort of the human being because Individuals believe that it cannot achieve certain

goals which it can achieve through a group process. This results into the formation of groups.

Group is a natural creation as well as a planned initiative. Within a group process, individuals

interact with each other. This Interaction is a process of interpenetration. This doctrine talks

about interinfluencing of each other. This interaction gradually evolves into a synthetic orcomposite view which Folett has explained through her doctrine of Whole. This provides the

identity or view of the group.

3. State- Group evolves out of the individuals but it carries an identity different from the

individual. The group and the individual enjoy a symbiotic relationship. The group represents

the individual and the individual represents the group. The interest of the individual lies in the

interest of the group and vice-versa. In modern times, the highest form of the expression

of the group is a State. The state and the individual also enjoy a symbiotic relationship with

each other. The interest of the citizen lies in the interest of the state and vice-versa. The

identity of the citizen and the state flow from each other. Folett says that the home of my

soul lies in the state. True nature of the state of this type is found only in democracy. State isalso a type of group but it has a special place since it operates at a higher level. The very

process of state emerging out of an individual does not take place in systems such as

dictatorship or tyranny.

But, Folett has rejected the representative form of democracy. She subsequently emphasizes

that such a relationship(discussed above) cannot exist in the representative

democracy. Representative democracy is based on the law of consent rather than the law

of co-action. In a representative democracy, few decide and many follow. In reality it is

nothing but a rationalization of arbitrary exercise of power.That is why Folett has

emphasized on the concept of Participative Democracy. In such a democracy,

institutional mechanisms are put in place through which people regularly participate in theprocess of decision-making. She is stressing on Collective or Group Orientation and

underemphasizing the Individualistic Orientation.

Evans & Burns- In a representative democracy, liberty vanishes into the ballot box in two

seconds after which the people consume others politics. Democracy is a philosophy based on

the idea that people consume their own politics.

The liberty of the voter is till the person casts his vote. Once the vote is cast, representatives

no longer follow the diktats of the voters and no longer act on their behalf. They became

masters of themselves or usually, there is a small group of powerful individuals which

dictates terms to the representatives and others consume it.

Folett on AdministrationShe has contributed on various phenomenon such as


20/88


21/88

Integration is a constructive strategy of managing conflict because first of all, it addresses to

the conflict as well as able to take advantage of the available opportunity. Integration is a

difficult process to be established within the organization. For it to exist, it is required that the

contracting parties be flexible, skilled and rational. Through Integration, the conflicting

parties develop a sense of participation. Thereby, the organization becomes less and less

conflict prone. The organization is also able to take advantage of the available opportunities.

Integration may not be possible in every situation. She has rejected the principle of Lineal

Responseand replaced it with the principle ofCircular Response.The dialogue should not

be unidirectional. She emphasizes on a dialogic approach rather than monologue approach.

2. Leadership- Leader is the one who is able to understand the situation in totality and

successfully move from one situation to the other. Folett says leadership is a critical function

within the organization because organization is nothing but a group of individuals working

towards a common goal. The job of the leader is to successfully influence the group towards

achieving the goal. There are three different types of leadership.

a. Leadership by Position- An individual acts as a leader by the virtue of occupying a superior

position within the organizational hierarchy. This view is also promoted by the classicaltheorists of administration. The superior decides and the subordinates follow. The individual

who carries the skill or the ability relevant to the job is most capable of acting as a leader and

it is not necessary that the superior shall always possess the requisite skill set. Thus, she has

rejected the concept of Leadership by Position.

b. Leadership by Personality- It is a style of leadership where the one having the appropriate

skill or the ability relevant to the job acts as the leader. Folett agrees in principle with this

type of leadership. But, Folett also highlights some operational difficulties in this kind of

leadership. She rejects Leadership by Personality but promotes Leadership by Function.

c. Leadership by Function- This is a combination of Leadership by Position and Leadership

by Personality. Folett says that it is the kind of leadership based on the principle of CircularResponse. It is based on an associative or participative approach. The advantage of

Leadership by Position is that it ensures discipline and the advantage of Leadership by

Personality is that the person will always have the requisite skills.

The leadership exists not just because of the virtue of the position but also the ability and the

skill the person possesses. The deficiency in the ability and the knowledge of the leader can

be fulfilled by adopting a participative approach of sharing knowledge within the

organization.

