sustainable clean energy session

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Session 1. Background of traditional energy sources Lesson 1: Uses of traditional (existing, long established) energy sources and increasing demand Definition of energy: Energy is the ability or capacity to do work. It is the strength of the body or mind e.g. to walk, carry a load, think etc which we get from eating food. Energy is the power derived from physical or chemical resources (living or non-living such as biomass, wind, sun, water) to provide light and heat or to work machines. What is biomass energy and what population depends on it? Biomass energy is the cheapest and the principal cooking fuel for majority of families in developing countries. Biomass is renewable organic materials, such as wood, agricultural crops or wastes, and municipal waste, especially when used as a source of fuel or energy. Close to half the world’s population (2.5 billion) depend on biomass energy for cooking and most of it (87%) is from woody biomass (IEA 2006). In sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), nine in every 10 (90%) of the population rely on firewood and charcoal (IEA, 2006). European Union countries generate more than 100,000 GWh of electricity from biomass every year, much of it derived from trees; there are plans to increase this in the future. Demand for energy will increase due to population growth, more people having limited access to energy supply grids and lifestyles becoming more energy demanding. Why do people use biomass energy and how do they source? Majority of poor households cannot afford to use or do not have access to electricity and other modern sources of cooking energy. For example for a household to use Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG) it requires a gas cooker and a gas cylinder that needs periodic refilling, which is not affordable for low income households. The price of kerosene is also increasing following the rise in prices of petroleum products. Many rural households use firewood which is cheap and easy to access. Firewood is also preferred for its numerous benefits such as, heat for warmth, opportunities for socio-cultural exchange of ideas, intergenerational learning, and socio-psycho support An open fire also offers opportunities for communal cooking, like the roasting of maize, bananas, roots and tubers. Firewood is also used in some industrial processes, such as curing tobacco and tea, production of bricks, as well as for cooking and heating in institutions such as schools. Sources of firewood include:

• forests, • shrub lands e.g. in drylands, • trees on farm • prunings from agricultural crops such as tea, coffee, fruit trees such as coconut, mangoes,

pears. Charcoal is mainly sourced from private farms in dry lands for sale to urban areas. It is preferred due to its higher energy content, ease of storage and transport, and lower smoke production

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compared to firewood although charcoal emits more carbon monoxide (Arnold et al., 2003; Girard, 2002). Other types of biomass energy include:

• animal dung popularly used by pastoralists, • tree by-products such as sawdust, coconut husks • and crop residue such as maize cob, maize Stover’s in their fresh form or briquetted.

Briquetting technology will be dealt with in a lesson to be taught later in this course. Energy from the sun Another form of traditional energy is the one from the sun. For decades communities have used energy from the sun in drying agricultural produce such as maize, beans, hides and skins, and various vegetables as a method of preservation. Later in this module we will see how technology is being used in turning the energy from the sun into electricity for cooking and lighting commonly referred to us solar energy. Energy from moving air (wind) and water Moving water has also been used for example in transporting logs of trees while air in motion (wind) dries clothes and is used in moving boats. These common abilities of moving water e.g. in rivers and moving air (wind) to do work is currently been used to produce electricity for cooking and lighting commonly known as hydro power and wind energy, respectively. Hydro power and wind energy will also be discussed later in the module. Lesson 2: Group work on types, benefits and challenges of traditional energy sources Type of traditional energy Benefits/uses Problems or concern

Guidelines for group work • Identification of types of traditional energy that are locally used in your area • What are the different uses of the different energy types • What are the problems or concern caused by the different types of traditional energy

Session 2. Implications of traditional energy on natural resource, climate change, livelihoods and public health Lesson 3: Implications of traditional energy on natural resources and climate change and how to resolve them

Use of biomass energy is not in itself a bad thing, However, there are some concerns: (i) sustainability due to the methods used to harvest wood ;(ii) inefficiency of the methods used to convert wood into charcoal; and (iii) inefficiency in the use of biomass energy. These concerns can be resolved through technology development. The concerns about biomass energy have to some extent led to biomass energy being ignored in the global debates on sustainable clean energy. This has been despite the benefits they provide to livelihoods and the environment and

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the potential they have as a renewable energy. Using biomass energy globally for example saves the world about 8% of CO2 emission from fossil fuels where SSA saved 2 Mt and India 121 (IEA 2011). Fossil fuels, on the other hand, were formed from plants and animals hundreds of millions of years ago and are not renewable within human timescale. (a) Unsustainability of harvesting of wood Unsustainable harvesting of wood such as cutting down of trees and shrubs for woodfuel without replanting, degrades land and communities lose the benefits they derive from trees (Box 1) they get from trees. Charcoal has more impacts on trees than firewood as the latter is mainly sourced from tree branches or dead wood while the former is commonly through cutting down of trees. What are the benefits of planting and harvesting trees sustainably for woodfuel (Box 1) Renewing woodfuel energy (firewood and charcoal) through conserving and planting trees Using trees to produce energy, could lead to development of truly renewable energy systems. For biomass energy carbon neutral status to be achieved, there is need to ensure that there is biomass that takes up the carbon - for example, carbon that is released during charcoal production or cooking. Practices of sustainable wood production and harvesting for woodfuel

• Establishment of plantations of fast growing tree species for large scale production

(i) provisioning of biological products such as fruits, nuts, vegetables and staples, feed for livestock, medicine and pesticides for people and livestock, oils, construction materials and wood fuel.

(ii) ecosystem supporting services e.g. through e.g. fixing atmospheric nitrogen (N) hence soil fertility management, soil moisture e.g. where deep roots bring water to the surface and biodiversity,

Figure 1 Faidherbia albida for soil fertility improvement in Tanzania. Photo by Mathew Mpanda (iii) regulating services on micro and macro climate by providing shade, air quality

through wind and dust control, water regulation and soil erosion by reducing speed of runoff and rain drops

(iv)cultural services through ecotourism

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• Planting and managing trees on-farm land, either on cropland or pastureland commonly referred to as agroforestry. Some agroforestry systems include planting trees (i) in a plot set aside for tree production known as a woodlots (ii) in hedgerows within the farm (iii) as a live fence (iv) along the boundaries of the farm (v) intercropped with crops (vi) intercropped with pasture

• Coppice management (harvesting of some branches and leaving others to grow) of native vegetation e.g. in dry lands

This is one initiative that Prof. Wangari Maathai was so keen on—tree planting to bring firewood close to the kitchen.

