sweke et al. 2016_comparative job satisfaction of fishers in northeast hokkaido, japan

1. Comparative job satisfaction of shers in northeast Hokkaido, Japan for coastal sheries management and aquaculture development Emmanuel A. Sweke a, b, * , Yumi Kobayashi a , Mitsutaku Makino c , Yasunori Sakurai d a Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3e1e1 Minatoecho, Hakodate 041e8611 Japan b Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute, P. O. Box 90, Kigoma, Tanzania c National Research Institute of Fisheries Sciences, Fisheries Research Agency, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan d Faculty of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido University, 3e1e1 Minatoecho, Hakodate 041e8611 Japan a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 25 July 2015 Received in revised form 13 November 2015 Accepted 6 December 2015 Available online xxx Keywords: Fishing Hokkaido Job satisfaction Traditional sheries Fisheries management a b s t r a c t To foster future research directions and propose feasible adaptive management strategies, the factors affecting job satisfaction were examined in Akkeshi and Erimo, two local shing communities in northeast Hokkaido, Japan, using historical sheries data and semiestructured questionnaires. Fishers in Akkeshi practice mixed sheries (capture and aquaculture), whereas in Erimo shers specialize in capture sheries. The target species for sheries and aquaculture are kelp (Laminaria angustata), chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) and oysters (Crassostrea gigas) in Akkeshi, and kelp and chum salmon in Erimo. The shers in both areas were moderately satised with their jobs, but shers in Erimo were more satised than those in Akkeshi. Satisfaction was directly associated with household size in Akkeshi and Erimo, and was high for shers practicing oyster aquaculture in Akkeshi. Most shers (79% in Akkeshi and 84% in Erimo) were unaware of any future target species if the current species declined or went extinct. About 14% of the respondents in Akkeshi mentioned oyster farming as their best alternative in the future. Differences in job satisfaction between the two areas may be attributed to disparities in socio eeconomic factors and shery types among shers. Further comprehensive studies that include allocation of shing effort among different species, and impacts of climate variability and anthropogenic factors on the resources are required. 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Fisheries are complex socialeecological systems that are managed by addressing problems related not only to the resources themselves but to the people targeting them (Hilborn, 2007). Fishing has contributed to the collapse of several sh stocks (Karpov et al., 2000; Myers et al.,1997), reduced biological diversity (Akpalu and Bitew, 2011; Rochet and Benoit, 2012; Smith et al., 1991; Tudela, 2004), and led to the loss of ways of life based on history and culture (Mills et al., 2011; Urquhart et al., 2013). Fish- eries resources have been successfully managed by sharing re- sponsibilities between governmental institutions and groups of resource users, i.e, sheries coemanagement (Makino et al., 2009; Persoon et al., 2005). The rationales behind the management include improved management and utilization of resources through the use of local knowledge, and collective participation by owners in decisionemaking. In Japan, young people seem to prefer jobs in elds other than sheries. A recent study by Kunimitsu (2014) reported that job opportunities and gross regional production inuenced the satisfaction of residents in Japan. Other studies also have associated satisfaction with individual attributes including age (Blanchower and Oswald, 2004), gender (Mroczek and Kolarz, 1998), and occupation (Tsutsui, 2010). Pollnac et al. (2001) showed that shing is connected to traditions, and pleasurable aspects of the occupation, including the beauty of the sea and being one's own boss, are key factors that attribute to shing satisfaction. Because of limited alternative occupations, shers tend to be unwilling to change occupations (Pollnac and Poggie, 2006, 1988) and they are likely to recommend shing to the next generation (Pollnac et al., 2001) regardless of their shing satisfaction level. On the other hand, limited sheries resources can encourage the * Corresponding author. Graduate School of Fisheries Sciences, Hokkaido Uni- versity, 3e1e1 Minatoecho, Hakodate 041e8611 Japan. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (E.A. Sweke), [email protected] (Y. Kobayashi), [email protected] (M. Makino), [email protected] (Y. Sakurai). Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Ocean & Coastal Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ocecoaman http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2015.12.001 0964-5691/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Ocean & Coastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179

