sustainable design: the construction industry · goals of structural design zefficiency zeconomy...
TRANSCRIPT
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Sustainable Design:Sustainable Design:The Construction IndustryThe Construction Industry
John OchsendorfAssistant Professor
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(From ‘Beyond the Limits’’, 1998)
Global Impact: Global Impact: the ‘Standard Run’the ‘Standard Run’
Assumptions:• ‘continue historical path as long as possible - no major change’• growth continues until environmental and resource constraints finally limit it
Results:• irreversible environmental changes occur• investment capital depreciates faster than it can be re-built• as it falls, food and health services fall too• death rates increase and life expectancy reduces
State of the world
1900
Material standard of living
2000 2100
A
A
C
C
B
B
D
D
E
Your lifetime
A = ResourcesB = PopulationC = PollutionD = FoodE = Industrial output
A = Life expectancyB = Services/personC = Food/personD = Consumer goods/ person
Figure by MIT OCW.
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Use of Raw Materials in the USUse of Raw Materials in the US
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Average US House Sizes Tripled in 50 YearsAverage US House Sizes Tripled in 50 Years
~800 square feet ~2400 square feet
Photographs of small and large houses.
Images removed for copyright reasons.
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The earth is finiteThe earth is finite………….natural resources have a limit.natural resources have a limit
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Whole Life DesignWhole Life Design
12 million computers are thrown away each year in US (~10% are recycled now)
300-700 million computers will be obsolete in the US in the next few years
The electronics and automobile industry are beginning to design for whole life of products
– Source: National Safety Council
Photograph of discarded computers.
Image removed for copyright reasons.
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Problems with ElectronicsProblems with ElectronicsDesigners are not responsible for end of life design
Product manufacturing does not consider the entire lifetime of the product
Result is waste– Economically inefficient– Environmentally harmful– Socially irresponsible
UNSUSTAINABLE
Photographs removed for copyright reasons.
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Buildings are Not PermanentBuildings are Not Permanent
Stone pinnacles of cathedrals are replaced ~200 years
Buildings are waste in transit
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Goals of Structural DesignGoals of Structural Design
Efficiency
Economy
Elegance
The Tower and the Bridge: The New Art of Structural Engineering, by D.P. Billington
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Goals of Structural DesignGoals of Structural Design
Efficiency
Economy
Elegance
But all must consider the environmental impact as well
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1919thth Century Design ConcernCentury Design Concern
EFFICIENCY IS IMPORTANT: New materials in construction, such as wrought iron and steel, lead to greater concern for efficiency
Photograph of steel bridge.
Image removed for copyright reasons.
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2020thth Century Design ConcernCentury Design Concern
MAINTENANCE IS IMPORTANT: The initial design is important, though we must also design for maintenance throughout operating life
Photographs of bridges in need of repair.
Images removed for copyright reasons.
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21st Century Design Concern21st Century Design Concern
“END OF LIFE” IS IMPORTANT: Waste from the construction industry is a vast consumer of natural resources on a global scale
Photographs of bridges being demolished.
Images removed for copyright reasons.
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Design MattersDesign Matters
19th Century: Efficient use of materials
20th Century: Maintenance matters
21st Century: End of life matters
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Case Study:Case Study:Williamsburg BridgeWilliamsburg Bridge
Opened in 1903 as longest span in the world
Designed with the elastic theory of suspension bridge design, which did not account for the stiffening effect of a cable
Boasted to be the “strongest” suspension bridge at the time
Williamsburg Bridge, 1904
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Williamsburg BridgeWilliamsburg BridgeRegarded as the ugliest suspension bridge (doesn’t help that it is next to the stunning Brooklyn Bridge)
Brooklyn Bridge, 1883 Williamsburg Bridge, 1904
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Williamsburg BridgeWilliamsburg Bridge
Carried traffic and trains throughout the 20th century
But maintenance was neglected entirely for decades
In 1988 the poor condition of the bridge became an emergency
Williamsburg Bridge, 1937
Photographs of the bridge throughout the next several slides were removed for copyright reasons.
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Decay of Williamsburg BridgeDecay of Williamsburg Bridge
Main cables were corroded badly (not galvanized)
Pin joints in the main trusses were corroded
Rusted girders
Williamsburg Bridge, 1980’s
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Williamsburg Bridge Design CompetitionWilliamsburg Bridge Design Competition
Winning design by Jorg Schlaich, 1988Estimated cost: $700 M
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How to replace the Williamsburg Bridge?How to replace the Williamsburg Bridge?
