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SyncretismFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Syncretism (/ˈsɪŋkrәtɪzәm/) is the combining of different, often contradictory beliefs, while blendingpractices of various schools of thought. Syncretism involves the merger and analogizing of severaloriginally discrete traditions, especially in the theology and mythology of religion, thus asserting anunderlying unity and allowing for an inclusive approach to other faiths. Syncretism also occurscommonly in expressions of arts and culture (known as eclecticism) as well as politics (syncreticpolitics).

Contents

1 Nomenclature, orthography, and etymology

2 Social and political roles

3 Religious syncretism

3.1 Ancient Greece

3.2 Ancient Rome

3.3 Bahá'í

3.4 Barghawata

3.5 Buddhism

3.6 Caribbean religions and cultures

3.7 Christianity

3.7.1 Mormonism

3.8 Druze religion

3.9 Indian religions

3.10 Islam

3.11 Judaism

3.12 Other modern syncretic religions

4 Cultures and societies

4.1 During the Enlightenment

5 See also

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6 Notes

7 Further reading

Nomenclature, orthography, and etymology

The Oxford English Dictionary first attests the word syncretism in English in 1618. It derives frommodern Latin syncretismus, drawing on Greek συγκρητισμός (synkretismos), meaning "Cretanfederation".

The Greek word occurs in Plutarch's (1st century AD) essay on "Fraternal Love" in his Moralia(2.490b). He cites the example of the Cretans, who compromised and reconciled their differences andcame together in alliance when faced with external dangers. "And that is their so­called Syncretism".

Erasmus probably coined the modern usage of the Latin word in his Adagia ("Adages"), published in thewinter of 1517–1518, to designate the coherence of dissenters in spite of their differences in theologicalopinions. In a letter to Melanchthon of April 22, 1519, Erasmus specifically adduced the Cretans ofPlutarch as an example of his adage "Concord is a mighty rampart".

Social and political roles

Overt syncretism in folk belief may show cultural acceptance of an alien or previous tradition, but the"other" cult may survive or infiltrate without authorized syncresis nevertheless. For example, someConversos developed a sort of cult for martyr­victims of the Spanish Inquisition, thus incorporatingelements of Catholicism while resisting it.

Some religious movements have embraced overt syncretism, such as the case of melding Shintō beliefsinto Buddhism or the amalgamation of Germanic and Celtic pagan views into Christianity during itsspread into Gaul, the British Isles, Germany, and Scandinavia. Indian influences are seen in the practiceof Shi'i Islam in Trinidad. Others have strongly rejected it as devaluing and compromising precious andgenuine distinctions; examples of this include post­Exile Second Temple Judaism, Islam, and most ofProtestant Christianity.

Syncretism tends to facilitate coexistence and unity between otherwise different cultures and worldviews(intercultural competence), a factor that has recommended it to rulers of multi­ethnic realms.Conversely, the rejection of syncretism, usually in the name of "piety" and "orthodoxy", may help togenerate, bolster or authenticate a sense of uncompromised cultural unity in a well­defined minority ormajority.

Religious syncretism

Religious syncretism exhibits blending of two or more religious belief systems into a new system, or theincorporation into a religious tradition of beliefs from unrelated traditions. This can occur for manyreasons, and the latter scenario happens quite commonly in areas where multiple religious traditionsexist in proximity and function actively in the culture, or when a culture is conquered, and theconquerors bring their religious beliefs with them, but do not succeed in entirely eradicating the oldbeliefs or, especially, practices.

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Religions may have syncretic elements to their beliefs or history, but adherents of so­labeled systemsoften frown on applying the label, especially adherents who belong to "revealed" religious systems, suchas the Abrahamic religions, or any system that exhibits an exclusivist approach. Such adherentssometimes see syncretism as a betrayal of their pure truth. By this reasoning, adding an incompatiblebelief corrupts the original religion, rendering it no longer true. Indeed, critics of a specific syncretistictrend may sometimes use the word "syncretism" as a disparaging epithet, as a charge implying that thosewho seek to incorporate a new view, belief, or practice into a religious system actually distort theoriginal faith. Non­exclusivist systems of belief, on the other hand, may feel quite free to incorporateother traditions into their own. Others state that the term syncretism is an elusive one,[1] and can beapplied to refer to substitution or modification of the central elements of a dominant religion by beliefsor practices introduced from somewhere else. The consequence under this definition, according to KeithFerdinando, is a fatal compromise of the dominant religion's integrity.