2. sustainable management of the resources (Duarte, 2000; Gaspare et al., 2015; Matsuda et al., 2009) and maximize job satisfaction among shers. Differences in satisfaction between types of sheries may imply disparities in management (Pollnac et al., 2014) and outputs common with many multiespecies sheries (Bene and Tewk, 2001; Gourguet et al., 2014; Hilborn and Ovando, 2014). Thus, low job satisfaction among shers can be a key indicator of production constraints in sheries and call attention to the poor prospects for the future wellbeing of the shers and of the community as whole. To protect and enhance the resources and services they provide to the local communities e which include food, cultural aspects and tourism e the challenges faced by shers need to be holistically tackled in a timely manner. Therefore, understanding the levels of job satisfaction among shers and the reasons for dissatisfaction will assist institutions in advocating future studies, reviewing the management strategies in place and formulating feasible adaptive management policies for the resources (Pollnac and Poggie, 1988). Despite the substantial contributions that the shing industry makes to the local economies, food security and culture of many communities around Japan, job satisfaction of shers has not been well studied. The purpose of this study was to examine shing satisfaction among traditional shers. To achieve this goal we rst assessed the historical variations in species catch and income, and explored preconceived factors attributing to shing satisfaction or dissatisfaction. To compare and contrast the results, we used two local shing communities, namely Akkeshi and Erimo, where shers practice mixed sheries (capture and aquaculture) in the former and capture sheries in the latter. The paper also examines the current sources of shing capital and the reasons certain species are targeted ahead of others. Finally, with an assumption that species catch compositions are subject to change, as exemplied by substantial falls in catches of several species, Pacic herring (Clupea pallasii) for instance, the paper presents future potential target species and examines shers' willingness to look for other occupations during periods of catch and income instability. 2. Methods 2.1. Description of the study areas Akkeshi and Erimo are in northeast Hokkaido, Japan, at 43030 N 144510 E and 42040 N 143090 E, respectively (Fig. 1). Fishers in these areas engage in a variety of sheries and target a wide range of species. Akkeshi is known for oyster (Crassostrea gigas) farming (Kasim and Mukai, 2009), whereas Erimo is renowned for pro- ducing one of the more expensive kelp species (Laminaria angustata). In 2015, the numbers of shers in Akkeshi and Erimo were 517 and 748 constituting about 10% and 14% of the total population, respectively. For the past 20 years (1990e2010) the human population and numbers of shers have declined by about 24% and 38% in Akkeshi, and 23% and 22% in Erimo, respectively. During this period, the 0e19eyeareold and 20e59eyeareold age classes in Akkeshi declined steadily by 52% and 33%, respectively, and the 60 and abovee yeareold age class increased dramatically by 47%. Similarly, the 0e15eyeareold and 15e64eyeareold age classes fell by 50% and 26%, respectively, the 65 and aboveeyeareold increased by 32% in Erimo. The age of the respondents ranged between 20 and 90 years. The household sizes in Akkeshi and Erimo ranged from 1 to 6 and 1e7 people, respectively. 2.2. Sampling of data This study used two data sources: historical sheries data and questionnaires. Detailed descriptions of the sampling methods are provided below. 