supply and equipment in the arctic-1948

7/28/2019 Supply and Equipment in the Arctic-1948

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D-R-A -F- T

DEC L U,,/

ACCESSION N O _ _ _ _PO k R I G I T k Y _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _

C o AIAA/Z. A N D 6 OCOd%6EE

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Supply and equipment in the arctic, byLt Col C. E. Tennesson. CGSC. 1947-48.

This DocumentIS A HOLDING OF THE

ARCHIVES SECTIONLIBRARY SERVICES

FORT LEAVENWORTH, KANSAS

DOCUMENT NO. N-2128.89 COPY NO. 1

CGSC Form 160 Army-CGSC-P2-1798-7 Ma r 52- 5M13 Ma r 51


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juiU 2 1 1965

A IWHIVEIF .;L I I A ~ - A i NW O s ' k i Bik

Subje act: Supply and quipment in th e Arct ic DEC 1 1952

I. Problem

ACCelSSIONNOTo study th e e s sen t i a l suppl$ and equipag sOIOmtF To

military operations in the Arctic an d to recommend appropriate

act ion based upon th is study.

II . Discussion

In th i s study the Arctic w i l l imply a ll areas wherein extreme cold

temperatures, ic e and snow impose unusual problems of supply upon

mil i ta ry operat ions. (Appendix A)

2. The Arctic ha s assumed all important proport ions in m il i ta ry

planning fo r th e fu ture . (Appendix B)

3. The climate, weather and Terrain of th e Arctic regions pose

d i f f i c u l t and pecul ia r problems in equipment and supply methods

and consti tute the grea tes t fac tors a ffec t ing mi l i ta ry operat ions.

(Appendix 0)

4. The greatest problems in equipment arise in individual equipment

and-oversnow vehicles. (Appendix D)

5. The m o s t difficult p r o b l e m s in supply a re found in installs ions,

storage and t ransportat ion. (Appendix E)

6. Present Arct ic clothing is no t sa t i s fac tory and considerable

research an d development is necessary to produce equipment that

wi l l meet th e needs of un i t s operating in th e Arctic. (Appendix D)

7. Self-contained t racked veh ic les ar e bes t sui ted to overland

t ranspor t b ut presen t equipment does no t meet requirements.

(Appendix D)

8. The problems of installations an d storage in the Arctic have

not been solved sa t i s fac tor i ly. (Appendix E)

9. Construction techniques to overcome th e effec t s of permafrostmnst ae devo"^?;?" /must be devel&p&d permit building of essential supply installations

(Appendix 3)

10 . Ai r supply is necessary in exaggerated proport ions in operat ions

in the Arctic and some means must be developed to provide fo r th e

necessary overland t r anspor t as well. (Appendix I)

RA Pa

21AP

if4.


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-. 3.

11. The resul t s of the various test ing expedi t ions sent into th e

Arctic during the pas t three years have n ot been al together

sa t i s fac tory from a research and development poin t of view and

a studs of t h e i r repor t s show di ffe rences of opinion on the needs

and value of equipment. (Appendix D and E)

I I I . Action Recommended

1. The U.S. Army establish in the vicinity of Fairbanks, Alaska

a permanent Arctic research and development and field t e s t i ng

center fo r the purpose of developing equipment and suppl$ methods

for the support of military operations in the Arctic.

2. The respoas ib i l i ty for the supervis ion of the ac t iv i t i e s carr ied

on a t this i n s t a l l a t i on be vested in the Direc to r of Logist ics ,

General Staff U.S.Army an d personnel fo r it's operation w i l l be

provided by the Technical Services as directed by th e Director

of Logist ics .

0. That Appendix F, Let te r to Commanding General U.S.Aia y, Alaska,

Direc to r of Logis t i cs , GSUSA An d the Chiefs of Technical Services

direct ing the above action be dispatched.

S. That the Directed of Logis t i cs , GSUSA be authorized to appoint

a committee to confer with the U.S.Navy and the U.S.Air Force with

a view to coordinat ing all Arctic research and development.

B- Importance of th e Arctic

C - Factors Affect ing Arctic Operations

D - Equipment Q5 .

E - Supply l

F - Let te r to Corn Gen U.S.Army, Alaska, Dir of Log, GSUSAand Chiefs of Tech Ser

Concurrences:

Non-concurrences:


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.A? I + k

ARCTICDELIMITATION

General Discussion

Georaphi~J. Concept

Climatical Concept

VPegitational Concept

Military Concept

International Boundarie s

Exhibit 1 - M ap of' ArcticRegions

Exhibit 2 - International Boundaries

1,

2.

3.

5.

6.


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1. General Discussion

Before proceeding with an y study of conditions in th e

Arctic it is first necessary to define exact ly what is meant

by th e Arctic . There are bas ica l ly three di ffe ren t concepts

under which th e Arct ic might be defined they ar e based upon

geographical locat ion, temperatures and th e prevalance or lack

of vegetat ion. For mil i ta ry study and planning it is not feas ib le

to adhere s t r i c t ly to any of th e three b ut to envision a four th

which may be ap t ly be cal led th e "mi l i ta ry Arctic"

2. Geographical Conceit

The Arct ic region is often consideredto be th e area ly ing

between th e Arct ic c i rc le and th e north pole. Actual ly th i s is

t rdebu t it does notpresen t a r ea l pic ture of th e areas which it

is necessary to consider in th is study. A ll areas lying within

th e Arct ic Circle do not present th e problems to be discussed

in th is study and likewise there ar e areas outside th e Arctic

Circle which do,

3. Climatical Concept

Another concept of th e Arctic regions is tha t they comprised

a l l of th e area north of th e 50 degree isothern or tha t th e

southern boundary of the area is an isothermal l ine along which

th e temperature averages over 50 degrees Fahrengait fo r not

more than three months of th e year. Actually th e area between th e

50 degree isothern on th e south and th e t ree l ine on th e north

is more properly known as the sub-arc t ic , the coniferous forest

area or Taiga,

4. Vegitat ional Conceot

The th i rd concept of th e Arctic is tha t it cons is t s of th e

areas north of th e t ree l ine. Th concept too is not su i tab le fo r

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a mil i ta ry analysisin

t h a tit also

fails to include vast

areas which present cha ra c t e r i s t i c a l l y Arct ic problems.

5. M ili tary Concept

In th is study none of th e aforementioned concepts of th e

Arctic wi l l be strictly adhered to , A combination of th e three

w i l l be used and throughout th is study th e us e of th e t e rm

Arct ic w i l l imply all of those areas both Arctic and sub-Arctic

wherein condit ions of extreme cold temperatures, severe weather

and rugged te r ra in habi tua l ly covered with ice,snow and glac ie rs

or tundra impose unusual problems of supply and equipment on

mil i ta ry operat ions.

6. I n t e rna t i ona l Boundaries

Of f u r t h e r i n t e r e s t both from a commercial ,pol i tcal and

mil i ta ry poin t of view ar e th e presently accepted international

agreement exis t s a dib i s ion of jur i sd ic t ion based upon a 1926

decree by th e U.S.S.R. is general ly accepted in te rna t iona l ly.

