summer 06 chronicle · teen driving with passengers crash statistics driving with passengers is...

The Chronicle of ADTSEA Summer 2006

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Summer 2006 The Chronicle of ADTSEA

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INTERACTIVE DRIVING SYSTEMS

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necessary stopping time and distance.The primary goal of the process wasfor students to gain experience inunderstanding the minimum space andtime needed to make a controlled stoponce a hazard is identified. A secondaryoutcome was for students to makelogical connections concerningfollowing distance. The two students inthe driver education course alsocompleted a video and photo gallery ofthe class and explained the equationsused by the officers for collision reports.Future Growth

While the fall of 2005 was the pilotrun for this interdisciplinary lesson, bothteachers are currently working toimprove the experience and arecontinuing to promote the idea of usingscience to explain both driving actionsand precautions.

Changes under consideration:1. Increased student control of the

experience to encourage the scientificprocess and ownership of the data(e.g. direct measurements of the skidmarks by the students)

2. Using a variety of vehicles wouldimprove the application of the materialto the real world as students drive awide variety of cars.

3. Reserving enough time tocomplete multiple runs with a varietyof cars and drivers.

4. Using the skid-car to:o evaluate kinetics of skid at lowvelocity,

o proper steering techniques,o use of targetingo reference points and transitionpegs

5. Using the impairment visiongoggles to relate drowsy drivers ordriving under the influence

6. Using frictional coefficients ofdifferent road surfaces.

7. The use of kinetics equations andpolice data from actual crash sceneswould make an even strongerconnection between the applicationsof physics and the understanding ofwhy and what causes the loss ofvehicle control on our roadways

To receive an electronic copy of thedata/lab forms used contact BarbaraBrody via e-mail at: xxxx

search methods. These sections areoften labeled “advanced search”, “tips”or “help”. Taking the time to read thisinformation on how a search engineperforms a search and the techniquesfor searching effectively allows scholarsmore time to critically evaluate theinformation that their more refinedsearch produces rather than wadingthrough an enormous amount ofworthless sites. Since no search engineis totally complete, it is also worthwhileto choose two or three search enginesto thoroughly comprehend theirsearching methods in order to allow forbetter results.

As professionals in our discipline, itis obligatory that we realize that it isnecessary to use the Internet as part ofour professional responsibilities; that weshare its value and teach how to use itwisely to both our (perhaps reluctant)colleagues and to our students forwhom it will be a requirement in theirprofessional lives.

publications. These databases arecontinually increasing access to includethe articles in full-text and with images.It is the professional responsibility ofscholars to know where their scholarlyresources are located either via feebased databases or throughprofessional organizations as part ofmembership fees.

The fifth consideration in any formof communication is the creator’s bias.With the recognition that every formatof media will contain some bias, thereare certainly a few ways to ascertain it.First, does the creator of the web siteclearly identify who it is, what is itsmission, and does it provide contactinformation? Most credible web siteswill have an “about us” section on theirsite that will give the above information.A second way to evaluate for bias is bylooking at the language and/or imageson the site. Finally, by comparing theweb site to other sources, both print andelectronic, can a bias be detected?

The final point of consideration isgood design and ease of use of the site.Although this would seem fairly apparentand logical, there are sites that havegood information but which have beenso poorly arranged that it becomes anightmare to try to locate theinformation. If one is positive that theinformation is not contained in anyanother source, only then will anindividual waste their valuable timetrying to navigate through a poorlydesigned site.

As well as the above six points ofconsideration while searching theInternet, several insights should benoted when working with the Internettools considered search engines. First,it is important to realize that no searchengine contains everything on theInternet. Second, it is important to takesome up front time to learn how to useseveral search engines efficiently andeffectively. Learned Internet users willtake time to understand the variety ofways to focus their search. To do this,users must look for and go through thesection provided by the search engine’screators to inform users of various

Works CitedCaravello, Patti S. “Judging Quality on

the Web.” UCLA Charles E.Young Research Library.September 7, 2004 2004. <http://www.library.ucla.edu/yrl/reference/judging.htm>.