In modern secular society, religious innovators sometimes create new religions syncretically as amechanism to reduce inter­religious tension and enmity, often with the effect of offending the originalreligions in question. Such religions, however, do maintain some appeal to a less exclusivist audience.Discussions of some of these blended religions appear in the individual sections below.

Ancient Greece

Classical Athens was exclusive in matters of religion. The Decree of Diopeithes made the introductionof and belief in foreign gods a criminal offence and only Greeks were allowed to worship in Atheniantemples and festivals as foreigners were considered impure.

On the other hand, Athens imported many foreign cults, including those of Cybele and the Thraciangoddess Bendis, and in some cases this involved a merging of identities: for example, Heracles, who hadtraditionally been regarded as a mortal hero, began here and elsewhere in the Aegean world to beidentified as a divine (Olympian) figure, perhaps under the influence of Eastern counterparts like theTyrian Melqart.

Syncretism functioned as a feature of Hellenistic Ancient Greek religion, although only outside ofGreece. Overall, Hellenistic culture in the age that followed Alexander the Great itself showed syncretistfeatures, essentially blending of Mesopotamian, Persian, Anatolian, Egyptian (and eventuallyEtruscan–Roman) elements within an Hellenic formula. The Egyptian god Amun developed as theHellenized Zeus Ammon after Alexander the Great went into the desert to seek out Amun's oracle atSiwa.[2][3]

Such identifications derive from interpretatio graeca, the Hellenic habit of identifying gods of disparatemythologies with their own. When the proto­Greeks (peoples whose language would evolve into Greekproper) first arrived in the Aegean and on the mainland of modern­day Greece early in the 2ndmillennium BCE, they found localized nymphs and divinities already connected with every importantfeature of the landscape: mountain, cave, grove and spring all had their own locally venerated deity. Thecountless epithets of the Olympian gods reflect their syncretic identification with these various figures.One defines "Zeus Molossos" (worshipped only at Dodona) as "the god identical to Zeus as worshippedby the Molossians at Dodona". Much of the apparently arbitrary and trivial mythic fabling results fromlater mythographers' attempts to explain these obscure epithets.

Ancient Rome

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The Romans, identifying themselves as common heirs to a very similar civilization, identified Greekdeities with similar figures in the Etruscan­Roman tradition, though without usually copying cultpractices. (For details, see Interpretatio graeca.) Syncretic gods of the Hellenistic period found also widefavor in Rome: Serapis, Isis and Mithras, for example. Cybele as worshipped in Rome essentiallyrepresented a syncretic East Mediterranean goddess. The Romans imported the Greek god Dionysus intoRome, where he merged with the Latin mead god Liber, and converted the Anatolian Sabazios into theRoman Sabazius.

The degree of correspondence varied: Jupiter makes perhaps a better match for Zeus than the ruralhuntress Diana does for the feared Artemis. Ares does not quite match Mars. The Romans physicallyimported the Anatolian goddess Cybele into Rome from her Anatolian cult­center Pessinos in the formof her original aniconic archaic stone idol; they identified her as Magna Mater and gave her a matronly,iconic image developed in Hellenistic Pergamum.

Likewise, when the Romans encountered Celts and Germanic peoples, they mingled these peoples' godswith their own, creating Sulis Minerva, Apollo Sucellos (Apollo the Good Smiter) and Mars Thingsus(Mars of the war­assembly), among many others. In the Germania, the Roman historian Tacitus speaksof Germanic worshippers of Hercules and Mercury; most modern scholars tentatively identify Herculesas Thor and Mercury as Odin.