2.2.1. Fisheries cooperative associations (FCAs) During June 2013 data on catch size (tonnage) and income (Japanese yen, JYN) were collected from the local Fisheries Coop- erative Associations (FCAs) at Akkeshi (1960e2010) and at Erimo (from 1967 to 2010). The data were extracted from the cities' accumulated sheries data logs and sorted by year and species. To adjust the effect of ination on the income, we standardized the data using a consumer price index (CPI) (OECD, 2014) with year 2010 being the base year in the calculation. Thus, CPI was used to measure change in the annual price of consumer goods and services over time. The standardized income data were then converted to US$, where 1 US$ was equivalent to 105 JPY according to 2014 exchange rates. 2.2.2. Questionnaires Surveys were conducted using semiestructured questionnaires that facilitated the collection of additional information such as comments from respondents. The questions were in Japanese. To test the clarity of the questionnaires, we conducted pilot surveys of 20 people (10 from each study area) with various occupations including shers, FCAs and city halls' workers, and other locals during March 2014. The pilot questionnaires had 62 questions categorized into four sections, namely sheries operation history, occupation and income, alternative economic activities to sheries, and sustainability. Information on respondents' age, gender, and family size were not included in the 62 preementioned questions. The nal questionnaires were restructured, and the number of questions was reduced to 40. Additionally, for multipleeresponse questions, we asked respondents to indicate main and minor op- tions. The answers to job satisfaction and likelihood to look for other occupations questions ranged on a 1etoe5 scale from extremely dissatised to extremely satised and extremely unlikely to extremely likely, respectively. Surveys were randomly performed at sh markets where respondents brought their landings for sale, landing sites (returning from shing or repairing shing gear) and at residences during April 2014 to April 2015. To be consistent and ensure quality of information, only one trained and experienced researcher was involved throughout the survey. In Akkeshi, 100 people including noneshers were surveyed. In Erimo, 100 questionnaires were sent to local sheries cooperative associations (FCAs) who then distributed them to shers. A total of 34 completed questionnaires were returned in Erimo. In addition, we conducted another 58 surveys to make a total of 92 completed questionnaires. The reasons for the low return rate of the questionnaires from Erimo were thought to include respondents not being willing to participate in the survey (Lck, 2015), insufcient followeup by the FCA staff, and inclusion of too many questions in the questionnaires. 2.3. Analysis The data were sorted and analyzed using the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 20. Descriptive analyses including crosstabs and multivariate responses were carried out to calculate and compare mean job satisfaction using demographic variables, particularly gender, age, target species and sources of shing capital among shers. The percentage and frequency dis- tributions of the demographic factors: shers' gender, household size, age and years of shing experience were calculated. The same procedure was performed for the sources of shing capital, reasons for targeting various species, shers' pride in their occupation, reasons for dissatisfaction and the potential future target species. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179 171

3. We also performed correlations (Phi) between the demographic variables and shers' levels of job satisfaction and pride in their occupations. In the analysis, we omitted questions that had few responses, for instance, occupations that shers were likely to engage in after quitting shing. All statistical tests were considered signicant at the 0.05 signicance level. 2.4. Ethical considerations Participation of the survey respondents solely depended upon their willingness. Generally, most of the encountered respondents were welcoming and willing to participate in the surveys. However, a few shers declined to be surveyed. We excluded questions that seemed sensitive and that could have precluded respondents from answering other questions. Such questions included income earned from respondents' occupations. 