It is in te res t ing to note tha t in th is division of jur i sd ic t ion

(see exhib i t 2) th e U.S.S.R. contro ls almost 50% of th e Arctic

area while th e United States ha s l ess than 10%.

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2

Exhibit 2

Internat ional 3 oundarie a

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IMPORTAN~CE OF TEARCTIC


2. Commercial and. Political

3. Military

3.xhibit 3 - Map of World. Showing Relative Positions

of Population and. Commercial Centers

Exhibit 4 - Air Routes Over the ;Arctic

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Th e realization that time an d space are al l important

in modern warfare and th e rap&I advances in th e reduc t ion of

these fac tors focuses a t ten t ion upon th e Arctic regions. This

vas t but little known area assumes all important proport ions

in. commercial ,pol i t ical and mil i ta ry thinking and planning.

2. Commercial and Po l i t i c a l

Over 3/4 of th e land surface of th e earth l i e s north of

th e equator and approximatly 85% of the worlds populat ion is

found in th is area. The major i ndus t r i a l and t rade cen te r s of

th e ent i re world lie in th e northern hemisphere. (see exhib i t 3)

The di rec t routes between these grea t hubs of commerce in th e ... 2

northern contiments lie across th e Arctic and these distances

ar e unbel ievably short . The a i r l ine distance between New York

and Moscow is only 5100 miles. (see exhib i t 4) The unfeasabi l i ty

of surface t rave l across th is area in th e pas t ha s tended to

hide th is important aspect of the north polar region but with

the advent of global t r ans tp r t th i s area has become th e poten t ia l

crossroads of commercial a ir routes.

Inaddit ion

isth e f a c t tha t th e land masses of th e Arctic

contain vas t na tura l resources. Greenland possesses a hood

amount of f a i r grade coal and th e worlds l a rges t deposi t of

cryol i te which is used in th e processing of aluminum. Coal, i ron

s i lver,pyre tes ,n ick le ,copper, zinc and lead are found in abundance

in Scandinavian Lapland. In Russia and Siberia ar e vas t deposi ts

of coa l , i ron , copper,nickle and mica ,o i l ,g raphi te and gold. Canada

and Alaska are r ich in deposi ts of t i n , gold,coal , copper, manganese,

nickle , antimony, chromium, tungston, and there are ind ica t ions that

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uranium ore v i t a l to development of atomic energy is to be

found in th is region. As y e t these mineral resources are

vir tua l ly unassessed an s undeveloped. In addit ion to th e

mineral wealth th e ent i re sub-arctic is r ich in Timber. While

furs and f i sh fo r th e ent i re world come from these regions,

3. M il ita ry

The mil i ta ry importance of the area becomes read i ly im-

portant fo r as never before commercial, p o l i t i c a l and mil i ta ry

i n t e r e s t s are inseperable. Any region which assumes a world wide

commercial and po l i t i ca l importance immediatly becomes of

mil i ta ry in teres t . The v i t a l i n d us t r i a l and populat ion centers

of th e northern continents are within easy a i r c r a f t range of

each other by mil i ta ry a i r c r a f t and they all lie within th e

opera t iona l rad ius of presen t day long range bombardment a i r-

craf t . (see exhib i t 4) In the event of a future war th e a ir

routes over the Arctic will be those along which we must be

prepared to in te rcep t enemy a i r c r a f t and to p l o t ou r own a ir

offensive.

Notonly w i l l th e a ir over th e Arctic be of v i t a l im-

portance bu t Arctic bases fo r ground a ir defense i n s t a l l a t i ons

as wll as fo r a i r c r a f t are l ike ly to be deciding fac tors in

any future conf l ic t of world wide proport ions. To defend or

seize such bases wi l l require th e us e of large numbers of

ground combat and service t roops. The support of such operat ions

wil l necess i ta te a vas t l og i s t i ca l e ffo r t within th e Arctic

regions. The mil i ta ry importance of the Arctic is fur ther en -

hanced by th e f a c t we have not in th e pas t embarked upon rea l ly

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large scale mil i ta ry operat ions in t h i s area and do not possess

th e equipment, "know-how" or experience fac tors upon which to

base future planning. The co-ordinated effor ts of th e Arn,Navy

and Air Force must be directed to extensive research and develop-

ment in Arctic problems if th e Armed Forces ar e to be prepared

to conduct successful operat ions in th is area.

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3

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Exhbit 4

To Singapoi

A ir R o u t e s Over th e arc t ic and D i s t a n c e s Between New York City

and Other Great Cit ies of the World v ia These Routes.

B.6

T

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---

I ;:

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APPENDIX C'

FACTORS A~FECTING ARCTIC OPERATIONS


2. Weather

3. Terrain

4. Permafrost

Exhib i t 5 - Arct ic Terrain under Normal Prec ip i ta t ion

Exhibi t 6 - Arct ic Terrdn under Slight Prec ip i ta t ion

Exhib i t 7 -Arctic Coastal Pla in

Exhibit 8 - Alaskan Plateau

Exhibit 9 - Mt. McKinley Terrain

Exhibit 10 - Volcano in the Aleutians

Exhibit 11 - Volcano in Alaska

Exhibit 12 - Permafrost Typical Cross-section

Exhibit 13 - Permafrost Typical Cros-section

Exhibit 14 - Surface Eruptions thru Permafrost

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In th e Arct ic as in no other region of th e world is

mastery of the elements or at least the ability to live with

them a prerequisite to military operations. In addition to

a ll of the common influences of nature this region is subjected

to the most violent reactions of weather,terrain and a peculiar

phenomonum called permafrost. Since other factors affecting

the equipment and supply of units operating in the polar regions

do not differ materially from those encountered in any other

operation the scope of this study will be limited to these

three.

2. Weather

Arct ic weather is a dangerous obstacle to mil i ta ry operat ions

and ca n eas i ly cause success or f a i l u r e . A throrough knowledge

of and it's possible effec t s upon men and equipment essen t ia l

in planning fo r mil i ta ry operation in Arct ic regions.

Temperatures in th e Arct ic cover a wide range of extremes

and though following a general ly predictable pat te rn are in

some areas subject to sudden changes. On th e Arctic Sea th e

temperatures ar e coldusually below 30 degrees Farhenhai t even

during the summer season but due to the steading effect of the

slight change in temperatures between summer and winter. Nearby

laud temperatures range from -90 to# 90 degrees in the summer

but the temperatures over the Sea will vary only -20 in the

winter to t 30 in the summer. The coldest temperatures are not

as might be expected to be found in the vicinity of the north

pole, but are some distance inland on both the Siberian and

Canadian side of the pole. On the Siberian side temperatures

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have been recorded as low~as -- 100 degrees while on th e American

side th e lowest temperature recorded ha s been -80 degrees.

