MIAMI UNIVERSITY

The Graduate School

Certificate for Approving the Dissertation

We hereby approve the Dissertation

of

Julie A. Swanson

Candidate for the Degree:

Doctor of Philosophy

__________________________________________

Director

Patricia K. Kerig, Ph.D.

__________________________________________

Reader

Jennifer H. Green, Ph.D.

__________________________________________

Reader

Vaishali V. Raval, Ph.D.

__________________________________________

Reader

Rose M. Ward, Ph.D.

__________________________________________

Graduate School Representative

Sally A. Lloyd, Ph.D.

ABSTRACT

PARENTAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTROL AND MUTUALLY AUTONOMOUS

RELATIONSHIPS IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD: EMOTIONAL VALENCE AS A

MODERATOR

by Julie A. Swanson

The present study tested the hypotheses that parental psychological control would be linked to

emerging adults use of relational styles characterized by a lack of mutual autonomy, and that this relationship would be moderated by the emotional valence of the parent-child relationship.

Self-report questionnaires were utilized to measure college student participants experiences of parental psychological control, their perceptions of the overall emotional valence of their

relationships with their parents, and their use of the relational styles of other-focused connection

and self-focused autonomy. The data were analyzed using structural equation modeling.

Whereas the original hypothesized model failed to adequately fit the data, modifications of the

indicators utilized to construct the dependent latent variables resulted in a model that met the

stringent fit criteria used in the present study. An overall emotional valence of parental

acceptance was found to moderate the association between experiences of parental psychological

control and emerging adults involvement in relationships characterized by a relational style of

other-focused connection. More specifically, the likelihood of the association between parental

psychological control and emerging adults use of a relational style of other-focused connection increased within the context of low and high levels of parental acceptance. Within the context of

medium levels of parental acceptance, parental psychological control and emerging adults use of a relational style of other-focused connection were not significantly related. Post-hoc analyses

indicated that the association between parental psychological control and emerging adults use of

relational styles lacking in mutual autonomy differed as a function of parent gender (maternal

psychological control versus paternal psychological control) and as a function of the type of

relationship participants reported about (friendships versus romantic relationships). The

discussion of the results focuses on interpreting the hypothesized findings as well as the

unexpected findings of the present study, limitations of the study, and future directions for

research.

PARENTAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTROL AND MUTUALLY AUTONOMOUS

RELATIONSHIPS IN EMERGING ADULTHOOD: EMOTIONAL VALENCE AS A

MODERATOR

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to the Faculty of

Miami University in partial

fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Department of Psychology

by

Julie A. Swanson

Miami University

Oxford, Ohio

2009

Dissertation Director: Patricia K. Kerig, Ph.D

Julie A. Swanson

2009

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 1

Parent-Child Boundary Dissolution ................................................................................................ 1

Parental Psychological Control........................................................................................................ 2

Mutual Autonomy............................................................................................................................. 3

Relational Styles Lacking in Mutual Autonomy ............................................................................ 4

Emotional Valence of the Parent-Child Relationship as a Moderator .......................................... 6

The Present Study ............................................................................................................................. 8

METHOD .............................................................................................................................................. 9

Participants ........................................................................................................................................ 9

Measures ........................................................................................................................................... 9

Procedure......................................................................................................................................... 14

RESULTS............................................................................................................................................ 14

Descriptive Statistics ...................................................................................................................... 14

Latent Constructs and Their Indicators ......................................................................................... 15

Model Estimation ........................................................................................................................... 16

Structural Models ........................................................................................................................... 17

Post-hoc Analyses........................................................................................................................... 19

DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................................................... 20

Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................................. 26

Conclusions and Directions for Future Research ......................................................................... 27

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................... 29

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, RANGE, AND ALPHAS FOR ALL

VARIABLES IN SEM ANALYSIS 38

Table 2 INTERCORRELATIONS .. 39

Table 3 SAMPLE DEMOGRAHPICS 40

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. PATH DIAGRAM OF ORIGINAL MODEL.. 41

Figure 2. PATH DIAGRAM OF MODIFIED MODEL . 42

Figure 3. PATH DIAGRAM OF ACCEPTANCE MODERATIONAL MODEL . 43

Figure 4. PATH DIAGRAM OF REJECTION MODERATIONAL MODEL .. 44

vi

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my advisor and mentor, Dr. Patricia K. Kerig. Without you,

Patricia, the childs dream could not have become the adults reality. In each of the roles that

you have played in my life, you have truly made me better. For that, I will always be grateful.

1

Introduction

During the transition to university life, emerging adults typically are engaged in the

process of navigating the stage-salient developmental task of forming mutually autonomous

relationships with close friends and romantic partners. Relational experiences within the family

of origin, such as parent-child boundary dissolution and the perceived emotional valence of the

parent-child relationship, likely play a role in emerging adults subsequent difficulties forming healthy relationships characterized by a balance of connection and autonomy. The potential

links between relational experiences in the family of origin and the characteristics of emerging

adults relationships during their freshman year of college were the focus of the present study. In order to set the stage for the present study, first the literature on the family of origin experiences

of parent-child boundary dissolution and parental psychological control will be reviewed

followed by a review of the literature on mutual autonomous relationships. This section also will

review the interpersonal problems and behaviors hypothesized to characterize relationships

lacking in mutual autonomy, including relational and psychological aggression and

victimization. The portion of this document that is focused on reviewing the literature will be

concluded with a description of Rohners (1986) parental acceptance-rejection theory, which will

serve as the basis for the hypothesized moderational relationships in the present study.

Parent-Child Boundary Dissolution

The presence of healthy psychological boundaries within the family has been linked to

the development of childrens optimal psychosocial functioning (e.g., Barber, 2002; Kerig, 2005; Luyckx et al., 2007; Minuchin, 1974; Rhoner, 1986). According to Minuchin (1974), families

with healthy psychological boundaries provide their members with a sense of belonging through

open communication and warm connection while at the same time granting them

developmentally appropriate permission for autonomy and individuality. The term boundary dissolution has been utilized in prior research to refer to relationships characterized by a lack of

healthy psychological boundaries.

Boundary dissolution has been defined as a complex set of phenomena involving the loss of psychological distinctiveness between individuals or the confusion of their interpersonal

roles (Kerig, 2005, p. 6). Boundary dissolution is difficult to study given that it tends to operate as a subtle affective dynamic (Peris & Emery, 2005, p.175), thus making it a challenging concept to capture empirically. Boundary dissolution also is difficult to conceptualize as it takes

a number of different forms and has been referred to by a host of labels in the literature, many of

which overlap with numerous related terms (e.g. intrusiveness and psychological control). Kerig

(2005) has delineated four forms of parent-child boundary dissolution in an effort to provide

much-needed demarcation of the construct. A theme that appears common to all four forms of

boundary dissolution is parental failure to acknowledge the psychological distinctiveness of the child (Kerig, 2005, p. 8). This conceptualization of boundary dissolution, as a failure by a

parent to grant the child his or her own psychological distinctiveness, is particularly relevant for

understanding the essential nature of the concept of parental psychological control.

2

Parental Psychological Control

The term parental psychological control refers to a particular type of parent-child

boundary dissolution (Barber, Olsen, & Shagle, 1994; Barber & Harmon, 2002; Kerig, 2005) and

has been defined as parental behaviors that are intrusive and manipulative of childrens thoughts, feelings, and attachments to parents (Barber & Harmon, 2002, p. 15). Accomplished

through parental use of such methods as guilt-induction, withdrawal of love, and emotional

abandonment if the child refuses to comply with the parents view of the world or wishes for the child, parental psychological control involves a hierarchical relationship within which the parent

strives to control the childs thoughts, opinions, and feelings (Kerig, 2005). With regard to the effects on child and adolescent outcomes, the construct of parental

psychological control has been distinguished empirically from that of parental behavioral control

(Barber, Olsen, & Shagle, 1994; Barber, 1996; Barber, Stolz, & Olsen, 2005; Pettit & Laird,

2002; Steinberg et al., 1989). Whereas parental behavioral control involves structured regulation

and monitoring of the child and adolescents behavior, parental psychological control involves

an attempt to control the childs psyche (Kerig, 2005) and refers to parental interference in the psychological autonomy of the child (Barber, 1992, p. 72). In contrast to the negative effects of parental psychological control, parental behavioral control has been found to promote healthy

child and adolescent development (Barber, 1996; Leadbeater et al., 2008).