3. Power and Authority- Folett says power is the ability to get things done. According to her,

Authority is a vested power i.e. a legally assigned power. It is merely a right to develop and

exercise power. Authority may not actually result into power Authority to be meaningfulshould be functional, pluralistic and cumulative. Power being given or powers being

exercised are two different things. By pluralistic, she is referring that the authority should be

exercised in association and not in isolation. Cumulative means that the authority should be

exercised meaningfully using the ability of others. She also says that Authority is objective

and responsibility is subjective. Within the organization, the responsibility is delegated,

authority is not because authority lies in the job and stays with the job. Delegation of

Authority is a misnomer. Authority being a vested power remains objective and does not

vary. Responsibility, being the expected duty of the individual within the organization, varies

because of the infusion of perception or thought process in the job. Within the organization,

there can be assigning of the responsibilities and not the authority. When responsible is


22/88

assigned, the associated authority automatically goes to the assignee. Responsibility should

also be functional, pluralistic and cumulative.

4. Order- She differs from the classical theories and does not accept their view of exercise of

order based on the principle of Power-Over and replaces that with the concept of Power-

With. Within the organization, the order might be complied, obeyed, disobeyed or partially

obeyed. Whereas, the classical theorists say that the order is necessarily obeyed and will

exactly follow what the superior has said. Folett differs from this view. She says for Order to

be exercised meaningfully, it should be based on certain conditions.

a. Conscious Attitude- There should be awareness about all the principles based on which the

order is to be exercised.

b. Responsible Attitude- One should be able to identify the appropriate principle based on

which the order is to be exercised.

c. Experimental Attitude- In certain cases which are unprecedented or unusual, newer

initiatives should be taken.

d. Pooling of the Resources- Within the Organization, data and information on various aspects

of the organization should be meaningfully consolidated and maintained.

Order to be exercised meaningfully should be based on depersonalization of

poweri.e.power should seem to be flowing from the situation rather than the position. The

depersonalization of order is based on law of situation. Depersonalization of Order leads to

effective exercise of the Order. Human beings want to remain free. Thus, they resist

domination because domination leads to resentment. This resentment restricts or retards

compliance. The one who is exercising the order should act as a Salesman. The superior

should always try to bring about awareness among the subordinates and try to develop the

relevant attitude and only when the relevant attitude is manifest, the order should be

exercised.

5. Control- Within the organization, the Fact Controlshould replace the idea of the ManControl. The control should be exercised by the job and situation rather than the control

being exercised by the superior. The responsibility should exist towards what rather than

responsibility towards whom.

6. Co-ordination- Co-ordination is the harmonization or the synchronization of the

organizational activities. In order to establish co-ordination, Folett has provided four

strategies.

a. Co-ordination through Direct Contact- Within the organization, the effort should be to

establish as direct a contact as is possible between the concerned parties involved in the

problem of co-ordination.

b. Co-ordination at an Early Stage- While making policies, laws or rules and regulations, theconcerned entities or functionaries should be involved. This will make the policies and laws

more realistic and it will not subject the laws to multiple interpretations.

c. Co-ordination as a Continuous Process- A specialized unit should be set up continuously

to look into the problems of co-ordination within the organization and suggest measures

accordingly. (e.g.- Ministry of Plan Implementation)

d. Co-ordination through the Reciprocal Relationship of all Concerned- The process of

resolving the problem of co-ordination should involve all those who are concerned with the

problem of co-ordination.

Folletts analysis and conceptualization of administration has been dynamic in nature as

compared to the classical theorists whose conceptualization was static in nature. Classical


23/88

theorists developed a very machinist view of the organization. Whereas, the views developed

by the later theorists were pretty vivid and dynamic.

7

Elton Mayo is considered to be the initiator of the Social Psychological analysis or Human

analysis in Organizational Management. His theory is post- Follett. But, Folletts ideas

became known much later. Mayos theorization is based on a number of studies he conducted

along with a number of researchers and functionaries. Mayos theory is not only based on

studies and experiments but at the same time, it came out with a novel analysis which became

the subject of theorization for the later theorists such as Bernard, Simon etc.

A Preliminary View of Mayo on the Individual and the Society

He believes that the modern society is in a state of disorganization or anomie or planlessness.