Romans were familiar with the concept of syncretism because from their earliest times they hadexperienced it with, among others, the Greeks. The Romans incorporated the originally Greek Apolloand Hercules into their religion. They did not look at the religious aspects that they adopted from othercultures to be different or less meaningful from religious aspects that were Roman in origin. The earlyRoman acceptance of other cultures religions into their own made it easy for them to integrate the newlyencountered religions they found as a result of their expansion.[4]

Bahá'í

The Bahá'ís follow Bahá'u'lláh, a prophet whom they consider a successor to Muhammad, Jesus, Moses,Buddha, Zoroaster, Krishna and Abraham. This acceptance of other religious founders has encouragedsome to regard the Bahá'í religion as a syncretic faith. However, Bahá'ís and the Bahá'í writingsexplicitly reject this view. Bahá'ís consider Bahá'u'lláh's revelation an independent, though related,revelation from God. Its relationship to previous dispensations is seen as analogous to the relationship ofChristianity to Judaism. They regard beliefs held in common as evidence of truth, progressively revealedby God throughout human history, and culminating in (at present) the Bahá'í revelation. Bahá'ís havetheir own sacred scripture, interpretations, laws and practices that, for Bahá'ís, supersede those of otherfaiths.[5][6]

Barghawata

The Barghawata kingdom of Morocco followed a syncretic religion inspired by Islam (perhapsinfluenced by Judaism) with elements of Sunni, Shi'ite and Kharijite Islam, mixed with astrological andheathen traditions. Supposedly, they had their own Qur'an in the Berber language comprising 80 surasunder the leadership of the second ruler of the dynasty Salih ibn Tarif who had taken part in the Maysarauprising. He proclaimed himself a prophet. He also claimed to be the final Mahdi of Islamic tradition,and that Isa (Jesus) would be his companion and pray behind him.

Buddhism

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Buddhism has syncretized with many traditional beliefs in East Asian societies as it was seen ascompatible with local religions. The most notable syncretization of Buddhism with local beliefs is theThree Teachings, or Triple Religion, that harmonizes Mahayana Buddhism with Confucian philosophyand elements of Taoism.[7] The religious beliefs, practices, and identities of East Asians (who comprisethe majority of the world's Buddhists by any measure) often blend Buddhism with other traditionsincluding Confucianism, the Chinese folk religion, Taoism, Shinto, and Koreanshamanism.[8][9][10][11][12][13] Before and during World War II, a Nichiren Shōshū priest named JimonOgasawara proposed the blending of Nichiren Buddhism with Shinto.[14]

Caribbean religions and cultures

The process of syncretism in the Caribbean region often forms a part of cultural creolization. (Thetechnical term "Creole" may apply to anyone born and raised in the region, regardless of ethnicity.) Theshared histories of the Caribbean islands include long periods of European Imperialism (mainly bySpain, France, and Great Britain) and the importation of African slaves (primarily from Central andWestern Africa). The influences of each of the above interacted in varying degrees on the islands,producing the fabric of society that exists today in the Caribbean.

The Rastafari movement, founded in Jamaica, syncretizes vigorously, mixing elements from the Bible,Marcus Garvey's Pan Africanism movement, a text from the European grimoire tradition the Sixth andSeventh Books of Moses, Hinduism, and Caribbean culture.

Another highly syncretic religion of the area, vodou, combines elements of Western African, nativeCaribbean, and Christian (especially Roman Catholic) beliefs.

See the modern section for other Caribbean syncretisms.

Christianity

Gnosticism is identified as an early form of syncretism that challenged the beliefs of early Christians.Gnostic dualism posited that only spiritual or invisible things were good, and that material or visiblethings were evil. Orthodox Christians have always insisted that matter is essentially good, since, as theybelieve, God created all things, both spiritual and material,[15] and said that it was "very good".[16]Simon Magus appears as one of the early proponents of Gnosticism, and is considered by some as one ofits founders. He was denounced by many Church authorities, including Peter himself, and is regarded bysome as the source of all heresies.

In the first few centuries after the death and resurrection of Jesus, there were various competing "Jesusmovements". The Roman emperors used syncretism to help unite the expanding empire.[17] Socialconversion to Christianity happened all over Europe. It became even more effective when missionariesconcurred with established cultural traditions and interlaced them into a fundamentally Christiansynthesis.[18]

Syncretism must be distinguished from assimilation, the latter of which refers the Church's ability toincorporate into herself all that is true, good, and beautiful in the world. This idea was present in theearly Church, as we read in the Second Apology of Justin Martyr: "Whatever things were rightly saidamong all men," says Justin, "are the property of us Christians".[19] The Church has assimilated many(though not all) of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle. Augustine of Hippo is remembered for assimilatingthe ideas of Plato, while Thomas Aquinas is known for doing so with the ideas of Aristotle. In his essayon the development of Christian doctrine,[20] John Henry Newman clarified the idea of assimilation.[21]

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One can contrast Christian syncretism with contextualization or inculturation, the practice of makingChristianity relevant to a culture: Contextualisation does not address the doctrine but affects a change inthe styles or expression of worship. Although Christians often took their European music and buildingstyles into churches in other parts of the world, in a contextualization approach, they would buildchurches, sing songs, and pray in a local ethnic style. Some Jesuit missionaries adapted local systemsand images to teach Christianity, as did the Portuguese in China, the practice of which was opposed bythe Dominicans, leading to the Chinese rites controversy.