(b) Inefficiency in the methods of converting wood into charcoal Wood or biomass wastage: One of the major challenges facing sustainable charcoal production is the use of traditional inefficient kilns (carbonization techniques which is burning biomass under controlled oxygen) that yield in weight 10-20% which implies that 100kg of wood produce 10-20kg of charcoal resulting into wood wastage (Figure 2).

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Figure 2). (Left) Traditional carbonizing of coconut husks in India (Left) and wood in Kenya (Right). Photo Nelly Oduor Emissions: Inefficiency of kilns also results in heavy smoke containing greenhouse gases (GHG) and particles such as methane (CH4), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrous oxide (N2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) particulate matter (PM) that are harmful to the environment and people. The GHG trap heat reflected from the ground and make the planet warmer. The resultant of these increase in global temperature include rise in sea levels, change in the amount and pattern of precipitation, floods, drought, water borne diseases (Jian et al., 2007, Figure 3).

Figure 3 Drought and floods in dry lands of Eastern Africa http://www.ahmadiyyapost.com/2011/07/uk-52m-aid-for-africa-drought-crisis.html http://www.travelagentcentral.com/east-africa/flash-floods-strike-kenya-20163 Improving wood to energy conversion techniques One way of reducing wood wastage and emissions from charcoal production is by developing and adopting more efficient kilns. Work is going on in this field and improved kilns with about 30% yield are available (Odour et al., 2006, Figure 4). In developed countries such as Sweden wood to charcoal conversion methods applied by farmers have higher yields over 40% and the gases are used for heating the wood in the silos as well as heating houses. Some of the challenges however noted with adoption of improved kilns in developing countries are that they need more people to be operated and more capital to purchase as compared to traditional kilns.

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Figure 4: (Left )Masonry high efficiency improved mound kiln used at Kakuzi Ltd, Thika, Kenya . Photo by Mary Njenga. (Right): Charcoal production in Sweden. Photo by Örberg (c ) Inefficient biomass utilization practices Poor cooking techniques result in energy wastage and emissions. Traditional 3 stone stoves, for example consume more fuel compared to improved cooking stoves. The traditional 3 stone stove also produce more emissions than some of the improved stoves. Using wet firewood to cook consumes more wood and produces more smoke than dry wood. Kitchens with poor ventilation worsen the problem of smoke.

Figure 5. Traditional cookstoves Photos by Daniel Wanjohi (Left) and Miyuki Iiyama (Right) Efficiency in biomass utilization can be achieved through cleaner cooking technologies which will be addressed in a latter lesson. Lesson 4: Implications of traditional energy on livelihoods and public health and strategies to harness the benefits This lesson will start with a question and answer session on implications of traditional energy on livelihoods and public health followed by a 10 minutes lecture Women and their children carry the burden of sourcing cooking fuel. Sourcing firewood is a time consuming and exhaustive exercise that requires around two day per family per week. It strains the female calorific energy balance and thus affects women’s productivity. They are at

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risk of being attacked by wild animals and human beings. Young children involved in firewood collection often miss education opportunities, a situation that disproportionately affects girls. Carrying heavy firewood pieces loads on women and children’s back or head risk spinal, head and leg injuries (Figure 6). Surprisingly women find firewood collection as an opportunity to socialize as they spend most of their time in farms while their male counterparts are able to spend time with friends in social places such as hotels and alcohol selling places.

Figure 6. Women from fetching firewood at Naru Moru, Kenya. The challenges of accessing firewood could be addressed by having trees on-farm and adopting efficient use techniques. There are serious adverse consequences for health when biomass energy is used in inefficient cooking practices. Household indoor air pollution from biomass causes 4 million annual deaths globally, with women and children being the most affected as they spend a lot of time in the kitchen (Lim et al., 2012). Some of the illnesses include chronic obstructive pulmonary, lung cancer, eye problems, head ache, asthma, pneumonia, and stroke. Some practices that improve air quality in the kitchen during cooking with biomass:

• Use of improved cook stoves as compared to the traditional three stone which will be addressed later in the course

• Using well dried wood. Drying of firewood can be done under the sun or in the kitchen (Figure 7)

• Having a well-ventilated kitchen increases air circulation which drives away smoke. • Lighting mobile cook stoves outside and bringing them into the kitchen when smoking

stops and fuel has caught fire.

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Figure 7. Rafter used to dry firewood in the kitchen Woodfuels improve people’s livelihoods through income generation and creation of employment. The charcoal industry in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in 2007, was estimated to be worth >US$ 8 billion, involving seven million people in production and delivery. By 2030, the market is predicted to exceed US$ 12 billion, employing 12 million people (World Bank, 2011):. In comparison to other sectors in Kenya, charcoal is ranked fourth after tourism, horticulture, and tea. It represents an estimated annual market value of over Ksh32 billion (US$427m) and the number of charcoal producers alone is comparable to the government’s teaching work force of 234,800 (Mutimba and Barasa, 2005). Charcoal trade is legal in some countries, including Kenya where it is governed by the Forest Act 2005 and regulated by the Kenya Forest Service (KFS). In Uganda, charcoal trade is legal under Uganda Forest Policy 2001. Producers and traders are required to have production and transportation permits. The law requires that wood is produced sustainably and efficient methods are used in converting wood into charcoal (Gathui, 2011). However, the charcoal industry in Kenya is faced with a lot of corruption, especially due to poor understanding of the law.

