sushi history
DESCRIPTION
A book designed for Type 2 on the history of sushi in Japan.TRANSCRIPT
SUSHI | すし
Published and distributed by
California College of the Arts Publishing Group
Book Design by Jen Allender
© 2010 California College of the Arts Publishing Group
The copyright on the images and text is held by the
respective contributors.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in retrieval systems or transmitted
in any way for or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or any information
storageand retrieval system without permission in writing
from the copyright owner(s).
First Editon
ISBN 545–421–32796–8–2
Printed and bound in San Francisco, CA
SUSHI | すし
Jen Allender
California College of the Arts
Publishing Group
CONTENTS
むかし、むかし
いただきます
10
20
28
40
50
56
57
ONE | HISTORY
TWO | INGREDIENTS
THREE | VARIETY
FOUR | PRESENTATION
FIVE | ETIQUETTE
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
8
9
ONE | HISTORY
SU
SH
I 12
Long, Long AgoSushi’s origin dates back to the 4th century BC in Southeast Asia.
As a preserved food, the salted fish, fermented with rice, was an
important source of protein. The cleaned and gutted fish were
kept in rice so that the natural fermentation of the rice helped
preserve the fish. This type of sushi is called nare–zushi, and was
taken out of storage after a couple of months of fermentation,
and then only the fish was consumed while the rice was discarded.
Over time, it spread throughout China, and later, around the
8th century AD, in the Heian period, it was introduced into Japan.
Since Japanese preferred to eat rice together with fish, the sushi,
called seisei–zushi, became popular at the end of Muromachi
period. This type of sushi was consumed while the fish was still
partly raw and the rice had not lost its flavor. In this way, sushi
became more of a cuisine rather than a way to preserve food.
Later in Edo era, Japanese began making haya–zushi, which
was created as a way to eat both rice and fish; this dish was
unique to Japanese culture. Instead of being only used for fermen-
tation, rice was mixed with vinegar and combined not only with
fish but also with various vegetables and dried preserved foods.
Today, each region of Japan still preserves its own unique taste
by utilizing local products in making different kinds of sushi that
have been passed on for generations.
At the beginning of the 19th century, when Tokyo was still
called Edo, the food service industry was mostly dominated by
mobile food stalls, from which nigiri–zushi originated. Edomae,
which literally means “in front of Tokyo bay,” was where the fresh
ORIGINS OF SUSHI
ON
E |
HIS
TO
RY
13
fish and tasty seaweed for the nigiri–zushi were obtained. As a
result, it was also called edomae–zushi, and it became popular
among the people in Edo after Yohei Hanaya, a creative sushi
chief, improved it to a simple but delicious food. Then, after the
Great Kanto earthquake in 1923, nigiri sushi spread throughout
Japan as the skilled edomae–zushi chefs from Edo, who had lost
their jobs, were diffused all over Japan.
As time passed and many of the Japanese and Chinese
cultures crossed, Sushi became a popular food choice in both
countries. Throughout the cities, you would find food stands where
various types of Sushi were sold. In fact, during intermission at
the various theaters, Sushi was sold as a snack much like the pop-
corn sold in today’s theaters. Since Sushi was easy and quick to
make, it became a staple for most households in the 19th Century
to accommodate the busy lifestyles of the Japanese people.
Eventually, a food shortage in Japan changed the way in which
Sushi was made. Rather than throw the rice out, it was now eaten
along with the fish. Additionally, the fermentation process was
shortened so the fish although still safe to eat, was a little on the
raw side. Because the fermentation process was shortened, the
Sushi had a slightly sour taste, which people loved. As people
began experimenting, they discovered that by making the rice
with a little vinegar the same sour taste was produced and better
yet, the fermentation time was dramatically reduced to one or
two days.
In the 1980s, in the wake of increased health consciousness,
sushi, one of the healthiest meals around, has gotten much more
attention; consequently, sushi bars have increased in the United
A sushi stall in the Edo periold.
SU
SH
I 14
A sushi shop in Tokyo in 1930. The stall, once on wheels, now forms the right side of the front of the shop. The young man with the bicycle delivered sushi to homes and offices.
the mass production of sushi with the delicate skills used by sushi
chefs, making and selling sushi has become more accessible to
countries all over the world.
What began as a means of preserving fish has turned into a
multi–billion dollar industry with thousands upon thousands of
sushi restaurants dotting the country. If you have never eaten
The great thing about eating sushi is that it can be eaten as an
appetizer or main course in a fine Japanese restaurant or snacked
on at home. Being loaded with rich nutrients and low in calories,
sushi makes the perfect food. For this reason, sushi is served
in homes and restaurants around the world every day.
The three main categories of Sushi include Nigiri, which is a small
rice mound topped with cooked or raw fish, Temaki, hand rolled
cones of seaweed that are filled with rice, vegetables, and fish,
and Norimaki or Maki, which is a combination of rice along
with fish and/or vegetables all rolled up in dried seaweed, with all
three having the same foundation of vinegar rice. For each of
these categories, the preparation is as unique as the presentation
or serving.