3. Results and discussion 3.1. Annual trends of species catch and income Fig. 2 shows the annual catches of 14 main target species in Akkeshi and Erimo. The catches and incomes peaked between 1967 and 1974 in Akkeshi, and in 2007 in Erimo. Fluctuations in historical sh harvests and income were evident for a number of species (especially in Akkeshi) with kelp being the dominant species in both areas. For instance, Pacic herring (C. pallasii) largely contributed to catch and income during the 1950s, but fell sub- stantially in the late 1960s and its recovery has been slow despite a stock enhancement program where hatchery reared ngerlings are released into the ocean (Kitada et al., 2009; Sugaya et al., 2008). Likewise, chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta), trout and Walleye pollock have declined remarkably since the late 1980s. The causes for these declines are not well understood, but overexploitation (Cushing, 1973; Sugaya et al., 2008; Watanabe et al., 2008) and climate change such as regime shifts in the marine environment (Sakurai, 2007) have been cited as attributing factors. However, we noticed the recovery of some species such as farmed oysters, and shrimp in Akkeshi, and whelks in both Akkeshi and Erimo. 3.2. Demographic characteristics Households were larger in Erimo than in Akkeshi (Table 1). The majority of the respondents were males (85%, n 159). About 42% of the respondents' households in Erimo had 1etoe3 people, whereas in Akkeshi about 52% of the households were composed of 2etoe3 people. Furthermore, respondents were older in Akkeshi than in Erimo. About 34% of the respondents in the former were 70 years old and above, whereas the same class comprised only 5% in Erimo. The 60e70 year age class was the mode class comprising 35% and 36% of the entire surveyed populations in Akkeshi and Erimo, respectively. While shers' age was directly and signicantly related to household size (Phi 0.443, n 145, p0.001), it was weakly and insignicantly related to gender (Phi 0.157, n 156, p 0.278). There was no signicant relationship between gender with household size (Phi 0.090, n 145, p 0.553), and years of shing (Phi 0.098, n 156, p 0.685). Small household sizes conrms the shrinkage of the human population in the study areas, and in Japan at large (Kaneko et al., 1993; National Institute of Population and Social Security Research, 2012) suggesting that sheries might be confronted with a lack of manpower. Aged or more experienced shers seemed to be concerned about declines in catches and income, particularly in recent years. That is to say, shers tend to compare outputs from sheries based on their experiences and memories. 3.3. Sources of capital, and reasons for targeting main species About 73% (n 156) of respondents in each area inherited shing capital from their parents (Table 2). The second most common source of capital in both areas was personal savings. While joint ventures ranked third in Erimo (12%), it ranked fourth similar to own moneyeandejoint ventures in Akkeshi. The percent distribution of target species showed that kelp was harvested by a majority of the respondents in Akkeshi (n 77, 69%) and Erimo (n 74, 78%). Oysters (n 21, 26%) in Akkeshi and salmon (n 12, 16%) in Erimo were the second most common target species after kelp (Table 3). Male shers in Akkeshi (n 66) were involved in kelp harvesting (68%), salmon shing (5%), and Fig. 1. Map showing the study areas, Akkeshi and Erimo in the northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179172

4. oyster farming (27%). On the other hand, for female respondents, about 73% in Akkeshi and 92% in Erimo targeted kelp, and the remaining 27% and 8% practiced oyster farming and targeted other species in the former and latter areas, respectively. It was found that 90% (n 83) of Akkeshi's and 59% (n 72) of Erimo's respondents target the current species simply because they inherited shing rights from their parents. Other reasons for harvesting the current target species in Erimo were catch stability (20%), high catches (8%), and low manpower demand (6%). 3.4. Factors affecting job satisfaction of shers Fishers in Akkeshi (satisfaction mean 3.08, n 84) were less satised than their counterparts in Erimo (mean 3.37, n 71). The relationships between job satisfaction and the attributing factors are shown in Table 4. Females were more satised (mean 3.36, n 11) than males (mean 3.04, n 73) in Akkeshi, whereas in Erimo males were more satised (mean 3.44, n 59) than females (mean 3.00, n 12) (Fig. 3a). The satisfaction degree in Akkeshi varied more widely than in Erimo, particularly for males. The differences could be explained by uctuations in the outputs of target species in Akkeshi, and that females tend to target fewer species, namely