Prec ip i ta t ion in th e Arctic also var ies widely in di ffe r-

en t regions. In general though there is comparatively little

snowfall and r a i n f a l l in th e polar regions. The p rec i p i t a t i on

over most of th is vas t area is about 15 inches annually and

it is in these areas t h a t th e most normal Arctic condit ions

ar e encountered. (see exhib i t 5) However in Southern Greenland

it averages 40 inches and runs as high as 60 inches in th e

Aleutians. In th e Siberian deser t and along the Canadian Archi-

pelagos there is prac t ica l ly no prec ip i ta t ion . The constant

accumulation of f r o s t in these areas is so heavy tha t it is

dr i f ted by th e winds an d gives th e appearance of snow. (see

exhib i t 6) Winds throughout the Arct ic also vary to a great

extent . Across th e Siberian Plateau and through th e Aleut ians

heavy gales l as t ing from a few hours to weeks are preva len t .

In Lapland, Canada and Alaska th e winds ar e equal ly violent

reaching proport ions of over 100 miles pe r hour but are l ess

frequent and of shorter durat ion. The winds coupled with pre-

cip i ta t ion or heavy f ro s t s render visibility and movement at

t imes impossible. The effec ts of Arctic weather on mil i ta ry

operat ions manifests itself in many other ways. Landslides

and snowfalls block roads and passes . Sudden thaws wash out

br idges and roads and th e a t t enden t mud renders cross country

movement impossible. It effec t s supply because ext ra and

special equipment is required and ins ta l la t ions must be selected

with grea t care. It effec ts th e manner in which supplies and

equipment can be packaged, stored and t r anspor ted . It effec t s

evacuation by causing a higher ra te of non-bat t le casua l t ies

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from f ros tb i te , t rench foot"and resp i ra tory diseases. Th e

violence of Arctic storms and th e in tens i ty of the cold re -

strict all movement,

3. Terrain

Of all th e natura l fac tors which effec ts Arctic operat ions

none exerts a greater inf luence than the geography of the area.

No study of these regions would be complete without an anaylasis

of the t e r ra in over which operat ions would be carr ied out, The

Arctic is character ized by exagerated t e r ra in fea tures , rocky

crags, glaciated peaks and vast expanses of floating or land-

fast ice, In this study both the Arctic Ocean and the Land areas

surrounding it eill be discussed for both are equally important

par ts of the t e r r a i n n t h i s region.

a. Arctic Ocean

STwo th i rds of the area lying within the Arct ic C i r c l e

is covered by the Arct ic Ocean. A vas t inland sea whose depths

run to 1800 fee t . Actual ly th e Arctic Ocean should more cor rec t ly

be called a se a fo r it is more than anything else a landlocked

water with narrow o u t l e t s into th e Atlantic and Paci f ic . Th e

Arctic Ocean is surrounded by a con t inen ta l shelf which is quite

broad and flat on th e Siberian side and narrow and rugged on th e

Alaskan and Canadian side. The outlet from the Arctic Ocean and

th e Bering St ra i t between Alaska and Siberia and th e Greenland

Sea between Greenland and Spitzbergen. (see exhib i t 1)

The Arctic area is r inged with many i s l ands most of

which l ie on th e Canadian side of th e North Pole. Some of th e

i s l ands are very large and Greenland and Ellesmere Is land th e

two l a rges t ar e fo r th e most par t covered with glac iers while

most of the other i s lands are free from g l ac i a l ice.

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Th e Arctic Ocean itself is covered fo r the most part

with ice. This ic e is formed by the d i r e c t freezing of the sea

water augmented by precipitation. The ice of th e Arctic is in

three general forms th e Grand Pack, l and- fas t ic e and packice.

The Grand Pack can bes t be described by l ikening it

to an immense island of ice located roughly in th e center of

and covering about 70% of th e Arctic basin. Th e ic e in th e

Grand Pack is made of many ice floes hundreds of years old.

These floes are in constant motion by the currents and winds

and by collision either built up tremendous mountains of ice

or separates to form narrow channels of open water. The Grand

Pack as a whole appears to move in a generally clockwise

direction about it's center which is called th e ice pole.

Sections of th e Grand Pack are constantly being broken of f

by the action of the wind, seas and motion.

Land-fast or shore ic e as it 's name impl6es is bui l t

up during the winter months along th e shores of the Arctic

basin, This relatively thin sheet of ice attains a thickness of a

about 3 to 6 feet an d breaks up in the summer leaving open

water along the coast. This ice is restricted from any appre-

ciable horizontal movement by the shore. Pack ic e is composed

of numerous small floes which break away from either the Grand

Pack or the land-fast ice. The density of the pack ice depends

largely upon the severity of th e winter season. Pack ice moves

with the main currents but is unpredicable in it's extent thus

creating one of the greatest hazards to Arctic shipping during

the shor t summer.

b. Land Areas

Th e land areas of the Arct ic can bes t be discussed

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by a br i e f descript ion of each sect ion. For th e most part

however th e t e r ra in of each is similar in tha t it contains

rugged mountains, plateaus and. vas t tundra pla ins . While some

sectors of the rim of th e Arctic basin r i s e sharpely i n to

mountainous areas most of t h i s region is character ized by

coas ta l p l a i n dotted with many lakes and pools caused by drain-

age from higher regions and surface erupt ions. (see exhib i t 7)

These water areas while f rozen solidin

th e winter are subject

to th e summer thaws.

The Siberian coast from Bering St r a i t to th e Yalmal

Peninsula contains all of th e typ ica l t e r ra in types found in

th e Arctic . From th e St ra i t to the Kolyma River th e Chukchi

Peninsula is a rugged upland region r i s ing abrupt ly from th e

shore of th e Arct ic Ocean. Elevat ion through th is area average'

about 706 f ee t . The area between th e Kolyma River and th e Lena

River is a low plain stretching from the shore of th e ocean

fa r inland. This face of th is pla in is cu t by two long lo w

ridge l ines running general ly perpendicular to th e shore l ine .

The vas t Siberian pla teau l ies between th e Lena and Yenisei

r i ve r s . This plareau is about 1000 f e e t and it extends south-

ward fo r some 700 miles. From th e Yenisei River to th e Finnish

Border is another large lowland plain about 150 f ee t in eleva-

t ion . This plain is divided almost equal ly by th e Ural Mountains

which ru n north and south and extend all th e way to th e rim

of th e Arctic Basin.

The Scandinavian region borders upon th e Arct ic Ocean

is a rugged upland which r i se s steeply from th e coast . The area

slopes o ff to th e eas t into a region of lakes. The ent i re coast-

line of Finland and Norway is charecter ized by deep gorges or

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indentat ions probably wrought by ic e age g l a c i a l ac t ion ,

Spitzbergen and Franz Josef Land and rugged i s l and

groups ly ing j u s t o ff th e edge of th e Grand Pack. Both have

extensive glac ie r areas and Franz Josef Land is ic e locked

most of th e year. Spitzbergen however is open to shippingand

being th e c loses t &ce free land to the geographical to p of th e

world is of great mil i ta ry s t ra teg ic importance.

Greenland whichis

the l a rg e s t is landin

th e world

and Ellesmere Is land a re rugged i r regular mountain areas a l-

most to ta l ly covered by glac ie rs . The glac ie r covering Green-

land have a t ta ined such a depth tha t it ac tua l ly is one s ing le

large ice cap. There is a narrow s t r ip of glac ie r free land

along both th e eastern western coast of Greenland bu t th i s

too is rugged and mountainous.

