advances.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/6/24/eaba3831/DC1

Supplementary Materials for

Bows and arrows and complex symbolic displays 48,000 years ago in the South

Asian tropics

Michelle C. Langley*, Noel Amano, Oshan Wedage, Siran Deraniyagala, M.M Pathmalal, Nimal Perera, Nicole Boivin, Michael D. Petraglia, Patrick Roberts

*Corresponding author. Email: m.langley@griffith.edu.au

Published 12 June 2020, Sci. Adv. 6, eaba3831 (2020)

DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aba3831

This PDF file includes:

Supplementary Text S1 Tables S1 to S10 Figs. S1 to S11

Supplementary Text

Archaeological Context

Fa-Hien Lena (80° 12’ 55” E, 6° 38’ 55” N) is located in Sri Lanka’s Western Province near the

town of Bulathsinhala, within the country’s Wet Zone Region. The cave lies on a slope of a gneiss

cliff with a c. 30 m by 20 m east-facing entrance. It has two main chambers, the bigger of which

extends up to c. 10 m into the cliff. Evidence for the prehistoric occupation of the cave was first

identified by S.U. Deraniyagala in 1968. Fa-Hien Lena was systematically excavated over several

seasons from 1986 to 1988 by W.H. Wijeyapala and from 2009 to 2012 by O. Wedage. The

archeological materials considered in this paper were recovered during the excavations of the

cave from 2009 to 2012.

The ca. 170 cm sediment fill of Fa-Hien Lena consists of detrital infill representing four major

phases of human occupation deposited on top of weathered gneiss blocks and bedrock. The first

phase of site occupation (Phase D) dated between c. 48,000 to 34,000 cal. BP, probably represents

intermittent/episodic human occupation. The sediment from Phase D is characterised by pebbly

loams with significant spall and sand inclusions most likely resulting from the disintegration of

gneiss blocks as well as mollusk and faunal remains (~28% of which showed evidence of burning

and calcination). The upper sedimentary sequence within Phase D is characterised by multiple

structureless layers of ash with angular clasts and abundant burning residues (including charcoal

and burned seeds). These layers were interpreted as midden deposits that resulted from direct

dumping and/or colluvial reworking of human occupation debris. The gneiss blocks embedded

within the fine-grained facies of Phase D most likely represent roof fall episodes, the last of which

sealed large parts of Phase D deposits from later disturbance and contributed to the exceptional

preservation of these deposits.

Phase C, which represents the Terminal Pleistocene occupation of the site, is characterised by a

heterogeneous mixture of dark, highly organic silty, and sandy loams and matrix-supported

breccia and a high amount of charcoal and ash. Although it has a narrow temporal range (13,000-

12,000 cal. BP), Phase C contains the densest concentration of artifacts, stone tools, and human

occupation debris in Fa-Hien Lena’s stratigraphy. Phase C deposits are characterised by truncated

stratigraphic boundaries, absence of intrastratal structure, and evidence for reworking and

redeposition. Overall Phase C is interpreted as resulting from a succession of erosion,

colluviation, and dumping episodes in the cave over a relatively short period of time.

Phase B consists of two distinct stratigraphic units separated from Phase C by a clear sharp

boundary. The lowermost unit is characterised by a series of almost horizontal layers of ash,

matrix-supported collapsed breccia and sandy silt sediments with occupational debris and

abundant artifacts. These layers are interpreted as floor wash colluvia and undisturbed

occupational floors. The second, stratigraphically higher unit includes a large pit with a fill

consisting of multiple layers of sandy silt and steeply-dipping ash accumulations. The fill has

been dated to ca. 8000-7700 cal. BP and could represent in situ hearths, as suggested by fire-

reddening of the immediate substratum of the ash deposits.

Phase A, like Phase B, is composed of two distinct lithostratigraphic units. The first unit, dated to

ca. 5900 cal. BP, is composed of brown sandy loams and ash/charcoal lenses deposited directly

on top of the pit in Phase B. Overlying these layers is a series of sharp-based, brown sandy, and

silty clays with little internal structure. These deposits are interpreted as dumps of older cave

sediments and have been dated to ca. 4700-4500 cal. BP. Above these is thick brown sandy silt

layer with high density of spalls followed by layers of sandy silty loams immediately under the

present cave floor. These deposits resulted from mining of the cave for fertiliser in the recent

period.