kelp and oysters. Young respondents indicated higher levels of satisfaction than old respondents in Akkeshi, whereas in Erimo, there were only small differences in satisfaction between shers' age groups (Fig. 3b). Thus, the young (20e40 years) and middle (40e60 years) age classes in Erimo were more satised than those in Akkeshi, and vice versa for highly aged shers (60e80 years). The shing experience of the respondents was weakly correlated to satisfaction (Table 4). Both less experienced (1e10 years) and well experienced (over 30 years) respondents showed relatively lower satisfaction than moderately experienced ones (10e30 years) (Fig. 3c). Young Fig. 2. Annual catch and income of main target species taxa in the study areas, Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Table 1 Demographic characteristics of the respondents in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Variable Area Akkeshi Erimo Total n % n % n % Gender Male 73 87 63 84 136 85 Female 11 13 12 16 23 15 Total 84 100 75 100 159 100 Household size 1 1 1 5 8 6 4 2 21 27 12 18 33 23 3 19 25 11 16 30 21 4 14 18 17 25 31 21 5 15 19 12 18 27 19 6 8 10 5 8 13 9 7 0 0 5 8 5 3 Total 78 100 67 100 145 100 Age (years) 20e30 1 1 5 7 6 4 30e40 1 1 6 8 7 5 40e50 12 14 12 16 24 15 50e60 12 14 19 26 31 20 60e70 29 35 26 36 55 35 70e80 20 23 3 4 23 15 80e90 9 11 1 1 10 6 Total 84 100 72 100 156 100 Fishing experience (years) 1e5 0 0 2 3 2 1 5e10 2 3 4 6 6 4 10e20 5 6 7 9 12 8 20e30 15 18 16 21 31 20 Over 30 60 73 45 61 105 67 Total 82 100 74 100 156 100 E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179 173

5. shers were more satised because they don't put into account the capital invested by their parents. Likewise, young shers have less time invested in shing (Pollnac et al., 2012) and are more passionate to learn and adapt to other nonesheries related jobs compared to older more experienced shers. Our ndings contrast to those of Pollnac et al. (2012) who found that young inexperi- enced shers are less satised compared to experienced shers. The high satisfaction level of young shers, particularly in Akkeshi, might be because oyster farming is more protable than capture sheries. Also, young shers are likely to maximize sh catches by targeting offshore species, for instance chum salmon, that are in high demand and economically important. Fig. 3d shows the shers' job satisfaction levels between household sizes. A signicant positive association was found between satisfaction and household size in both Akkeshi and Erimo, and the relationship was stronger in Akkeshi than in Erimo (Table 4). This result suggests that shers with large households may have sufcient manpower, and they are likely to pass on the tradition of shing to the next generations. This also might be the reason for the small differences in satisfaction levels between age groups of shers in Erimo (Fig. 3b). Satisfaction was weakly associated with the main target species in Akkeshi (Phi 0.268, n 76, p 0.243) and Erimo (Phi 0.243, n 67, p 0.138). In Akkeshi, oyster farmers were the most satised followed by kelp collectors and chum salmon shers. On the other hand, in Erimo, chum salmon shers ranked rst, followed by kelp collectors and shers of other species (Fig. 3e). While Table 2 Distribution of initial source of shing capital, current main target species and reasons for targeting in Akkeshi and Erimo, notheastern Hokkaido, Japan. Variable Area Akkeshi Erimo Total n % n % n % Main source of capital Own money 14 17 10 14 24 15 Joint venture 2 2 9 12 11 7 Bank loan 3 4 1 1 4 3 Parent or relative 59 73 52 73 111 72 Own and joint venture 2 2 0 0 2 1 Others 2 2 2 3 4 3 Total 82 100 74 100 156 100 Main species Kelp 53 64 58 78 111 71 Salmon 3 4 12 16 15 10 Whelk 0 0 1 1 1 0 Oyster 21 26 0 0 21 13 2 or more 5 6 1 1 6 4 Sea urchin 0 0 1 1 1 0 Others 0 0 2 3 2 1 Total 82 100 75 100 157 100 Reason for targeting High catch 1 1 6 8 7 5 Good price 1 1 0 0 1 0 Stable catch 2 2 14 20 16 10 Low manpower demand 3 5 4 6 7 5 Inherited 75 90 42 59 117 76 2 or more 1 1 2 3 3 2 Others 0 0 3 4 3 2 Total 83 100 71 100 154 100 Table 3 Percent distribution of age of respondents in relation to main target species in shing areas in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Area Age (years) Species Kelp Salmon Oyster Others Total n % n % n % n % n % Akkeshi 20e40 1 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 100 40e60 11 48 2 9 10 43 0 0 23 100 60e80 36 80 1 2 8 18 0 0 45 100 80 5 62 0 0 3 38 0 0 8 100 Erimo 20e40 5 50 4 40 0 0 1 10 10 100 40e60 29 94 2 6 0 0 0 0 31 100 60e80 21 72 5 17 0 0 3 10 29 100 80 1 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 100 Table 4 Correlations (Phi) between occupation satisfaction and selected independent variables in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Area Gender Age Experience Household size Akkeshi Phi 0.098 0.260 0.371 0.417 n 84 84 82 78 p 0.665 0.490 0.790 ** Erimo Phi 0.168 0.281 0.240 0.259 n 71 69 71 64 p 0.365 0.490 0.666 * * p0.05 ** p0.01. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179174