The Alaskan sec to r of the Arct ic shorel ine is a great

coas ta l pla in with many smal l lakes. (see exhib i t 7) Inland

from th is pla in th e land r i s e s Brooks Range which extends

completely across Alaska. To the south of Brook Range is th e

Alaskan Plateau (see exhib i t 7) and a large lowland area drained

by the Yukon River. South of the Yukon plain lies th e Alaska Range

which is a continuat ion of th e Rocky Mountains. This range ex -

tends on into th e Aleut ians . These mountains ar e extremely

rugged (see exhib i t 9) and contain Mt.McKinley th e highest

mountain in North America. The mountain areas of Alaska contain

numerous glac ie rs and in the southern and Aleut ian mountains

ar e found volcanoes. (see exhib i t 10 &ll)

Oanda is divided general ly into three compartments. From

th e Alaskan border eas t is th e grea t cent ra l plain which is

drained by th e McKenzie River. This plain extends southward

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through th e United Sta tes . The coast line e a s t of th e great central

plain is broken inhundreds of islands separated by narrow

crooked straits. The northernmost of these i s l ands are rugged

and glac ia ted while those lying general ly south and west ar e

flat and comparatively free of i ce . The waterways separat ing

these i s l ands are closed by ic e most of th e year. South of th e

i s land region and eas t of th e great cent ra l p la in is th e lake

region and Hudson's Bay. This area is somewhat higher in

e leva t ion than th e c e n t r a l p la in and r i s e s in gentle ro l l i ng

hills towards th e high rugged eastern coast .

Labrador and Baffin Is land have coas ta l areas which ar e ";'

broken by many deep f jords and marked by high rugged cliffs.

The coast line is in general quite similar to that of the

Scandinavian Peninsula and on both Labrador and Baffin slopes

off to lowlands in the west. Baffin is largely glaciated in the

eastern and cent ra l por t ion of th e i s land .

Th e e f f e c t of th e Arctic te r ra in on mil i ta ry operations

is read i ly apparent . Not only does th e Arct ic contain th e

most rugged t e r ra in bu t the te r ra in is l a rge ly unpred ic tab le

due to th e vio len t changes in climate. The t e r ra in in th e

Arct ic covers such a wide range of extremes tha t many types

of special equipment are required and movement in some areas

is impossible. Soil throughout the Arctic is formed by the

disintegration of rock rather than by decaying vegetable matter.

Vast areas that are frozen solid one month are seas of mud and r

water the next. The summer flooding makes the land Surrounding

the Arctic Basin on both continents virtually impassable.

4. Permafrost

One of the most important factors affecting Arctic

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operat ions par t icu la ryfcons t ruc t ion , locat ion of i n s t a l l a t i ons

and t ranspor ta t ion is permafrost . Although other nat ions have

long been aware of th e effec ts of permafrost and have pu t a

great deal of effor t into solving th is problem it only recently

tha t we have manifest any i n t e r e s t in th i s phenononum. This is

due mostly to th e f ac t tha t the United States has had a corres-

ponding lack of knowledge or i n t e r e s t in th e Arctic in general .

Permafrost is a layer of permanently frozen sub soil

which under l ies approximatly a fifth of the ent i re surface of

th e ear th . (see exhib i t 12 & 13) The thickness of the layer

inc reases from a few inches a t it's temperate zone extremit ies

to 900 f ee t in some areas of th e northern extremit ies . The

depth of th e permafrost table below th e surface of th e ear th

is depended upon th e la t i tude and th e insu la t ing effec t of th e

earth above th e table. At the southern edge of th e permafrost

zone th e permafrost table l i e s from 7 to 11 f ee t below th e

surface while in th e northern-most region it coincides with

th e surface.

The l ayer of earth which cover the permafrost table

freezes in the winter and thaws in summer th i s is ca l led th e

act ive layer. This l ayer also varies in thickness depending $

upon th e l a t i t u de and th e insu la t ing quali ty of th is layer it-

se l f . Fo r th e most pa r t it gradual ly decreases as it extends

into colder la t i tudes . However incer ta in areas which ar e sub-

jec t to i r r egu la r i t i e s of e i ther ho t or cold temperature or

where th e insulat inge ff ec t of th is l ayer due to composition

is except ional ly poor or good. The permafrost table may e i ther

r i se close to th e surface or drop lower than th e surrounding

l eve l . Water provides very poor insulat ion while moss, tundra

- 3-9


26/64

and vegetat ion are exce l len t insu la tors .

Permafrost is as hard and impermeable as rock. During

th e seasonal thaws drainage is r e s t r i c t ed to tha t shallow area

between th e permafrost table and th e earths surface thus se t t ing

up a fa l se water table, Temperature changes in th e act ive layer

and th e upward pressure of th e true water t ab le which is closely

under pressures j u s t below th e act ive layer. Where th e ac t ive

layer is weak par t icu lar ly where it is composed of moss or

tundra swelling or surface erupt ions ar e l ike ly to occur.(see

edhib i t 14) This accounts along with surface draihage fo r th e

numerous l akes and pools found in th e Arctic pla in . This act ion

r e su l t s in pronounced so i l des t ruc t ion aid th e crea t ion of

deep crevices and sink holes .

In addit ion to the swelling and erupt ions the hydro-

s ta t ic ipressure in th e fa l se water table can cause hor izon ta l

movement of sub soil, This r e su l t s in th e heaving or sagging of t

th e ear th and th e opening of vas t crevices.

The effec t s of permafrost on military operat ions mani-

f e s t themselves mainly in t ransportat ion and locat ion and con-

struction of supply installations. The action of permafrost

upon th e surface of the earth and it's subsequent effec t upon

passage by vehicle or on foo t over these areas is r e a d i l y

apparent. The e f f e c t of the heaving, sagging and erupt ion of

th e earth upon any construct ion e ffo r t can also be eas i ly

visua l ized . Considerable e ffo r t ha s been expended in t r y ing

to overcome th e effec ts of permafrost but so fa r with no real

r e su l t s ,

J i - 1 0


27/64

llxhibit5

1-/9-

Act ic Terrain under Normal Precipitation

x z h i b i t 6

F'I

? . .

Arctic Terrain under Slight Precipitation

"-11

r

5

AAr

e-

_-_.a


28/64

kbhibit 7

Frte,a room"..

f

r

s.A

YJ '

6 k

0_12


29/64

efxhibit 8

Alaskani Plate e

C-13


30/64

I, I,.Kh

w' } '.^ ! .P o.C !.y

41*

r- i0


31/64

H 4,.

P c


32/64

lxh ib i t 11

13k

Volcano in Alaska

0-16


33/64

Bzhib i t 12

Thawed part ofactive layer

PermafrostIsland -

IceLens

typical Permafrost Cross-sec t ion


34/64

..