To date, a total of 34 radiocarbon dates are available for the site (4,6). They are presented in Table

S1-S4 below.

Table S1: Radiocarbon dates from the 1986 excavations (6).

Sample Context Lab. Code Measured Calibrated

(cal. years BP)*

B-N5-2 2 Beta-33297 4,750 ± 60 5,594-5,322

B-M6-2 3 Beta-33293 6,850 ± 80 7,916-7,570

B-N6-2a 3a Beta-33298 7,100 ± 60 8,020-7,794

B-M7-3 4 Beta-33295 24,470 ± 290 29,126-27,872

B-N7-3 4 Beta-33299 30,060 ± 290 34,656-33,686

B-M7-5 4a Beta-33296 32,060 ± 630 37,912-34,764

B-M6-6 5 Beta-33294 33,070 ± 630 38,826-35,828

Table S2: Radiocarbon dates from the 2010 excavations (4).

Sample Context Measured Conventional Calibrated

(cal. years BP)*

NE/N-4, O-4, 107 107 3910 ± 30 3870 ± 30 4,422-4,248

NE/0-6, 0-6, 116

middle 116 4,870 ± 40 4,800 ± 40 5,710-5482

NE/N-4, O-4, 109 109 10,220 ± 40 10,150 ± 40 12,096-11,768

NE/O-4, P-4, 108 108 33,260 ± 240 33,220 ± 240 38,333-36,690

NE/N-4, O-4, 110 110 36,950 ± 300 36,910 ± 300 42,036-40,980

NE/O-4, 118 118 31,770 ± 190 31,750 ± 190 36,136-35,191

NE/O-4, P-4, 119 119 10,300 ± 40 10,250 ± 40 12,380-11,844

NE/ O-4, 126F 126 37,260 ± 310 37,230 ± 310 42,228-41,258

Table S3: Radiocarbon dates from the 2012 excavation (4).

Sample Context Lab. Code Measured Conventional Calibrated

(cal. years BP)*

135 31/32/135 Beta-354907 4,860 ± 30 4,820 ± 30 5,653-5,488

152 51/152 Beta-354916 7,030 ± 40 6,990 ± 40 7,954-7,763

152 51/152 Beta-355793 7,300 ± 40 7,240 ± 40 8,180-8,020

153 52/153 Beta-354917 7,040 ± 40 6,900 ± 40 7,955-7,791

136 136 Beta-354908 7,010 ± 30 6,970 ± 30 7,935-7,762

138 138 Beta-354909 7,750 ± 40 7,720 ± 40 8,595-8,430

237 237 Beta-354921 10,460 ± 40 10,390 ± 40 12,549-12,131

139 139/140 Beta-354910 10,390 ± 40 10,350 ± 40 12,419-12,062

141 141 Beta-354911 10,440 ± 40 10,340 ± 40 12,530-12,120

142 142 Beta-354912 10,500 ± 40 10,430 ± 40 12,590-12,236

174 174/246 Beta-354919 10,490 ± 40 10,440± 40 12,575-12,150

144 144/161/164 Beta-354913 10,330 ± 40 10,290 ± 40 12,386-11,910

145 145 Beta-354914 32,920 ± 240 32,890 ± 240 37,912-36,300

175 175 Beta-354920 34,610 ± 320 34,600 ± 320 39,876-38,490

159 159 Beta-354918 43,030 ± 720 43,000 ± 720 48,046-45,028

*All samples have been calibrated using the OxCal 4.3 software and IntCal calibration curve (66).

Faunal Evidence Summary

The 2010-2012 excavations of Fa-Hien Lena yielded an estimated 150,000 fragments of animal

bones, of which 14,485 were studied in detail to infer on human subsistence economies and

hunting strategies. The bone fragments were from dated sediment layers as well contexts

sandwiched by dated layers. The results of the zooarchaeological and taphonomic analyses of the

faunal remains from Fa-Hien Lena were detailed in (4).