Empirical evidence indicates links between parental use of psychologically controlling

behaviors and problems with child and adolescent functioning. With regard to childrens

functioning, parental psychologically controlling behavior has been found to correlate with low

self-esteem (Teleki et al., 1984), low self-reliance (Shulman et al., 1993), and higher levels of

internalizing and externalizing problems, including involvement in peer relationships

characterized by relational aggression and relational victimization (e.g., Morris et al., 2002;

Nelson & Crick, 2002; Olsen et al., 2002). For adolescent functioning, links have been found

between parental psychological control and poorer academic performance (Steinberg et al.,

1989), greater levels of risky sexual behavior for females (Pettit et al., 2001), higher levels of

internalizing and externalizing behaviors (e.g., Barber, 1996; Stolz, Barber, & Olsen, 2005), and

greater likelihood of using relational aggression within the context of romantic relationships

(Leadbeater et al., 2008).

Relatively less attention has been paid to the relationship between parental psychological

control and the psychosocial functioning of emerging adults. Emerging adulthood is a new and

distinct developmental period in modern industrialized societies based on shifting socio-cultural

expectations regarding the stage-salient tasks of 18 to 25-year-olds (Elliot & Feldman, 1990;

Roisman et al., 2004). One of the primary stage-salient tasks of emerging adulthood is the

formation of healthy, reciprocal relationships with both friends and romantic partners (Roisman

et al., 2004). Although little research has been conducted to investigate the link between

experiences of parental psychological control and emerging adults difficulties with stage-salient

tasks, the results of several studies suggest that further investigation is warranted. For example,

although they did not specifically investigate parental psychological control, Linder, Crick, &

Collins (2002) found a significant relationship between the experience of other forms of

boundary dissolution (e.g., enmeshment) and young adults relational aggression toward romantic partners and relational victimization by romantic partners. Similarly, Linder and

Collins (2005) found longitudinal evidence suggesting that two other forms of parent-child

boundary dissolution, spousification and parentification, were predictive of higher levels of

3

physically violent perpetration and victimization within the context of emerging adults romantic relationships.

How might the experience of parental psychological control interfere with emerging

adults capacity to form healthy relationships with peers and romantic partners? Although attachment is not specifically investigated in the present study, Bowlbys (1969; 1988) theory of

attachment is useful in considering the ways in which family of origin dynamics may play a role

in emerging adults relationships with close friends and romantic partners. According to attachment theory, through their interactions with caregivers over time, infants develop an

internal working model of relationships, or a set of beliefs and assumptions concerning the

quality of care that they can expect from other people (Cassidy, 1999). As development

continues across childhood and adolescence, this set of beliefs and assumptions, or mental

representation, is believed to generalize to subsequent relationships with significant others

outside of the family, thereby serving as a cognitive map for the individual in anticipating the behavior of others as well as in regulating the individuals own repertoire of behavioral

responses (Bretherton & Munholland, 1999). Thus, emerging adults who develop an internal

working model that is based on a familial template of maladaptive boundaries subsequently may

have difficulty forming peer and romantic relationships characterized by healthy psychological

boundaries. Emerging adults who have regularly experienced the manipulative intrusion

associated with parental psychological control may hold internal working models characterized

by negative perceptions of the self, potentially leading them to more easily become involved in

unhealthy relationships that confirm these perceptions. Alternatively, emerging adults may

instead adopt their parents controlling strategies as their own and model their parents behaviors in relationships. Therefore, emerging adults who have experienced psychologically controlling

parenting may more easily become involved in relationships lacking in mutual autonomy.

Mutual Autonomy

As noted previously, the primary stage-salient developmental task of emerging adulthood

is the formation of healthy friendships and romantic relationships (Roisman et al., 2004). Neff

and Harters (2002; 2003) conceptualization of mutual autonomy offers a particularly useful way of characterizing both competence and difficulties in emerging adults navigation of this stage-

salient task. Mutual autonomy is defined as attempts to balance concerns with the selfs and others needs and feelings and to maintain both separate space and closeness in the relationship (Neff & Harter, 2003, p. 83). Therefore, the definition implies the presence of healthy

psychological boundaries. Research suggests that, in comparison to those involved in

relationships that are constraining of autonomy or lacking in adequate reciprocity, those involved

in relationships characterized by mutual autonomy report higher levels of both psychological

health and relationship satisfaction (Neff & Harter, 2002; 2003). Neff and Harter delineate

relationships lacking in mutual autonomy into two specific relational styles, those characterized

by self-focused autonomy and those characterized by other-focused connection (Neff & Harter,

2002; 2003). In contrast to those involved in mutually autonomous relationships within which

self-other concerns tend to be balanced, evidence indicates that individuals who tend to relate to

the other with a style of self-focused autonomy as well as individuals who tend to relate to the

other with a style of other-focused connection report greater psychological distress and lower

levels of relationship satisfaction (Neff & Harter, 2002; 2003). Emerging adults use of either a

4

relational style of self-focused autonomy or a relational style of other-focused connection within

the context of either their closest friendship or romantic relationship will serve as the dependent

variables in the present study. However, although the term relational style will be used when referring to these variables, it is important to note that, in the present study, the term style is not meant to suggest a trait-like approach to all relationships regardless of the relational context.

The term relational style is utilized in the present study only as a way to reference the characteristics of the specific friendship or romantic relationship referred to by individuals when

participating in the present study.

Relational Styles Lacking in Mutual Autonomy

Neff and Harters conceptualization of both the characteristics and problems associated with self-focused autonomy and other-focused connection is reminiscent of Bakans (1966, as

cited in Kerig & Wenar, 2006) original formulation of unmitigated agency and unmitigated

communality. Similar to Neff and Harters concept of mutual autonomy, Bakan suggested that a balance between agency and communion is essential for healthy psychological functioning. Like

Neff and Harters self-focused autonomy, Bakans conceptualization of unmitigated agency suggests a problematic over-reliance on a relational style of self-centered aggressiveness. Like

Neff and Harters other-focused connection, Bakans conceptualization of unmitigated

communion suggests an over-reliance on a relational style of self-sacrificing altruism that

threatens individuation.

Other-focused connection. Neff and Harter (2002) defined the relational style of other-

focused connection as greater focus on and clarity about the others needs and feelings, a sense of oneness with ones partner, preoccupation with the relationship, and subordinance in decision-making (p. 836-837). These defining characteristics share similarities with Horowitz and

colleagues (2000) conceptualization of the typical interpersonal problems experienced by individuals who tend to over-rely on connection at the expense of autonomy. According to

Horowitz and colleagues, those who relate interpersonally with an over-emphasis on connection

also tend to over-accommodate to the needs and wants of others and to sacrifice their own needs

and wants for those of others. Those who over-emphasize connection at the expense of

autonomy typically describe themselves as excessively submissive, as easily taken advantage of,

and as too forgiving and trusting (Horowitz et al., 2000). In addition, they typically have

significant difficulty saying no to others, with being assertive, and with setting and maintaining boundaries in relationships with others (Horowitz et al, 2000).