A vital link to Manhattan: the bridge could not be taken out of service
Must use the same site: property for new approach spans is too expensive
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Conclusion: Williamsburg Bridge StaysConclusion: Williamsburg Bridge Stays
At least 100 more years of service
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19901990--2005: 2005: Rebuilding the Williamsburg BridgeRebuilding the Williamsburg Bridge
New cables, new girders, new roadways, new bearings, new paint, etc…Cost approximately $1 billion; more than a new bridge
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Williamsburg Bridge RatingWilliamsburg Bridge Rating
The Williamsburg Bridge is ranked as the most structurally deficient bridge in the USA carrying more than 50,000 cars per day.
-2002 report “The Nation’s Bridges at 40.” by The Road Information Program (www.tripnet.org).
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Rebuilding the Williamsburg Bridge: Rebuilding the Williamsburg Bridge: Technical ProblemsTechnical Problems
How to replace main cables?– One strand bundle at a time
How to replace deck while traffic flows?– Lightweight orthotropic steel deck placed at night
How to protect river and traffic from lead paint on the bridge?– Contain large areas with plastic
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Designing for MaintenanceDesigning for Maintenance
Develop a maintenance plan for your structure
Design components which are accessible and replaceable
Avoid toxic materials which are hazardous for future maintenance operations
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‘‘Architects and engineers are the ones Architects and engineers are the ones who who deliver things to peopledeliver things to people’’
“We can only get there...if the key professionals who deliver things to people are fully engaged... [architects and engineers], not the politicians, are the ones who can ensure that sustainable development:is operationalis made to work for peopledelivers new ways of investing in our infrastructure, new ways of generating energy and providing a built environmentdelivers new ways of using consumer durables.There is no point along the sustainable development journey at which an engineer will not be involved.
(address to RAE, June 2001)
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COCO22 Emissions in the USEmissions in the US
US: 5% of world population, 25% of greenhouse gases
UK: commitment to cut CO2 emissions 60% by 2050 (well beyond the goals of the Kyoto Protocol)
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
To meet Kyoto Protocol: ~33,000 lbsof CO2/year/person (-7% from 1990)
But individual contributions are only 1/3 of per capita contributions – rest is industry, agriculture, etc.
So individual’s annual goal would be 11,000 lbs (though many scientists are calling for much greater reductions)
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
To meet Kyoto Protocol: ~11,000 lbsof CO2/year/person (-7% from 1990)
This is equivalent to:
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
To meet Kyoto Protocol: ~11,000 lbsof CO2/year/person (-7% from 1990)
This is equivalent to:
2 coast to coast flights
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
To meet Kyoto Protocol: ~11,000 lbsof CO2/year/person (-7% from 1990)
This is equivalent to:
Driving about 11,000 miles
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
To meet Kyoto Protocol: ~11,000 lbsof CO2/year/person (-7% from 1990)
This is equivalent to:
16 cubic yards of concrete
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
To meet Kyoto Protocol: ~11,000 lbsof CO2/year/person (-7% from 1990)
This is equivalent to:
14 cubic feet of steel
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
To meet Kyoto Protocol: ~11,000 lbsof CO2/year/person (-7% from 1990)
This is equivalent to:
5 cubic feet of aluminum
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
To meet Kyoto Protocol: ~11,000 lbsof CO2/year/person (-7% from 1990)
This is approximately equivalent to:– Fly coast to coast twice (economy class)– Drive 11,000 miles (20 mpg)– Use 16 yds3 of concrete– Use 14 ft3 of steel– Use 5 ft3 of aluminum
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Kyoto Protocol and COKyoto Protocol and CO22
Driving an SUV which gets 20 mpg:
Using this material = driving this distance (approximately)– 1 yd3 of concrete = 700 miles– 1 ft3 of steel = 800 miles– 1 ft3 of aluminum = 2200 miles
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Kyoto Protocol Kyoto Protocol
Aims to reduce CO2 emissions by 7% over 1990 levels (though the UK has just committed to going much further – 60% reductions of current emissions)
Would limit personal carbon emissions to 11,000 pounds of CO2/year
This quantity of CO2 is produced by:– Two coast-coast flights (economy class)– Driving 11,000 miles (with 20 mpg fuel efficiency)– Casting 16 cubic yards of concrete– About 14 cubic feet of structural steel– About 5 cubic feet of virgin aluminum
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Kyoto Protocol Kyoto Protocol
Aims to reduce CO2 emissions by 7% over 1990 levels (though the UK has just committed to going much further)
This requires approximate CO2 emissions of 33,000 lbs/year for each person in the US
Only about 1/3 comes from personal decisions, the rest is due to industry and services
Architects and engineers contribute to the “industry and services”
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Construction and the EnvironmentConstruction and the Environment
In the United States, buildings account for:
37% of total energy use(65% of electricity consumption)30% of greenhouse gas emissions30% of raw materials use30% of waste output (136 million tons/year) 12% of potable water consumption
Source: US Green Building Council (2001)
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Buildings: The real SUVBuildings: The real SUV’’ss
In the United States, buildings account for:
-37% of total energy use(65% of electricity
consumption)
-30% of greenhouse gas emissions
Photographs of buildings at night.