Syncretism did not play a role when Christianity split into eastern and western rites during the GreatSchism. It became involved, however, with the rifts of the Protestant Reformation, with DesideriusErasmus's readings of Plutarch. Even earlier, syncretism was a fundamental aspect of the efforts ofNeoplatonists such as Marsilio Ficino to reform the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church.[22] In1615, David Pareus of Heidelberg urged Christians to a "pious syncretism" in opposing the Antichrist,but few 17th­century Protestants discussed the compromises that might affect a reconciliation with theCatholic Church: Johann Hülsemann, Johann Georg Dorsche and Abraham Calovius (1612–85) opposedthe Lutheran Georg Calisen "Calixtus" (1586–1656) of the University of Helmstedt for his"syncretism".[23] (See: Syncretistic controversy.)

Catholicism in Central and South America has been integrated with a number of elements derived fromindigenous and slave cultures in those areas (see the Caribbean and modern sections); while manyAfrican Initiated Churches demonstrate an integration of Protestant and traditional African beliefs. InAsia the revolutionary movements of Taiping (19th­century China) and God's Army (Karen in the1990s) have blended Christianity and traditional beliefs. The Catholic Church allows some symbols andtraditions to be carried over from older belief systems, so long as they are remade to fit into a Christianworldview; syncretism of other religions with Catholicism, such as Voudun or Santería, is condemnedby the Roman Catholic Church.

Catholicism in South Korea has been syncretized with traditional Mahayana Buddhist and Confuciancustoms that form an integral part of traditional Korean culture. As a result, South Korean Catholicscontinue to practice ancestral rites and observe many Buddhist and Confucian customs andphilosophies.[24][25] The image of Our Lady of Guadalupe and the subsequent devotion to her are seen asassimilating some elements of native Mexican culture into Christianity.

The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod has created controversy by disciplining pastors for syncretismwhen they participated in multi­faith services in response to the 9/11 attacks and to the shootings atNewtown, Connecticut, on the grounds that merely sharing a worship setting with other faiths was inerror.[26]

Mormonism

In the Latter Day Saint movement, doctrine from previous dispensations as recorded in the LDS canonare considered official, though it is accepted that ancient teachings can be warped, misunderstood, or lostas a result of apostasy.[27] While it does not officially recognize doctrine from other religions, it isbelieved that truth in other sources can be identified via personal revelation.[28]

Druze religion

The Druzes integrated elements of Ismaili Islam with Gnosticism and Platonism.

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Indian religions

Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism in ancient India have made many adaptations over the millennia,assimilating elements of various diverse religious traditions. One example of this is the YogaVasistha.[29]

The Mughal emperor Akbar, who wanted to consolidate the diverse religious communities in his empire,propounded Din­i­Ilahi, a syncretic religion intended to merge the best elements of the religions of hisempire

Meivazhi (Tamil: ெமᴤவழி) is a syncretic monotheistic minority religion based in Tamil Nadu, India.Its focus is spiritual enlightenment and the conquering of death, through the teachings. Mevaizhipreaches the Oneness of essence message of all the previous major scriptures ­ particularly Hinduism,Buddhism, Islam, Judaism and Christianity ­ allowing membership regardless of creed. Meivazhi'sdisciples are thousands of people belonging once to 69 different castes of different religions being unitedas one family of Meivazhi Religion.