6. a strong and signicant association was found between satisfaction and the catch contribution percentages of minor species (Phi 0.672, n 793, p0.05) in Akkeshi, the variables were insignicantly correlated (Phi 0.504, n 68, p 0.352) in Erimo. The reasons to why shers target these main species (salmon, kelp and oyster), in particular those related to traditions, i.e., inheritance from parents, were weakly and insignicantly associated with shing satisfaction in Akkeshi (Phi 0.323, n 83, p 0.122) and Erimo (Phi 0.193, n 68, p 0.770). The reasons for job dissatisfaction for shers included uctuating catch levels and low income, the physically demanding nature of the work and insufcient rest time (Fig. 4). Interestingly, enjoy- ment was not considered an important factor for dissatisfaction. About 13% of shers in Erimo had no clear reasons for their dissatisfaction with shing. The ndings about the reasons for dissatisfaction agreed with our hypothesis that shing satisfaction could be associated with uctuations in catch and income over time (Fig. 2). Most respondents (79% in Akkeshi and 84% in Erimo) said they had no idea about their future target species if the current species declined or became extinct (Fig. 5). About 14% of the respondents in Akkeshi mentioned oyster farming as their best alternative in the future. In Erimo, salmon and tuna, followed by kelp were mentioned as future potential target species. Target species might play an important role in shers' satisfaction. For instance, shers in Erimo targeting kelp and those in Akkeshi farming oysters are more satised because the species provide higher and more stable incomes compared to others. This nding agrees with the study by Pollnac et al. (2001) in Vietnam. Also this could be a reason why respondents cited oyster and kelp among the potential future target species. Satisfaction was weakly and insignicantly associated with sources of shing capital (Akkeshi: Phi 0.199, n 82, p 0.660; Erimo: Phi 0.141, n 71, p 0.841), operation costs (Akkeshi: Phi 0.193, n 81, p 0.555; Erimo: Phi 0.296, n 65, p 0.222) and income contribution (Akkeshi: Phi 0.034, n 83, p 0.760; Erimo: Phi 0.253, n 70, p 0.213). In Akkeshi, the satisfaction of shers who started shing using their own money (mean 3.14, n 14) and those who inherited their shing capital from their parents (mean 3.12, n 59) did not differ, suggesting that shers engaged in oyster farming are more likely to realize prots than shers doing capture sheries. Additionally, shing cultural values passed down from generation to generation and economic benets derived from shing had the same importance in Fig. 3. Job satisfaction level among (a) gender (b) age (c) shing experience (d) household size and (e) main target species among shers in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. The satisfaction levels denote: 1 extremely dissatised, 2 moderately dissatised, 3 neither satised nor dissatised (i.e. neutral), 4 moderately satised, and 5 extremely satised. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179 175

7. the two communities. 3.5. Fishers' likelihood to change occupation Among the demographic features, only household size was signicantly and directly related to pride in occupation in Akkeshi (Phi 0.437, n 77, p0.05). More than 60% of the respondents said they were proud of their occupation, i.e., shing, and about 90% were unlikely to switch to other occupations (Fig. 6). Fishers' like- hood to change their occupation was signicantly related to gender and age in Erimo, and target species in Akkeshi (Table 5). The reasons why shers were unlikely to change occupation were satisfaction with shing (22%), inexperience with other occupations (7%) and age (13%) (Table 6). The three factors together composed about 24% of respondents not likely to switch occupations. A previous study by Pomeroy et al. (1997) argued