Those who tend to utilize a relational style of other-focused connection have also been

found to be more likely to describe themselves as displaying an inauthentic or false self within

relationships (Neff & Harter, 2002). Jacks (1991) concept of self-silencing appears related to

this particular characteristic of other-focused connection. The concept of self-silencing has been

defined as the silencing of ones self-expression, vitality, and perspectives (Jack, 1991, p. 129). Silencing the self is described as outward compliance, passivity, and attempts to change

ones thoughts and to adjust ones feelings to match beliefs about how one ought to feel (Jack, 1991). The relational strategy of silencing the self may be one way in which emerging adults

who have a tendency to become involved in relationships within which they are victimized adapt

and cope in order to preserve the relationship. Jack (1991) proposes that one of the pathways

leading to the use of this extreme form of self-censoring is maltreatment during childhood. She

5

suggests that maltreated children expect negative consequences for revealing their authentic self

and that, in adulthood, these children may permanently adopt the others perspective in an

attempt to avoid the condemnation they have come to expect. Thus, the relational strategy of

silencing the self may be particularly salient with regard to the consequences for emerging adults

who have experienced parental psychological control.

Self-focused autonomy. Neff and Harter (2002) defined the relational style of self-

focused autonomy as greater focus on and clarity about the selfs needs and feelings, a sense of separateness from ones partner, a lack of attention to relationship concerns, and dominance in

decision-making (p. 836). Research findings suggest that individuals who tend to utilize a relational style of self-focused autonomy are significantly more likely to describe themselves as

dominant and as having a greater degree of power within the relationship (Neff & Harter, 2002).

These defining characteristics share similarities with Horowitz and colleagues (2000) conceptualization of the typical interpersonal problems experienced by individuals who tend to

over-rely on autonomy at the expense of connection. According to Horowitz and colleagues,

those who relate interpersonally with an over-emphasis on autonomy have a tendency to behave

in domineering and controlling ways and to take a stance of vindictiveness and self-centeredness

within relationships. Other characteristics of individuals who prioritize agency over connection

include difficulty with perspective-taking, distrust and suspiciousness of others, a tendency to

experience little concern about others wants and needs, and a tendency to manipulate others (Horowitz et al., 2000).

In addition, relational and psychological aggression were conceptualized as important

characteristics of both the relational style of other-focused connection (through victimization)

and of the relational style of self-focused autonomy (through perpetration). Because the

concepts of relational aggression and victimization and psychological aggression and

victimization are so closely related to one another, these characteristics will be discussed

separately in the following paragraphs in order to reduce redundancy.

Relational aggression. When examined closely, the constructs of parental psychological

control and of relational aggression yield a striking resemblance to one another. Relational

aggression has been defined as any behavior that causes harm by damaging relationships or

feelings of acceptance and love (Linder, Crick, & Collins, 2002, p. 70). Thus, in the same way that parental psychological control involves behaviors that are manipulative of childrens attachments to parents and threatening to childrens feelings of security in the parent-child

relationship, relational aggression involves threats to the security and stability of an individuals relationships and attachments to others. Examples of relational aggression include giving a

friend or partner the silent treatment or threatening to end the friendship or romantic relationship

if the friend or partner does not comply with ones wishes (Linder, Crick, & Collins, 2002). One way of conceptualizing the similarities between parental psychological control and

relational aggression is the notion that both types of behavior produce a conditional tone

(Nelson & Crick, 2002, p. 168) within the relationship. Thus, it makes theoretical sense, and has

been shown empirically, that childrens experiences of parental psychological control increase the likelihood of their becoming involved in peer relationships that include experiences of

relational aggression and relational victimization (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Lento, 2006; Linder,

Crick, & Collins, 2002; Nelson & Crick, 2002; Werner & Crick, 1999). Although the link

between parental psychological control and relational aggression and victimization in emerging

adults relationships has not yet been explicitly explored, Linder, Crick, & Collins (2002) found a significant relationship between the experience of other forms of boundary dissolution (e.g.,

6

enmeshment) and young adults relational aggression toward romantic partners. In addition, results of the study by Linder, Crick, & Collins (2002) revealed a significant relationship

between relational aggression and victimization in the context of romantic relationships, such

that those who tended to relationally aggress also tended to be relationally victimized. However,

other empirical evidence suggests that relational aggression and relational victimization are only

moderately correlated (Crick et al., 2001). Thus, given that the link between parental

psychological control and emerging adults involvement in relationships that include relational aggression and victimization has not been sufficiently investigated, the present study sought to

empirically demonstrate this link.

Psychological aggression. Linder, Crick, and Collins (2002) provide a succinct way of

conceptualizing the difference between psychological aggression and relational aggression with

the following statement: Whereas psychological aggression may target perceptions, thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, the target of relational aggression is always relationship, regardless of

whether the specific behaviors are verbal, non-verbal, direct, or indirect (p. 70). Psychological

(or emotional) aggression (or abuse) has been defined as acting in a verbally offending or degrading manner toward another. The mistreatment may take the form of insults or behavior

that results in making another feel guilty, upset, or worthless (Stets, 1991, p. 101). Although

the concept of psychological abuse has been studied primarily in the context of interpersonal and

social relationships characterized by power or dominance (Murphy & Cascardi, 1993), Marshall

(1994; 1996) has proposed that another way of understanding psychological abuse is to

conceptualize it as a type of communication or influence. She argues for a focus on the

examination of the content of a message, rather than the examination of specific behaviors,

suggesting that day to day, subtle messages may be more harmful than more overt acts given that

it is more difficult to defend the self when one is not being clearly attacked.

Psychological abuse has not been previously studied in relation to parental psychological

control, however, researchers have encouraged the investigation of potential links between

characteristics of the parent-child relationship and adolescents risk for involvement in psychologically abusive relationships (Wolfe and Feiring, 2000). Therefore, as with relational

aggression and victimization, the present study sought to empirically demonstrate the link

between parental psychological control and emerging adults involvement in relationships that include victimization and perpetration of psychological abuse.

When an individual does become involved in a close relationship that lacks mutual

autonomy, what factor might account for his or her involvement in relationships characterized by

other-focused connection as opposed to involvement in relationships characterized by self-

focused autonomy? Theory suggests that the overall emotional valence of the parent-child

relationship, that is, either a tone of acceptance or a tone of rejection, might account for the type

of relational style emerging adults reported using in relationships with close peers or romantic

partners (Rohner, 1986).

Emotional Valence of the Parent-Child Relationship as a Moderator

Rohners (1986) parental acceptance-rejection theory highlights the importance of the acceptance/rejection dimension of parenting in considering childrens developmental outcomes

and is helpful in conceptualizing what is meant by the emotional valence of the parent-child

relationship. Rohner defined parental acceptance as referring to the warmth, affection, and love

7

parents can give their children (1986, p. 19), whereas parental rejection is defined conceptually as the absence or significant withdrawal of warmth, affection, or love by parents toward

children (1986, p. 21). Of particular relevance to the purpose of the present study, Rohner recognized the need for future investigations of potential interactions between parental

acceptance/rejection and other dimensions of parenting behavior, especially parental control

(1986, p. 15-16). Rohner predicted that childrens experiences of parental acceptance would interact with experiences of what is essentially parental psychological control, referred to by

Rohner as intrusive parental control (p. 82). Rohner predicted that this particular interaction

would result in an extreme intensification of childrens dependency, leading to the tendency across development for these children to characteristically silence their own wants and needs and

over-accommodate to the wants and needs of others in relationships. Following from Rohners

hypothesis, the present study sought to investigate the potential associations between experiences

of parental psychological control, parental acceptance, and the quality of childrens relationships during the developmental phase of emerging adulthood.