Food and NaturePerhaps one of the defining features of the Japanese cuisine is the
relationship that exists between how food is used and nature.
Where possible, food is eaten in as natural a state as possible, as
this is considered the best, if not the only, way to experience the
true taste of food. This is at the heart of the Japanese philosophy
of eating. So the fish and shellfish caught in the seas of Japan
are often eaten raw, or only very lightly cured with vinegar or salt.
ON
E |
HIS
TO
RY
15
A map of Tokyo during the Edo Period.
Likewise, fresh, seasonal agricultural products are only lightly
cooked to preserve their bite and flavor, or they may be slightly
salted. How and what people cook is also highly influenced by the
season and by local produce. As a result, Japan is home to many
delicious regional dishes.
To further maintain the purity of food, Japanese cooking
rarely mixes different food types, and sauces are normally served
in separate dishes as dipping condiments. This is in contrast to
the practices of many other cuisines which use long, slow cook-
ing techniques, often with the addition of sauces and spices, so
that the food becomes something very different from the raw
ingredients. The Japanese aesthetic regarding food and drink may
be described in artistic terms, and Japanese cooking can be com-
pared to the famous ukiyo–e woodblock prints. The striking beauty
of ukiyo–e lies in its economy of line and simplicity, and it is this
same elegant minimalism that is found in all good Japanese cook-
ing. The unique approach of Japanese chefs to their food inspired
French chefs in the 1970s to develop nouvelle cuisine, where food
was artistically arranged on the plate.
However, nouvelle cuisine became notorious for its overemphasis
on presentation rather than the size of the serving, forgetting that
Japanese meals consist of several,not just a few, small dishes.
Taste and TextureEating uncooked fish strikes many Westerners as barbaric and
somehow indecent, but this attitude usually disappears with
the first brave bite. Part of the instinctive Western uneasiness
is due to the ugly word “raw,” with its misleading suggestion of
SU
SH
I 16
something coarse and tough. To overcome the initial reluctance of
my friends, I remind them that sashimi is sometimes the first sold
food served by Japanese hospitals to patients who have been on a
liquid diet. The fact is that raw fish as the Japanese eat it does
not taste or smell fishy. In a blindfold test the skeptic would
not have the faintest idea he was eating fish; he would probably
assume that his chunk of raw tuna was a cube of refrigerated rare
roast beef.
Sashimi is the Japanese umbrella term for raw fillets of fish
eaten by itself, usually dipped in soy sauce and a special pungent
horseradish. Sushi consists of balls of vinegared rice garnished
either with a strip of raw seafood or with cooked shrimp, cooked
fish, vegetables, seaweed or egg.
By far the most popular sashimi fish is maguro, tuna, both
the fatty pink meat and the red lean, and the Japanese prefer
it is spring or early summer. It appears before you in a shallow
porcelain bowl, five or six juicy–looking, squarecut little red slabs,
leaning on each other like fallen dominoes and decorated with sliv-
ers of green cabbage or whiteradish. Alongside, bedded on a tiny
slice of radish, you find a tab of wasabi, the hot, green horserad-
ish paste.
For the right presentation, sushi should be served on authentic
Japanese dishes. Although the dishes do not have to match,
they should all have a Japanese influence. If you do not have any
Japanese dishes, dark colored platters or plates are most accept-
able. If a group of people order from a sushi bar or restaurant, or
if you have a group of friends over for dinner and serve a variety
of sushi types, you would use a communal platter.
ON
E |
HIS
TO
RY
17
With the introduction of sushi machines, which combine in
this situation, a nice presentation would be to serve the Norimaki
sushi in groups of four and nigiri in pairs, or whatever combina-
tion you prefer as long as it is in even numbers. Keep in mind
that if you serve Temaki or Norimaki rolls, you should serve them
to your guests first as the ingredients can cause the seaweed to
become soggy.
For any type of sushi, the seasonings used are crucial. The
two main types of condiments served are soy sauce and wasabi
sauce, which is Japanese horseradish and quite hot. Some people
in the United States have discovered that mixing a little soy
sauce with the Wasabi is delicious. However, this is taboo in
Japan. Along with these, pickled ginger slices are served but only
as something to cleanse the palette between eating the differ-
ent Sushi varieties. For instance, if you were to eat Ebi, which is
shrimp, you would take a small bite of the ginger to cleanse the
palette before you moved to the Unagi sushi, which is eel.
Remember that it is perfectly fine to serve a communal plat-
ter of sushi but every person should receive his or her own dish
containing each of the condiments. If you are having a sushi party
for people who have never enjoyed the taste and experience of
sushi, a simple card with eating instructions can be placed at each
setting advising the guests that the sushi should be dipped with
the seaweed side and not the rice, which prevents it from soaking
up too much of the condiment of choice.
Japanese Koi fish
Rice farmers in the Edo period.