Crowell, Grant. “UnderstandingSearcher Behavior.”searchenginewatch.com. June25 2006 2006. <http://searchenginewatch.com/searchday/article.php/3613291>.

Dewald, Nancy H. “What do they Telltheir Students? Business FacultyAcceptance of the Web andLibrary Databases for StudentResearch.” The Journal ofAcademic Librarianship 31.3(2005): 209-15.

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ADTSEA Officers and Board of DirectorsExecutive Committee

James Gibb, Missouri PresidentCarol Hardin, Virginia President-ElectElizabeth Weaver Shepard, Idaho Past PresidentRobin Bordner, Michigan Senior DirectorGerald Apple, Washington Secretary TreasurerJan Meeker-Sevilla, Hawaii NSSP LiaisonWilliam Van Tassel, Florida Corporate Representative

Board of Directors

NORTHEASTBarry Thayer, Connecticut 2008Lindsay Townsend, Vermont 2007

SOUTHEASTJo Ellen Suter, Virginia 2008Chuck Lehning, North Carolina 2007

NORTH CENTRALStan Henderson, Indiana 2008Robin Bordner, Michigan 2007

ADTSEA Corporate Members

ADTSEA numbers its Corporate Members among its most valuable assets. Our relationship is one inwhich the Association and the individual Corporate Members seek to provide counsel, assistance,and service to one another whenever possible. Additionally, the Corporate Members make financialcontributions without which the Association would be far less effective.

AAA Foundation for Traffic SafetyAmerican Automobile AssociationAll Star Driving SchoolCingular WirelessContinentalCountry Insurance & Financial ServicesCrash Proof Your KidsCyberLearning TechnologyDoron Precision Systems, Inc.General MotorsGlencoe (MacMillan/McGraw-Hill)Global Learning SolutionsInteractive Enterprises

International Traffic Safety PublicationsNational Association of State Motorcycle Safety AdministratorsNational Road Safety FoundationNational Institute for Driver BehaviorPearson Prentice-HallRaydon CorporationSimulator Systems InternationalState Farm Insurance CompaniesTeen Arrive Alive, LLCToyota Motor Sales, U.S.A., Inc.United Safety Council

SOUTH CENTRALFaye Smith, Missouri 2008Gerald Dickinson, Jr., Texas 2007

NORTHWESTDavid Huff, Montana 2008Debbie Cottonware, Montana 2007

SOUTHWESTLarry Woodruff, California 2008Lyle Kajihara, Hawaii 2007


ADTSEA State Affiliates CaliforniaColorado

ConnecticutDelaware HawaiiIllinoisIowa

KansasKentuckyMichigan

MinnesotaMontanaNebraska

New HampshireNorth CarolinaNorth Dakota

OregonPennsylvania

South Carolina

TennesseeTexas

VermontVirginia

WashingtonWest Virginia

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The effects of coffee and napping on nighttime highway driving: a randomized trial.

Philip P, Taillard J, Moore N, Delord S, Valtat C, Sagaspe P, Bioulac B. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144(11): 785-91.Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Bordeaux and Université Victor Segalen, Bordeaux, France.

[email protected](Copyright © 2006, American College of Physicians)