Water from intermediate

"'.-"'''''''I''' F / / . / . ; . " . . . . - ~ 120'

\ * *..k ~ * ; k . 4'c ,

... I. " .. ' ' I . - ... ''''Y.. / / ~ y / / / 7 h H / h W / / h V H /.....

;Ie:.'

ossarea and surrounding ' - ' " " ~ , Sand, gravelhills moves through and some claymoss on this contact

PERMAFROST

Water from distant areas--"'... .r

is slowly moving thru l ' Sand, gravelioints in bedrock under X and some claya hydraulic head 'Igreater than 130 Jointed bedrock


35/64

(0I

l(;

rt;:t

2tr:S

~to

..

0~ mc+

Ifp!if'~ ~ .,0r.oc+

Heavy moss, good cover,good insulation

\

\.

---Medium moss, medium cover,medium insulation .

~ "

Ii.r:lI

~ 0-....c1"

~


36/64

APPENiDIB

E3IPMENT

1. General Di scus s on

2 Clo thing

a. Footgear

b:. Body Clothing

C. Headgear

d.. Sleeping Bags

3, Vehicles

a.. Commercial Type

b. Military Oversuovw Vehicles

Efxh ib i t 15-.;iRYootgeax'

E x h i b i t 16 - Parkas and. Trousers - iGc

Exhibit 17 - Arctic Sleeping Bags - woCe~Ac A(

Exhibit 18 - Deisel. Tractors.

Exhibit 19 - Military Oversnow Vehicles

D-1


37/64


As in any other mil i ta ry planning equipment problems are

th e first to arise in th is type. In pas t operat ions in th e Aratic

in spi te of r e l a t i ve l y high rate of material fa i lures in metals

p la s t i c s and rubber most of our equipment has with modificat ion

proven adaptable fo r use. Those fa i l u r e s which have occured

can fo r th e most pa r t be corrected by laboratory research and

devel&pment.A

study of the frequency of minimum temperatures

in various areas of the Arctic is an important fac tor in estab-

l i sh ing th e bas i s fo r th is development.This study wi l l cover

only th e two types of equipment wherein th e grea tes t deficiencies

have been apparent . Those ar e cl&thing and overland veh ic les .

2. Clothing

In a region where the temperatures range downward f rom

-50 degrees Fahrenhe i t th e problem of protect ion of the indiv-

idua l is th e first considerat ion and must be provided fo r

before other problems can be approached.

DW2


38/64

3. EFFECT OF EXTREME COLD ON MATERIALS. -- The effec t of extreme cold

on materials is a subject tha t is being given much at tent ion today. Laboratory

and f ie ld t e s t s are widespread and it is expected tha t more emphasis w i l l be

placed upon th is in th e future. Some of th e problems encountered in design

and operat ion of arc t ic equipment arisefrom th e following mater ia l defects:

a. Stee l . S tee l shrinks and becomes brittle when subjected to

extreme cold an d must therefore be handled care fu l ly.

b. Copper wire is also br i t t le when cold.

c. Glassis

verysuscept ible to sudden temperature changes and th e

warmth of th e human skin may cause it to sha t te r.

d. Rubber becomes hard and brittle a t low temperatures. Natural

rubber is general ly bet ter than th e synthet ic product fo r us e in extreme

cold however there is a synthet ic in the development stage in th e Signal

Corps laboratory t h a t may prove to be sa t i s fac tory fo r l imi ted uses at

temperature as low as - 67 degree F.

e. Canvas w i l l f reeze and lose its pl iabi l i ty in cold weather.

f. Lubricants freeze a t low temperature and require extensive

preheat ing before they can be used. There is much controversy regarding

lubricants and it is impossible a t t h i s point to sa y more than t h a t numerous

agencies are experimenting and tha t some have developed oi ls with sa t i s -

factory pour points , although corrosive effec t is exceedingly high.

4. PREHEATING ENGINES. -- A major problem inherent to all engines

is t h a t of th e necessi ty fo r preheat ing pr ior to operat ion in sub zero

temperatures. Not only does th is conserve time and manpower bu t it

requires addi t ional ins ta l la t ions and equipment . At present external means

a re used fo r preheat ing. It is bel ieved t ha t in th e future in te rna l means

should be incorporated in all engines designed fo r operat ion in th e extreme

cold. To i l lus t ra te th e ser iousness of t h i s problem it might be w e l lto

note t h a t veh ic les preheated indoors to operat ing temperatures have been

known to freeze up and stop a f t e r only a few hundred yards of t r ave l in

extreme cold. Airplanes have crashed on takeoff despi te th e most careful

preheat ing procedures.


39/64

5. PERSONAL COMFORT. -- Another problem of arc t ic and sub-arc t ic

t ransportat ion is t ha t of adequate provision fo r comfort and safety of

operat ing personnel . Every piece of t ransportat ion must be designed in

such a way as to make possible its operat ion under th e most adverse con-

ditionof temperature and weather. It is preferable of course to provide

closed heated space fo r veh ic le crews so t h a t they may operate under th e

most comfortable and hea l th fu l condi t ions. If th is is no t possible it must

be kep t in mind that a man bundled up in heavy arc t ic clothing cannot operate

and maintain machinery in th e same manner as can a man working a t moderate

temperature.

6. ARTILLERY. -- a. Conclusions. (75 mm Ho w (pack))

(1) Howitzes proved very sa t i s fac tory for tasks assigned to

artillery.

(2) Standard buffer o i l , o i l , reco i l , spec ia l U.S. spec i f ica t ion

AXS 808 was no t affected by temperature as lo w as -160 F. At th is tempera-

ture sight mechanism became d i ff i cu l t to operate .

(3)"Howitzers were cleaned with kerosene a f t e r f i r ing and t h i s

proved very sa t i s fac tory. No par t icu lar problems of maintenance were in-

curred by cold temperatures.

(4) Traversing and elevating mechanism worked sa t i s f ac to r i ly

throughout. Care must betaken to keep snow and ic e out of elevat ing arcs.

(5) No breakage occurred tha t could be attributed to cold.

(6) Smothering effec t of snow an d ic e is greater with fuze quick

thanws/delay.... In f i r ing on prepared "ice concrete" and lo g bunkers, fuze

quick had no destruct ive effec t while fuze delay penetrated and destroyed

these.

(7) White phospherous smoke (M57) while d i f f i c u l t to observe

against snow background proved very helpful in r eg i s t r a t i on . No smoke

screens.were attempted. Colored smoke would have been very useful .

(8) Time she l l is a "must" in snow operat ions, both fo r an t i -

personnel missions and as an aid to reg is t ra t ion .

(9) Packing of ammunition proved very sa t i s fac tory. No rounds were

rusted or damaged by cl imatic condi t ions, and no misf i res occurred in 1900

rounds f i red .


40/64

(10) Skis fo r weapons towed behind t racked vehicles in deep snow

are absolutely e s s en t i a l . See at tached copy fo r sk i s used on 75 mm pack

howitzers.