TWO | INGREDIENTS
RIC
E +
FIS
H2121
SU
SH
I 22
RICE + FISH
Varieties of sushi rice
Tako (octopus)
Rice: A Staple Food for AllIn Japan, rice is so important that the word for cooked rice,
gohan or meshi, also means meal. It not only plays a major
part in Japanese cooking, but, since its introduction in the 2nd
century BC., rice and its cultivation have been the very foundation
of the nation itself. Rice was probably introduced to Japan from
Southeast Asia, and the earliest evidence of crop production was
found in village settlements dating from around the 2nd century
BC to the 2nd century AD. Rice cultivation revolutionized life in
the western region of Japan, and from there soon spread further
east. The first nation, Yamato, was formed in the west in the 4th
century; the first known historical record book mentions “brewed
sake” (an alcoholic drink made from fermented rice) being pre-
sented to the Tenno (emperor) and a definition of “refining rice”.
From the 8th to the 12th centuries, when aristocratic culture
blossomed, rice became firmly established as a staple food,
cooked in various ways for the upper classes, although the major-
ity of the population was dependent on other lesser quality grains
such as millet. It was the popularity of rice that led to the develop-
ment of other basic accompaniments, such as seasonings and
sauces, and of various cooking techniques. The aristocratic class
also contributed to the establishment of eating etiquette, which
subsequently influenced cha–kaiseki, the meal served at the tea
ceremony, and later Japanese cuisine as a whole.
TW
O | IN
GR
ED
IEN
TS
23
Short grain sushi rice
SU
SH
I 24
At the royal court, an increasing number of annual ceremonies
and rituals were performed, including Shinto ceremonies (the
indigenous religion), and these would be accompanied by food and
sake. Sake was, and still is, regarded as a sacred liquid, cleansing
evil spirits. Eating and drinking became an important part of the
procedures and cooking itself became a ritual: traces of this can
still be seen today in the way top Japanese chefs handle and care
for their knives.
The Importance of SaltWith the development of rice cultivation, salt started to appear
and play a great part in the culinary scene. It was extracted from
the sea and replaced the former source of salt: animals’ intes-
tines. However, due to scarcity and its poor storage qualities, salt
was mixed with animal or plant fibers and proteins. The mixture,
called hishio, was in effect a nutritious, fermented food as well
as a seasoning, and transpired to be one of the most important
developments in Japanese culinary history.
The three basic kinds were grain hishio (salt–fermented rice,
barley or beans), meat hishio (seafood or animal meat) and grass
hisho (plant, berried or seaweed). Hishio later developed into
some of the most well–known and important Japanese foods, such
as miso and shoyu (grain hishio), shiokara and sushi (meat
hishio), and tsukemono pickles (grass hishio). The idea of fer-
mentation was further developed to produce alcohol using barley,
yam and glutinous rice. Although at first this was al alcoholic food,
rather than a liquid, it was the origin of Japan’s most celebrated
drink, sake. To observe that rice is an essential element to sushi is
TW
O | IN
GR
ED
IEN
TS
25
Opposite Page: Mackerel, salmon, octopus, tuna and squid sushi fish
Above: Shiso Leaf (perilla)
like pointing out that the Winter Olympics would be whole lot
less engaging without snow. No rice, no sushi: It’s that simple,
and that important. Here’s what you need to know about it.
Although most of the rest of the world east long–grain rice,
and has for a very long time, the Japanese have been cultivating
and eating short–grain rice. Because it contains more cellulose,
short–grain rice is sticker. That stickiness is what makes
sushi possible.
Japanese gourmets hyperventilate over the arrival of the
season’s new crop, called shinmai, which is special because the
freshly dried grains are still at the point where they retain a lot
of water. But as tasty as it is, new rice is not well suited for
making sushi rice. Instead, the itamae uses older, more aged
rice, which has lost a lot if its inner moisture. This “vintage”
rice is called komai, a term that applies to any rice more than a
year old. Rice prepared for sushi is, in Japanese, sushi–meshi.
“Meshi” is the kun, or original Japanese pronunciation, of the
kanji, or written character, for “rice.” Gohan is the on, or borrowed
Chinese reading, of the same character. (The go in “gohan” is an
honorific, a prefix to make a word more polite.) Remember that
some Japanese words sound more masculine, and some dis-
tinctly feminine. To native Japanese ears in most circumstances,
“meshi”sounds more masculine. “Gohan” has a softer, more
feminine sound to it. The sushi–ya has always been thought of
as a man’s world; some of the language used there reflects that.
And so “meshi” is the word for rice that you will almost always
hear and use. If you are a female, though, rest assured that you
can use the word “meshi” without undue aspersions being cast
SU
SH
I 26
upon your sexuality. When sushimeshi is formed into the nuggets
of rice for hand–pressed slabs of nigiri sushi, though, it’s called
shari. In normal parlance, “shari” refers to dry, brittle bones. It
is used specifically to describe the tiny pieces of bones from the
Buddha’s body that were pulverized and distributed as relics after
his death. The grains of rice, or maybe the nuggets of nigiri sushi
themselves, were though to resemble these pieces of bone. Today,
you’re likely to hear “shari” as a way of distinguishing the rice
from the topping ingredients (tane—we’ll get to this word later) of
nigiri sushi.