Although prior research has not investigated the relationships among parental

psychological control, the emotional valence of the parent-child relationship, and emerging

adults relational outcomes, evidence has been found to suggest that parental acceptance may

moderate the relationship between parental psychological control and adolescent depression and

antisocial behavior (Barber, Stoltz, & Olsen, 2005). Barber and his colleagues hypothesized

unique and independent relationships between parental acceptance and adolescents social

initiative and between parental psychological control and adolescents symptoms of depression. Structural equation models supported the hypotheses, providing evidence for a significant

positive relationship between parental acceptance and adolescents social initiative as well as for

a significant positive relationship between parental psychological control and adolescents symptoms of depression. Interactions among the parenting dimensions were then investigated,

and one clear pattern was found (Barber, Stoltz, & Olsen, 2005). Parental psychological control

and parental acceptance interacted with one another such that the strongest association between

parental psychological control and adolescents antisocial behavior and, for one cohort of adolescents, symptoms of depression was found when adolescents perceived their parents as

exhibiting higher levels of acceptance. In other words, the interaction analyses suggested that

the link between experiences of parental psychological control and adolescents internalizing and externalizing behaviors was stronger within the context of higher levels of parental acceptance

(Barber, Stoltz, & Olsen, 2005).

Prior empirical research has not investigated the potential outcomes for children,

adolescents, or emerging adults who have experienced a combination of parental psychological

control and parental rejection, and Rohner (1986) did not speculate about the consequences of

this interaction. Therefore, the present studys investigation of the potential interactive relationship between parental psychological control and parental rejection on the quality of

emerging adults relationships is of an exploratory nature.

Relationships with Peers and Romantic Partners

An ongoing debate in the literature concerns the question of whether the relational

contexts of intimate friendships and romantic relationships are unique or whether they have

important underlying similarities (Giordano, Manning, & Longmore, 2006; Furman & Hand,

8

2006). Giordano, Manning, and Longmore (2006) provide evidence for the argument that

important differences exist between friendships and romantic relationships. Results of their

study suggest that, when compared with platonic, other-sex friendships and same-sex

friendships, romantic relationships involve heightened emotionality, higher levels of social and

communication awkwardness, greater asymmetry with regard to the investment in the

relationship, and greater weight given to issues of exclusivity. However, Furman and Hand

(2006) argue that an over-emphasis on the differences between romantic relationships and

friendships is erroneous. Results of Furman and Hands research suggests that the differences

between the two relationships should not be overstated as intimacy in both relational contexts

was found to be viewed by the majority of the adolescents in their study as equally valued.

Given this debate in the literature, one of the questions the present study had to consider was

whether parental psychological control would relate differently to emerging adults difficulties forming mutually autonomous relationships in peer or romantic contexts. Following Furman and

Hand (2006) it was hypothesized that parental psychological control would be related to

emerging adults difficulties forming mutually autonomous relationships in the context of either close friendships or romantic relationships.

The Present Study

The goal of the present study was to investigate the link between experiences of parental

psychological control and emerging adults navigation of stage-salient developmental tasks during the transition to university life, namely, the capacity to form intimate relationships

characterized by mutual autonomy. Given that for many youths in contemporary American

society the transition to university life marks the beginning of the developmental epoch of

emergent adulthood, freshman college students served as the primary population of interest for

this study.

Hypothesis 1 predicted that psychologically controlling parenting in the family of origin

would increase the risk of experiencing difficulty with the establishment of peer and romantic

relationships characterized by mutual autonomy during the transition to university life. Prior

research suggests that significant relationships exist between the experience of parental

psychological control and relational aggression (Nelson, & Crick, 2002) as well as between

parent-child boundary dissolution and physical aggression and victimization of peers (Linder &

Collins, 2005). Therefore, more specifically, hypothesis 1 predicted that the extent to which

emerging adults reported having experienced parental psychological control would be related to

an increased likelihood of involvement in relationships with peers and romantic partners

characterized by either a relational style of self-focused autonomy or a relational style of other-

focused communion.

Hypothesis 2(a) predicted that the link between parental psychological control and

emerging adults reported use of a relational style of other-focused connection would be moderated by an overall emotional valence of acceptance within the parent-emerging adult

relationship. Hypothesis 2(b) predicted that the link between perceptions of experiencing

parental psychological control and emerging adults use of a relational style of self-focused autonomy would be moderated by an overall emotional valence of rejection within the parent-

emerging adult relationship.

9

Data were collected concerning emerging adults perceptions of both mothers and fathers use of psychologically controlling parenting practices. However, insufficient empirical

evidence exists to support hypotheses regarding the specific ways in which the link between

emerging adults relational capabilities and parental psychological control may differ for experiences of maternal and paternal psychological control as well as how this link may differ

for males and females. Therefore, post-hoc analyses were utilized to investigate these potential

differences.

Method

Participants

Participants included freshmen recruited from the subject pool at Miami University.

Three hundred and fifty-three participants (231 females and 122 males) were included in this

study. As table 3 shows, the overwhelming majority of participants were Caucasian and came

from intact families. Furthermore, most participants reported coming from affluent families;

participants reported a mean family income of $90,000 per year with a range of more than

$200,000 per year.

Measures

Parental psychological control. Three scales were used to assess the construct of

psychological control. The Psychological Control subscale of the Parent-Child Boundaries

Scale-III (PBS-III, Kerig, 2007) was utilized to measure the independent variable of emerging

adults perceptions of experiences of psychological control with each of their parents. This subscale is composed of 6 items and was used to tap participants experiences of parental use of such psychologically controlling behaviors as guilt induction and love withdrawal in the context

of youth failure to conform to parental demands (e.g., My mother [father] gives me the cold shoulder if I dont see things her [his] way.). Each participant completed the measure twice, once in regard to their perceptions of their mother, and once in regard to their father. Participants

indicated how often each item characterized their mothers or fathers behavior toward them according to the following scale: 1 = Never, 2 = Rarely, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Often, or 5 = Almost

always. Each participants scores for mother and father were combined and summed, with

higher scores on the subscale indicating greater levels of young adults perception of experiencing parental (both maternal and paternal) psychological control. Mother and father

scores were combined and summed in this way because the overall objective of the present study

was to investigate emerging adults experiences of the parental unit as a whole, rather than to investigate experiences specific to either mother or father. In addition, mother and father scores

were combined and summed for the purpose of pragmatism; the decision to combine mother and

father scores reduced the number of parameters in the statistical model. In the present study,

internal consistency for the Psychological Control subscale of the PBS-III (Kerig, 2007) was

found to be acceptable with an alpha coefficient of .82 for maternal psychological control and an

alpha coefficient of .82 for paternal psychological control. Internal consistency for parental

10

psychological control, which included both maternal and paternal psychological control

subscales, was .86.

Six items from the Control through Guilt subscale of Schaefers (1965) Childs Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI) were utilized as a second measure of the independent

variable of emerging adults perceptions of experiences of psychological control with each of

their parents. This subscale was used to assess participants experiences of the particular parental psychologically controlling behavior of guilt induction when he or she fails to comply

with parental demands (e.g., My mother [father] thinks Im not grateful when I dont obey.).

Participants were asked to respond to each item by indicating an answer according to the

following scale: 0 = Not like your parent, 1 = Somewhat like your parent, or 2 = A lot like your

parent. Each participants scores for mother and father were combined and summed with higher

scores representing greater levels of emerging adults perception of experiencing the parental psychologically controlling behavior of guilt induction. Evidence for the utility of Schaefers (1965) Childs Report of Parental Behavior Inventory for use with a college student population

has been documented (Cross, 1969). Internal consistency for the Control through Guilt subscale

of Schaefers (1965) Childs Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI) was found to be acceptable with an alpha coefficient of .77 for maternal control through guilt and an alpha

coefficient of .70 for paternal control through guilt. For the present study, internal consistency

for this subscale was found to be .88 when maternal control through guilt and paternal control

through guilt were combined; when separated, internal consistency was .84 for maternal control

through guilt and .83 for paternal control through guilt.

