survey of chemistry i chem 1151 chapter 7 dr. augustine ofori agyeman assistant professor of...
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SURVEY OF CHEMISTRY I
CHEM 1151
CHAPTER 7
DR. AUGUSTINE OFORI AGYEMANAssistant professor of chemistryDepartment of natural sciences
Clayton state university
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CHAPTER 7
SOLUTIONS AND COLLOIDS
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- A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
Solvent - The substance present in the greatest quantity
Solute- The other substance(s) dissolved in the solvent
SOLUTION
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- Solutions can exist in any of the physical states
Solid Solution- dental fillings, metal alloys (steel), polymers
Liquid Solution- sugar in water, salt in water, wine, vinegar
Gas Solution- air (O2, Ar, etc. in N2),
- NOx, SO2, CO2 in the atmosphere
SOLUTION
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- A measure of how much of a solute can be dissolved in a solventat a given temperature
- Units: grams/100 mL
ExampleSolubility of sugar in water at 20 oC is 204 g/100 mL H2O
Three factors that affect solubility- Temperature
- Pressure- Polarity
SOLUBILITY
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Unsaturated Solution- More solute can still be dissolved at a given temperature
Saturated Solution- No more solute can be dissolved at a given temperature
Supersaturated Solution- Too much solute has temporarily been dissolved
(more than solute solubility)
Precipitate- Solute (solid) that falls out of solution
SOLUBILITY
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- A solution contains a solvent and one or more solutes
- The ratio of solute to solvent may vary in a solution
- Solution properties change with solute to solvent ratio
- The dissolved solutes are present as individual particles (ions, atoms, or molecules)
- Solutes remain uniformly distributed throughout the solution
- Solutes are separated by physical means (evaporation, distillation)
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS
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- A solution in which water (H2O) is the solventNaCl solution: solvent is H2O and solute is NaCl
Hydrophilic- Substances that dissolve in water
- Water loving (NaCl)- Usually polar substances
Hydrophobic- Substances that do not dissolve well in water
- Water fearing (hydrocarbons)- Usually nonpolar substances
AQUEOUS SOLUTION
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- Ions make aqueous solutions good conductors of electricity
- Solution conductivity indicates the presence of ions
AQUEOUS SOLUTION
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Ionic Compounds
- Form ions in aqueous solution (dissociate into component ions)
Example- NaCl solution contains Na+ and Cl- ions
NaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)- Each ion is surrounded by water molecules
- Good conductor of electricity
AQUEOUS SOLUTION
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Solvation Process
- Ions in aqueous solution are surrounded by the H2O molecules
- The O atom in each H2O molecule has partial negative charge (δ-) - Attract positive ions
- The H atoms have partial positive charge (δ+)- Attract negative ions
- Cations and anions are prevented from recombining
- Ions disperse uniformly throughout the solution (homogeneous)
AQUEOUS SOLUTION
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Molecular Compounds
- Most molecular compounds do not form ions in aqueous solution- The molecules disperse throughout the solution
- Molecules are surrounded by H2O molecules
Example- Sucrose solution contains neutral sucrose molecules
- Each molecule is surrounded by water molecules - Poor conductor of electricity
- A few molecular compounds form ions in aqueous solution- HCl dissociates into H+(aq) and Cl-(aq)
- HNO3 dissociates into H+(aq) and NO3-(aq)
AQUEOUS SOLUTION
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- A solution in which another substance other than water is the solvent
ExamplesAlcohol
petroleum etherPentane
Carbon tetrachloride
NONAQUEOUS SOLUTION
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The rate at which solutes dissolve can be increased by
- Grinding or crushing solute particles (size reduction)
- Heating
- Stirring or agitation
RATE OF DISSOLUTION
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- The amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or solution
Percent Concentration- Percent by mass [mass-mass percent, %(m/m)]
mass of solution = mass of solute + mass of solvent
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
100%xsolutionofmass
soluteofmass%(m/m)
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A sugar solution is made by dissolving 5.8 g of sugar in82.5 g of water. Calculate the percent by mass concentration
of sugar.
% 6.6 100%xg 82.5) (5.8
g 5.8%(m/m)
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
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volume of solution ≠ volume of solvent + volume of solute
- Due differences in bond lengths and angles
- The amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or solution
Percent Concentration- Percent by volume [volume-volume percent, %(v/v)]
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
100%xsolutionofvolume
soluteofvolume%(v/v)
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Calculate the volume percent of solute if 345 mL of ethyl alcohol is dissolved in enough water to produce 1257 mL
of solution
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
% 27.4 100%xmL 1257
mL 345%(v/v)
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- Units are specified because they do not cancel
- The amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or solution
Percent Concentration- Mass-volume percent [%(m/v)]
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
100%xsolutionofvolume
soluteofmass%(m/v)
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The concentration of a solution of NaCl is 0.92 %(m/v)used to dissolve drugs for intravenous use. What is the
amount, in grams, of NaCl needed to prepare 41.50 mL of the solution?