To prepare sushi–meshi, the raw rice and water go into an
automatic rice cooker. Because of the quantities needed, now-
days even a tiny sushiya uses a rice cooker, a little mechanized
devise that has revolutionized Asia. Rice is neither “steamed” nor
“boiled,” as it is often described in translation, in the cooker. It’s
prepared with a combination of both methods. Cooking rice is
called yudaki in Japanese kitchen slang. The word in normal usage
means a “hot water cascade.” That’s what the water and rice
sound like, gurgling and bubbling away under the pressure of the
steamer pot, hence the expression. Typically, near–equal parts of
rice to water are the rule of cooking a batch of basic rice. For
sushi–meshi, itamae may mess around with this equation, depend-
ing on the brand of rice and other factors, such as the humidity
and the exact age of the rice. Good itamae will also mix brands to
get just the product they want. Whatever the alchemy, what the
itamae wants to avoid is a sticky, gluey gumminess, called beta–
beta in Japanese, at one end of the bad rice spectrum, and grains
not entirely cooked and kochikochi, hard inside, at the other end.
TW
O | IN
GR
ED
IEN
TS
27
Sushi rice has to be just glutinous enough to stick together, but
with each grain retaining its own identity, kind of like kids at a
junior high school dance. Good sushi–meshi has a pleasant firm-
ness of texture in the mouth that is shiko–shiko.
Freshly cooked rice, for sushi or any other meal, should meet
three criteria: It should have a glowing luster (tsuya), a pleasant
stickiness (nebari), and the correct taste (aji). Tell an itamae, or
any Japanese cook, that his rice exemplifies these three terms and
he will lay down his life for you. You can complain in a sushi–ya
about the mead waitress, the bad seating, or the mistreatment of
Japan’s Korean minority, and the itamae is likely to take it all in
stride. You insult the quality of the rice, however, at your own peril.
Any criticism at all will be taken very, very seriously.
Once cooked, rice is transferred to a wood tub (hangiri), then
fanned to cool it; at the same time, a seasoning is drizzled over it.
The seasoning—awase–zu, or coming together vinegar—is more
or less standard among itamae and consists of rice vinegar, sugar,
and salt. Awase–zu is also referred to as su–mezu. (The combina-
tion of vinegar, salt, and water that the itamae uses for moistening
his hands to keep the rice from sticking to them while he fashions
shapes for nigiri sushi is called te–zu, or hand vinegar.) From
an aesthetic point of view, the sugar and vinegar add a pleasing
luster to the rice. The grains look fat and glossy, an appearance
that’s helped along by the fanning, which moves cool air over
the hot rice to make the surface of the grains more amenable to
absorbing the salt andsugar liquid. In more scientific terms, the
vinegar, in addition to its historical role in sushi as a preservative,
temporarily dissolves much of the stickiness of the freshly cooked
THREE | VARIETY
29
SU
SH
I 30
TYPES OF SUSHI
Varieties of nigiri and sashimi
Original Styles of SushiThe oldest sushi still found in Japan is the funa–zushi of Shiga.
This type is a nare–zushi, or long–pressed sushi, made using
freshwater fish such as funa, a type of carp, dojo (loach) or
namazu (sheatfish). The fish is first salt–cured and then marinated
in cooked rice and salt. This is a way to preserve fish; the rice and
salt are discarded. The origin of this oldest–surviving sushi can
be traced back to hishio, a mixture of raw fish and salt, although
some say it goes right back to various other similar fish–preserv-
ing methods that existed in China as early as 300BC. Although at
one stage the Chinese also developed this method of using rice
mixed with salt, the technique had disappeared completely from
the Chinese culinary scene by the 17th century.
Sushi TodayThe process of nare–zushi then took to develop into the present
day sushi is well recorded. First it was simplified; the nare–zushi’s
long–term pressing, for almost a year, was greatly shortened to
about ten days so that the rice could also be eaten before it fully
fermented. To hasten the fermentation process and prevent the
raw fish from rotting, vinegar was added to the rice. The result is
a simple oshizushi, meaning pressed sushi, a specialty of Kansai,
the region around Osaka. But it was in Tokyo in the 19th Century
that the process was sped up even more, with the development
of nigiri, instant sushi. Sold from the street stalls and stores as a
snack, nigiri, also known as edomae, was the fast food of its time.
It was and still is the most famous sushi of all.
TH
RE
E | V
AR
IET
Y31
Today, sushi restaurants abound and sushi chefs are regarded
as highly skilled craftsmen who train for a number of years at
their craft. Indeed, top sushi restaurants are becoming very expen-
sive places to eat. So, even though sushi remains a snack food, it
is undoubtedly a high–quality one.
Varieties of SushiBara Sushi–The vinegar rice and ingredients are mixed as a salad.
Chirashi Sushi–The rice bed has various layers of fish and is
served in a bowl called Gomoku Sushi or Iso–don.
Futomaki–This is a large Maki roll that has many different ingredi-
ents using Nori, which is a seaweed wrap.
Inari Sushi–Instead of using the traditional vinegar rice, brown,
fried tofu is used.
Nigiri Sushi–Vinegar rice topped with a slice of raw or cooked fish,
or vegetables.
Okonomi Sushi–This is home–style Nigiri Sushi.