BACKGROUND: Sleep-related accidents often involve healthy young persons who are driving at night. Coffee and nappingrestore alertness, but no study has compared their effects on real nighttime driving performances. OBJECTIVE: To test theeffects of 125 mL of coffee (half a cup) containing 200 mg of caffeine, placebo (decaffeinated coffee containing 15 mg ofcaffeine), or a 30-minute nap (at 1:00 a.m.) in a car on nighttime driving performance. DESIGN: Double-blind, randomized,crossover study. SETTING: Sleep laboratory and open highway. PARTICIPANTS: 12 young men (mean age, 21.3 years[SD, 1.8]). MEASUREMENTS: Self-rated fatigue and sleepiness, inappropriate line crossings from video recordings duringhighway driving, and polysomnographic recordings during the nap and subsequent sleep. INTERVENTION: Participantsdrove 200 km (125 miles) between 6:00 p.m. and 7:30 p.m. (daytime reference condition) or between 2:00 a.m. and 3:30a.m. (coffee, decaffeinated coffee, or nap condition). After intervention, participants returned to the laboratory to sleep.RESULTS: Nighttime driving performance was similar to daytime performance (0 to 1 line crossing) for 75% of participantsafter coffee (0 or 1 line crossing), for 66% after the nap (P = 0.66 vs. coffee), and for only 13% after placebo (P = 0.041 vs.nap; P = 0.014 vs. coffee). The incidence rate ratios for having a line crossing after placebo were 3.7 (95% CI, 1.2 to 11.0;P = 0.001) compared with coffee and 2.9 (CI, 1.7 to 5.1; P = 0.021) compared with nap. A statistically significant interindividualvariability was observed in response to sleep deprivation and countermeasures. Sleep latencies and efficiency during sleepafter nighttime driving were similar in the 3 conditions. LIMITATIONS: Only 1 dose of coffee and 1 nap duration were tested.Effects may differ in other patient or age groups. CONCLUSIONS: Drinking coffee or napping at night statistically significantlyreduces driving impairment without altering subsequent sleep.


Parent involvement in novice teen driving: a review of the literature.Simons-Morton B, Ouimet MC. Inj Prev 2006; 12(Suppl 1): i30-i37.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, MD, USA.

(Copyright © 2006, BMJ Publishing Group)Motor vehicle crashes remain elevated among novice teen drivers for at least several years after licensure. Licensingpolicies and driver education are the two primary countermeasures employed to decrease young driver crash risks. Graduateddriver licensing policies have proved to be effective in reducing crash rates where evaluated. Driver education is an essentialpart of teaching teens the rules of the road and operating a vehicle, but requires few hours of professional driver training,relying mainly on parents to provide most of the supervised practice driving teens obtain before independent driving licensure.The few studies that have been conducted to increase parent supervised practice driving have not shown positive results.Moreover, it is unclear that increases in practice would improve independent driving safety. Recent research has shownthat parent management of the early independent driving experience of novice teens improves safety outcomes, and otherresearch has shown that it is possible to increase parent management practices. This paper provides a review of the

literature on parent involvement in supervised practice and independent driving, and efforts to increase parental management.

Can novice drivers be trained to scan for information that will reduce their crash likelihood?Fisher DL, Pollatsek AP, Pradhan A. Inj Prev 2006; 12(Suppl 1): i25-i29.

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA.

(Copyright © 2006, BMJ Publishing Group)Sixteen year old drivers are involved in 10.3 fatal crashes per 100 million vehicle miles, a rate almost double that of 18 yearolds and almost eight times that of 45-64 year olds, who are the safest group of drivers. Crash rates are particularly higherduring the first month of licensure and decline rapidly for about six months and 1000 miles and then much more slowly forat least two years, consistent with a typical learning curve. Research indicates that drivers who have their learner’s permitor are just newly licensed have particular difficulties identifying areas of a scenario from which hidden risks could emerge.Standard driver education programs do not appear to address these difficulties adequately. This suggests that some alternativeform of driver training could reduce the crashes, either in the classroom or on the road. A PC based program designed toteach drivers to recognize risks early on is shown to improve their awareness of hazards, both on an advanced driving

simulator and on the road.

A conceptual framework for reducing risky teen driving behaviors among minority youth.Juarez P, Schlundt DG, Goldzweig I, Stinson N. Inj Prev 2006; 12(Suppl 1): i49-i55.

National Center for Optimal Health, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN, USA.