Islam

The Islamic mystical tradition known as Sufism appears somewhat syncretic in nature in its origins. Acommon misconception espoused by western writers with poor understanding of the Arabic languageand Sufi tradition is that it is pantheistic or monist. A better explanation is that,

"Oneness of being does not mean that the created universe is God, for God's Being isnecessary while the universe's being is merely possible, that is, subject to non­being,beginning, and ending, and it is impossible that one of these two orders of being could inany sense be the other; but rather, the created universe's act of being is derived from andsubsumed by the divine act of creation, from which it has no ontic independence and henceis only through the being of its Creator, the one true being. So Wahdat­al­Wujud or Onenessof Being entails that nothing exists except Allah, His attributes, His actions, and His rulings,while created being, as manifest to us, cannot be identified with His entity or attributes butonly with His actions and rulings: the world, as it were, is pure act, while Allah is pureBeing. In short [Wahdat­al­Wujud] is not pantheism, because the world is not Allah.Spinoza's definition in the Ethica of God as "simple substance" (pantheism properlyspeaking), has nothing to do with the experience of those who possess ma'rifa [gnosis].Rather, the world's existence is through Allah, in Arabic bi Llah, the point under the Arabicletter ba' being both a point of ontic connection and a point of demarcation...The matter isbetween Lord (Rabb), and slave who is through Lord ('abd bi Rabb)".[30]

Authoritarianist branches of Islamic theology, such as Salafism and Wahhabism reject theseunderstandings alongside traditional Islamic principles of belief or Aqeedah and stressanthropomorphism as taught by Ibn Taymiyya.[31] A belief which is completely contrary and incorrectaccording to the traditional beliefs.

Mainstream Tasawwuf does not present itself as a separate set of beliefs from the mainstream Sunnitradition; well­established traditions like Naqshbandi, Qadiri, Shadhili, and most others have alwaysbeen part and parcel of normative Islamic life. No doubt some groups in the name of Sufism, just like inany religion, do espouse theologically unorthodox positions.

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During Sufi presence in Bengal, Muslim–Hindu syncretism was a general trend, and Nabibangsha bySyed Sultan is an example of it. The book tells the lineage of the prophets of Islam. Apart from Adam,Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus Christ, the poet also describes Indian deities such as Brahma, Vishnu,Rama and Krishna.

Judaism

In Moses and Monotheism, Sigmund Freud made a case for Judaism arising out of the pre­existingmonotheism that was briefly imposed upon Egypt during the rule of Akhenaten. The Code ofHammurabi is also cited as a likely starting point for the Jewish Ten Commandments. Some scholarshold that Judaism refined its concept of monotheism and adopted features such as its eschatology,angelology and demonology through contacts with Zoroastrianism.[32][33][34]

In spite of the Jewish halakhic prohibitions on polytheism, idolatry, and associated practices (AvodahZarah), several combinations of Judaism with other religions have sprung up: Messianic Judaism,Jewish Buddhism, Nazarenism and Judeo­Paganism. Several Jewish Messiah claimants (such as JacobFrank) and the Sabbateans came to mix Kabbalistic Judaism with Christianity and Islam. Until relativelyrecently, China had a Jewish community which had adopted some Confucian practices.[35]

Other modern syncretic religions

Recently developed religious systems that exhibit marked syncretism include the African diasporicreligions Candomblé, Vodou and Santería, which analogize various Yorùbá and other African deities tothe Roman Catholic saints. Some sects of Candomblé have also incorporated Native American deities,and Umbanda combined African deities with Kardecist spiritualism.

Hoodoo is a similarly derived form of folk magic practiced by some African American communities inthe Southern United States. Other traditions of syncretic folk religion in North America includeLouisiana Voodoo as well as Pennsylvania Dutch Pow­wow, in which practitioners invoke powerthrough the Christian God.

Many historical Native American religious movements have incorporated Christian European influence,like the Native American Church, the Ghost Dance, and the religion of Handsome Lake.

Unitarian Universalism also provides an example of a modern syncretic religion. It traces its roots toUniversalist and Unitarian Christian congregations. However, modern Unitarian Universalism freelyincorporates elements from other religious and non­religious traditions, so that it no longer identifies as"Christian."

The Theosophical Society, as opposed to Theosophy, professes to go beyond being a syncreticmovement that combines deities into an elaborate Spiritual Hierarchy, and assembles evidence thatpoints to an underlying (or occult) reality of Being that is universal and interconnected, common to allspirit­matter dualities. It is maintained that this is the source of religious belief, each religion simplycasting that one reality through the prism of that particular time and in a way that is meaningful to theircircumstances.