Images removed for copyright reasons.
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Coal is the Future of US Energy Coal is the Future of US Energy
Enough coal to meetUS energy needs for ~200 years
Coal: $30/ton
True cost: ~$150/ton
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Energy and Buildings Energy and Buildings
Need Current Solution Sustainable Solution
Lighting Lights Daylight
Heating Power grid Better insulationRenewable energy
Cooling Air-conditioning Natural ventilation
What is required? Better DESIGN
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Embodied Energy and Embodied Energy and Operating Energy for BuildingsOperating Energy for Buildings
00
2000
A
C
D
B
4000
6000
20
Cum
ulat
ive
Ener
gy (G
J)
40
Years
60 80 100
A = High operatingB = Normal operatingC = Low operatingD = Embodied
KEY
Figure by MIT OCW.
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Typical Building Embodied EnergyTypical Building Embodied Energy
Breakdown of Initial Embodied Energy by Typical Office Building Components Averaged Over Wood, Steel and Concrete Structures [Cole and Kernan, 1996].
24%
Site work
Structure
Average Total Initial Embodied Energy 4.82 GJ/m2
Finishes
Services
nvelope
Construction
26%
24%
6%7%
13%
E
Figure by MIT OCW.
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Range in Embodied Energy Range in Embodied Energy Material Density Low value High value
kg/m3 GJ/m3 GJ/m3
Natural aggregates 1500 0.05 0.93
Cement 1500 6.5 11.7
Bricks ~1700 1.7 16Timber (prepared softwood)
~500 0.26 3.6
Glass 2600 34 81Steel (sections) 7800 190 460
Plaster ~1200 1.3 8.0
Source: BRE, UK, 1994
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Choosing MaterialsChoosing Materials
Environmental Impact
Durability
End of Life
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Concrete is made from local materials.
Concrete can be made with recycled waste or industrial byproducts (fly ash, slag, glass, etc).
Concrete offers significant energy savings over the lifetime of a building. Concrete’s high thermal mass moderates temperature swings by storing and releasing energy needed for heating and cooling.
Is concrete a green material?Is concrete a green material?
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Energy Required for ConcreteEnergy Required for Concrete
Component Percent by weight
Energy %
Portland cement 12% 92%
2%
6%
0%
Sand 34%
Crushed stone 48%
Water 6%
Each ton of cement produces ~ 1 ton of CO2
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Is steel a green material?Is steel a green material?
Image removed for copyright reasons.
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Steel RecyclingSteel Recycling
(Steel Recycling Institute)
2000 STEEL CONSTRUCTION RECYCLING
Structural Beams and Plates
Reinforcement Bar and Others
Estimated Rate
95%
47.5%
Figure by MIT OCW.
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Environmental Advantages of SteelEnvironmental Advantages of Steel
Lower weight reduces foundation requirements
Highly recycled and can continue to be recycled indefinitely
Durable, if protected from corrosion
Can be salvaged for reuse
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Energy Consumption for SteelEnergy Consumption for Steel
01975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
50Spec
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EU Steel Industry Energy Consumption per Tonne of Hot-rolled SteelEU Steel Industry CO2 Emission per Tonne of Hot-rolled Steel
(3-year moving averages)
Specific energy consumptionSpecific CO2 emission
Figure by MIT OCW.
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Environmental Disadvantages of SteelEnvironmental Disadvantages of Steel
Very high energy use, predominantly from fossil fuels produces pollution
Lightweight, so lower thermal mass compared to concrete requires more insulation
Is susceptible to corrosion
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The Greenest of Them All?The Greenest of Them All?
Only one primary building material:
-comes from a renewable resource;-cleans the air and water;-utilizes nearly 100% of its resource for products;-is the lowest in energy requirements;-creates fewer air and water emissions; and is -totally reusable, recyclable and biodegradable.
And it has been increasing in US net reserves since 1952, with growth exceeding harvest in the US by more than 30%.
-American Wood Council
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Planting trees?Planting trees?