From the faunal remains sampled for analysis, 52.6% (Number of Identified Specimens, NISP=

7622) were identified to taxon. Small mammals, or those weighing 1-25 kg, dominate the Fa-Hien

Lena assemblage, representing 95.5% of the total mammalian bone fragments studied and 95.2%

of the mammalian specimens identified to taxon. Small mammals account for more than 90% of

the total number of identified specimens in all phases of site occupation. Large mammals (those

weighing >25 kg) including cervid, suids, and bovids were recorded from Phase A to Phase D but

in very small frequency (<4%). Non-mammalian fauna, including birds, fish, reptiles, and

amphibians, were recorded in slightly higher percentages (between 6-14%) (Fig. S1). Fish and

reptiles (most notably varanids lizards and pythons) exhibited significant amount of burning

(>50%) indicating that they were most likely consumed by the people that occupied Fa-Hien

Lena.

Leaf monkey and macaques were the most common taxa in the assemblage, representing 54.9%

of the total number of specimens identified to taxon. Deliberate targeting of monkeys as prey was

recorded from Phase D to Phase A. Mortality profile based on dental wear suggests that prime–

age adults were targeted and indicates that these monkeys were most likely captured through

active targeted hunting rather than trapping (i.e., use of snares). Next to monkeys, sciurids

(notably the grizzled giant squirrel, Ratufa macroura), were the most common taxa identified. A

total of 2026 squirrel bone fragments were recorded in the site, representing 26.6% of the total

number of identified specimens and 13.9% of the fragments analysed. Leaf monkeys and grizzled

giant squirrels are arboreal taxa that rarely venture to the ground and therefore their capture

necessitates the use of some kind of projectile technology.

Taphonomic analyses showed high fragmentation indices for monkey bones in the site

particularly in comparison with long bones of similarly-sized mammals. For instance, 59.7% of

the identified monkey long bone fragments have less than half the original circumference and

73.1% measured less than half of the original length. The high number of tools manufactured

from monkey long bones that were recovered in the site, as well as the number of fragments with

modifications (grinding and polishing marks), suggest that monkey skeletal elements were

deliberately chosen as material for tool production and the high degree of fragmentation is a result

of on-site tool production. For example, there is a very high index of fragmentation of the femur

in Phase D, with 86.6% of the specimens having less than half of the original circumference. This

result is not surprising considering that manufacture of osseous tools from femur fragments

involved breaking the bone into manageable segments before grinding them into the desired

shape. This mode of tool production continued up to the Early Holocene, where 65.8% of the

recorded femur fragments have less than half of the original circumference owing to the degree of

working.

As pointed out earlier large ungulates were also recorded in Fa-Hien Lena, but in very low

frequency. Interestingly, they were mostly represented in the assemblage by tooth or finished

tools manufactured from long bone fragments. There were no large mammal vertebrae or ribs

recorded and these suggest that they were not butchered in the site. For example, 56.6% of the

cervid specimens from Phase D were molar/premolar fragments, the rest were finished tools or

fragments of bones with modifications consistent with tool manufacture.

Overall, the faunal remains from Fa-Hien Lena provide evidence for reliance on tropical

rainforest resources as early as ca. 45,000 cal. BP. Hunting of these animals was made possible by

a composite hunting technology that involved osseous tools as well as microliths.

Fig. S1: Distribution of animal taxa identified in the different occupational phases of Fa-Hien

Lena considering the number of identified specimens.

On-Site Osseous Tool Production Evidence

The tools were being manufactured in the site, as evidenced by the presence of broken fragments

of finished tools, blanks, and waste pieces in all sedimentary layers analyzed. A total of 36

specimens with surface modifications consistent with bone tool manufacture were recorded in the

Late Pleistocene layers of the site (1.3% of the total number of specimens studied). These include

ten fragments of finished tools (i.e., those retaining diagnostic morphology, including tips of bone

points/spatulas). The rest are fragments which represent either waste pieces or tool blanks.

Table S4 details the number of tool blanks and waste pieces identified in the faunal assemblages

analyzed (see also 4 for a discussion of the cercopithecid carcass processing sequence and

description of the initial stages of bone tool manufacture).

Table S4: Anthropic modifications in bone fragments recovered from Fa-Hien Lena, including

fragments of tool blanks and waste pieces.