41/64

3. COMMERCIAL TRACTOR TRAINS. -- a. General .Givi l ian en te rpr i ses in

Canada, Alaska and th e Government in Soviet Russia have fo r some time been

operat ing t r a c t o r t ra ins . These t ra ins have proven very successful fo r over-

land hauling in th e Arctic and Sub-arct ic . Their recent mil i ta ry counterpar t ,

th e military oversnow vehicle, will be discussed later.

b. Alaskan trains. -- As developed in Alaska th e t ra in consists of a

large crawler type t r a c to r which tows one or more t r a i l e r s or wanigans fitted

with skids or runners. In more elaborate t ra ins are included , in addit ion

to cargo car r ie rs , a bunk house, cook house shop and maintenance car r ie r.

In mining and lumbering operat ions these trains have been used fo r distances

up to 700 miles. Compared to water t ranspor ta t ion they are exceedingly ex-

pensive.

c. Tractors. -- Probably th e most widely used tractor is th e D-8

manufactured by th e Caterpillar Tractor Company of America. It is big,

powerful and durable. Other models by this company have been found to be to o

light fo r extended operations. In restricted operations the International

T9-18, T9-14, TD- 9 and All i s Chalmers HD-10 and HD- 7 ar e also used. Al l

t rac tors w i l l be fu l ly winter ized. Bulldozer blades ar e necessary fo r break-

in g trail, protect ing th e engine and rad ia tor when t ravel ing thru t imber and

fo r providing necessary weight to th e front end of th e t rac tor to overcome

sudden r i s e s . A hydraul icable operat ional blade provides more prec i s ion

in work however, it requires to o much maintenance an d fo r th is reason th e

cab le - l i f t blade is preferable . Fo r continuous operat ions, one D-8 is

required for every three trailer uni t s or approximately 50 tons of cargo.

d. Trai le rs . (1) The trailer uni t s may be e i ther mounted on runners

or skids . If th e latter, they are cal led "go devils" , which are simple of

design and ca n be constructed in th e f ie ld . Their capaci ty is l imited and

t he i r serviceable life is r e l a t i v e ly short compared to th e runner type.

In add i t ion , th e maneuverabi l i ty is ra ther poor.

(2) The runner type trailers ar e more durable and maneuverable,

and the i r size is somewhat dependent on trail condit ions. When wider than

10 fee t o r longer than 30 feet , they are hard to handle and are read i ly

damaged. The runners are of the bob sled type with cross-connecting chains


42/64

to give front an d rear steering. Th e width of th e runners must no t exceed

the width of th e tractor track, however, it must no t be so narrow as to cause

t ipping. A width of 5 f e e t is acceptable fo r most trail condit ions. For

long trips, 20 to 40 to n slede ar e desirable.

e. Wanigans. -- Wanigans ar e small buildings tha t ca n be mounted on

"go devils" or sleds to provide housing, mess an d shop facilities in the

f ie ld . They must be heavi ly braced and insu la ted . A minimum' ce i l ing

and 8' overa l l width are normal. An 8 'x 36 ' cook house wi l l provide cooking

and mess facilities fo r about 40 men, and an 8' x 26' bunk house wi l l sleep

10 to 15 men. A utility wanigan is a combination cook and bunk house fo r th e

t rai l-breaking party, which usua l ly cons i s t s o f from 4 to 6 men.

f. Train crews. -- Personnel comprising th e crews must be rough0.and

rugged. A t yp i ca l crew would include t rac tor opera to rs , swampers or handy

men, mechanics, welders, blacksmiths, cooks, cooks-helpers , and supervisors .

g. Supply. -- Supply is a problem when it is considered t h a t a D-8

t r a in wi l l on long hauls consume a 53 gal . drum of fue l o il every 14 to16

hours, while averaging 10 miles every 24 hours.

h. Route se lec t ion . -- In select ing routes , th e reconnaissance party

should avoid lakes, streams, hills, mountains, heavily wooded areas, and hot

spring areas . Small observat ion planes are often used to as s i s t in route

se lec t ion .

4. MILITARY OVERSNOW VEHICLES. -- a. Experimentation. -- Considerable

experimentation ha s been performed on oversnow vehicles fo r mil i ta ry use.

Probably th e most widely known experiment is th e Canadian operat ion Muskox,

recently completed. (See exhib i t 11 fo r route) . These tes ts proved that

powered t racked vehicles could operate fo r sustained periods under th e most

severe Arctic condit ions. (See exhibi t 12) Some of th e conclusions regarding

mil i ta ry oversnow vehicles are no t only in te res t ing , bu t they ind ica te a trend

that we may well follow in future developments of ou r Arctic vehicles .

b. General descript ion. -- A Canadian report indicates t h a t these vehicles

should be self-contained motor-driven and full t racked with suff ic ien t cargo

capaci ty so towing of t r a i l e r s w i l l be necessary only in emergencies. The


43/64

compartment should be wel l insulated so tha t no res t r ic t ing clothing has

to be worn by th e crew, and so arranged t ha t cooking, sleeping, etc.,

are provided for. Since it is expected t h a t operat ions w i l l be per-

formed under th e most severe weather condi t ions, it w i l l be mandatory

to so design th e vehicle t h a t most of th e ordinary f ield maintenance can

be performed from within th e heated i n t e r i o r. Communications equipment

should include 2-way radios fo r contact with th e bases, and fo r homing

beacons fo r a i r c r a f t , as well as direct ion-f inding loop fo r navigat ion.

Maintenance points should be located a t a ir bases a t 500 mile in te rva ls ,

while intermediate supply caches and maintenance she l te rs a re required

fo r each 100mile

i n t e rva l .These vehicles should be capable of unass i s ted

operat ions between caches, with a ir support required only in emergencies.

c. Mili tary requirements. -- Recommended mil i ta ry requirements are

th e following three basic hulls , each capable of carrying superstructures

designed to meet special requirements:

(1) A l ight , f a s t 1 to n veh ic le , su i tab le fo r carrying personnel

and l igh t infantry weapons. The crew to cons i s t o f a driver-mechanic and a

driver-radio operator. It should be capable of 24 hours sustained operation

in th e near vic in i ty of a mother vehicle .

(2) A 4 to n pay load l ine of communication cargo or mother

vehicle .

(3) A slow heavy cargo vehicle of 10 or more tons pay load,

designed to tow a large powered trailer.

d. Navigational problems. -- Some of th e ground navigat ion

problems encountered on th e Muskox expedi t ion are:

(1) Absence of contoured maps an d a shortage of accurate

maps.(2) Terrain features t h a t would as s i s t in navigat ion such

as lakes and r ivers ar e obscured by uniform snow cover.

(3) St ra igh t courses over long distances a re impossible,

because of th e necessi ty to avoid obstacles .

(4) Adverse weather condi t ions often obscure th e sun and s ta rs

fo r long periods of time.