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Box 2. Examples of best practices on firewood and charcoal entrepreneurship

• Large plantations for sustainable charcoal production in Brazil • Eucalyptus plantation at Kuza farm in Trans-Nzoia County which supplies firewood

to schools within the county. • In the Democratic Republic of Congo, about 8,000 hectares of Acacia auriculiformis a 8,000

to 12,000 tonnes of charcoal per year which generated, US$2.6 million and owners of the agroforestry plots earned at least a quarter. Most of it sold to meet the urban needs for renewable energy

• Production of charcoal from the invasive Prosopis juniflora in Maringat, Baringo, Kenya supported by Ministry of Energy and supervised by Kenya Forest Research Institute (KEFRI)

• On-farm planting of trees for charcoal production and use of efficient wood to charcoal conversion methods led by KEFRI in Bondo Kenya

Figure 7. Charcoal trade in Kenya (first and second from left) and firewood trade in Nairobi and Ethiopia (third and forth from left). Photos by Miyuki Iiyama first and fourth, Mathew Owen (second) and Mary Njenga (third).

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Session 3. The concept and need for sustainable clean energy Lesson 5. Sustainable clean energy approach and its importance What is sustainable energy? Sustainable energy balances the society, economy, and the environment. It is the supply and use of energy for economic development and the wellbeing of people with respect, wise use of resources while ensuring conservation and regeneration for future generations (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Components in sustainable energy development. http://www.dot.state.mn.us/sustainability/index.html What is clean energy? It is an energy supply whose utilization does not impair the environment and/or livelihoods. All types of energy have some degree of impact on environment and livelihoods but the magnitude differs. Some are cleaner than others. In the context of energy, the term cleaner is relative. What is renewable energy? It is energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as biomass, sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Why do we need sustainable energy? Each participant will write in a card one reason why we need sustainable energy

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Session 4. Innovations in sustainable clean energy There are different innovations (changes, improvements) being implemented in sustainable clean energy and this module discusses some of them- how they are produced and used and the maintenance of clean energy appliances, where applicable. Lesson 6. Fuel briquette production and use What are fuel briquettes? Briquettes are generally fist-sized balls made through the compression of biomass material into solid unit. Briquettes made from carbonized (burned under low oxygen) biomass materials have better quality that those made from fresh materials, such as sawdust. Briquetting of biomass is done using various techniques such as, manual machines, automated machines, or by hand. The biomass material is compressed either with or without the addition of binder/binding material. For biomass material that lacks sticking capacity, the addition of a binding agent, preferably material that is combustible is required in order to enable the formation of solid briquettes. The choice of biomass materials used in briquette production depends on what is locally available. Biomass materials used in briquette production include, rice husks, sugarcane bagasse, coconut husks, maize cob, water hyacinth, sawdust, charcoal dust and others. Common binders for briquette making include, starch, gum arabica, soil, animal dung and waste paper. Animal dung is sometimes used as the main raw material or as a binder. Quality of fuel briquettes

• Produce cooking fuel • Have a heating value between 14-25kJ/g that is more than that of firewood (14kJ/g) and

compares well with lump charcoal (25kJ/g). • They produce less emission depending on the raw materials used (Njenga et al., 2013).

For example charcoal briquettes made from charcoal dust (80%) and soil (20%) lower carbon monoxide (CO) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5) emissions by a third and a ninth, respectively, of what lump charcoal emits.

• The charcoal + soil briquettes are 9 and 15 times cheaper than lump charcoal and kerosene, respectively.

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Steps in briquette production and use use

(1) Sourcing raw materials a. As noted, briquettes can be made using different

materials such as charcoal dust, which can be sourced from charcoal traders, cow dung, and other organic waste.

b. Sourcing binders such as soil, paper (newsprints, printing paper, old exercises books) from institutions such as schools, offices. It is good if paper is sourced while shredded, if not it can be shredded by hand or using manual machines.

c. Sourcing water from wells, rivers, tap, borehole. (2) Producing raw materials

a. In case charcoal dust is not available fresh organic by-products such as sawdust, organic waste can be carbonized into charcoal dust using a drum kiln.

b. In case a binder is not readily available, organic residues can be composted

(3) Producing briquettes a. Sort and sieve charcoal dust, cow dung and compost to

remove impurities b. Grind coarse particles of charcoal dust c. Mix materials for different types of briquettes Charcoal dust + paper + water. -Soak the shredded paper for 3 hours -Mix charcoal dust with the soaked paper at 7:1 ratio (dry

weight). Ratio may change depending on type of paper and size of particles of charcoal dust

(i) Charcoal dust + soil or cow dung or compost -Mix charcoal dust +soil + water at 4:1 ratio -Mix charcoal dust + compost + water at 4:1 ratio -Mix charcoal dust + cow dung + water at 2:1-1:1 ratio d. Binding test Squeeze the mixed material in the hand and hold it between

the index finger and the thumb and shake. If it holds the binding agent is enough, if it falls apart add some more binding material.

e. Pressing or compacting briquettes (i) Press or compact mixed material or slurry in recycled

cans or bare palms (ii) Press or compact mixed material or slurry using manual

metal or wooden press (4) Drying

Place the briquettes on shelves, rooftops, or on ground. (5) Packaging and utilization

Package the individual pieces in tins, sacks or polythene bags. They are used like firewood or charcoal

http://www.planetforward.org/2013/10/14/cheaper-safer-cooking-with-biomass-briquettes Right: Figure 10. Briquette production and utilization chain

(1) Shredding papers

(2) Drum kiln for carbonizing

(3) (a) Sorting raw materials and (b)

grinding

(3c)Mixing materials and pressing

(4) Drying and (5) Utilization

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To start a briquette production plant requires about US$3 (Ksh.250) for the purchase of charcoal dust for small-scale production. This can produce about 450 pieces of hand-made charcoal dust + soil briquettes which sell at US$0.06 (Ksh.5). A wooden and metal press costs about Ksh.35,000 (US$412) and Ksh.45,000 (US$529), respectively. Exchange rate Ksh.85=1US$. Box 3. Examples of best practices in fuel briquetting by community groups and private sector

• Women and youth groups in Kibera, Kahawa Soweto, Kayole informal settlements in Nairobi, Nyeri, Naru Moru, Nakuru, Kisumu in Kenya where they use charcoal dust, sawdust, cow dung, soil and paper to make briquettes.