g solute = [%(m/v)] x [volume of solution (mL)]/[100 %]
= [(0.92 % g/mL) x (41.50 mL)]/(100 %)
= 0.38 g
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
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Molarity (M: molar)
- The number of moles of solute per liter of solution
Lsolutionofvolume
solutemolesMolarity
- A solution of 1.00 M (read as 1.00 molar) contains 1.00 mole of solute per liter of solution
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
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Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 2.56 g of NaCl in enough water to make 2.00 L of solution
- Calculate moles of NaCl using grams and molar mass- Convert volume of solution to liters
- Calculate molarity using moles and liters
NaClmol0.0438NaClg58.44
NaClmol1xNaClg2.56
mol/L)(orM0.0219solutionL2.00
NaClmol0.0438Molarity
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
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After dissolving 1.56 g of NaOH in a certain volume of water, the resulting solution had a concentration of 1.60 M. Calculate the
volume of the resulting NaOH solution
- Convert grams NaOH to moles using molar mass- Calculate volume (L) using moles and molarity
NaOHmol0.0380NaOHg41.00
NaOHmol1xNaOHg1.56
solutionL0.0237NaOHmol1.60
solutionLxNaOHmol0.0380solution Volume
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
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Mole Fraction
- Fraction of moles of a component of solution
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
components all of moles total
component of molesfraction mole
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Given that the total moles of an aqueous solution of NaCl andother solutes is 1.75 mol. Calculate the mole fraction of NaCl
if the solution contains 4.56 g NaCl.
NaClmol0.0780NaClg58.44
NaClmole1xNaClg4.56NaClMoles
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
0446.0 totalmol 1.75
NaCl mol 0.0780fraction mole
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DILUTION
Consider a stock solution of concentration M1 and volume V1
If water is added to dilute to a new concentration M2 and volume V2
moles before dilution = moles after dilution
M1V1 = M2V2
Calculate the volume of 3.50 M HCl needed to prepare 500.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl
(3.50 M)(V1) = (0.100 M)(500.0 mL)
V1 = 14.3 mL
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CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
Calculate the concentration of NaOH solution if 24.50 mL of this base is needed to neutralize 12.00 mL of 0.225 M HCl solution
- Write balanced equation and determine mole ratio
- Calculate moles of HCl (convert mL to L)
- Determine moles of NaOH
-Calculate molarity of NaOH
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NaOH + HCl → NaCl + H2O
1 mole NaOH : 1 mole HCl
Volume HCl = 12.00 mL = 0.01200 L
mole HCl = 0.225 M x 0.01200 mL = 0.00270 mol = mole NaOH
NaOHM0.110NaOHL1
NaOHmL1000x
NaOHmL24.50
NaOHmol0.00270NaOHMolarity
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
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How many grams of KOH are needed to neutralize 25.00 mL of 0.250 M H2SO4 solution
- Write balanced equation and determine mole ratio
- Calculate moles of H2SO4
- Determine moles of KOH
- Calculate grams of KOH using molar mass
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
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2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O
2 mole KOH : 1 mole H2SO4
mole H2SO4 = 0.250 M x 0.02500 L = 0.00625 mol
Mole KOH = 2 x 0.00625 mol = 0.0125 mol
KOHg0.701KOHmol1
KOHg56.11xKOHmol0.0125KOHmass
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
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- Substances whose aqueous solutions contain ions NaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
- Two categories: strong and weak electrolytes
Strong Electrolytes- Solutes that completely or nearly completely
ionize when dissolved in water
Salts: NaCl, NH4Cl, KBr, NaNO3
Strong acids: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4
Strong Bases: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)2
ELECTROLYTES
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- Substances whose aqueous solutions contain ionsNaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
- Two categories: strong and weak electrolytes
Weak Electrolytes- Only a small fraction of solutes ionize when
dissolved in water (exhibit a small degree of ionization)
Weak acids: acetic acid (HC2H3O2), citric acid (C6H8O7)Weak bases: ammonia (NH3) methylamine, cocaine, morphine
ELECTROLYTES
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- Single arrow is used to represent ionization of strong electrolytesH2SO4(aq) → H+(aq) + HSO4
-(aq)- Ions have no tendency of recombining to form H2SO4
- Double arrow is used to represent ionization of weak electrolytesHC2H3O2(aq) ↔ H+(aq) + C2H3O2
-(aq)- This implies reaction occurs in both directions
- Chemical equilibrium is when there is a balance in both directions
ELECTROLYTES
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NONELECTROLYTES
- Substances whose aqueous solutions do not contain ions
ExamplesMany molecular compounds
Sucrose (C12H22O11) ethanol (C2H5OH)
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COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
- Physical properties of a solvent changes when a solute is added
- Four physical properties change based on the amount of solute added but not the solute’s chemical identity
- These are known as the Colligative Properties- Vapor-pressure lowering- Boiling-point elevation
- Freezing-point depression- Osmotic pressure
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Osmolarity (osmol) = (M) x (i)i = number of particles produced from the dissociation
of one formula unit of solute
- The number of particles present determines the osmotic pressure
- NaCl dissociates in solution to produce 2 particles (Na+ and Cl-)
- Glucose does not dissociate - The osmotic pressure of NaCl is twice that of glucose
- Solutions with higher osmotic pressure take up more water than solutions with lower osmotic pressure
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
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COLLOIDAL DISPERSION
- A substance is dispersed in another substance but not dissolved(typically cloudy)
- Dispersed particles are intermediate in size between those of a
true solution and an ordinary heterogeneous mixture
- Dispersed phase is used in place of solute
- Dispersing medium is used in place of solvent
ExamplesBlood, milk, smoke, fog, cheese, shaving cream
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- The dispersed phase do not settle out under the influence of gravity and cannot be filtered out with filter paper
- Difficult to distinguish with the naked eye but scatters a beam of light
(Tyndall effect)
COLLOIDAL DISPERSION
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- The passage of ions and small molecules through semipermeable membranes
- The semipermeable membrane is known as the dialyzing membrane
- The membrane holds back colloid particles and large molecules but allows solvent, hydrated ions, and small
molecules to pass through
- This technique is used to clean blood of people with kidneymalfunction
DIALYSIS