The Acceptance of Individuation subscale of Schludermann and Schludermanns (1988) revision for older children and adolescents of Schaefers (1965) Childs Report of Parental

Behavior Inventory served as a third measure of the independent variable of emerging adults perceptions of experiencing parental psychological control. This subscale is composed of 8

items and was utilized to measure participants perceptions of each of their parents acceptance

and appreciation of the youths age-appropriate autonomy and of the youths own unique thoughts, feelings, and opinions (e.g., My mother [father] really wants me to tell her [him] just how I feel about things.). Participants were asked to respond to each item on this subscale by

indicating an answer according to the following scale: 0 = Not like your parent, 1 = Somewhat

like your parent, or 2 = A lot like your parent. Each participants scores for mothers and fathers behavior were combined, summed, and reverse-scored with higher scores suggesting

greater levels of emerging adults perceptions of experiencing parental psychological control. Evidence of good internal consistency and test-retest reliability were found (Schludermann &

Schludermann, 1988). Participants who completed the subscales to assess the reliability and

validity of the measure included 444 17-18 year-old, male and female college students who were

re-tested one month later. Internal consistency for the Acceptance of Individuation subscale of

the CRPBI-108 was found to be acceptable with an alpha coefficient of .83 for maternal

acceptance of individuation and an alpha coefficient of .81 for paternal acceptance of

individuation. For the present study, internal consistency was .90 when maternal and paternal

acceptance of individuation were combined, .86 when maternal acceptance of individuation was

analyzed alone, and .89 when paternal acceptance of individuation was analyzed alone.

Emotional valence of the parent-child relationship. The Acceptance and Rejection

subscales of Schludermann and Schludermanns (1988) revision for older children and

adolescents of Schaefers (1965) Childs Report of Parental Behavior Inventory were utilized in the present study to assess the hypothesized moderator, the participants perception of the overall

11

emotional valence of the relationships with each of their parents. The Acceptance subscale is

composed of 8 items used to assess the degree to which participants experienced their

relationships with each of their parents as generally warm and supportive (e.g. My mom [dad] almost always speaks to me with a warm and friendly voice.). The Rejection subscale is composed of 8 items utilized to assess the degree to which participants experienced their

relationships with each of their parents as generally cold and rejecting (e.g., My mom [dad] makes me feel I am not loved.). Participants were asked to respond to each item on both of these subscales by indicating an answer according to the following scale: 0 = Not like your

parent, 1 = Somewhat like your parent, or 2 = A lot like your parent. Each participants scores for mother and father were combined and summed with higher scores on the Acceptance

subscale indicating participants perceptions of the overall emotional valence of the parent-child

relationship as warm and supportive, while higher scores on the Rejection subscale indicated

participants perceptions of the overall emotional valence of the parent-child relationship as cold and rejecting. Evidence of good internal consistencies and test-retest reliabilities were found

(Schludermann & Schludermann, 1988). Internal consistency for both the Acceptance and the

Rejection Subscales of the CRPBI-108 was found to be acceptable with the following alpha

coefficients: Acceptance-Mother, .83; Acceptance-Father, .87; Rejection-Mother, .82;

Rejection-Father, .80. In the present study, internal consistency was found to be acceptable with

the following alpha coefficients: Acceptance-Mother, .91; Acceptance-Father, .90; Rejection-

Mother, .80, and Rejection-Father, .81. Internal consistency for combined maternal and paternal

acceptance in the present study was .91; for combined maternal and paternal rejection in the

present study, internal consistency was .84.

Other-focused connection. Six measures were used in the present study as indicators of

relationships characterized by other-focused connection. For each of the six measures,

participants currently involved in a romantic relationship were asked to answer the questions

with regard to their romantic partner; those not currently involved in a romantic relationship

were asked to answer the questions with regard to their closest friend. Given that some

participants might consider one of their parents to be their closest friend, those who were not in a

romantic relationship were asked to answer the questions about their closest peer and were

explicitly asked to refrain from answering the questions with regard to a parent. The Silencing

the Self subscale of Jack and Dills (1992) Silencing the Self Scale contains a total of 9 items (e.g., I dont speak my feelings in a close relationship when I know they will cause

disagreement.). Participants were asked to choose which answer was best representative of their feelings in terms of the following scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 2 = Somewhat disagree, 3 =

Neither agree nor disagree, 4 = Somewhat agree, or 5 = Strongly agree. The second and fourth

items were reverse-scored, and answers to all items were then added with higher scores

indicative of higher levels of self-silencing within close relationships. Internal consistency for an

undergraduate sample has been found to be acceptable with an alpha of .78 (Jack & Dill, 1992).

In the present study, internal consistency for the Silencing the Self subscale was found to be .82.

Both the Overly Accommodating and the Self-Sacrificing subscales of the Inventory of

Interpersonal Problems created by Horowitz, Alden, Wiggins, and Pincus (2000) consist of 8

items each. The items for each of the subscales are divided into two sections; the first section

addresses behaviors that the participant finds difficult to do with other people, whereas the

second section addresses behaviors that the participant perceives him or herself doing too much.

Examples of the Overly Accommodating subscale include having difficulty saying no to other people and feeling too easily persuaded by other people. Examples of the Self-Sacrificing

12

subscale include having difficulty setting limits on other people and trusting other people too much. Participants were asked to indicate their answers according to the following scale: 0 =

Not at all, 1 = A little bit, 2 = Moderately, 3 = Quite a bit, or 4 = Extremely. Each participants scores were summed with higher scores indicating more interpersonal distress in the domain

specified by the subscale. Internal consistency for the subscales has been found to be acceptable

with an alpha of .81 for the Overly Accommodating subscale and an alpha of .80 for the Self-

Sacrificing subscale. For the present study, internal consistency for the Overly Accommodating

subscale was .86, and it was .82 for the Self-Sacrificing subscale.

Five items from the Relational Aggression Questionnaire by Linder, Crick, and Collins

(2002) were used in the present study to assess emerging adults experiences of relational victimization (e.g., My romantic partner (friend) tries to make me feel jealous as a way of

getting back at me.). Participants were asked to indicate how true each statement was for them, presently and over the previous year, according to a scale including the following anchor points:

1 = Not at all true, 4 = Sometimes true, and 7 = Very true. Each participants score was

determined by calculating the mean of all the items; higher scores were indicative of greater

levels of relational victimization. Internal consistency for relational victimization has been

found to be acceptable with an alpha of .72 (Linder, Crick, & Collins, 2002). Internal

consistency in the present study for relational victimization was found to be acceptable with an

alpha of .82.

Two separate measures, the Restrictive Engulfment subscale of the Multi-Dimensional

Measure of Emotional Abuse (Murphy, Hoover, & Taft, 1999) and the Subtle and Overt

Psychological Abuse Scale (Marshall, 2001), were utilized to assess emerging adults experiences of psychological victimization. The Restrictive Engulfment subscale of the Multi-

dimensional measure of emotional abuse contains a total of 7 items (e.g., How often in the last six months has your romantic partner (friend) tried to stop you from seeing certain friends or

family members?). Participants were asked to indicate how often they experienced each

behavior according to the following scale: 1 = Once, 2 = Twice, 3 = Three to five times, 4 = Six

to ten times, 5 = Eleven to twenty times, 6 = More than twenty times, 7 = Never in the past six

months, but it has happened before, or 0 = This has never happened. The scoring method

involving the use of frequency counts across intervals of time was used; thus, a score of 7 was

recoded to 0, and 0-6 point items were summed. Higher scores were indicative of greater levels

of psychological victimization. Internal consistency for the scale has been found to be

acceptable with an alpha of .84 (Murphy, Hoover, & Taft, 1999). In the present study, internal

consistency for victimization in the form of restrictive engulfment was .90.

The Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse Scale by Marshall (2001) contains a total of

35 items, (e.g., How often does your romantic partner (friend) play games with your head?). Participants were asked to indicate how often they have experienced each behavior according to

the following scale: 0 = Never, 1 = Once, 2 = Only a couple of times, 3 = Every few months, 4 =

About every other month, 5 = About once a month, 6 = About twice a month, 7 = About every

week, 8 = A few times a week, or 9 = Almost daily. Scores for each participant were summed,

with higher scores indicating greater levels of psychological victimization. Internal consistency

for this scale has been found to be good, demonstrating an alpha of .98 (Marshall, 2001).

Internal consistency in the present study was .97.

Self-focused autonomy. Five measures were used in the present study as indicators of

relationships characterized by self-focused autonomy. For each of the five measures,

participants currently involved in a romantic relationship were asked to answer the questions

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with regard to their romantic partner; those not currently involved in a romantic relationship

were asked to answer the questions with regard to their closest friend. As with the questions

pertaining to other-focused connection, participants who were not in a romantic relationship

were asked to answer the questions about their closest peer and were explicitly asked to refrain

from answering the questions with regard to a parent. The Domineering/Controlling and

Vindictive/Self-Centered subscales of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (Horowitz,

Alden, Wiggins, and Pincus, 2000) each contain a total of 8 items. Examples of the

Domineering/Controlling subscale include having difficulty understanding another persons

point of view and trying to control others too much. Examples of the Vindictive/Self-Centered subscale include having difficulty really caring about other peoples problems and wanting to get revenge against people too much. Participants were asked to indicate their

answers according to the following scale: 0 = Not at all, 1 = A little bit, 2 = Moderately, 3 =

Quite a bit, or 4 = Extremely. Each participants scores were summed with higher scores indicating more interpersonal distress in the domain specified by the subscale. Internal

consistency for the subscales has been found to be acceptable with an alpha of .76 for the

Domineering/Controlling subscale and an alpha of .81 for the Vindictive/Self-Centered subscale.

In the present study, internal consistency for the Domineering/Controlling subscale was .79, and

internal consistency for the Vindictive/Self-Centered subscale was .76.

Five items from the Relational Aggression Questionnaire by Linder, Crick, and Collins

(2002) were used in the present study to assess emerging adults experiences of relational

aggression (e.g., I give my romantic partner (friend) the silent treatment when he/she hurts my feelings in some way.). Participants were asked to indicate how true each statement was for them, presently and over the previous year, according to a scale including the following anchor

points: 1 = Not at all true, 4 = Sometimes true, and 7 = Very true. Each participants score for relational aggression was determined by calculating the mean of all the items. Higher scores

were indicative of greater levels of relational aggression. Internal consistency for relational

aggression has been found to be acceptable with an alpha of .73 (Linder, Crick, & Collins, 2002).

Internal consistency in the present study for relational aggression was found to be acceptable

with an alpha of .80.

Two separate measures, the Restrictive Engulfment subscale of the Multi-Dimensional

Measure of Emotional Abuse (Murphy, Hoover, & Taft, 1999) and the Subtle and Overt

Psychological Abuse Scale (Marshall, 2001), were utilized to assess emerging adults reported

use of psychological aggression. The Restrictive Engulfment subscale of the Multi-dimensional

measure of emotional abuse contains a total of 7 items (e.g. How often in the last six months have you complained that your romantic partner (friend) spends too much time with friends

(other friends)?). Participants were asked to indicate how often they have engaged in each behavior according to the following scale: 1 = Once, 2 = Twice, 3 = Three to five times, 4 = Six

to ten times, 5 = Eleven to twenty times, 6 = More than twenty times, 7 = Never in the past six

months, but it has happened before, or 0 = This has never happened. The scoring method

involving the use of frequency counts across intervals of time was used; thus, a score of 7 was

recoded to 0, and 0-6 point items were summed. Higher scores were indicative of greater levels

of psychological aggression. Internal consistency for the scale has been found to be acceptable

with an alpha of .84 (Murphy, Hoover, & Taft, 1999). In the present study, internal consistency

for aggression in the form of restrictive engulfment was .85.

The Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse Scale by Marshall (2001) contains a total of

35 items (e.g., How often do you belittle, find fault with, or put down something your romantic

14

partner (friend) was pleased with or felt good about?). Participants were asked to indicate how often they have engaged in each behavior according to the following scale: 0 = Never, 1 = Once,

2 = Only a couple of times, 3 = Every few months, 4 = About every other month, 5 = About once

a month, 6 = About twice a month, 7 = About every week, 8 = A few times a week, or 9 = Almost

daily. Scores for each participant were summed, with higher scores indicating greater levels of

psychological aggression. Internal consistency for this scale has been found to be good,

demonstrating an alpha of .98 (Marshall, 2001). Internal consistency of psychological

aggression in the present study was .94.

Procedure

The study methods and protocol for the present study were approved by the Departmental

Review Board of the Miami University Psychology Department. Before completing the online

survey, participants were asked to read a consent form describing their role in the study which

included completing a series of questionnaires related to experiences in the family they grew up

in as well as their experiences at Miami University. Participants were asked to provide their

signature on the consent form indicating their willingness to participate. They were informed of

the steps that were taken by the researchers to protect the confidentiality of their responses. Data

were collected by way of an online survey through mass testing in groups consisting of

approximately 5 to 20 participants. Across-subjects counter-balancing procedure was used to

control for order effects. Counter-balancing was accomplished by presenting one of three

versions of the online survey randomly to participants. One version asked participants to begin

the survey by completing the measures about their relationship with their mothers, a second

version asked participants to begin by completing the measures about their relationship with their

fathers, and a third version asked participants to begin by completing the measures about their

relationship with their close friend or romantic partner. After each participant completed the

online survey, he or she was debriefed regarding the purpose of the study. Participants were also

informed of opportunities to return for follow-up assessment. The entire process typically took

no longer than 120 minutes to complete.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Table 1 presents descriptive statistics for each variable used in this study. The means and

standard deviations are based on the 353 participants included in the final analysis. Forty-seven

participants were deleted from the present study due to the following reasons: Twenty

participants were deleted due to a failure of the online survey to match different portions of these

participants responses, 9 participants were deleted due to their reports that they were

sophomores, juniors, or seniors, and 18 participants were deleted due to their having systematic

patterns of missing variables. All other missing variables were dealt with by excluding

participants from a specific analysis only if they were missing the data required for that analysis;

these participants were still included in any analyses for which required data was available.

Also shown in Table 1 are the internal consistencies for all variables, each of which was found to

15

be acceptable in the present study (Cronbachs (1951) alpha .76). Skewness and kurtosis also were assessed for all variables. Two variables remained skewed and kurtotic in the final

analysis. The Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse Scale (aggression version) was slightly

skewed with a value of 2.05 and kurtotic with a value of 6.12. The Subtle and Overt

Psychological Abuse Scale (victimization version) was slightly skewed with a value of 2.38 and

kurtotic with a value of 7.44. Statisticians have suggested that the integrity of the analysis is not

undermined if one or two variables remain skewed or retain kurtosis (Raykov & Marcoulides,

2000).

Table 2 presents the intercorrelations among all of the variables measured. As expected,

the three subscales assessing the independent latent variable of parental psychological control

were significantly correlated with one another. This was not the case for the correlations of the

subscales assessing the dependent latent variables. Although the subscales assessing relational

and psychological aggression and victimization were highly correlated with one another, they did

not correlate highly with any of the other subscales assessing the dependent latent variables.

These correlations suggest that, whereas the latent variable of parental psychological control

would be viable, the dependent latent variables would require modification. In addition, the

moderating variables of acceptance and rejection were highly correlated with one another,

indicating that, in this sample, acceptance and rejection may be opposite ends of a continuum as

opposed to separate and distinct constructs. Table 3 presents the demographics of the sample on

which the final analyses were performed.