• Large-scale fuel briquette production and trade by chardust in Nairobi, Kenya

Figure 12. Briquette sale in Nairobi. Photo by Mathew Owen • Women and youth groups in Kampala and use banana leaves and peelings • Women groups and groups of disabled people in Mogadishu in Somalia use

charcoal dust and soil. • Dung cakes are made by mixing cattle dung with small pieces of sticks and grass

and dried in the sun and used for cooking in Ethiopia. In rural Ethiopia, farmers produce the dung cakes and sell them in urban areas. Cattle dung has heating value is over two times lower than firewood (ILCA, 1988).

Figure 13 Dung cakes and drying cow dung in Ethiopia and Egypt respectively for fuel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_animal_dung_fuel

Figure 11. (Left), Women selling briquettes at Kibera, Nairobi (Right): Briquette production is Sweden using piston method.

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Lesson 7. Group work on participants voices on applicability of briquette technology in their local conditions Guidelines for group work:

• What are the raw materials that can be used for briquette making • What market opportunities exist? • What are the 2 main challenges on its adoption

Lesson 8. Biogas production and uses Biogas is fuel consisting of a flammable gas called methane (45-65%), others components include carbon dioxide (25-45%) by volume and others in traces (Rakotojaona, 2013). It is produced through breaking down of organic materials in anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen) by specific bacteria. Biogas is used for cooking and lighting.

Figure 14 Gas cooker and lighting bulb using biogas. Photos by Kitala Jechoniah What materials can be used in production of biogas?

• Animal manure and slurry • Agricultural residues and by-products • Digestible organic wastes from food and agro industries (vegetable and animal origin) • Organic fraction of municipal waste and from catering (vegetable and animal origin) • Kitchen waste • Sewage sludge (human excrement)

How does the biogas production process work? The digestion process takes place in a physical structure called digester or bio-digester. There are different types of bio-digesters which are characterized by their different shapes, sizes and construction materials. Before the organic material is digested it is mixed with water in a mixing chamber. After the gas has been produced the material left commonly known as digestate is expelled out into another chamber before being taken to the farm for use as fertilizer as explained below and illustrated in figure 15.

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Components of a biogas production plant 1. Mixing chamber or dung inlet: where organic material is mixed with water before it is poured

into the bio-digester. Material should be in small pieces and mixing with water should be thorough to arrive at a homogenous consistency to facilitate digestion.

2. Digester chamber: where organic material mixed with water is fermented. Methane and other gases will be produced in the chamber and these gases will push manure and slurry at bottom of the floor into expansion chamber or slurry outlet.

3. Expansion chamber or slurry outlet: collects excess manure and slurry. When gas is being used, manure and slurry will flow back into digester chamber to push gas up for usage. When the excess manure exceeds the volume of the chamber, the manure will be drained out.

4. Gas outlet: A PVC pipe is fixed to the bio-digester and extracts the biogas to the house

Figure 15. Fixed dome based technology Photo by Rakotojaona (2013) (Left ) and SNV(Right) Fixed dome bio-digesters are the most commonly used as they:

• have a long lifespan of more than 20 years • Not easily damaged (underground) • Are easy to operate • Create jobs

Requirements for constructing and maintaining a biogas plant on-farm: (a) Organic material:

• Animals to produce the required organic waste • The minimal number of animals required are 2 heads of cattle, 4 pigs or 20 goats to

generate sufficient gas to meet daily basic cooking and lighting needs for a family. Table 1. Minimun number of animals to produce adequate gas to cook per day

Type of animal

Minimum number required per day

Dung production [kg/100kg of animal/day]

Biogas potential [liter of biogas/kg of fresh dung]

Biogas production per day (litres)

Cattle 2 8 35 560 Pig 4 4 51 816 Goat 20 4 35 2800

Source: Rakotojaona, (2013).

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• A digester of 4m2 would be adequate to produce the above daily required biogas. Two hundred and twenty and 130 litres of biogas per hour is required to cook and light, respectively.

• Only fresh organic material should be used and should be moist over 50% moisture content.

• The higher the dry material the higher the biogas and electricity. Agricultural manure has between 2-12% and food waste has 30% dry material and hence the latter has higher yields (Curry and Pillay, 2011).

• Remove non-organic material such as soil, pieces of wood from the organic material • Suitable mixing ration of dung to water is 1:1.

(b) Fill the mixture with organic waste and manage it in the bio-digester

• After the plant is built it is tested by filling with water which is left inside and the gas outlet is open to release the air-

• The organic material is then filled and the gas holding dome about 25% of the digester should not be filled with the organic material.

• After 7 days of the first addition, add the materials regularly on daily basis as shown below after which gas will be produced within 2-3 days.

Table 2 Amount of dung added into the digester on daily basis Size in cubic meters Dung in kilos Water in liters 4 30 30 6 45 45 8 60 60 10 90 90 12 100 100 Source: SNV

• Before adding the organic material gas should be released for use as high pressure in the digester slows down the flow of manure.

• The mixture should be stirred slowly and continuously with a wooden stick to avoid floating surface layer and sedimentation of suspended solids at the bottom of the digester.

• Suitable fermenting and breaking down time of manure is between 40-60 days (c ) Precautions to take to ensure effective working of the process

• The following chemicals should be avoided in the digester; antibiotic, pesticide, chemical fertilizer or other chemical products as they may damage bacteria that break down the organic materials.

• The effective temperature for bacteria to grow is 37o C. Higher or lower than the suggested temperature can destroy the bacteria thus affecting gas production. Shading under the bio-digesters should be avoided

• A pH between 7-8.5 is optimal. • The gas outlet should be protected from damage • Expansion chamber or outlet should be left open to allow flow of manure and the

chamber should be stirred once a week to avoid formation of crusts. • The animal enclosure should be about 5 metres away from biogas construction area.

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• Access to water about 20 meters from the bio-gas plant. • Bio-gas usage should be placed about 100 meters from the plant.