Onigiri Sushi–This Sushi is made with regular steamed rice and
rolled into a ball with other ingredients
Oshizushi–Vinegar rice and other ingredients of choice pressed
into a mold.
Temaki–These are cone–shaped seaweed rolls also called a
hand roll.
The short grain Japanese variety, Oryza sativa japonica, as
opposed to the neighboring Southeast Asian countries’ long grain,
jawa and indica, was developed over the centuries to suit the cli-
mate as well as the taste of the Japanese people. Once cooked, it
SU
SH
I 36
On pages 32 and 33
from left: Anago, Maguro,
Enngawa and Tamago
nigiri.
Pages 34 and 35 from left:
Makerel, Crab, Maguro, Ebi,
Ika and Iwashi nigiri.
becomes quite tender and moist but firm enough to retain a little
crunchiness. Unlike long grain rice, it becomes slightly sticky,
In general, the farther south you go in Japan, the sweeter
the sushi–meshi tends to be. People in most regions of southern
Japan are stereotyped for liking sweet tastes more than their more
northern cousins. Something else to consider is temperature.
Nigiri sushi’s rice should be, according to sushi lore, the same
temperature as the skin on your cheek; slightly cool. The rice
should be slightly warmer for chirashi sushi, since you want the
flavors of the toppings to blend in, which they do better with
warm rice.
Alas, a lot of itamae have gotten sloppy, even in Japan,
and they’ll use the basic awase–zu recipe to flavor the rice in all
kinds of sushi. If a sushi–ya pays attention to this important
detail, though, it is nearly a foolproof hallmark of an outstanding
establishment, as it the itamae who lightens up on the sugar in
sushimeshi during the summer.
Nigiri sushi eaten during the summer has traditionally had
more of a sour kick to the rice. It is a practice that undoubtedly
comes from sushi’s earliest days, when the vinegar was working to
keep the fish from spoiling; in warmer weather, naturally,
more vinegar would have been added. But is also has to do with
a Japanese folk belief that if a diet is balanced between the
five tastes (sweet, sour, salty, hot, and bitter), the body will run
smoothly. Lose that equilibrium, and it’s like saying “Heidi–ho”,
come on in and make yourself at home” to bacteria, viruses, evil
humors, and heaven knows what else is out there to afflict one.
In hot weather, according to these beliefs, we naturally eat more
TH
RE
E | V
AR
IET
Y37
salt to offset what is lost through perspiration. The increase in salt
intake can threaten the intricate inter play of the five tastes, and it
can be countered, in part, by increasing the sour.
Sure, the AMA probably doesn’t endorse all this. But that is why
more vinegary foods, like pickled vegetables, are associated with
summertime Japanese cuisine, and it is why nigiri sushi–meshi in
the hotter months will have more vinegar than in the winter. Or it
will if the itamae knows what he is doing.
In addition to his other duties, then, the itamae can be riding
herd on up to three different pots of rice. Even keeping one ready
isn’t a job for amateurs. If the rice for sushi gets too cold and is
reheated, it gets slippery and squishy and won’t hold together.
A worse fate awaits if it is chilled, as many a neophyte sushi
enthusiast has learned after bringing home leftovers and sticking
them in the refrigerator. The grains get hard and chalky, virtually
inedible. So a towel goes over the tub of cooled rice to keep it at
the ambient temperature as long as possible. A competent itamae
and his staff will have a constant supply during the sushi–ya’s
hours of operation, and it will be consistent in quality. If it is not,
the sushi snob’s response is merciless, swift, and decisive. The
sushi tsu must always be gracious and reasonable in expectations
in most areas of a sushi meal—except when it comes to sushi–
meshi. You should still be gracious, of course. But if the rice in
hour sushi is in any way inferior, do not return. Standards for other
matters of sushi snobbery can vary in some instances, but not
with rice. There’s no excuse or any place calling itself a sushi–ya
to present anything but excellent sushi–meshi. Come on, it only
38
39
FOUR | PRESENTATION
PR
ES
EN
TA
TIO
N41
HIS
TO
RY
4141
SU
SH
I 42
CONCEPTUAL DISHES
A Unique CuisineThe cuisine of Japan is in many ways different from those of other
countries. Different kinds of food, different ways of cooking, of
serving—different ways too of thinking about food, eating, meals.
In Japan, while fish should look like fish, the fish dish ought
also to look like something more. It ought to reflect within its
composition another concern, one the West considers aesthetic.
The effect should be as pleasing to the eye as the taste is to the
tongue. At the same time, there is a canon of presentation, a
system of culinary aesthetics to be satisfied.
The colors, for example, must be artfully opposite. The pink of
the tuna sashimi ought to be contrasted with the light green of the
grated wasabi (horseradish) and the darker green of the shiso leaf
upon which the slices rest. And the slices themselves are, despite
their casual appearance, carefully arranged.
There are five types of arrangement (moritsuke) of food on
dishes. The most common is yamamori, a mountain like mounded
arrangement. There is also sugimori, a standing or slanting
arrangement, like the cedar (sugi) that gives the style its name.