(Copyright © 2006, BMJ Publishing Group)Teenage drivers, especially males, have higher rates of motor vehicle crashes and engage in riskier driving behavior thanadults. Motor vehicle deaths disproportionately impact youth from poor and minority communities and in many communitiesthere are higher rates of risky behaviors among minority youth. In this paper, the authors review the data on teens, riskydriving behaviors, and morbidity and mortality. They identify areas in which known disparities exist, and examine strategiesfor changing teen driving behavior, identifying what has worked for improving the use of seat belts and for reducing otherrisky behaviors. A multifaceted, multilevel model based on ecological theory is proposed for understanding how teens makechoices about driving behaviors, and to understand the array of factors that can influence these choices. The model is usedto create recommendations for comprehensive intervention strategies that can be used in minority communities to reduce

disparities in risk behaviors, injury, disability, and death.

Influences on youthful driving behaviorand their potential for guiding interventions to reduce crashes.

Shope JT. Inj Prev 2006; 12(Suppl 1): i9-i14.University of Michigan, Transportation Research Institute and School of Public Health,

Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA. ([email protected]) (Copyright © 2006, BMJ Publishing Group)This paper presents an organized, comprehensive view of the factors known to influence young drivers’ behavior and howthose factors might inform interventions to reduce crashes. This effort was done from the perspective of a public healthprofessional, with a background in health behavior and health education, interested in preventing injury and death amongyoung people from motor vehicle crashes. The author’s own studies, selected relevant literature, observation, and experiencewere considered and organized. A framework of six categories of influences on youthful driving behavior was developed,including the following elements: driving ability, developmental factors, personality factors, demographics, the perceivedenvironment, and the driving environment. It is apparent that a complex set of many different factors influences youngdrivers’ behavior. To reduce crashes, comprehensive, multilevel interventions are needed that target those factors in the

framework that are amenable to change.


The safety implications of vehicle seat adjustments.Hill JD, Boyle LN. J Saf Res 2006 [ePub (volume, issue, and page range not yet available)]

Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, and Public Policy Center, The University of Iowa

(Copyright © 2006, U.S. National Safety Council, Published by Elsevier)INTRODUCTION: The goal of this study was to gather information on the preferred front seat position of vehicle occupantsand to determine the impact of variation in seat position on safety during crashes. METHOD: The study evaluated therelationship between seat position and occupant size using the chi-square test and compared the risk of severe injury forsmall females and large males with regard to forward and rearward seat position using logistic regression. RESULTS:While smaller drivers sat closer to the steering wheel than larger drivers, front passengers of all sizes used similar seatpositions. Additionally, the risk of injury was higher for small, unbelted females in rearward seat positions and large males(belted and unbelted) in forward seat positions. CONCLUSIONS: Occupants who adjust their seats to positions that are notconsistent with required federal tests are at a greater risk for severe injury in a crash.

Cannabis and road crashes: a survey of recent French studies.

Mura P, Brunet B, Favreau F, Hauet T. Ann Pharm Fr 2006; 64(3): 192-6.(Copyright © 2006, Masson)

The clarification of the mechanisms of action of cannabis and its effects on motor and cognitive functions, the results ofprevious studies performed on driving simulators and closed or open-road driving trials, are important criteria for highlightingthe increased risk of road crashes for drivers after a recent use of cannabis. In addition epidemiological studies allow tomeasure the magnitude of the problem. A survey of French epidemiological studies performed from 1999 to 2004, as wellas the data of THC distribution in tissues studies performed on man and animal allowed us to draw a number of conclusions.The risk of road crash after a recent use of cannabis is increased by more than 2.4 in all studies. The prevalence ofcannabis use in drivers involved in a road crash has dramatically increased during the last years. For methodologicalreasons (a too high threshold for THC positivity, a too long time delay between accident and blood sampling), the annualnumber of fatal cases induced by a cannabis use was likely underestimated. This assessment is consistent with recent datawhich indicate that THC could be still present in brain while absent in blood. A positivity threshold for THC in blood of 0.5 ng/mL would be more appropriated. So, all recent French studies highlighted that a recent use of cannabis impairs drivingability and that it would be advisable to intensify roadside testing for drugs of abuse.