A healthy tree stores about 13 pounds of CO2 per year -- NOT MUCH!
Would require nearly 3,000 trees per person to offset CO2 emissions
Specifying timber reduces CO2 emissions compared to steel and concrete, but carbon sequestration is a small contribution to this reduction
Main advantage is that wood does not produce nearly as much CO2 as steel and concrete
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High vs. Low Embodied Energy? High vs. Low Embodied Energy?
Materials with the lowest embodied energy intensities, such as concrete, bricks and timber, are usually consumed in large quantities.
Materials with high energy content such as stainless steel are often used in much smaller amounts.
As a result, the greatest amount of embodied energy in a building can be either from low embodied energy materials such as concrete, or high embodied energy materials such as steel.
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0
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Wood Brick Concrete Steel
(kJ/
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-m)
Embodied Energy per StiffnessEmbodied Energy per Stiffness
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Steel and ConcreteSteel and Concrete
Energy intensive materials
High associated CO2 emissions
Dominant structural materials– Industry standards– Many engineers have not designed with other materials– Economies of scale– Steel provides ductility, the ability to absorb energy before
failing
Many other materials can serve in place of steel and concrete
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Spending on ConstructionSpending on Construction
In industrialized nations, construction contributes more than 10% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
An estimated 47% of total spending on construction is for renovation.
Source: Daratech (2001)
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Construction WasteConstruction Waste
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates 136 million tons of waste generated by construction each year
Most from demolition or renovation and nearly half the weight is concrete
New construction: 8%
Demolition:48%
Renovation: 44%
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Reducing WasteReducing Waste
Design for Less Material UseUse materials efficiently and maximize program use by combining spaces. (i.e., build smaller)
Design Building for AdaptabilityDesign multipurpose areas or flexible floor plans which can be adapted for use changes.
Recycle Construction WasteWood, metal, glass, cardboard etc. can be salvaged in the construction process. Materials should be used and ordered conservatively.
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Energy Savings from RecyclingEnergy Savings from Recycling
Energy requiredto produce from virgin material
(million Btu/ton)
Energy saved by using
recycled materials (percentage)
Aluminum 250 95Plastics 98 88Newsprint 29.8 34Corrugated Cardboard 26.5 24Glass 15.6 5Source:Roberta Forsell Stauffer of National Technical Assistance Service (NATAS), published in Resource Recycling, Jan/Feb 1989).
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Use Recycled Content Products and Use Recycled Content Products and MaterialsMaterials
High recycled content:
Paper on both the face and the back of all drywall is a 100% recycled product.
Structural steel uses mostly recycled material (though it is still energy-intensive and responsible for harmful pollutants.)
Example of an item that you can specify:
Armstrong ceiling tiles contain 79% recycled material (cornstarch, newsprint, mineral wool, recycled tiles). Both the ceiling tiles and the suspension systems can also be reclaimed and recycled rather than dumped in a landfill.
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Armstrong Ceiling TileArmstrong Ceiling Tile
Mineral fiber ceilings from renovation projects can now be efficiently reclaimed and reused through the Armstrong Ceilings Reclamation and Recycling Program.
Armstrong Ceiling Recycling Program: A solution for ceiling disposal
New Ceiling Customer's Facility
ArmstrongPlant
Old Ceiling Tile
Figure by MIT OCW.
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Separating WasteSeparating Waste
Photographs of construction waste (wood and concrete).
Images removed for copyright reasons.
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Web site dedicated to Construction & Demolition waste minimization: onSITE
http://onsite.rmit.edu.au/
Australia: Australia: Waste Avoidance and Waste Avoidance and Resource Recovery Act (2001)Resource Recovery Act (2001)
(Source of material for this lecture.)
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Ecological Comparison of MaterialsEcological Comparison of Materials
Each material has environmental advantages and disadvantages
Choice of material will depend on the site and design problem
Embodied energy is only one of many considerations
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Design MattersDesign Matters
19th Century: Efficient use of materials
20th Century: Maintenance matters
21st Century: End of life matters
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Demolition:Demolition:Lessons from HistoryLessons from History
Sustainable structures must consider the “end of life” of the structure
~24% of solid landfill waste in the US is generated by the construction industry
Up to 95% of construction waste is recyclable, and most is clean and unmixed
Source: 2002 Buildings Energy Databookhttp://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/
Photographs removed for copyright reasons.
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Two Extreme Approaches toTwo Extreme Approaches toSustainable StructuresSustainable Structures
1. Permanence: Very high quality construction, with materials which can be reused in future construction
2. Temporary: Less expensive construction, with a short life span. Materials must be low-impact.
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Designing for Permanence: The Designing for Permanence: The Roman TraditionRoman Tradition
Pons Fabricius in Rome, 62 BC
A series of photographs were removed for copyright reasons.