Phase Context TNF NISP Burning Butchery Unfinished

tools/blanks Partial Total Partially

Calcined

Totally

Calcined

A 216 661 362 3 29 22 25 9 18

131 114 53 6 7 22 7 2 3

135 181 74 1 3 2 1 2 10

B 7/151 62 39 3 7 15 9 0 2

52/153 451 331 24 12 48 32 1 1

170 188 84 16 23 15 14 3 10

116/128 2281 838 45 133 39 20 2 18

180 380 165 22 15 26 23 1 5

136 535 256 32 70 85 23 6 7

38/206 193 66 2 12 23 24 1 3

138 210 161 3 11 3 5 1 4

98 35 13 1 2 3 1 0 0

107 260 260 3 4 1 1 0 1

C 168 87 42 4 13 11 6 3 2

237 93 71 3 5 2 3 1 6

139/140 576 257 29 59 25 7 14 8

141 94 78 3 5 2 1 0 8

173 605 293 105 185 78 121 1 17

142 207 41 1 2 0 0 1 19

248 2354 1512 84 147 39 28 24 59

174/247 2294 1161 66 113 73 67 11 53

144/161/164 245 196 8 13 2 1 0 11

163/235 60 60 3 4 1 1 0 4

D 108 318 237 0 17 19 2 1 4

110 414 267 12 15 17 7 0 8

118 238 86 13 41 34 14 2 4

145 36 29 0 1 0 1 1 1

179 132 90 2 2 19 28 1 2

175 288 143 12 36 19 10 1 19

157 55 26 3 6 7 4 0 3

158 64 34 0 5 1 1 0 4

159 31 12 2 2 0 1 0 3

165 38 12 0 4 1 1 0 4

253 705 280 29 71 62 33 3 26

In (4) we also argued that the high level of bone fragmentation observed in all phases of site

occupation could be explained by in situ tool production. The degree of fragmentation of

cercopithecid long bone elements as measured by NISP:MNE and fragment circumference/length

completeness ratio is presented in Table S5 and Fig. S2, respectively. The femur is the most

fragmented element, with 86.6% of the specimens having less than half of the original

circumference. This is not surprising considering that manufacture of osseous tools from femur

fragments involved breaking the bone into manageable segments before grinding them into the

desired shape. This mode of tool production continued up to the Early Holocene, where 65.8% of

the recorded femur fragments have less than half of the original circumference owing to the

degree of working. Bone tools manufactured from femur shafts are rare in the mid-Holocene

layers despite femur specimens being better preserved in these layers (76.5% of the specimens

have the complete circumference).

Table S5: Fragmentation of cercopithecid appendicular skeletal elements as measure by the

NISP:MNE ratio and circumferential completeness.

Phase Element NISP:MNE

Ratio

Circumferential

completeness Length completeness

100% > 50%,

<100% <50% 100%

> 50%,

<100% <50%

Phase A Humerus 3.2 37.5 37.5 25 0 6.25 93.75

Ulna 1.81 67.86 25 7.14 0 26.79 73.21

Radius 3.14 77.27 9.09 13.64 0 50 50

Femur 5.67 76.47 14.71 8.82 0 14.71 85.29

Tibia 3.8 78.95 10.53 10.53 0 26.32 73.68

Fibula 4.75 57.89 42.11 0 5.26 26.32 68.42

Phase B

Humerus 5.5 24.68 28.57 46.75 0 18.18 81.82

Ulna 2.05 71.79 20.51 7.69 0 24.36 75.64

Radius 5.5 61.82 29.09 9.09 0 18.18 81.82

Femur 3.8 8.77 25.44 65.79 0 29.82 70.18

Tibia 6.11 36.36 25.45 38.18 0 36.36 63.64

Fibula 3.73 75.61 24.39 0 2.44 26.83 70.73

Phase C

Humerus 4.16 62.99 10.39 26.62 0 26.62 73.38

Ulna 3.15 69.23 20.19 10.58 0 50.96 49.04

Radius 4.18 45.07 38.03 16.9 0 25.35 74.65

Femur 3.58 22.98 25.47 51.55 0 19.88 80.12

Tibia 2.96 38.96 35.06 25.97 0 38.96 61.04

Fibula 1.94 72.58 24.19 3.23 0 19.48 75.81

Phase D

Humerus 4.4 9.09 15.91 75 0 36.36 63.64

Ulna 4 60 30 10 0 25 75

Radius 2.75 59.09 22.73 18.18 0 18.18 81.82

Femur 2.93 4.88 8.54 86.59 0 24.39 75.61

Tibia 2.42 6.9 27.59 65.52 0 13.79 86.21

Fibula 1.46 57.89 36.84 5.26 0 47.37 52.63

Fig. S2: Ternary scatter plot illustrating cercopithecid long-bone length (A) and circumferential

completeness (B).