Impaired Driving in Adults With Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Controlled Study.

Fried R, Petty CR, Surman CB, Reimer B, Aleardi M, Martin JM, Coughlin JF, Biederman J. J Clin Psychiatry2006; 67(4): 567-574.

OBJECTIVE: We sought to confirm previously documented findings that individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder(ADHD) demonstrate impaired driving behavior when compared with controls. METHOD: Subjects were adults with (N =26) and without (N = 23) DSM-IV ADHD ascertained through clinical referrals to an adult ADHD program and throughadvertisements in the local media. Driving behavior was assessed using the Manchester Driving Behavior Questionnaire(DBQ) and 10 questions from a driving history questionnaire. Neuropsychological testing and structured interviews werealso administered to all subjects. RESULTS: Substantially more ADHD subjects had been in an accident on the highway(35% vs. 9%, p = .03) or had been rear-ended (50% vs. 17%, p = .02) compared with controls. Analysis of the DBQ findingsshowed that ADHD subjects had significantly higher mean +/- SD scores than control subjects on the total DBQ (34.1 +/-15.2 vs. 18.0 +/- 8.6, p < .001) and in all 3 subscales of the DBQ: errors (9.3 +/- 5.4 vs. 4.6 +/- 3.5, p < .001), lapses (12.4+/- 6.2 vs. 6.1 +/- 3.5, p < .001), and violations (12.4 +/- 5.2 vs. 7.4 +/- 4.1, p < .001). Using the score that separated ADHDfrom control drivers on the DBQ as a cutoff, ADHD drivers at high risk for poor driving outcomes had more severe rates ofcomorbidity and exhibited more impaired scores on neuropsychological testing. CONCLUSIONS: Our results confirm andextend previous work documenting impaired driving behavior in subjects with ADHD. Results also suggest that ADHDindividuals at high risk for poor driving behavior might be distinguishable from other ADHD individuals on DBQ scores.

Youthfulness, inexperience, & sleep loss: problems young drivers face & those they poseGroeger JA. Inj Prev 2006; 12(Suppl 1): i19-i24.

Department of Psychology & Surrey Sleep Research Centre, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK;[email protected] (Copyright © 2006, BMJ Publishing Group)

Young inexperienced drivers are more likely to be involved in road traffic crashes than drivers who are older and moreexperienced. This paper argues that neither age nor inexperience are, in and of themselves, sufficient explanations ofthe association between age, experience, and casualty rates. The aim here is to consider what it is about inexperiencedyoung drivers in particular that may increase crash risk. Evidence is reviewed showing differential sleep loss amongdifferent teenage groups, which may relate to recently presented evidence that young teenagers are more crash involvedthan drivers in their early twenties. Potential acute and chronic effects of sleep loss among teenagers and young adults

are described.

Summer 2006 The Chronicle of ADTSEAinstead of car pool to a gathering. Iwould be interested to know if distracteddriving crashes increase due to youngchildren distracting the parent frommaintaining focus on the driving task.What steps can parents, educators,

and lawmakers take to make driving

safer for inexperienced drivers?

Citing an aforementioned stat isticof an average of 71% of teen passengerdeaths age 15-17 occurred while ridingwith a teen driver; it would be prudentfor parents to carefully consider the age,gender, and tendencies of drivers theirchildren would be riding with beforeletting them carpool. Wisconsin put agraduated driver licensing program intoeffect in September 2000. The programmade changes by requiring moresupervised time behind the wheel,limited them to one teen passengermaximum, and placed a night drivingcurfew on teens from midnight to 5 a.m.Two years later the Associated Pressstudied the results and found that onaverage 33% fewer passengers wereinvolved in crashes with 16-year-olddrivers compared to the average of thelast five years. 10 The numbers continuedto be hopeful with 31% fewerpassengers severely hurt with the samecomparisons. Minnesota should lookinto modifying it GDL system to restrictthe number of students during theprovisional stage of licensing.Educators need to strongly emphasizesafe driving with passengers and makemeaningful activities for students toexplore the dangers of driving withpassengers. We should also educateteen passengers as to how to make thesituation safer for teen drivers.Passengers should not expect eyecontact during conversations, should notshare photographs, or discuss heatedtopics with an inexperienced driver toname a few. These suggestions willactually help the safety of any driver andpassenger situation.