Latent Constructs and Their Indicators

Data analysis for the present study was performed using structural equation modeling

(SEM) using maximum-likelihood estimation in Mplus (Muthen & Muthen, 1998). The first step

in the data analysis involved conceptualizing the independent and dependent variables as

observed variables loading on latent factors. The construct of parental psychological control

served as the independent variable and was conceptualized as a latent factor measured by the

following three indicators: The Psychological Control subscale of the Parent-Child Boundaries

Scale-III (PBS-III, Kerig, 2007), the Control through Guilt subscale of Schaefers (1965) Childs Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI), and the Acceptance of Individuation subscale

of Schludermann and Schludermanns (1988) revision for older children and adolescents of Schaefers (1965) Childs Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI). Participants were asked to respond to each item of these subscales twice, once in reference to mothers behavior

and once in reference to fathers behavior. The constructs of self-focused autonomy and other-focused connection served as the

dependent variables. The latent construct of self-focused autonomy was measured by the

following five indicators: The Relational Aggression Questionnaire by Linder, Crick, and

Collins (2002), the Restrictive Engulfment subscale of the Multi-Dimensional Measure of

Emotional Abuse (Murphy, Hoover, & Taft, 1999), the Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse

Scale (Marshall, 2001), the Domineering/Controlling subscale of the Inventory of Interpersonal

Problems (IIP) (Horowitz et al., 2000), and the Vindictive/Self-Centered subscale of the

Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP) (Horowitz et al., 2000).

The latent construct of other-focused connection was measured by the following six

indicators: The Relational Aggression Questionnaire by Linder, Crick, and Collins (2002), the

16

Restrictive Engulfment subscale of the Multi-Dimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse

(Murphy, Hoover, & Taft, 1999), the Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse Scale (Marshall,

2001), the Overly Accommodating subscale of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP)

(Horowitz et al., 2000), the Self-Sacrificing subscale of the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems

(IIP) (Horowitz et al., 2000), and the 9 items making up the Silencing the Self subscale of the

Silencing the Self Scale (Jack & Dill, 1992).

The moderating variable, the emotional valence of the parent-emerging adult relationship,

was conceptualized as a manifest variable measured by the Acceptance and Rejection subscales

of Schludermann and Schludermanns (1988) revision for older children and adolescents of Schaefers (1965) Childs Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI).

Overall model fit was assessed using the inferential goodness-of-fit index, the chi-square

statistic, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI; Bentler, 1990), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI; Bentler

& Bonnet, 1980), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA; Browne & Cudeck,

1992), and the 90% confidence interval for the RMSEA (90% CI). Stringent fit criteria were

utilized when evaluating the models in the present study. Thus, the chi-square statistic is

considered to indicate a well-fitting model when a large, non-significant probability level is

found. Regarding the fit criteria for the CFI and the TLI, the present study adhered to the

generally accepted principle that a well-fitting model is indicated by values in the mid .9s

(Bentler, 1990; Hu & Bentler, 1999). RMSEA values less than .05 were considered to be

indicative of a well-fitting model in the present study (Browne & Cudeck, 1992). However,

some researchers suggest that RMSEA values less than or equal to .10 indicate acceptable model

fit (Kline, 1998).

Prior to testing the hypotheses, the overall model fit statistics were assessed in order to

make certain that the path coefficients would be interpretable. Thus, exploratory procedures

were used to evaluate measurement models for the latent constructs and to test the relationships

among the latent variables. The purpose of this step in the analysis was two-fold. First,

measurement models for the latent constructs were evaluated in order to ensure that the manifest

variables purported to measure the latent constructs were, in fact, measuring the constructs

adequately. Second, the relationships among the latent variables were evaluated in order to

ensure that the latent variables were measuring distinct constructs.

Model Estimation

Hypothesis 1 predicted that parental psychological control would increase emerging

adults risk of experiencing difficulty with the establishment of mutually autonomous peer and romantic relationships during the transition to university life. As shown in Figure 1, the overall

model fit statistics for the original model of hypothesis 1 did not adequately fit the data;

therefore, hypothesis 1 was not supported. The chi-square associated with the model was found

to be (74, N = 353) = 983.62, < .001, CFI = .66, TLI = .58, RMSEA = .19. Examination of the measurement models indicated that several of the indicators did not load on the latent

constructs of other-focused connection and self-focused autonomy.

In choosing how best to alter the measurement models in order to increase viability,

theoretical implications were first considered. The goal of parsimony, the desirability of a more

concise model as opposed to a complex model, also played an important role in the process of

deciding which manifest variables to delete in order to adequately measure the latent constructs.

17

The correlations between the manifest variables and the factor loadings for each of the latent

constructs found in the original model were also given due consideration in the process of

alteration.

Based on these considerations, post hoc model modifications were performed. Four

indicators, the self-sacrificing subscale, the relational victimization subscale, the restrictive

engulfment (victimization) subscale, and the Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse

(victimization) Scale were deleted from the measurement model of the dependent latent variable

of other-focused connection. Three indicators, the relational aggression subscale, the restrictive

engulfment (aggression) subscale, and the Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse (aggression)

subscale were deleted from the measurement model of the dependent latent variable of self-

focused autonomy.

All three indicators, the Psychological Control subscale, the Control through Guilt

subscale, and the Acceptance of Individuation subscale, were retained in the measurement model

of the independent latent variable of parental psychological control. Two indicators, the

Silencing the Self subscale and the Overly Accommodating subscale, were retained in the

measurement model of the dependent latent variable of other-focused connection. Two

indicators, the Domineering/Controlling subscale and the Vindictive/Self-Centered subscale,

were retained in the measurement model of the dependent latent variable of self-focused

autonomy.

Structural Models

Following the post hoc model modifications, the model was re-run and the overall fit

examined. As shown in Figure 2, the modified model successfully converged and, based on the

stringent fit criteria used to evaluate the model, was found to fit the data well. The chi-square

associated with the model was found to be (11, N = 353) = 23.94, < .05, CFI = .99, TLI = .97, RMSEA = .06). For the modified model, all retained indicators loaded on the latent

variables and were significant. In addition, based on examination of the path coefficients, each

of the three latent variables was found to be measuring a distinct construct. Therefore, the

modified model provided support for hypothesis 1. Emerging adults reports of psychologically controlling parenting were found to be significantly related to increased risk of becoming

involved in relationships with peers and romantic partners characterized by either a relational

style of self-focused autonomy or a relational style of other-focused connection.

Once the fit of the modified model was established, structural models including the

hypothesized moderators of parental acceptance and rejection were tested. Moderation was

tested using the steps outlined by Aiken and West (1991). This process was extended within a

structural equation modeling framework using the rules dictated by Schumacker and

Marcoulides (1998). In order to test the model for hypothesis 2(a), participants were divided into

3 groups based on the mean and standard deviation of scores on the acceptance subscale.

Participants were placed in the low acceptance group (94 participants) if their scores were equal

to or lower than one-half standard deviation below the mean, participants (99 participants) were

placed in the medium acceptance group if their scores were equal to or close to the mean, and

participants (160 participants) were placed in the high acceptance group if their scores were

equal to or higher than one-half standard deviation above the mean.

18

T-tests were conducted to examine differences across the three groups of parental

acceptance among the variables utilized in the analysis. Results indicated that, as parental

acceptance decreased across the three groups, participants scored higher on all three indicators of

the latent variable of parental psychological control. In addition, as parental acceptance

decreased across the three groups, participants scored higher on the domineering/controlling

subscale, whereas in comparison to participants who reported medium or high levels of parental

acceptance, participants who reported low levels of parental acceptance scored higher on the

vindictive/self-centered subscale. Results of the T-tests also indicated that participants scores

did not differ across groups of parental acceptance for the two indicators of the latent variable of

other-focused connection.