44/64

Section II I - Air Transportation

1. OPERATIONAL FLYING. -- The problems of opera t iona l f lying in

th e Arctic ar e so numerous tha t a complete discussion thereof ar e beyond

th e scope of th i s study. A few of th e more important follow:

a. Forced landings in th e Arctic and th e ensuing rescue operat ions

present a mult i tude of problems tha t are being worked ou t very sa t i s f ac to r i l y

by our Air Forces. Wheeled planes have landed successful ly on snow and ice

as was demonstrated recently by th e C-54 landing on th e northern Greenland

ic e cap by USAF p i lo t Cavenar. Ski landings were attempted by S ir Hubert

Wilkins in 1927. His th i rd , a forced landing, was made successful ly in a

blinding storm a t night . Pontoons have also been used.for successful land-

ings on snow. Et Pr i tchard , USCG rescued an Army Fortress crew from th e

Greenland ic e cap by landing h is Grumaan Amphibian with th e wheels up on

a long down slope using the pontoons as skis . Pontoon landings on sub-

Arctic lakes are dangerous because of th e shallow depth of most of th e lakes.

b. Since there are prac t ica l ly no shadows in th e vas t expanse of

Arct ic , white p i lo t s lose depth percept ion and the danger of misjudging

dis tances is always present . It is ent i re ly possible fo r a p i lo t to touch

outcropping of ic e with his wings without having seen th e danger.

2. LANDING FIELDS. -- a. Landing s t r ips are eas i ly constructed of so l id

flat sea and r iver ic e by scraping and/or packing. Fie lds constructed on

perma f ro s t present a l toge ther another problem, and one t ha t has not y et been

solved sa t i s f ac to r i l y. In.addit ion to th e action of perma f ro s t damaging

th e f ie lds , th e element of danger to th e planes is always present . Sudden

buckling, erupt ions, f looding, e tc . , all contr ibute to making operat ions

f romthese f ie lds hazardous.

b. Experiments are now being conducted with various types of

insulat ing materials to prevent excessive melting of th e perma f ro s t t ab le

under the landing s t r i p s .

3. MAINTENANCE. -- The maintenance problems of gasol ine powered vehicles

are also inherent to airplanes. Providing adequate heated space fo r equip-

ment, mater ia l s and personnel during maintenance operat ions in th e Arctic

is a major problem. The problems of adequate lubr ican ts and mater ia l s fo r


45/64

us e a t sub-zero temperatures is one t h a t ha s ye t to be solved before

we ca n sa y t ha t th e airplane is suitable fo r sustained Arctic us e in

support of large scale military operations.


46/64

fxhibit 15

Boot, Si-Mountain and Gaiter, Ski

t _ , ;15

Shoe Pac, 12 Inch, M-1944


47/64

Ii i


48/64

c~l


49/64

4

J

1

'-

T

c

MiayOv

snw Vhce


50/64

AP P 1~IX 3

SUPPLY

l., General Disu~selion2, Installations

3. Storage

4. Transportation

a. General

b. Water

C . Rail

d.Al

e, Overland

5. Pipelines

Exhibit 20 -

Exhibit 21-

Exhibit 22 -

E x h i b i t 23 -

Exhibit 24 -

Exhibit 25 -

Sa~pplyrShip in Ice Pack

Rail Routes in U.S.S.R.

Rail Routes in Canada and. Alaska

Alaskan Railway

Air Routes over U. S. S.R.

Half-track in O i d r ' a


51/64


Of equal importance with equipment and no less o i a

problem in th e Arctic warfare is th e ac tua l supply of uni t s

operat ing on th is area. Even as th e basic pr inc ip les of warfare

remain unchanged so w i l l th e bas ic pr inc ip les of supply. The

normal methods and proceedures fo r supply w i l l have to be

modified due to the effec ts of climate, t e r ra in and other

fac tors pecul ia r to th e Arct ic . Fo r th e most pa r t however

present methods and procedures can be made to apply to Arctic

operat ions. The g r e a t e s t problems of supply occur in locat ion

and establ ishment of ins ta l la t ions , storage and t ransportat ion,

2. Ins ta l la t ions

Problems encountered in the establishment of installations

for effecting supply distribution are two-fold. First of allthere is the actual establishment of and the subsequent find&

ing of 'these installations by the using units. At f i rs t this

does not appear to be too much of a problem however it must

be remembered tha t there wil l be no roads, vir tua l ly no perm-

anent land marks. In addit ion all of th e forces of nature

including climate, weather and t e r ra in combind to hinder over-

land movement and navigat ion. A p a r t i a l so lu t ion to th is pro-

blem will be to expand unit distribution to the all inclusive

point. This however is not to practical in face of the ever

present shortage of service troops. A more practical solution

would be to devise a system o radio directional beamsto guide

the vehicles of using units to the supply installations. The

lack of road nets and the slowness of transportation will also

necessitate locating supply installations much closer to the figh

fighting troops than in normal operations.

E-2


52/64

3. STORAGE. -- Storage problems in th e Arctic are no t as great as

might be imagined. For instance there are many i tems on which th e lo w

temperatures have no ill effec ts . Food s tuffs , clothing and weapons,

to name a few, do no t have to be protected from th e elements, as much

in th e Arctic as in the Tropics. Others, such as medical supplies ,

bat ter ies , and many de l ica te inst ruments , must be stored in pro tec t ive

containers and possibly in heated she l te rs . It is one of th e require-

ments of Arctic research to determine j u s t which supplies w i l l require

pro tec t ive storage and to devise an e ff i c i en t type of s torage. Little

ha s been done on t h i s to date.

The second problem is th e design or construct ion of suitable she l te rs

fo r use a t supply ins ta l la t ions . ' Tentage is out o f th e quest ion due to th e

violence of arc t ic storms and the lack of protect ion afforded. The bui ld -

ings required must be sturdy enough to withstand th e effec t s of climate and

weather and afford suff ic ien t warmth and protect ion fo r suppl ies stored in

them. Such she l te r must of necessi ty be r ig id and heavy and it is here that

th e problem becomes more complicated fo r as it has been pointed ou t in

Appendix B th e act ion o f perma f ro s t w i l l cause such structure to sag or

break up and to date no solut ion has been found to overcome t h i s effec t of

perma f ro s t . A possible so lu t ion is to r e s o r t to th e extensive use of ice

igloos.

4. TRANSPORTATION. - a. General. -- The movement of supplies in th e

Arctic presents th e grea tes t of all supply problems. Of th e three methods

air, water and overland, t h i s discussion w i l l be devoted mostly to th e latter

since it is th is type wherein th e g r e a t e s t problems a re found. Undoubtedly

Ai r supply w i l l be utilized to an extent never before imagined bu t supplies

wi l l have to be moved by surface t ranspor ta t ion even tua l ly and it is to th e

so lu t ion to t h i s problem tha t much e ffo r t must be di rec ted .

b. Water t r anspor t . -- Water t ranspor ta t ion in th e Arctic may be

placed under three genera l c lass i f ica t ions : maritime shipping, coastal

shipping, an d barging.

Coas ta l shipping ha s been developed to some extent in th e Arctic

but is seasonal and complicated by adverse weather, se a and ic e condit ions.


53/64

Most of the c iv i l ian equipment no w in use is small, l igh t and lacking

in nav iga t iona l devices. Present naval c r a f t avai lable fo r coas ta l and

ship to shore operat ions, due to lack of s t e e l hul l s , small. Ice flows

would puncture present ply-wdd hul l s and large scale coas ta l operat ions

could no t be accomplished without redesigning present equipment.