Finished Artifact Analysis

Each artifact was examined using a Zeiss Stemi 508 stereomicroscope fitted with an AxioCam

105 camera. Metrics were obtained using Mitutoyo CD-6” CX digital calipers, their metal arms

coated with a thin plastic layer to protect the artifacts from incidental damage.

Identification of manufacture and use traces was based on previous examinations of osseous,

marine shell, and colourant assemblages (e.g., 11, 21, 67-69) as well as published works such as

(e.g., 70-77).

Osseous Technology

In total, 159 bone artifacts, four tooth artifacts, and two antler artifacts were identified and

examined in detail following analytical methods developed over the past 100 or more years in

osseous technologies studies (i.e., 78-81). Metrics pertaining to the weight, absolute length, width,

and height and that of their distal and proximal extremities were recorded for each artefact. Cross-

section was also recorded at three locations along each artifact (2 mm from distal edge, mid-

section, 2 mm from proximal edge), as was its fragmentary (or intact) state, and the raw material

on which it was made. Traces of manufacture, use wear, and post-depositional damage was

recorded for each piece. This analysis resulted in the osseous artifacts being identified as either

projectile points (n = 130), other types of bone tools (n = 29), tooth tools (n = 4), antler blanks (n

= 2), or debitage from the working of these materials (n = 22).

Table S6: Summary of Bone projectile points.

Phase Unipoints Bipoints Geometric Point Fragment Total

A 4 5 0 24 33

B 2 6 0 16 24

C 16 6 1 38 61

D 1 1 1 8 11

The temporal distribution of the recovered bone projectile points is shown in Table S6, where it is

clear that unipoints are dominate in Phase C (between 13-12 kya), while bipoints remain stable in

their numbers through Phases C to A. Geometric points — those which show exceptional

attention to symmetry — are only present in the lower deposits. Another trend identified was that

the absolute length of points steadily increased through time:

Phase A points: median of 32 (both Unipoint and Bipoint)

Phase B points: median of 29 (Unipoint: 23; Bipoint: 33)

Phase C points: median of 24 (Unipoint: 25; Bipoint: 23)

Phase D points: median of 20 (unipoint: 20; Bipoint: 23)

Those bone artifacts not consistent with having served to tip projectile points are highly variable

in their size, morphology, and use wear (Table S7). Identification of their suggested use in

prehistory is based on comparison of implements with known use from a range of spatial and

temporal contexts.

Fig. S3: Examples of bone points identified as having tipped projectiles. (A) SL13 (Phase B); (B)

SL 8 (Phase A); (C) SL88 (Phase D); (D) SL119 (Phase B); With examples of impact fractures on

distal extremities: (E) SL40 (Phase A); (F) SL60 (Phase C); (G) SL71 (Phase C); (H) SL 42

(Phase A). Scale Bars = 1 mm. (Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith University).

Fig. S4: Further examples of impact fractures (A-E, H-J) and retrieval cut marks (F-G) observed

on the bone points. (A) SL 177 (Phase D); (B) SL 104 (Phase D); (C) SL 86 (Phase D); (D) SL 77

(Phase B); (E) SL 9 (Phase A); (F) SL 1 (Phase ?); (G) SL 2 (Phase D); (H) SL 106 (Phase B); (I)

SL 74 (Phase C); (J) SL 120 (Phase B). Scale bar = 1 mm. (Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith

University).

Table S7: Metrics of Bone and tooth tools from Fa-Hien Lena. Possible functions are included in

the ‘Description’ column and are based on morphology and use wear.