(c) Requirement to construct a biogas plant

• Determine the size of the bio-digester depending on availability of organic material Fresh manure/day x number of animal x 2 (for cow/buffalo) or x 3 (for Pig) x Retention time (60 days).

• Specialized expertise to construct the biogas plant • A budget for the materials and labour required to build bio-gas plant. • Time and labour in maintenance bio-gas plant • Investment cost for different sizes of digesters is shown in table 3

Table 3. Investment cost for different sizes of bio-digesters

ITEM DESCRIPTION 4m3 6m3 8m3 10m3 12m3 A General bulk Materials UNIT QTY TOTAL QTY TOTAL QTY TOTAL QTY TOTAL QTY TOTAL

1 Cement-50 kg bags 13 10400 17 13600 20 16000 22 17600 27 21600

2 Water proof cement-1kg bags 3 600 4.32 800 5.41 1000 6 1200 7 1400

3

Quarry stones dressed/Blocks-390x190x150mm pcs 145 5800 180 7200 220 8800 270 10800 290 11600

4 Bricks-230x110x90mm pcs 200 4000 260 5200 300 6000 340 6800 400 8000 5 Sand tonnes 2 3000 3 4500 4 6000 5 7500 6 9000 6 Ballast-25mm-1" tonnes 2 2400 2.3 2400 2.5 3600 3.5 4800 4 4800 7 Lime 25kg bags bags 2 500 2.5 750 3 750 3 750 4 1000

8 Square twisted bar-Y8/R8 lengths 5 2500 6 3000 7 3500 8 4000 9 4500

9 Round Bars-R6 lengths 2 600 3 900 4 1200 5 1500 5 1500 10 Binding wire kg 2 240 3 360 4.2 480 5 600 5.2 600 Sub Total 1 30040 38710 47330 55550 64000

B Assorted items + Piping fittings 0.3 9012 11613 0.3 14199 16665 19200

Sub Total 2 39052 50323 61529 72215 83200 C Labour Cost

1 Skilled labour person-day 7 7000 8 8000 9 9000 10 10000 12 12000

2 Unskilled labour person-day 7 3500 8 4000 9 4500 10 5000 12 6000

3 Sub Total 3 10500 12000 13500 15000 18000 Total 49552 62323 75029 87215 101200

Overhead, guarantee & after sales service(20%) ls 0.2 9910.4 12464.6 0.2 15005.8 17443 20240

Grand Total 60000 75000 90034.8 104658 121440 EUR Equivalent 590 740 890 1030 1200

Training Model Plant Cost (Ksh) 38050 48520 58930 68880 79600

US$ 448 571 693 810 937

Source: SNV

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Box 4. Examples of best practices on biogas production and use Lesson 9. Group work on participants voices on applicability of biogas technology in their local conditions Guidelines for the group work:

• What is the supply for organic materials that would be used for biogas energy • What are the 2 main challenges on its adoption in your area

• 7000 bio digesters have been constructed in Kenya through the Kenya National Domestic Biogas programme disseminated by SNV.

• Simon Mwangi, a farmer from Ruai, 55 km from Nairobi, is one user who appreciates the impact biogas has made on his life since he installed a digester a year ago. He used to spend almost $100 a year on four 12 kg Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) tanks. “I quarreled a lot, urging my family to economise,” he said. Now, his 12 cubic-metre biogas system saves him time and money, and he even heats water for showers, without wincing at the cost as he did when using LPG. He adds 200 litres of dung and water for more gas when needed. “It has made my life so easy I rarely use firewood to cook,” he said. A fish farmer, he puts the slurry that is a biogas by-product into his ponds to grow food for his tilapia.

• The Visionary Empowerment Programme (VEP), a 7,000-member micro-finance organisation based in Thika, 40 km from Nairobi, began making biogas loans in 2010, and targets farmers and women entrepreneur groups. The number of women applying for loans has increased by an annual average of 13 percent, it says. Of the 1,111 biogas plants it has helped finance, 733 have been for women. The acts as a guarantor for the woman to get a loan, and repayment rates average 98.5 percent. Repayments are made in equal monthly instalments over two years, plus 1 percent per month interest on the reducing balance. Source: Renewable Energy-Biogas, SNV

• Biogas production from municipal organic waste and use in fueling vehicles in Sweden. Households sort waste streams e.g. metal, organic, plastic before disposal

Figure 16. Biogas production and use in vehicles in Sweden

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Lesson 10. Solar Energy Need for complimentary and clean source of electricity Kenya case: The electricity sub-sector experiences several challenges as was identified in a recent workshop on energy in Kenya (Institute of Economic Affairs, 2013):

• Dependence on one main source of electricity. E.g. Kenya’s 50% of electricity is from hydropower which is affected by weather resulting into rationing.

• Inadequate supply • Weak transmission and distribution network - high power losses • Low investments by private investors • It is expensive, high electricity bills • High cost of rural electrification e.g. Kenya Ksh35,000 (US$412) Exchange rate of

Ksh85. is required for connection to the main grid • Low access and connectivity. Only few households are connected to electricity

Solar is the Latin word for sun. Solar energy is the energy radiated by the sun inform of heat or light. One of the commonly used solar energy technologies is the solar photovoltaic (PV) which converts sunlight into electricity using solar cells. Solar cells are building blocks of solar module/panel and produce small amounts of electricity. The solar modules/panel are connected into PV array for large scale production of electricity (Figure 17).

Figure 17 Solar PV cells, PV module/panel and PV panel array. Illustration by Energizing Development (endev), Kenya County Program, SNV and GIZ. Requirements for installing solar energy and maintenance: • Solar panels should be kept clean and if they are tilted at 15% have advantage of rainfall

cleaning them and should be unshaded e.g. by trees or buildings • Monitor the amount of electricity generated to familiarize one with what to expect and detect

when something might be wrong. • Solar panels can last up to 25 Years • Need batteries to store the electrical energy (Direct Current) in the form of chemical energy.

The batteries require replacement after about 2 years. The stored electrical energy is used during low radiation or at night.

• Need a controller to regulate battery to avoid over charging or discharging which would damage the battery

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• PV cells generate DC power and the batteries can store only DC power. Hence a PV system inverter to change DC into alternating current (AC) is needed as most appliances operate on AC.