During th e summer months barging becomes one of th e most important

means of t r anspor t in th e Arct ic . This is due both to th e f a c t t h a t th e

r ivers ar e open to a much greater degree and grea t expansion of land areas

which had remained so l id ly frozen all winter become impassable during th e

thaws. The season is short and due to th e shallow draf t of most Arctic

r ivers th e tonnages carr ied ar e re la t ive ly small. Narrow swi f t r ivers make

navigat ion d i ff i cu l t and lack of proper loading and unloading equipment adds

to the d i ff i cu l t i e s .


54/64

Pipe Lines

The degree of usefulness t h a t can be obtained from large long distance

pipe l ines is unknown. It may be presumed t h a t in th e sub-Arctic where

temperatures do no t ru n to extremes of cold they would be sa t i s fac tory.

Under extreme cold condi t ions, th e o il would have to be cu t with more

vola t i le petroleum products and pipe l ines heavily insu la ted . It may

prove feas ib le to heat th e oil a t pumping s ta t ions o r to maintain frequent

heat ings for th e pipe itself. Under th e Canal Pro jec t crude o il from th e

Norman Wells waw ru n to th e ref inery a t White Horse and a pipe l ine was

bu i l t to Fairbanks to carry th e f inished products. They were used but

little bu t were fa i r ly success fu l . Research in this direct ion is a must

no t only due to th e fac t t h a t pipe l ines are an eff ic ien t method of carrying

PO L to th e f ighting f ront bu t indicat ions ar e tha t large us e w i l l have to be

made in th e future of th e North Canadian o il reserves.


55/64

Transportat ion Problems

Section I - Water Transportation Problems

1. MARITIME SHIPPING. a. This mode of t r a n s p o r t a t i o n is no t only

th e most important means of Arctic transport, but also the very backbone

of any economic development in th e north. Regular shipping lanes extend

westward from the east coast of th e U.S. three quarters of th e way around

th e world to th e Bering S t r a i t . The Soviet North Sea Route from Murmansk

to th e Bering Strait is of par t icu lar signif icance when consider ing th e

problems of Polar shipping. The Soviets have encountered many of th e

same difficulties to be found in connection with the North American North-

west Passage, which to date is undeveloped.

b. Icebergs create a definite hazard to maritime shipping. Since

practically al l Polar bergs originate on th e coasts of Greenland, it is

obvious from an analysis of th e se a currents that only the shipping pass-

ing of f the coasts of Newfoundland, thru the Denmark Strait between Iceland

and Greenland an d following th e Labrador current north toward Baffin Bay

will be material ly affected. The Soviet waters are fo r all intents an d

purposes f ree from l a rge icebergs. Constant vigilance and accurate an d

timely repor t ing by C.G. Ic e Pat ro l s , a i r c r a f t and shipping is of great

value in warning vesse l s of th e presence and location of icebergs in regular

shipping lanes. Radar equipment may be utilized by commercial shipping to

give warnings.

c. Icebreakers have proved valuable in keeping lanes open through

pack ice, as is evidenced by th e successful establishment of th e Soviet

North Sea route during the summer months. Icebreakers may be of 2 types:

th e ice cutting type is limited to operations in areas where ic e is no t

very thick, or where there is leeway fo r th e ice to be pushed to th e sides;

th e ic e crushing type breaks the ic e by it s own weight and for this reason

can be operated in so l id ic e f i e ld s . Ic e forcing ships ar e designed to

withstand damage from heavy ic e condi t ions, however they are of no value

in ic e breaking.

In recent operat ions in support of th e development of Naval Pet ro leum


56/64

Reserve #4 a Navy Department observer concluded t h a t th e AKA vesse l s

presently used in t ransport ing mater ia l s to th e Arct ic are unsui ted fo r

this work because they are not built to withstand ic e pressures of many

details of ship design peculiar to successful operation in the Polar Sea

is th e location of th e screws. Conventional twin screw vessels ar e very

vulnerable to damage by ic e flowing back along th e hu l l . Single screw

or twin screw vessel with some sort of protecting device are desirable

for navigation in Arctic and sub-Arctic waters.

2. COASTAL SHIPPING. a. Coastal shipping operations are complicated

by adverse weather, se a and ice conditions and th e absence of adequate

navigational aids. It is obvious that this mode of transportation must

be utilized to the maximum in any future large scale Arctic operation.

b. Navy observers from th e Arctic concluded that the small boats

presently available for coastal service and ship to shore operations in -

cluding landing craft and pontoon equipment n i s t be redesigned fo r Arctic

operation in flow ice. Experience ha s proven present craft to be unsatis-

factory due to absence of iron barking on hulls. Large scale operations

could rt b carried on with any degree of safety with th is equipment.

Overland Transportation

1.. GENERAL. a. In view of the f a c t t ha t Arctic and sub-Arctic

t ransportat ion of th e future w i l l be required to operate no t only over

land and snowbut over ic e as well. This study will consider al l surface

t ransportat ion other than water under th e general heading of land t rans-

portation.

b. A discussion of showshoes, skis, sleds, dog, reindeer an d

other more common modes of Arctic travel ar e considered beyond the scope

of th is study and therefore w i l l be el iminated. In passing it is well

to mention that although these methods ar e quite ancient they ar e never-

theless important to military operation an d must be in the future utilized

an d developed.

2. PROBLEMS. a. General.- In general it may be said that when

the weather is favorable for mechanical operation of machinery, navigation

and personnel th e condi t ion of th e ground is unfavorable fo r overland


57/64

movement. On th e other hand when the condition of th e surface is favorable

for the movement of wheeled and tracked vehicles then th e weather is usually

so severe that the functioning of machinery and personnel is very inefficient.

Movement by wheeled or most tracked vehicles is nearly impossible

in permafrost areas where the regional seasonal thaw is thick and is

composed of moss or tundra. The result of such movement being that

vehicles bog down to the extent that further movement is impossible and

recovery is a major problem. Installation in permafrost areas are subject

to buckling, sagging, shearing, and even complete destruction as a result

of th e phenomenal action of permafrost. Unless special insulating pre-

cautions are taken against excessive melting of the permafrost table dur-

in g the period of season thaw construction performed on top of the region

can be expected to be damaged. For example a building constructed on

frozen ground without proper provisions for insulating th e heat.


58/64

Ixhibi t 20

4r . *AN-

06 4 ---

4 '4

s,.

4

4. - 'V

'' J

4

f . -s

La'

f e, rw Y 4a. -

Supp1y Ship in Ic e Pack


59/64

Exhibi t 21

Exhibit 2

In"r~ ini \i r~r iI" " il


60/64

-lo

1v. 1 K ~ r= F~ l, n 6* { aL

3f 4'13 'x y a r Pt "}F 6 S f9 t+ k 1 . 1 l t

to 1WA


61/64

exhibi t 24


62/64

Zxhibit 25

;nA

.".a , ay ,y K

,y

supply and equipment in the arctic-1948

Documents