Analysis

No. Phase Context

Raw

Material Description

Weight

(gm) Absolute Length

(mm) Max. Width

(mm) Max. Height

(mm)

7 A 26 long bone Point, flaked & shaved --

awl/peg 0.48 31.67 5.25 2.58

22 A 134 long bone Point & blade, flaked & shaved,

wedge/peg 3.24 33.54 12.19 10.58

25 A 134 long bone Point, flaked & shaved --

awl/peg 0.28 24.37 5.30 2.57

30 A 134 long bone Point, ground, peg 0.28 18.80 5.20 3.53

33 A 134 long bone Point, ground, shuttle/spatula 0.60 33.54 6.39 2.27

35 A 134 long bone Point, ground & notched,

shuttle/spatula 1.08 46.89 10.32 2.07

43 A 135 long bone Point, flaked & ground, peg 0.34 28.48 6.13 2.29

107 A 199 long bone Point, flaked & ground, shuttle 0.68 29.47 8.57 2.30

185 B 34 Cercopithecid

canine Point, flaked, awl/knife 1.96 41.38 10.51 7.09

14+15 B 69 long bone Point in two fragments, ground,

awl

2.26 +

0.22 125.18 + 18.78 4.94 + 4.70 3.19 + 2.31

47 B 136 long bone Point, ground, shuttle/spatula 0.51 27.50 7.21 2.72

48 B 136 long bone Point, flaked & shaved, awl/peg 0.45 18.67 7.19 3.20

129 B 222 long bone Point, ground, wedge/peg 1.06 35.05 6.29 4.65

128 B 222 long bone Point, flaked & shaved, awl/peg 0.48 26.06 6.83 2.66

95 B 170 long bone Point, ground, wedge/peg 0.33 32.03 3.29 3.11

187 C P3/248 Cercopithecid

canine Point, flaked, awl/knife 1.75 42.80 9.96 6.16

123 C 218 long bone Blank, flaked, for flaked tool 2.06 30.07 17.00 7.05

52 C 139 long bone Point, ground, wedge/peg 1.31 46.42 8.29 4.63

53 C 139 long bone Point, ground, awl/peg 1.84 57.40 7.01 5.25

148 C 248 long bone Point, cut & ground, awl/peg 0.70 41.65 11.10 7.83

90 C 163 long bone Point, ground, awl/peg 1.47 64.34 6.07 9.98

89 C 163 long bone Point, ground, awl/peg 5.10 93.95 10.88 6.30

66+67 C 141 long bone Point in two fragments, flaked

& ground, wedge

17.23

+7.56 87.49 + 80.55

22.79 +

11.53 10.16 + 7.53

150 C 248 long bone Flaked tool, scraper/knife 5.62 46.03 18.46 8.62

151 C 248 long bone Flaked tool, scraper/knife 3.80 42.81 16.17 5.03

152 C 248 long bone Flaked tool, scraper/knife 2.22 34.10 14.80 5.25

153 C 248 long bone Flaked tool, scraper/knife 2.01 29.33 14.30 4.72

186 D O3/175 Cercopithecid

canine Point, flaked, awl/knife 1.72 36.74 9.59 6.65

4 D 89 long bone Point in two fragments, ground,

awl/peg 4.08 153.88 5.68 5.32

178 D 253 long bone Point, ground, awl/peg 0.32 22.89 3.53 3.05

184 X X muntjak molar

Point, flaked, awl/knife 0.46 1.13 11.76 4.68

Table S8: Metrics of antler blanks.

Analysis

No. Phase Context

Weight

(gm)

Absolute Length

(mm)

Max. Width

(mm)

Max. Height

(mm)

18 B 116 2.65 23.86 18.53 6.37

149 C 248 4.74 35.96 14.89 7.03

Fig. S5: The two groove-and-splinter detached antler blanks. (A) SL18 from Phase B; (B) SL149

from Phase C. (Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith University).

While no tools made on antler were recovered from the site, two blanks made using the groove-

and-splinter method (originating in the European Aurignacian; 79) (Fig. S5 and Table S8) were

present. On the older example (Fig. S5 B), striations from grinding of the right side indicate that

the piece was beginning to be reduced into the desired form before it was discarded.

Four teeth — three cercopithecid canines and one barking deer molar — exhibit signs of human

modification in the form of flaking to create a razor-sharp edge and grinding and/or scraping to

shape the base for the hand or haft. These teeth display chipping, crushing, and rounding as well

as short oblique striations resulting from use to pierce and cut (Fig. S6 and S7 below).

Fig. S6: Cercopithecid canine (SL186) from Phase D (45-34 kya). Chipping, crushing, and

rounding are present on both the tooth tip (B and C) and at the base of the cutting edge (A and D).