Then there is hiramori, a flat arrangement used for foods such
as sashimi. And there are ayamori (woven arrangements) and
yosemori (gathered arrangements) as well.
Asymmetrical aesthetics also apply in the way in which food
is placed in relation to the surface area of the dish itself. Let us
say something roundish—a fillet or teriyaki–style fish—is to be
served. It will appear on a long, narrow, flat dish. Resting against
the fish and extending the length of the dish will be a single stalk
FO
UR
| PR
ES
EN
TA
TIO
N43
Salmon roe (egg) nigiri
Roe nigiri with radish
of pickled ginger. An asymmetrical balance has been created in
which the negative space (the empty part of the dish) serves as
balance to the positive (fishfilled) and is accentuated by the single
line (pickled ginger), which intensifies the emptiness and, of
course, by so doing also intensifies the succulence of the fish.
PresentationYou didn’t think this was just going to get left to chance, did you?
Were you paying attention back there when we are talking about
the Japanese mania for formalizing everything? Let’s review: There
is a proper way in traditional Japanese etiquette to cut up a des-
sert persimmon and, as graphically illustrated technical scrolls for
professional sword testers who used condemned criminals as the
targets of their craft show, to cut up human beings as well. The
way a cord is knotted around a wrapped present signifies some-
thing about the occasion for the gift. So given that kind of picki-
ness, you can damn well assume there will be rules for presenting
food on a dish. There are the rules, noted earlier, that are known
as moritsuke or moriawase. And the rules themselves have rules:
Food is arranged in formal (shin), semiformal (gyo), and informal
(so) styles. (Although, to make it more fund, within the formal
style are formal–formal, formal–semiformal, and formal–informal,
and the same for gyo and so. So there are actually nine difference
permutations.) The same shin–gyo–so approach is found in the
tea ceremony, calligraphy, flower arranging, and other arts where
spatial factors figure.
SU
SH
I 44
Maki and nigiri plates
Sushi place setting
There are some basic methods of moritsuke used to pres-
ent sushi, and some others that dictate the way side dishes are
arranged. Again, cuisine doesn’t get much more informal, in
Japanese terms, than sushi, so the rules are fairly relaxed. Note,
though the underlying principles of the rules are going to be
observed and it is the perspicacious sushi tsu (and there should
be no other kind) who recognizes and appreciates them.
The hiramori style of food presentation is what you are most
likely to see on your place in a sushi–ya. Your order of nigiri kisu
has just been handed to you, let’s say. Resist the urge to shovel it
in as swiftly as civilized table manners will allow. Take a moment
to consider the way it has been laid out on the plate. The most
common order of nigiri sushi is a pair. Notice, though, that the
pair of kisu is deliberately situated. The pieces are neither hori-
zontal nor perpendicular, but rather slanted on the plate, and over-
lapped just enough so the piece closest to the front of the plate
is closest to your right hand. Part of the reason is practical. It is
easier to pick up the pieces of nigiri than it would be if they were
lined up evenly, side by side. It also has more eye appeal. This
slanting arrangement of a pair of pieces of food is the simplest
form of hiramori, or “flat–style” moritsuke.
Sashimi is typically arranged in a flat style, the slices of fish
drifting across the length of the plate. If you have a couple of
orders of nigiri sushi, they might well be arranged similarly. If
so, you can begin to see some of the more subtle elements of
the flat style, which, while simple, is far from simplistic. This sort
of flat style, with a single row of food lined up horizontally, is
called ichimonji, after the brushstroke for the numeral one, which
FO
UR
| PR
ES
EN
TA
TIO
N45
Tuna maki with sesame seeds and California roll with tabiko
SU
SH
I 46
it resembles. Printed with type, one is written with just a single,
horizontal stroke with a little bump on the right end. When a cal-
ligrapher writes the character, though, he draws the brush up from
left to right as he goes across the paper. The line of your nigiri
sushi slants the same way. It adds a dimension to the presenta-
tion that would be missing if the sushi were lined up exactly
straight across the plate. In fact, if you draw a line vertically or
horizontally on your plate, your sushi will not be along either axis,
or squarely in the middle where the lines cross. It will always be
grouped along an angle or in a quadrant, off center, to avoid what
would otherwise be monotonous and predictable. A potential
problem with the ichimonji line of sushi is that it threatens–we’re
going into Art Appreciation 101 here, I know, but follow me–to rise
right off the back of the dish, compositionally speaking. So that’s
where a mound of pickled ginger slices is stacked, usually below
the ascending side of the sushi line, as a compositional counter-
weight. There will always be something on the plate to anchor the
line of ichimonji.
If the counterweight consists of ginger slices, they will be
arranged sugimori style. A sugi is a cedar tree. The mound of
ginger (or any food served sugimori style) has the same shape as
that tree; bunched up something like a plump pinecone. When a
garnish or side dish is put on a flat plate, like the ginger beside
your nigiri order, it is an informal version of sugimori. More
formal versions would be set in a bowl or deep–sided container.