that shers are not prepared to change their occupations. The authors recom- mended that supplemental income generation rather than alternative occupation approaches are crucial to support shing communities. This was supported by our ndings where shers who also do other noneshing jobs were more satised compared to shers who solely depend on shing for a living. Although reducing the number of shers has been considered a sound management approach, the aging of shing communities is likely to impede the sustainability of communities that largely depend on shing to support their livelihoods. Meanwhile, the large propor- tion of respondents who were not willing to change occupations is an alarm bell to the sheries authorities that must predict resource allocation and adaptive mechanisms to support the vulnerable communities from changes in the ecosystem due to anthropogenic and climate variability inuences. Fig. 5. Distribution of responses to the question about future potential target species after distinction of the current target species in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Fig. 4. Percent distribution of responses for reasons of occupation dissatisfaction in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179176

8. 4. Conclusions We found that uctuation in catches of and income from target species affected the satisfaction of shers in the study areas (Figs. 2 and 4). Fishing satisfaction also was linked to target species (Fig. 3e) and the percent shing contributed to shers' income. The difference in satisfaction between the two areas may be attributed to disparities in the outputs of the different species harvested or the shery types (capture and aquaculture) among shers in the areas. Specialized sheries with fewer but more valuable main target species, as exemplied by Erimo, were more likely to maximize satisfaction of shers than mixed sheries with many minor Fig. 6. Percent distribution of shers' responses to questions about pride in their occupations and likelihood to change occupations in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Table 5 Correlations (Phi) between independent variables and shers' proud of shing occupation, and likelihood to look for other occupations (i.e. quit shing) in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Area Gender Age Experience Household size Species Proud Quit Proud Quit Proud Quit Proud Quit Proud Quit Akkeshi Phi 0.101 0.075 0.197 0.249 0.253 0.148 0.437 0.215 0.235 0.400 n 83 84 83 84 81 82 77 78 76 77 p 0.654 0.791 0.780 0.518 0.518 0.936 * 0.463 0.123 * Erimo Phi 0.211 0.289 0.304 0.296 0.269 0.398 0.218 0.249 0.180 0.137 n 71 72 69 69 71 71 64 64 71 68 p 0.206 * 0.383 * 0.526 0.080 0.550 0.410 0.318 0.530 * p0.05. Table 6 Distribution of reasons of shers unlikely to look for other occupations by shers' age (years) in Akkeshi and Erimo, northeastern Hokkaido, Japan. Reason Akkeshi Erimo 20e40 40e60 60e80 80 Total 20e40 40e60 60e80 80 Total 1 50.00 30.43 18.37 11.11 21.69 27.27 25.93 5.56 0.00 19.30 2 0.00 4.35 10.20 0.00 7.23 18.18 22.22 50.00 0.00 29.82 3 0.00 13.04 16.33 0.00 13.25 18.18 29.63 22.22 100.00 26.32 4 50.00 17.39 28.57 11.11 24.10 9.09 3.70 0.00 0.00 3.51 5 0.00 13.04 8.16 0.00 8.43 9.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.75 6 0.00 8.70 6.12 22.22 8.43 0.00 7.41 11.11 0.00 7.02 7 0.00 4.35 4.08 11.11 4.82 9.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.75 8 0.00 8.70 8.16 44.44 12.05 9.09 11.11 11.11 0.00 10.53 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 n 2 23 49 9 83 11 27 18 1 57 1 Satised with shing; 2 Inexperience with other occupations; 3 Age; 4 Two or more above; 5 Like to be own boss; 6 Love to sh; 7 Tradition; and 8 No idea. E.A. Sweke et al. / OceanCoastal Management 120 (2016) 170e179 177

9. species that have lower income contribution. This could also be partially attributed to the complexity of mixedesheries management previously reported in several studies (Bene and Tewk, 2001; McKelvey, 1983; Salas et al., 2004; Sanchirico et al., 2006). Another key nding is the inuence of sher household size on satisfaction in traditional sheries (Fig. 3d). The signicant relationship between satisfaction and household size might suggest that families with young people are assured of future manpower, and the passing of shing traditions to the next generations. This is related to dwindling manpower due to aging of shers (Table 1) causing worries about their endeavors and