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Temporary Bridges: Temporary Bridges: The Inca TraditionThe Inca Tradition
Keshwachaka in Huinchiri, Peru ~1400 AD
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Inca Bridge Construction: Inca Bridge Construction: An Annual FestivalAn Annual Festival
Day 1: Ropes made from local grass or plant fibers
Day 2: Old bridge is cut and new ropes are installed
Day 3: Roadway and handrails are added and bridge is complete
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Grass Bridge Has Survived for 500 YearsGrass Bridge Has Survived for 500 Years
-Maintenance plan is tied to the community-Materials are locally available and environmentally sound
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Two Sustainable Bridge TypesTwo Sustainable Bridge Types
Inca suspension bridge Roman arch bridgeHigh stresses Low stressesHigh maintenance Low maintenanceShort lifetime Long lifetimeLow initial cost High initial costRenewable materials Reusable materialsLow load capacity High load capacity
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The Structure of the Future?The Structure of the Future?
Efficient: Materials are recycled, reusable, or low-energy
Maintainable: components can be replaced or improved or reused
Adaptable: Can respond to changing needs and loads throughout its lifetime
Traversina Bridge, Jorg Conzett
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Japanese Pavilion, Germany, 2000Japanese Pavilion, Germany, 2000
Recycled paper tubes
Minimal foundations
Recycled at end of the Expo
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StanstedStansted Airport TerminalAirport Terminal
Steel tubes can be disassembled
Modular system for adaptation
Can be recycled or reused at end of life
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The Importance of HistoryThe Importance of HistoryCase studies can illustrate successful and unsuccessful designs
The designs of yesterday are the problems of today
How do we design with the future in mind?
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Design Questions to ConsiderDesign Questions to Consider
In choosing structural system(s):
– Flexibility of plan? – Can your building be adapted for
alternative layouts?– Is the structural system economical?– Does it utilize local expertise?– How does the system help with natural
lighting, natural ventilation, or thermal performance?
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Design Questions to ConsiderDesign Questions to Consider
In choosing materials:
– What is the source for the materials?
– What happens at the end of life of the materials?
– Do the materials contribute to your other design goals? (transparency, thermal mass, etc.)
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BeddingtonBeddington Zero Energy Zero Energy Development (BedDevelopment (Bed--Zed), UK, 2001Zed), UK, 2001
www.bedzed.org.uk
Must consider site and building orientation to optimize daylight, ventilation, thermal insulation, etc.
Photographs removed for copyright reasons.
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Or you could treat architecture as Or you could treat architecture as sculpturesculpture……
Consideration of site and building orientation to optimize daylight, ventilation, thermal insulation, etc.???
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ConclusionConclusion
1. CONSTRUCTION
2. OPERATION
3. DEMOLITION
In choosing a structural system and the materials for a building, consider:
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‘‘Architects and engineers are the ones Architects and engineers are the ones who who deliver things to peopledeliver things to people’’
“We can only get there...if the key professionals who deliver things to people are fully engaged... [architects and engineers], not the politicians, are the ones who can ensure that sustainable development:– is operational– is made to work for people– delivers new ways of investing in our infrastructure, new ways
of generating energy and providing a built environment– delivers new ways of using consumer durables.
There is no point along the sustainable development journey at which an engineer will not be involved.
Royal Academy of Engineering, UK, June 2001
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Sustainable design is good designSustainable design is good design
Global responsibility of engineers in the United States
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ConclusionsConclusionsEach material has environmental advantages and disadvantages: good design is local
Recycle or reuse materials to decrease waste
Consider end of life in the initial design
History suggests sustainable solutions: Inkastructures (temporary) and Roman structures (permanent) can both be sustainable
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ConclusionsConclusionsConstruction industry generates enormous waste annually
Individual designers can reduce this waste significantly
Energy intensive materials like steel and concrete can be used more efficiently
Alternative materials should be explored
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Future ChallengesFuture ChallengesEducation of architects and engineers– Teaching design and analysis– Assessment of existing structures– Environment as a design constraint, not an opponent
Maintenance and disposal plan for new structures
Code improvements for the reuse of salvaged structures and new uses of traditional materials
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US Green Building Council:US Green Building Council:www.usgbc.orgwww.usgbc.org
Department of Energy: Department of Energy: www.sustainable.doe.govwww.sustainable.doe.gov
Further InformationFurther Information