Sometimes they’re used in sushiya, placed beside the plate of
sushi. If the itamae does serve ginger in a separate bowl, he will
take time to place it just so. The mound of ginger will be just tall
FO
UR
| PR
ES
EN
TA
TIO
N47
enough to peek over the rim of its container, like the summit of
a mountain appearing above the mist, or sunk below the sides
of a deep bowl, to resemble a cedar growing far down in a valley.
Most of the other side dishes that might accompany sushi, such
as edamame or angles of shredded daikon, are arranged in an
informal sugimori style or in mazemori. A mazeru is a mixture.
Mazemori arrangements will look spontaneous if they are done
properly, as if they were just plopped onto the plate or into the
bowl. But if you look, you’ll see they are placed so they add a bal-
ance or dimension to the overall composition.
Round, coin–shaped maki sushi are either laid flat or tilted
against one another like a pile of toppled dominoes. If they are
placed in the single line of the ichimonji, however, even slanted,
the row would be dull to contemplate. So the itamae bunches
them in diamonds or parallelograms. If they are tiled against one
another, or kakemori (kake means “propped”), the inner ingre-
dients can be seen and appreciated; the sides of the maki sushi
sticking up add another dimension to the arrangement. Every
now and then, an itamae will stack maki sushi in a staircase–step
arrangement, in the tawaramori style. A tawara is an old–fash-
ioned rice bale. It looks like a small barrel; a stack of maki sushi
resembles a pile of tawara.
There are at least two other ways of arranging big orders, but
they’ve gone out of culinary fashion in sushi circles and if you
happen across ne, it is like a step back in time, a little more than
half a century back, to be exact, to the war years in Tokyo, when
rice and fish were in short supply. During that era, itamae some-
times arranged party–size sushi orders by stacking them in two On page 50: Avocado eel maki
51: Salmon roe nigiri
SU
SH
I 50
FIVE | ETIQUETTE
ET
IQU
ET
TE
51T
YP
ES
OF
SU
SH
I51
HIS
TO
RY
5151
SU
SH
I 52
DINING PROTOCOL
The Sushi ExperienceHaving now some basic grasp of the aesthetics of tableware and
presentation, let’s turn to the items themselves. Memorizing the
names for all the utensils and tableware is of debatable value for
the sushi tsu.
Next come the mechanics of eating the sushi once it’s been
ordered. A few inches above the counter at most sushi bars there
is a narrow shelf, which the chef can easily reach. If a customer
orders okonomi or omakase, the chef places a rectangular stand,
usually made of wood, on the shelf. The stand will be empty,
except for a mound of pickled ginger. (Only in the United States
do chefs also add a mound of wasabi.) This rectangular stand is
called a geta because it looks like a traditional Japanese wooden
sandal by the same name. The customer should leave the geta on
the shelf, where the chef can reach it. The chef will place orders of
nigiri on the geta. If he serves nigiri with more than a small dab
of sauce, he will most likely serve them on a plate, so the geta will
remain clean.
Most sushi bars put out bottles of soy sauce, as well as a
small dish for soy sauce for each customer. The better sushi
bars augment the soy sauce with dashi broth, sake, and mirin
to produce a “house” soy sauce, or nikiri. The best sushi chefs
often add their own sauce or seasoning to the fish before
serving it, and instruct the customer not to add extra soy
sauce. Some sushi connoisseurs forgo soy sauce in any case,
preferring to concentrate on the subtle flavors of the fish.
FIV
E | E
TIQ
UE
TT
E53
Maki with crab meat
As for wasabi, chefs in Japan don’t serve extra wasabi on the
side because they put what they consider the proper amount in
the nigiri itself, between the topping and the rice. Generally, the
chef increases the amount of wasabi with topping that have a high
fat content. Many Americans have developed the habit if stirring
extra wasabi into their soy sauce. Chefs and most Japanese diners
frown on this practice. It’s better for the customer to ask the chef
to adjust the amount of wasabi inside the nigiri to match the
customer’s preference. Americans stir the wasabi into their soy
sauce to increase the level of spiciness. Ironically, however, wasabi
(and the green horseradish that passes for wasabi) rapidly looses
its spiciness and flavor when immersed in liquid.
The Taste of PerfectionA good nigiri ought to melt in the mouth, so chefs prefer not to
pack the rice too firmly. Most connoisseurs pick up sushi with
their fingers, since chopsticks are likely to break apart a loosely
packed nigiri. Some people claim that chopsticks are preferable
because the flavors of the different fish linger on their hands, pre-
venting full appreciation of each separate topping. But most sushi
bars provide each customer with a damp cloth, and wiping one’s
fingers between each type if nigiri should be sufficient to keep the
flavors separate. Likewise, the purpose of the pickled ginger is
to cleanse the palate between different types of fish. The ginger
shouldn’t be eaten as an appetizer, but it is fine to ask for more if
the supply on the geta runs out.