Scale bars = 1 mm. (Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith University).

Fig. S7: Cercopithecid canine (SL185) from Phase B (8.7-8 kya). Clusters of short, oblique

striations from use (A and B). Striations from grinding and scraping the base of the tooth are

visible in C and D. Scale bars = 1 mm. (Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith University).

Shell Technology

Three shell beads -- all of marine origin were discovered. Two of these are made on the apex of

Conus shells (Fig. S8 and S10), the removal of just this part requiring either the collection of

beach abraded specimens, or the careful reduction of the shell from the opposing extremity

through flaking and/or grinding. Unfortunately, the wear on the two Conus shell beads is such that

it is impossible to determine if the bead was constructed through flaking/grinding or if it was

collected largely reduced from the shoreline.

Fig. S8: Conus bead 189 from Phase D (45-34 kya). Red arrows indicate (A) notching and

rounding; and (B) rounding and polish. Scale bars = 1 mm. (Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith

University).

Fig. S9: Nassarius bead 188 from Phase C (13-12 kya). Red arrows indicate (A) notch; (B & C)

notching and rounding. Scale bars = 1 mm. (Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith University).

Fig. S10: Conus bead 190 from Phase B (8.7-8 kya). Red arrows indicate (A) notching and

rounding; and (B) rounding and polish. The residue clearly visible at the right of the perforation in

A is a remnant of modern adhesive used in the curation of this artefact. Scale bars = 1 mm.

(Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith University).

Table S9: Metrics of the Fa-Hien Lena beads.

Analysis

No. Phase Context

Raw

Material

Weight

(gm)

Absolute

Length

(mm)

Max.

Width

(mm)

Max.

Height

(mm)

Aperture

Width (mm)

Aperture

Height

(mm)

190 B 116 Conus 2.48 19.93 18.09 7.34 1.72 2.14

188 C P3/248 Nassarius 0.07 7.15 4.84 4.04 4.08 3.93

189 D P3/253 Conus 0.14 7.67 6.67 2.44 1.52 1.48

Colorants

In total, 139 pieces of utilised colorant were identified. These are most prevalent in Phases D

through to B, though a small amount was also recovered from the latest context (Table S10). In

general, mica pieces were significantly smaller than red or red/yellow pieces, suggesting that this

shiny silver raw material was not as abundant or was more valuable in other (culturally-based)

ways than the red and yellow ochres.

Grinding, the action of drawing the ochre piece across a coarse surface, results in flat or slightly

convex facets covered with multiple fusiform striations (82-83), while scraping typically produces

parallel striations of different width and depth resulting from projections on the working surface

of the employed tool (83). When the same tool is repeatedly drawn across the same area, the

grooves created by these projections are widened and the whole area becomes increasingly

concave (83). These modifications, grinding and scraping, are primarily undertaken in order to

produce powder — which appears to be the case with the Fa-Hien Lena artifacts.

Evidence for rubbing was also commonly observed. Rubbing on such surfaces produces few or no

grooves, but often polishes and residues. Pieces usually have rounded edges, with smoothing

generally occurring on raised areas (84). When rubbed on human skin, specimens may acquire

residual glossy sheens, most prominent on elevated areas (85). Similarly, Rifkin (85) found that

carrying ochre ‘crayons’ in a leather pouch for several days resulted in most of the residual

powder left from grinding/scraping being removed from the surface of the piece, and its angular

edges acquiring a ‘clean’ polished appearance. It is possible that both of these situations took

place at Fa-Hien Lena.

Table S10: Metrics of colourants assemblage.

Phase Mica (N / gm) Red (N / gm) Red-Yellow (N / gm) Total Pieces Total Weight

(gm)

A 7 / 1.01 2 / 3.75 0 / 0 9 4.76

B 20 / 3.37 26 / 148.76 6 / 76.49 46 228.62

C 4 / 15.61 12 / 42.07 7 / 24.27 23 81.95

D 28 / 44.21 6 / 14.59 4 / 12.72 38 71.52

X 5 / 22.39 7 / 74.27 3 / 9.66 15 106.32

Fig. S11: Examples of utilised mica pigments recovered from Fa-Hien Lena. (Left) SL192; and

(Right) SL212. (Photo credit: M.C. Langley, Griffith University).