their families. The ability of shers to meet their basic needs may contribute to job satisfaction. Although some shers were not very satised with their occupation, they were unwilling to change to other occupations due to their age, inexperience and limited alternative jobs, and shing being part and parcel of their culture (Table 6). It makes sense that shers with positive attitudes towards their occupation would not want to change. This is an interesting nding that answers the question why attempts to reduce shing effort have failed in some areas, particularly in those with limited job alternatives (Pollnac et al., 2012). It should be noted that shing operations require continuous investment of time and money to buy shing boats, shing gear, storage facilities, fuel and sometimes manpower. As such, shers may not want to change to other jobs. Thus, any attempt to reduce shing effort should take into account the economic hurdles that sheries communities are likely to face. Findings about low shing satisfaction (Fig. 4) and that many shers are unaware of any potential future target species if the current species declined or went extinct (Fig. 5) could be used to improve sheries management and the wellebeing of shing communities. For informed management of the areas sheries resources, comprehensive studies that include the allocation of shing effort among different species, and the impacts of climate variability and anthropogenic factors on the resources in question are required. To maximize satisfaction and social services from the resources, we suggest enhancing stakeholder participation, i.e., communi- tyebased management of sheries resources. For instance, the extension of oyster farms to offset the dwindling capture sheries in Akkeshi should include not only oyster farmers but the whole shing community so as to avoid conicts among shers. Oyster aquaculture should give priority to attracting young people, and enhancing the culture and livelihoods of communities. This can be achieved through training young people in modern aquaculture techniques, processing (to add value) and marketing. Expansion of aquaculture production should be monitored and any environmental impacts that may arise should be promptly addressed. Also the inuence of climate change, particularly, variability in tem- perature, salinity and nutrients on oyster aquaculture need to be investigated to inform stakeholders including farmers, policy- makers and sheries managers on the best adaptive measures to be taken. Additionally, alterative occupations should be developed to reduce shing effort on coastal sheries and as an adaptive approach to support the local communities. Fishers are said to be addicted to their occupation and tend to resist dull and boring alternative occupations especially those not related to the ocean (Pollnac and Poggie, 2008). Ecoetourism ventures, such as seal watching, have the potential to supplement dwindling coastal sheries production in these areas. However, several infrastructure problems need to be resolved before the potential of the tourism sector can be realized. These include the lack of reliable trans- portation, and insufcient accommodation and associated attrac- tions such as hot spring facilities (adorable Japanese culture). To shed more light and facilitate sensible coastal sheries management and aquaculture development, we recommend further studies to integrate knowledge from shers, resources managers, biologists and socioeeconomists (Cvitanovic et al., 2015). Addi- tional studies are also needed to: examine how different coastal sheries management approaches contribute to the job satisfaction of shers; explore shing effort allocation among different species by integrating biological and socioeeconomic data: understand how effort allocation can be improved to maximize job satisfaction of shers in these areas and around the country at large. Acknowledgments This study was funded by the Japanese Ministry of the Envi- ronment through the Environmental Research and Technology Development Fund, Research No. 4e1301. The rst author ac- knowledges the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) for funding his study. Ryoutaro Okazaki is much appreciated for his help in the collection of the historical data. Yutaka Watanuki, John Richard Bower and Tony Chittenden are acknowledged for their constructive suggestions on drafts of the manuscript. 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