Methods for eating nigiri with one’s hands vary from person to
person. One option is as follows. The diner presses his thumb
SU
SH
I 54
Inside out California roll
Pickled ginger used to cleanse the
palette between tastings
and middle finger lightly against the sides of the nigiri, at the
rectangle’s midpoint. He extends his index finger along the top of
the nigiri, down its length. The grip is a bit like the grip he would
use on a computer mouse. Holding the nigiri lightly, he lifts it off
the geta. He curls his index finger, pulling the far end of the nigiri
upward and toward him with the tip of the finger. He allows the
rectangle to rotate 180 degrees “head over heals,” while continu-
ing to hold it between the thumb and middle finger, so that it is
now upside down. This allows the diner to dip the fish side of the
nigiri in the soy sauce, rather than the rice side. If the diner dips
the rice side of a loosely packed nigiri into the soy sauce, the
nigiri will disintegrate in the soy sauce dish.
Chefs who see customer using chopsticks or dipping the rice
side in the soy sauce will pack the nigiri more tightly than is ideal.
Even when a customer doesn’t dip the nigiri in soy sauce, many
prefer to turn the nigiri upside down so that the fish touches the
tongue first, but that is a matter of preference. If the customer
isn’t using soy sauce, it’s perfectly acceptance to put the nigiri in
the mouth fish side up.
Either way, a nigiri should always be eaten in one bite. It
should also be eaten as soon as the chef serves it, so that I can
be enjoyed at the proper temperature, with the rice still slightly
warm. Traditional sushi rolls—with the seaweed on the outside—
should also be eaten right away, before the seaweed gets soggy.
If the chef serves a platter, the rolls with seaweed on the outside
should be eaten before the nigiri.
FIV
E | E
TIQ
UE
TT
E55
SashimiThe etiquette for eating sashimi—slices of raw fish without rice—
is a bit different. Sashimi should always be eaten with chopsticks.
(It is bad form to rub the chopsticks together before use. The
assumption that the chopsticks contain splinters is an insult to
the chef.) Chefs serve a small mound of wasabi on the side with
sashimi. To avoid losing the spiciness and flavor of the wasabi
by mixing it with liquid, the customer should dab a bit of wasabi
directly onto the slice of fish with his chopsticks, then dip a differ-
ent corner of the fish in soy sauce. The garnishes that come with
sashimi—usually a green perilla leaf and shredded radish—are
meant to be eaten and provide digestive benefits.
Opinions among sushi experts vary as to whether to ask the
sushi chef about his “secret past,” as the video jokingly says. Most
believe that what makes sushi unique is the intimacy that develops
between the chef and his customers. Becoming acquainted with a
particular chef, and returning to his sushi bar repeatedly, is one of
the best ways for a customer to broaden his horizons. The chef is
likely to serve his most interesting and highest quality ingredients
to his regular customers. That said, a few sushi experts argue that
the customer ought to keep a respectful distance from the chef.
Either way, most experts agree on one thing. Customers who
show off their sushi knowledge at the sushi bar are tiresome.
Chefs appreciate customer who would rather eat sushi than talk
about it.
Hashi (chopsticks) with porcelain rests
SU
SH
I 56
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 | Corson, Trevor. The Story of Sushi. Harper Perennial, New York, NY. 2007.
2 | Kazuko, Emi. The Japanese Kitchen. Southwater Publishing, London. 2002.
3 | Lowry, Dave. The Connoisserur’s Guide to Sushi. The Harvard Common Press, Boston, MA. 2005.
4 | Richie, Donald. A Taste of Japan. Kodansha International LTD, San Francisco, CA. 1985.
5 | Ryuichi, Yoshi. Sushi. Tuttle Publishing, North Claredon, VT. 2006.
6 |Steinburg, Rafael. The Cooking of Japan. Time–Life Books, New York, NY. 1969.
7 | Wong, Kumfoo. Sushi Made Easy. Sterling Publishing Co., Inc., New York, NY. 2001
IND
EX
57
INDEX
Anago
Aji
Bamboo Mat
California Hand Roll
California Inside–Out
Chopsticks
Edamame
Egg Sushi
Etiquette
Fish
Futomaki
Hand Rolls
History
Horseradish (wasabi)
Inside–out rolls
Kappamaki
Maki
25
40
30,31
31,32
52
32
52–55
23–25
16
31
12–17
53
31–33
32
31–34
42
31–33
Miso
Nigiri
Pickled ginger
Prawn nigiri
Rice
Rice vinegar
Soy sauce
Sashimi
Seaweed (nori)
Setting the table
Sushi rolls (maki)
Tamagoyaki
Tuna
Temaki sushi
Tekkamaki
Utensils
43
32
22–25
23,32
25
55
31–33
32
31
32
46
54–56
25
44
53–55
54
SU
SH
I 58
The book is typeset in News Gothic MT by Monotype Imaging.
News Gothic was one of a number of sans serif faces manufac-
tured by American Type Founders in the early years of the twen-
tieth century. It was originally designed in 1908 by Morris Fuller
Benton. News Gothic MT, has a nice angularity that allows it to
wear better than most, and you will find it a pleasant change from
the other sans serif typefaces of this world. News Gothic MT pre-
ceded the more fiercely geometric forms of the twentieth century.
This design, with its plainly stated, unselfconscious letterforms,
was revived by Monotype in 1962.
Design and layout by Jen Allender
California College of the Arts
Graphic Design
Spring 2010, Type 2, David Asari