Summary, Conclusions, andRecommendations

Teenage drivers with passengersare more likely to be involved in bothcrashes and fatal crashes than are teendrivers without passengers. This risk ofdriving with passengers of comparableage decreases as drivers age and mayeventually even have a beneficial effect

driver inattention are distractingactivities, such as cell phone use, anddrowsiness.” 8 The report wasgroundbreaking because it followed 241drivers of 100 vehicles equipped withvideo and eye sensor equipment for ayear. This study encompassed over 2million actual vehicle miles and over 42thousand hours of data. Furthermore,drivers who practice distractingactivities are more likely to be involvedin accidents related to inattention.

Finally, teens are less likely to wearseat belts when driving with other teens.9 Combining inattention, distraction,and lack of safety belts increase the riskof crashes and the seriousness ofcrashes when they occur.When do teens become safer driving

with passengers?

According to Ulmer et al 1997, 16year old drivers are the most likely teendrivers to have a fatal crash with onlyteenage passengers (54%). Teensaged 17, 18, and 19 had a diminishinglevel of teen passenger only fatalitieswith 44%, 36%, and 25% respectively.7 However, they were less likely to betraveling alone in a fatal crash thanwere 17-19 year old drivers. Both ofthese statistical patterns were true fornonfatal crashes as well. Asinexperienced drivers age, the dangersof increased crash risk due topassengers are diminished. In olderdrivers, there is either no increase incrash risk or possibly even a beneficialfactor to lowering crash risk due topassengers. 5

I speculate that one of the reasonteens are so dangerous withpassengers is because they are themost likely group to car pool to partiesor to get together with large groups ofpeople with few vehicles to transport.This could also be tied into Erickson’sstages of psychosocial developmentwhere teens are experiencing roleidentity verses role confusion. Part ofthis discovering of themselves and howthey fit into the world is exploring peergroups and their relationship withinthose groups. Driving and riding witheach other may be another way ofsolidifying status in the group. Adultstend to have both the means andnecessity to purchase cars for work andso they may choose to drive themselves

on risk with time. Regardless ofgender, driving with a male passengeris more of a risk than driving with afemale passenger. While moreresearch needs to be completed on whyteens are more dangerous when ridingtogether, some of the current thoughtsare increased distraction, passengersinducing the driver into taking morerisks, and lack of safety belts whenriding together. Parents, educators, andlawmakers need to work together toencourage or mandate fewer teenpassengers with teen drivers especiallyin the earliest stages of GDL.

References

1. “Safe Driver Program for Teens.”drivecam.com. 10 May 2006 http://www.drivecam.com/teen-driver/drivecam-teen-statistics.h ml

connected to “Traffic Safety Facts 2004Data: Teen Drivers.” NHTSA. 10 May 206.http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-30/ncsa/TSF2004/809918,pdf

2. “Teen Driving Fatality Statistics.”DriveHomeSafe.com. 9 May 2006. http://w w w . d r i v e h o m e s a f e . c o m /teen_driving_fatality_information_start_page.htm

3. “Appendix C: Teen Crash Statistics.”NHTSA. 9 May 2006. http://www.nh tsa .do t .gov /peop le / in ju ry /newdriver/SaveTeens/append_c.html