Once participants were divided into these 3 groups, the invariance of the model across

levels of parental acceptance was tested. The parameters were constrained to be equal in the

low, medium, and high acceptance conditions (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). As shown in

Figure 3, the model differed significantly across levels of parental acceptance ( = (49, N = 353)

= 160.60, < .001, CFI = .81, TLI = .76, RMSEA = .14). Hypothesis 2(a) predicted that the link between parental psychological control and emerging adults reported use of a relational style of other-focused connection would be moderated by an overall emotional valence of acceptance

within the parent-emerging adult relationship. The results indicated that parental acceptance

moderated the link between parental psychological control and emerging adults involvement in relationships characterized by other-focused connection; therefore, hypothesis 2(a) was

supported. More specifically, both low levels and high levels of parental acceptance

strengthened the link between parental psychological control and emerging adults other-focused connection; however, within the context of medium levels of parental acceptance, the link

between parental psychological control and emerging adults use of a relational style of other-focused connection ceased to be statistically significant.

The fit of the model also was analyzed separately for each level of parental acceptance.

The models for the low and medium parental acceptance groups did not converge successfully.

The model for the high parental acceptance group fit the data well ( = (11, N = 160) = 18.54, > .05, CFI = .97, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .07).

Although the variable of acceptance and the variable of rejection correlated relatively

highly with one another, the invariance of the model across levels of parental rejection was tested

separately. T-tests were conducted to examine differences across the three groups of parental

rejection among the variables utilized in the analysis. Results indicated that, as parental rejection

decreased across the three groups, participants scored lower on all three indicators of the latent

variable of parental psychological control. Results of the T-tests also indicated that, as parental

rejection increased across the three groups, participants scored higher on the two indicators of

the latent variable of self-focused autonomy. In addition, in comparison to participants who

reported medium or high levels of parental rejection, participants who reported low levels of

parental rejection scored lower on the two indicators of the latent variable of other-focused

connection.

Participants were divided into 3 groups based on the mean and standard deviation of

scores on the rejection subscale. Participants were placed in the low rejection group (146

participants) if their scores were equal to or lower than one-half standard deviation below the

mean, participants (104 participants) were placed in the medium rejection group if their scores

were equal to or close to the mean, and participants (103 participants) were placed in the high

rejection group if their scores were equal to or higher than one-half standard deviation above the

19

mean. The parameters were constrained to be equal in the low, medium, and high rejection

conditions (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). The chi-square associated with the model was found

to be ( = (49, N = 353) = 90.24, < .001, CFI = .92, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .09). Hypothesis 2(b) predicted that the link between parental psychological control and emerging adults use of a relational style of self-focused autonomy would be moderated by an overall emotional valence of

rejection within the parent-emerging adult relationship. As shown in Figure 4, the results

indicated that parental rejection did not moderate the link between parental psychological control

and emerging adults involvement in relationships characterized by self-focused autonomy;

therefore, hypothesis 2(b) was not supported.

The fit of the model also was analyzed separately for each level of parental rejection.

The models for the low and medium parental rejection groups did not converge successfully. The

model for the high parental acceptance group fit the data well ( = (11, N = 103) = 10.09, > .05, CFI > .99, TLI > .99, RMSEA = .00).

In sum, results provided support for the first hypothesis of the present study, indicating a

significant relationship between experiences of parental psychological control and emerging

adults difficulty navigating the stage-salient developmental task of forming mutually autonomous relationships with peers and romantic partners. Results also provided support for

hypothesis 2(a), indicating that parental acceptance moderated the relationship between

experiences of parental psychological control and emerging adults use of a relational style of other-focused connection. Contrary to hypothesis 2(b), parental rejection was not found to

moderate the relationship between experiences of parental psychological control and emerging

adults use of a relational style of self-focused autonomy.

Post-hoc Analyses

Friendships and romantic relationships. In order to test for differences in main effects as

a function of the type of relationship analyzed, participants were divided into two groups based

on whether they answered the questionnaires with regard to their closest friend or with regard to

their romantic partner. Two hundred and twenty-seven participants reported about their closest

friendship, and 126 participants reported about their romantic relationship. A Chi-square test for

independence was conducted to examine the association between gender and type of relationship

reported about by participants. Results indicated that the proportion of males who reported about

friendships or romantic relationships was not significantly different from the proportion of

females who reported about friendships or romantic relationships. Thus, participants gender

was not significantly related to their decision to report about friendships as opposed to romantic

relationships. T-tests were conducted to examine differences as a function of relationship type

among the variables analyzed. Results indicated that participants who reported about friendships

scored higher than participants who reported about romantic relationships on the measure of self-

silencing.

The parameters were constrained to be equal in the friend and romantic partner

conditions (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). The model differed significantly in the two

conditions. The chi-square associated with the model was found to be (30, N = 353) = 63.08, < .001, CFI = .96, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .08. Examination of the paths of this model indicated

that the link between parental psychological control and emerging adults use of a relational style of self-focused autonomy was stronger for those participants who reported about close

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friendships. In addition, the paths indicated that the link between parental psychological control

and emerging adults use of a relational style of other-focused connection was stronger for those

participants who reported about romantic relationships.

The fit of the model also was analyzed separately for participants who reported about

romantic relationships and for participants who reported about close friendships. The model for

participants who reported about friendships fit the data well. The chi-square associated with the

model was found to be (11, N = 227) = 20.01, < .05, CFI = .99, TLI = .97, RMSEA = .06. The model for participants who reported about romantic relationships did not converge

successfully and was unable to be interpreted. Further examination of the model fit indicated

that the measure of vindictiveness/self-centeredness did not load on the latent construct of self-

focused autonomy for participants who reported about romantic relationships.

Mothers and fathers psychological control. To test for differences in main effects as a function of parent gender, participants data were divided based on measures assessing mothers behavior as opposed to measures assessing fathers behavior. All 353 participants answered the

questionnaires for both mothers and fathers behavior. Maternal psychological control and paternal psychological control then were analyzed as separate latent variables. The model fit

indicated significant differences between paternal psychological control and maternal

psychological control. The chi-square associated with the model was found to be (29, N = 365) = 185.31, < .001, CFI = .90, TLI = .84, RMSEA = .12. Examination of the path coefficients indicated that the link between parental psychological control and emerging adults

use of a relational style of other-focused connection remained significant for fathers whereas the

link did not remain significant for mothers.

The fit of the model also was analyzed separately for maternal psychological control and

paternal psychological control. The model for paternal psychological control ( = (11, N = 353) = 19.78, < .05, CFI = .99, TLI = .98, RMSEA = .05) was found to be a better fit to the data than the model for maternal psychological control ( = (11, N = 353) = 30.97, < .001, CFI =

.98, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .07).

Male participants and female participants. In order to test for main effect differences as

a function of participants gender, male participants data was separated from female

participants data to create two groups. One hundred and twenty-two males and 231 females participated in the study. T-tests were conducted to examine gender differences among the

variables analyzed. Results indicated that females scored higher than males on the measure of

over accommodation and that males scored higher than females on the measure of self-silencing.

The parameters were constrained to be equal in the male and female conditions (Frazier, Tix, &

Barron, 2004). The model failed to successfully converge and was not interpretable.

Discussion

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the link between experiences of

parental psychological control and emerging adults involvement in relationships lacking in

mutual autonomy during the transition to university. It was hypothesized that experiences of

parental psychological control would be related to emerging adults involvement in relationships with close friends and romantic partners characterized by a relational style of either self-focused

autonomy or of other-focused connection. It also was hypothesized that the overall emotional

valence of the parent-emerging adult relationship would moderate the link between parental

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psychological control and emerging adults relational styles. More specifically, it was hypothesized that an overall emotional valence of acceptance would increase the likelihood that

parental psychological control would be associated with emerging adults involvement in relationships characterized by other-focused connection. It was hypothe