The traditional society was based on a routine which has been broken down by science and

rationality but has not been adequately replaced with a new set of routine. This has resulted

into disorganization. The disorganization manifests itself today in every aspect of the society

(politics, culture, economy, industry etc.).

This can be addressed by bringing about an Adaptive Society. It is a type of society which

has the capacity to accommodate or adapt to the newer conditions or newer situations. It is a

society which emphasizes on education and administration. The emphasis is on value based

education. Value based education intends to impart wisdom i.e. the ability to distinguish

between the right and the wrong. While referring to administration, he says that the

administration is managed by the Administrative Elites. Administrative Elites means

administrators which are not only equipped with the technical skills but also the social skills

i.e. both the hard and the soft skill. Thus, he emphasizing on a participative approach.

Hawthrone Study

Mayo along with a team conducted this study in the Hawthrone unit of the Western Electrical

Plant in USA.

1. Philadelphia Textile Mill Study or the First Enquiry- Philadelphia Textile was a model

and a successful organization. But, during the early 20 thcentury, a spinning unit of this milldeveloped certain problems such as absenteeism, high labour turnover (250%- number of

workers joining and leaving the organization. Thus, an organization will require hiring much

more persons than it would originally require to maintain the organization in a working

condition) and thereby, inefficiency and loss persisted. The mill took the help of a number of

Engineer-Managers to address this problem. All this went in vain. Finally, it was referred to

the Harvard School of Business Administration. In that context, it was assigned to Elton

Mayo.

When Mayo visited the unit, he found that the work condition inside the unit is very noisy

and the workers were working for very long work hours without any rest. Mayo took a simple

initiative by introducing few rest periods or rest pauses between the work hours. Verysurprisingly, the absenteeism reduced, turnover vanished and productivity increased.


24/88

Subsequently, after some time, the managers withdrew the Rest Periods. Previous condition

of absenteeism and loss of productivity revisited. Alarmed by the condition, the managers

introduced the rest periods with conditions and linking it with production. Again, the

absenteeism reduced but productivity did not increase to the previous levels. So, Rest Periods

were introduced without conditions which brought the productivity to the previous level.

Mayo said that the nature of work being monotonous, work condition being noisy and work

duration being long, the workers are suffering from fatigue and witnessing melancholic or

pessimistic reveries. The workers were not able to interact with each other and were not able

to enjoy the social or optimistic reveries. The introduction of Rest Pauses enabled the

workers to interact with each other and able to adjust to the boredom of the work. It also

relieved their fatigue. Because of this the absenteeism stopped and the workers were able to

concentrate on work.

2. Western Electrical Plant was a well-developed, profit making organization. It witnessed

similar problems. The organization responded in a usual manner by employing Engineer

Managers. It failed miserably. So, the organization initiated some studies.

a. Illumination Experiment- Under this experiment, the very aim was to understand the co-relation between the physical condition of the work and productivity. In this experiment, the

effort was to understand the effect of lightning on the productivity.

Two teams were created and each team comprised of six females workers. In the beginning,

the level of lighting was maintained at a constant level. The workers were allowed to work

under a particular level of lighting for a particular time so that they were able to acclimatize

themselves with that level of lighting. After a period of time, in the context of one of the

teams, the level of lighting was gradually increased. Interestingly, as the lighting was

gradually increased, the productivity also increased simultaneously. After reaching a point,

the level of light was gradually decreased. As, the level of lighting was reduced, the

productivity increased. The productivity went on increasing till the level when the lightingbecame so dim that the workers were not able to see at all.

With the other team, the level of lighting was maintained at a constant level. Interestingly, the

productivity with the second group also increased. By this time, Mayo joined the experiment.

Mayo and his team started with a new experiment called as Assembly Relay Test Room

Experiment.

Under this study, Mayo selected six female workers. In this study, gradually numbers of

incentives were provided. They were provided with shorter work hours, bonuses, rest periods,

refreshments etc. While, these incentives were being provided, the productivity went on

increasing. After a point of time, these incentives were gradually withdrawn. As the

incentives were being withdrawn, the productivity was increasing.Subsequently, Mayo came out with an explanation to explain these findings. The reason for

the increase in productivity is social and psychological. Thus, the reason is human and not

mechanical in nature. The workers are aware that they are being observed and are part of an

experimental team. This is giving them a sense of importance and recognition. Here, the

supervisor

synergy pub ad class notes

Documents