Installation and maintenance of solar panels system requires technical expertise. Solar energy can be produced as solar home systems for household use such as lighting and powering electronics. It can also be produced as stand-alone solar PV systems e.g. for street lighting, billboards or meteorological stations (Figure 18)

Figure 18 Solar home systems or stand-alone PV system. Illustration by Energizing Development (endev), Kenya County Program, SNV and GIZ. It is also produced at large scale for income generation such as connection to the national or mini grid (Figure 19).

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Figure 19 Grid connected solar PV system. Illustration by Energizing Development (endev), Kenya County Program, SNV and GIZ. It can also be produced under small solar systems/Pico PV systems with power output of 1-10W e.g. solar lanterns which are cheap, available over the counter, portable, easy to operate and have bright light and are used for lighting, mobile phone charging, powering small radios or music players. Many organization and entrepreneurs are involved with the portable solar lights (PSLs) segment addressing the lighting needs of the Base of the Pyramid (BOP). A small solar system has a solar panel that generates electricity from the sun, a battery pack that stores the generated electricity and appliances such as phone charger and lamp using the electricity (Figure 20)

Figure 20 Components of a small solar system/ pico system Illustration by Energizing Development (endev), Kenya County Program, SNV and GIZ.

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Examples of small solar systems are shown in Figure 21

Figure 21 Small solar system. Illustration by Energizing Development (Endev), Kenya County Program, SNV and GIZ. The Endev training manual for solar entrepreneurs identifies some of the challenges in small solar systems as follows:

• Low power output • They use batteries that require replacement • Some of the systems fail to meet the quality standards and can have materials that may

harm the environment, poor lighting may pose a health risks through strained visibility during usage. Quality control is important, in Kenya for example, it is carried out by Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS) and their mark is found on products whose quality has been verified. Lighting Africa a joint IFC and World Bank initiative based in Nairobi tests and approves small solar systems for its programs according to a standard protocol. Approved systems can be found in their website (www.lightingafrica.org). These systems also have a warranty and manuals on use and handling, basic troubleshooting and technical support is provided by traders.

• Relatively high initial cost: for example, a quality solar lamp requires upfront investment of US$ 10-150. Organizations such as SNV are working with the rural distributors to develop innovative financing mechanisms such as check off systems, micro finance and lay-away payments to allow households to purchase the lamps. Many governments are zero-rating import duty and have removed Value Added Tax (VAT) on renewable energy equipment and accessories.

• Low awareness on its benefits (RoK, 2011). Many organizations are working with grassroots communities, the media, among other stakeholders, to create awareness about the benefits of solar energy.

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Table 4. Operational aspects of small solar systems that can be handled by end users or entrepreneurs Description Implication Remedies Shading Shading a solar panel

makes it capture less energy

Not charge the battery adequately

Ensure the solar panel is not shaded

High temperature High temperature degrade the battery

Reduce the lifespan of the battery.

Do not place the battery in direct sun.

Dirty solar panel Caused by dust and particles

Solar panel capture less energy hence battery not fully charged

Clean solar panel with water and soft cloth put it in a place free of dust. Do not use soap or detergent to wash solar panel

Careless handling/storage/installation of the system

Solar panel is made of glass and may break if it falls. Internal electronics of the battery may malfunction if dropped. Cables are delicate and prone to cuts and disconnection

Failure of the system. Broken glass may cause cuts

Install/handle/fix the components of the solar system properly and keep children away from the system

Inadequate charging It occurs when the system is not charged for the recommended duration normally 8-10 hours

Inadequate energy stored in the battery limiting the duration of use

Charge battery for the recommended duration

Using the system for the wrong purpose

Each product is designed for specific tasks. Problem if solar system meant for light and phone charging is used for radio

Damage to the product and malfunctioning e.g. providing light for less hours

Use the product for the right purpose as indicated in the manual

Repair by non-qualified people

Opening and repairing of solar systems by end users of non-authorized technicians

Permanent failure and loss of warranty

Repair should be done by qualified and authorized technicians

Accessibility to children Children playing with the products

Damage the product

Keep children away from the products and let them know that playing with the products may damage them

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Description Implication Remedies Exposure of some of the components to harsh weather conditions e.g. rainfall

Solar panels are weather resistant unless specified by manufacturer. Rainfall or too hot sun may damage the product

Permanent failure due to short circuit e.g. when water enter into the battery.

Do not place the battery and the lamps in the rain or direct sunlight

Exposing the cables to situations prone to cuts

Occurs when cables are passed through areas prone to cuts e.g. through the window while charging

Cable/wires can be damaged disconnecting the panel or lamps

Avoid passing cables through areas they are prone to cuts

Exposure to animals When products are stepped on by animals the entire system or part of it is damaged

Products failure Avoid exposing the products to animals

Improper connection of the battery/cables/lamp

This occurs if connections fail to adhere to instructions provided in the manual

Product fail to function in case of improper connection

Connection should be done in accordance to instructions in the manual

Source: Energizing Development (endev), Kenya County Program, SNV and GIZ. Technology dissemination model Kenya case: Organizations such as SVN link distributors to rural traders and rural traders to end users. Distributors train rural traders and follow up on quality control and technical backup. The Rural traders provide financial facilities and after sale service to end users. Box 5. Examples of best practices on solar systems entrepreneurship

• Examples of lighting products that use solar available on the Kenyan market include those approved by Lighting Africa and cost for example between Ksh 2200 and Ksh11,100 (15 and 75 £ at exchange rate of 148Ksh), with a 6-month warranty, provide light up to 8 hours a day and have a phone charging facility.

Figure 22. A trader displays the Firefly 12 Mobile Lamp in Nandi. Photo by SVN

• Examples of grid connected solar PV system in Kenya include the 515kW at UNEP, Gigiri, Nairobi, Kenya and 60kW plant at SOS children’s home in Mombasa.