4. Peterson, Karin S. “Passengers meandanger for teen drivers.” The Insurae eEducator. Vol. 9 No 2. Summer/Fall 2000.

5. Williams, Allan F. “Teenage Passengersin Motor Vehicle Crashes; A SummaryCurrent Research.” Insurance Institute forHighway Safety. December 2001. http://www. i ihs .o rg / research / top ics /pd f /teen_passengers.pdf

6. “Teens’ Driving Riskier with Male TeenPassenger: Teen Boy’s Driving Safer wi thFemale Teen Passenger.” NationalInstitutes of Health. August 24, 2005.retrievd 11 May 2006. http://www.n ichd .n ih .gov /new/ re leases /teen_passengers.cfm

7. Ulmer, Robert G. Williams, Allan F.Preusser, David F. “Crash Involvements of16-Year-Old Drivers.” Journal of SafetyResearch. Vol. 28 No. 2 P97-10 Summer1997.

8. “Breakthrough Research on Real-WorldDriver Behavior Released.” NHTSA. 20April 2006. http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/d e p a r t m e n t s / n r d - 1 3 /newDriverDistraction.html

9. “Teen Driving Safety Tips” carfax.com.11 May 2006 http://www.carfax.com/teen_driving/Teen_Safety_Tips.cfm

10. Imrie, Robert. “Law Puts Dent in TeenCrashes.” Associated Press-Wisconsin.Dec 22, 2003.

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Teens Driving with Teen PassengersRyan Uttech, Driver Education Teacher Licensure Candidate

St. Cloud State University

Introduction

This article provides an overviewof research and available knowledgeconcerning teen driving withpassengers. Motor vehicle crashes arethe leading cause of death for peopleaged 15-20 and teen passengers areincluded in that statistic.1 The specificfocus of the review is on how drivingwith passengers impacts teen crashstatistics. Specifically which types ofpassengers increase the risk ofcrashes for teen drivers, what makesdriving with passengers dangerous toteens, when do teens become lesslikely to be involved in crashes withpassengers, and what steps canparents and educators take to makedriving safer for inexperienced drivers.Teen driving with passengers crash

statistics

Driving with passengers isdangerous for both teen drivers andteen passengers. Teen drivers killedin motor vehicle crashes had a youngpassenger onboard 45% of the time 2

and 65% of all teen passenger deathsoccurred when another teen wasdriving. 3 The more teen passengers ateen driver is carrying, the greater therisk of being in an crash. In 2000, The

Insurance Educator referred to a Li-HuiChen study saying “ the relative risk ofdriver death per 10 mill ion trips[compared to drivers of the same agewith no passengers] was 39% higherfor 16 year-old-drivers with onepassenger, 86% higher for those withtwo passengers, and 282% higher forthose with three or more passengers.”4 Seventy-three percent of teenpassengers aged 16, 72% ofpassengers aged 15, and 68% ofpassengers aged 17 were killed whentraveling with a teen driver. 5

Characteristics that separate teenfatal crash statistics with fatal crashstatistics in other age brackets are thelikelihood of the fatal crash involving asingle vehicle, driver error, andspeeding. Table 1 shows how thealready high percentage of teencrashes with these characteristics is

increased by the presence ofpassengers.

Table 1Percent of Fatal Crashes of 16-17

Year Old Drivers with CertainCharacteristics by Number of

Passengers, United States 20005

Characteristics Teenage Passengers 0 1 2 3

Single Vehicle 34 39 40 57Driver error 76 79 79 88Speeding 24 33 38 48Driver + BAC 12 13 14 15

These large increases are alarming.Fatal crashes involving speeding doublefrom 24% to 48% when three or moreteenage passengers are present. Singlevehicle crashes rise from 34% to 57%for the same comparison group. Singlevehicle crashes by definition mean noother vehicle was involved. The vehiclesmust have left the roadway and eitherstruck an object or rolled to become fatal.Which passengers increase or

decrease the risk of crashes for

teens?