Universal Sufism seeks the unity of all people and religions. Universal Sufis strive to "realize and spreadthe knowledge of Unity, the religion of Love, and Wisdom, so that the biases and prejudices of faithsand beliefs may, of themselves, fall away, the human heart overflow with love, and all hatred caused bydistinctions and differences be rooted out."[36]

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Wikisource has the text ofthe 1911 Encyclopædia

In Vietnam, Caodaism blends elements of Buddhism, Catholicism and Taoism.

Several Japanese new religions, such as Konkokyo and Seicho­No­Ie, are syncretistic.

The Nigerian religion Chrislam combines Christian and Islamic doctrines.

Thelema is a mixture of many different schools of belief and practice, including Hermeticism, EasternMysticism, Yoga, 19th century libertarian philosophies (i.e. Nietzsche), occultism, and the Kabbalah, aswell as ancient Egyptian and Greek religion.

Examples of strongly syncretist Romantic and modern movements with some religious elements includemysticism, occultism, Theosophical Society, modern astrology, Neopaganism, and the New Agemovement.

In China, most of the population follows syncretist religions combining Mahayana Buddhism, Taoismand elements of Confucianism. Out of all Chinese believers, approximately 85.7% adhere to Chinesetraditional religion, as many profess to be both Mahayana Buddhist and Taoist at the same time. Manyof the pagodas in China are dedicated to both Buddhist and Taoist deities.

In Réunion, the Malbars combine elements of Hinduism and Christianity.

The Unification Church, founded by religious leader Sun Myung Moon in South Korea in 1954. Itsteachings are based on the Bible, but include new interpretations not found in mainstream Judaism andChristianity and incorporates Asian traditions.[37][38]

The traditional Mun faith of the Lepcha people predates their seventh century conversion to LamaisticBuddhism. Since that time, the Lepcha have practiced it together with Buddhism. Since the arrival ofChristian missionaries in the nineteenth century, Mun traditions have been followed alongside that faithas well. The traditional religion permits incorporation of Buddha and Jesus Christ as a deities, dependingon household beliefs.[39][40][41]

Cultures and societies

Syncretism helped create possible cultural compromise. It contributed for a chance to establish beliefs,values, and customs in a place with different cultural traditions. This also allowed expansive traditions towin popular support in foreign lands.[42]

"Syncretism is often used to describe the product of the large­scale imposition of one alien culture,religion, or body of practices over another that is already present."[43]

During the Enlightenment

The modern, rational non­pejorative connotations of syncretism date from Denis Diderot's Encyclopédiearticles: Eclecticisme and Syncrétistes, Hénotiques, ou Conciliateurs. Diderot portrayed syncretism asthe concordance of eclectic sources.

See also

Folk religionHermeneuticsIetsism

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Britannica articleSyncretism.

InclusivismInterfaith dialogueMultifaith spaceNew religious movementReligious pluralismSheilaism

Notes1. http://www.missiology.org.uk/pdf/cotterell­fs/15_ferdinando.pdf2. "Ammon (Siwa)". Livius.Org. Retrieved 9 August 2014.3. "Temple of Amun, Siwa Oasis, Egypt". SacredSites.com. Retrieved 9 August 2014.4. Scheid, John. Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods. Harvard Studies in ClassicalPhilology, Vol. 97, Greece in Rome : Influence, Integration, Resistance (1995), 15­31.

5. Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 276–277 & p.291. ISBN 1­85168­184­1.

6. Stockman, Robert (1997). The Baha'i Faith and Syncretism (http://bahai­library.com/articles/rg.syncretism.html).

7. Sanjiao: The Three Teachings. Columbia University (http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/ort/teachings.htm)8. "Chinese Cultural Studies: The Spirits of Chinese Religion". Academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu. Retrieved20 November 2011.