• Visionary Empowerment Programme (VEP), a local NGO based in Thika that has a successful microcredit programme for its over 7,000 women group members drawn from Central and eastern provinces in Kenya. The organization has started a micro leasing programme for cookstoves and solar lanterns and has made sales worth over Ksh 15m (US$ 200,000) in 2012. Source: www.snvworld.org

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Lesson 11. Group work on participants voices on applicability of solar energy technology in their local conditions Guidelines for the group work:

• What is the demand for solar energy in your area and for what purpose • What are the 2 main challenges on its adoption in your area

Lesson 12: Wind energy What is wind energy? Wind energy is energy produced from the motion of the wind (kinetic energy) and the blades of the wind turbines transform the kinetic energy into electricity (Mathew, 2006). Box 6. Examples of best practices on wind energy Challenges with wind energy Wind energy mostly has been carried out by private companies as it requires wind measurements before starting of the project, high initial capital and technical maintenance. Although wind energy is renewable, is compatible with crop farming and livestock production, and produce no emissions it has negative environmental effects. For example the turbines kill birds which fly into them, degrades wildlife habitat, affect temperatures within the vicinity due to turbulence created by turbines and may cause noise.

• The grid connected Ngong Power Station wind farm is located on Ngong hills in Nairobi and began with two wind turbines commissioned in 1993 as a donation from the Belgian Government. The two turbines were retired and a second phase was commissioned in August 2009 and has 6 turbines with a capacity of 5.1 MW of power and annual generation of 12GWh. The other partner is Kenya Electricity Generating Company (KenGen) who plan to expand to 25.5 MW (Institute of Economic Affairs, 2013)

Figure 23. Ngong hills Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngong_Hills_Wind_Farm#mediaviewer/File:Kengen_windpower_ngong.jpg

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Lesson 13. Group work on participants voices on applicability of wind energy technology in their local conditions Guidelines for the group work: (i) What is your general view on the potential for applicability of wind energy technology in your area (ii) What are the 2 main challenges on its adoption. Lesson 14. Small-scale hydro power production and use What is hydro power? Hydro power is electricity generated from the energy of falling or running water. In Kenya this accounts to about 50% of electricity. Small hydropower (SHP) schemes Pico, micro and mini, hydro power plants are small-scale electricity production plants. In most cases, no dam or reservoir storage is involved in these schemes and mainly use running of rivers. Type of small hydro power Small hydro power plants upper limit is 10,000kW (SHP definition supported by ESHA and the European Commission) and for large countries such as India and China this rises to 25000kW and 50,000kW respectively. Policies support SHP and in Kenya for instance a project producing less than 100 KW does not require permit. There is need to check with environmental government bodies on requirements for Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The SHP schemes can be implemented for whole sale power by private sector or self-generation. Challenges of small scale hydro electricity • High installation cost and average of US$3000 • Require technical expertise mostly from outside the local community • local capacity to manufacture small hydropower components like turbines and electronic load

controllers • Inadequate hydrological data,

Box 7 Type 1 • Pico-hydro and produce electricity below 5kW

and micro-hydro below 100kW. • Are used in developing countries and provide

electricity to communities where grid connection is missing.

• Electricity is supplied directly to households and a local load (frequency and voltage) controller is necessary.

• Are designed on a household basis or at village level often involving local materials and labour

Box 8 Type 2 • Mini-hydro and produce

electricity below 100-1000kW.

• Are grid connected for control of frequency and voltage.

• They require traditional engineering approaches.

• Need access road for delivery of construction materials and heavy electro-mechanical equipment

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Box 9. Examples of best practices on hydro energy Lesson 15. Group work on participants voices on applicability of hydro energy technology in their local conditions Guidelines for the group work

• What is your general view on the potential for applicability of hydro energy technology in your area

• What are the 2 main challenges on its adoption.

• The Tungu-Kabiri community hydro project, around Mt. Kenya

Figure 24. Tungu-Kabiri SHP Source: http://microhydropower.net/ke/Tungu-Kabiri/

About 200 members of the community formed a micro hydropower plant commercial enterprise and each individual bought a share in the company, with a maximum share value of about US$50. The members also contributed labour, dedicating every Tuesday for over a year to the construction work, which was overseen by the MoE and ITDG. The micro hydropower plant is owned and managed by the community and day-to-day operations are managed by a 10-member community power committee, and this committee also conducts consultations with the wider community about how the power generated from the system should be used. The electricity is currently used mainly for household supply and micro-enterprises, such as a welding unit, a battery-charging station, mobile charging and a beauty salon.

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Session 5: Cleaner cooking technologies Lesson 16: Traditional cooking practices and their challenges Improving on biomass energy cooking technologies is one of the major steps in enhancing the wellbeing of majority of people in developing countries. Efforts towards development of cooking technologies in biomass energy have not had the desired impacts. First they are faced with opposition which is associated to their contribution to household indoor air pollution that kills millions of people every year, mostly women and children (Figure 25). Second some of the biomass energy utilization practices such as the traditional three stone cooking system not only cause smoking but is also wastage of fuel.

Figure 25. Traditional cookstoves Photo by Daniel Wanjohi (Left) and Mary Njenga (Middle and Right)

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Lesson 17: Why pay attention to end users consideration in development of cleaner cooking technologies Some of the uses of energy from cook stoves, besides cooking include

• space/water heating, • light in houses, • heat for processing food such as smoking and roasting meat, green maize, roots and

tubers. End users’ needs which are crucial for consideration in cleaner cooking with biomass energy include:

• Technology that saves on fuel, cooking time and reduce emission • Cooking practices that allow families to maintain their cooking habits e.g. roasting maize,

tubers, bananas (Figure 25) or adjusting heat e.g. by pushing in or withdrawing firewood. • Societal and cultural norms such as allowing families to sit around fire • Spill-over effects such as space heating and insect repellant

Ingwe-Musungu et al., (2014) • Gender relations. e.g. the women use the cookstoves at home while men might be the

ones giving the money to purchase hence they need to understand the benefits of improved cooking technologies

• Type and availability of fuel to be used. If fuel is cheap and available there is less need for improved cooking technologies

These factors affect behavioural change in adoption of improved cooking technologies.