9. Windows on Asia – Chinese Religions (http://asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html)10. "Religions and Beliefs in China". Travelchinaguide.com. Retrieved 20 November 2011.11. "SACU Religion in China". Sacu.org. Retrieved 20 November 2011.12. "Buddhism in China". AskAsia. Retrieved 20 November 2011.13. "Buddhism And Its Spread Along The Silk Road". Globaled.org. Retrieved 20 November 2011.14. Dumoulin, Heinrich; Maraldo, John C. (1976). Buddhism in the Modern World. The University of Virginia:

Macmillan. p. 258.15. The Apostles Creed and The Nicene Creed16. Genesis1:3117. Freke, Timothy; Gandy, Peter (1999). The Jesus Mysteries. United Kingdom: Harmony. ISBN 0609807986.18. Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross­Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre­Modern Times (New

York: Oxford University Press, 1993).19. Étienne Gilson, History of Christian Philosophy in the Middle Ages, Justin Martyr, page 1320. An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine21. "Chapter 8. Application of the Third Note of a True Development—Assimilative Power", An Essay on the

Development of Christian Doctrine22. Heiser, James D., Prisci Theologi and the Hermetic Reformation in the Fifteenth Century, Repristination

Press, 2011. ISBN 978­1­4610­9382­423. "Syncretism", Cyclopedia, LCMS24. Park, Chang­Won (10 June 2010). Cultural Blending in Korean Death Rites. Continuum International

Publishing Group. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978­1­4411­1749­6.25. [1] (http://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/19/world/asia/19iht­feud.2238466.html?pagewanted=1&_r=0)26. Pastor Apologizes to His Denomination for Role in Sandy Hook Interfaith Service

(http://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/08/nyregion/lutheran­pastor­explains­role­in­sandy­hook­interfaith­service.html?_r=1&), The New York Times, 7 February 2013

27. "Chapter 16: The Church of Jesus Christ in Former Times", Gospel Principles, LDS Church, 2011, pp. 87–93, archived from the original on 2014­11­12

28. "Chapter 22: Gaining Knowledge of Eternal Truths", Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Joseph Smith,LDS Church, 2007, pp. 261–70, archived from the original on 2014­11­12

29. Christopher Chapple, The concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha By Venkatesananda (https://books.google.com/books?id=fe_5bUKSaUEC&pg=PR12), 1985, pp. xii

30. Sea Without Shore: Nuh Ha Mim Keller31. no reference32. Boyce, Mary (1987). Zoroastrianism: A Shadowy but Powerful Presence in the Judaeo­Christian World.

London: William's Trust.

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33. Black, Matthew and Rowley, H. H. (eds.) (1982). Peake's Commentary on the Bible. New York: Nelson.ISBN 0­415­05147­9.

34. Duchesne­Guillemin, Jacques (1988). "Zoroastrianism". Encyclopedia Americana 29. Danbury: Grolier.pp. 813–815.

35. www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/israel/losttribes3.html#chiang(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/israel/losttribes3.html#chiang)

36. Hazrat Pir­o­Murshid Inayat Khan, The 3 Objects of the Sufi Movement(https://web.archive.org/web/20071227021948/http://www.ruhaniat.org/readings/3Objects.php) at theWayback Machine (archived December 27, 2007), Sufi Ruhaniat International (1956–2006).

37. George D. Chryssides, "Unificationism: A study in religious syncretism", Chapter 14 in Religion: empiricalstudies, Editor: Steven Sutcliffe, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2004, ISBN 0­7546­4158­9, ISBN 978­0­7546­4158­2

38. Religious Requirements and Practices of Certain Selected Groups: A Handbook for Chaplains, By U. S.Department of the Army, Published by The Minerva Group, Inc., 2001, ISBN 0­89875­607­3, ISBN 978­0­89875­607­4, page 1–42. Google books listing (https://books.google.com/books?id=6gDQfnMUI6gC)

39. Hamlet Bareh, ed. (2001). "Encyclopaedia of North­East India: Sikkim". Encyclopaedia of North­East India7. Mittal Publications: 284–86. ISBN 8170997879.

40. Torri, Davide (2010). "10. In the Shadow of the Devil. traditional patterns of Lepcha culture reinterpreted". InFabrizio Ferrari. Health and Religious Rituals in South Asia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 149–156.ISBN 1136846298.

41. Barbara A. West, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Facts on File library of worldhistory. Infobase Publishing. p. 462. ISBN 1438119135.

42. Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross­Cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre­Modern Times (NewYork: Oxford University Press, 1993), viii.

43. Peter J. Claus and Margaret A. Mills, South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia: (Garland Publishing, Inc.,2003).

Further reading

Cotter, John (1990). The New Age and Syncretism, in the World and in the Church. Long Prairie,Minn.: Neumann Press. 38 p. N.B.: The approach to the issue is from a conservative RomanCatholic position. ISBN 0­911845­20­8

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