Figure 26. Improved cook stoves. Photos by Mary Njenga A gasifier burns fuel e.g. firewood, maize cob, coconut husks under controlled oxygen, the gases are used as a source of cooking energy. The fuels goes through incomplete combustion resulting into charcoal instead of ash (Figure 27). Oxygen flow is controlled using a small door. Under normal circumstances, charcoal is ready when the flame goes off. The gasifier uses less fuel, cooks faster and causes less emissions, than an improved cook stove and the three stone stove. It burns cleaner as fuel is burned under high temperatures and the hot gases are used to cook (Hanna and Lovisa, 2014).

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Figure 27. Gasifier (Left) turning Grevellia rubusta prunnings into charcoal (Middle) during cooking of maize flour (ugali) and kale (sukuma wiki) and the charcoal (second generation fuel) is used for cooking (Right). Photos by Mary Njenga Box 10. Examples of women entrepreneurship in improved cookstoves

1820 grams firewood 349 grams charcoal 390grams charcoal

• Selling energy efficient stoves in rural Tanzania

Figure 28. Verediana displaying her work on improved cook stoves Through dedicated training and support, GVEP has helped her business take off. She now boasts a sound business plan that looks at cash flow, sales projections, product costing, marketing and risk assessment. Thanks to her business plan, she knows how much she earns and what share of her income to reinvest in her business on a monthly basis. Today she produces about 10 stoves a day and often sells a load every two weeks at the local market. Over the last year she has made an average of 27,000 Tanzanian Shillings a month (about US$300) from sales alone. When the opportunity arises, she takes part in trade fairs to market her products further. In this family business, her children help her to transport and sell the stove in the local markets. "Since receiving training and business development support, I adapt my products to my customer's needs and listen carefully to what they have to say. I no longer wait for them to turn up at my door step but I go out to find potential new markets and this has helped to increase my sales", says Verediana. Source: http://www.gvepinternational.org/en/business/improved-cookstoves

Veradiana Salala lives in Mbela, a small village about 50 Kms from Mwanza, Northern Tanzania. She is a small producer of energy efficient cookstoves. Had you asked her, two years ago, what net profit she was making from the sales of her stoves, she would not be able to answer. This is because she did not keep any records of her income, or expenditure.

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With efforts for over 40 years why do majority of households using biomass energy still use traditional cookstoves? Group work on the performance of improved and traditional cook stoves based on the below criteria Table 5. Qualities of good cook stoves

Criteria Traditional cook stoves Improved cookstoves Save fuel Save cooking time Good heating of the house/space Roasting of roots, tubers Less emissions (smoke) Easy to handle Capital to purchase the cook stoves Low technological knowhow on how they function and are operated. Easy to learn and

For each criterion use either (i) Good or (ii) Not good options only Session 6: Benefits of sustainable clean energy innovations Lesson 18: Discussions led by one of the trainees on a list of benefits of sustainable clean energy innovations.

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Summary on benefits of sustainable clean energy innovations

Economic a. Require low capital and the technology is easy to learn e.g.

fuel briquette. Others such as biogas, solar and wind may require high capital and technological support.

b.Employment creation through the enterprise of disseminating skills, selling of appliances and production

c. Supply of cheaper and cleaner cooking and lighting energy d.Foreign exchange saving on importation of fuel e. Can be used to earn income through carbon credit f. The lighting improves on education by allowing children to

study in the evening g.Income generation through sale of fuel. For example in

Kenya the policy provides for supply of solar power at fixe tariff below US cents 20.0 per Kilowatt hour electrical energy supplied in bulk to the grid operator at the connection point.

h.Generate income from running small scale enterprises that uses electricity such as food processing e.g. milling rice and maize, value addition

i. Reduces cost of purchasing water to scrub utensils

Figure 30. Pots after cooking for three hours with (left) charcoal briquette (middle) lump charcoal and (right) Kerosene. Photos by Mary Njenga j. They are decentralized conceding with dispersed nature of

population

Social-cultural and human capital a. Biomass fuel such as

firewood, allow families to socialise around fire.

b.Community involvement

c. Create social networks through self-help groups which also get connected to other organizations- universities, non-governmental organizations, policy makers, donors.

d.Saves time, calorific energy spent in sourcing cooking fuel which is used on other productive activities

e. Technical skills improved

f. Improve communication

Health and nutrition a. Health: Having lower emissions results into reduced health risks associated with smoke from kitchens. b.Nutrition: Affordable fuel allows families to cook whatever food type they chose and cook it well,

without worrying about the cost of energy. Boiling common beans Phaseolus vulgaris takes a long period of time and where poor families exclude them in their menu fail to cook them well. ‘Cooking made us human’ (Wrangham, 2009). Cooking improves, tenderness, texture and digestibility of food hence higher energy benefits. It also improves taste, smell, colour, makes food safer by reducing harmful bacteria and preserves it.

Environmental (a) Improves soil through use of the digestate from bio-digesters as plant fertilizer (b) Reduce pollution. absorbing organic waste reduce waste from dry cell batteries

(c ) Saves trees (d) Reduce risks of fires e.g. from kerosene lamp (e) Mitigate climate change

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Session 7: Trainee’s recommendations on sustainable clean energy Lesson 19: Trainee’s recommendations on sustainable clean energy Group work Five group works to discuss challenges and what can be done for effective development and adoption of (i) biomass (firewood, charcoal, farm residues) energy (ii) fuel briquettes (iii) biogas (iv) solar and wind energy and (v) improved cooking technologies Type of sustainable clean energy

What needs to be done for effective development and adoption

Biomass energy Fuel briquettes Biogas Solar energy and wind energy Improved cooking technologies Each group to identify 2 recommendations on what needs to be done for development and adoption of sustainable clean energy innovations. Plenary discussions After the plenary discussions, a sub group will be identified to synthesis the challenges identified in each type of energy and recommendations for development and adoption of sustainable clean energy. This will later in the course be adopted as the training of trainer’s course on sustainable clean energy declaration made at the Green Belt Movement Training Centre.

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