In a study published in 2005, Dr.Simons-Morton and his colleagues at theWestat research firm concluded drivingwith a male passenger increased thelikelihood of speeding and tailgating byboth male and female drivers. One fourthof those speeding drove faster than 15miles per hour over the speed limit. Thestudy took place outside a high schoolwhich translates into driving speeds inexcess of 45 mph in a 30 mph zone.Interestingly, a female passenger in thefront passenger seat correlated into lessrisky driving behaviors such as excessivespeeding and tailgating. The researcheshad hoped to discover what causes teensto make riskier driving decisions whendriving with teen passengers, but couldnot determine them based on the currentstudy. They conclude “Teen passengersmay distract the driver or change thedriver’s attitude or emotion in ways thatare not yet clear.”6

The findings of Simons-Morton didnot contradict an earlier study of Chen

et al (2000) – the riskiest kind ofpassenger is a young male. Having onemale passenger almost doubled the riskof a fatal crash per 1,000 crashes thanhaving no passengers. 5 This wasconsistent looking at data from bothmale and female drivers. Having twoor more male passengers more thandoubled the risk. In the same studythere was no greater risk for femaledrivers with one female passenger, butthe risk of fatal crashes increased withtwo or more female passengers.What makes driving with passengers

dangerous for teens?

Dr. Simons-Morton (2005)explained in their study that they couldnot identify why teens were more likelyto engage in more risky driving behaviorin the presence of teen passengers.Teens may distract the driver andinfluence the drivers risk takingpropensities in ways research has beenunable to explain. To unlock the puzzle,he and his colleagues are currentlydesigning a study that will involveplacing electronic monitoring equipmentin vehicles with teen drivers. Afterlearning the reasons for the increase inrisky behavior, researchers can thenwork to develop ways to prevent it.

Other researchers have offeredmore definite suggestions as to whatcauses teen passengers to make teendrivers more dangerous on the road.Ulmer et al (1997) referred to a studyby Mayhew & Simpson (1995)suggesting teen passengers canincrease crash risk by distracting thedriver and inducing risk taking. Othergeneral reasons for teen crashes aredue to a more aggressive driving stylealong with inexperience in recognizingand responding to hazards. 7

On April 20, 2006, the NationalHighway Traffic Safety Associationreported driver inattention is the leadingcause of crashes and near crashes.The report went on to say “Nearly 80percent of crashes and 65 percent ofnear-crashes involved some form ofdriver inattention within three secondsbefore the event.† Primary causes of

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Summer 2006 The Chronicle of ADTSEA( from page 10)

(Carol from page 2)

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Judge, T. A., & Piccolo, R. F. (2004).Transformational and TransactionalLeadership: A meta-analytic test of theirrelative validity. Journal of AppliedPsychology, 89, 755-768.

Leithwood, K. A., & Jantzi, D. (1997).Explaining variation in teachers’perceptions of principals’ leadership: Areplication. Journal of EducationalAdministration, 35, 312-331.

Leithwood, K. A., & Jantzi, D. (1999). Therelative effects of principal and teacherssources of leadership on studentengagement with school. EducationalAdministration Quarterly, 35, 679-706.

Leithwood, K. A., & Jantzi, D. (2000). Theeffects of transformational leadership onorganizational conditions and studentengagement with school. Journal ofEducational Administration, 38, 112-129.

Leithwood, K. A., Jantzi, D., & Steinbach,R. (1999). Changing leadership forchanging times. Buckingham: OpenUniversity Press.

Leithwood, K., Louis, K. S., Anderson, S., &Wahlstrom, K. (2004). How leadershipinfluences student learning [Electronicversion]. New York: The WallaceFoundation. Retrieved March 19, 2005,from http://www.wallacefoundation.org/NR/rdonlyres/E3BCCFA5-A88B-45D3-8E27-B 9 7 3 7 3 2 2 8 3 C 9 / 0 /ReviewofResearchLearningFromLeadership.pdf

Leithwood, K. & Riehl, C. (2003). What dowe already know about successful schoolleadership? Paper prepared for the AERADivision A Task Force on DevelopingResearch in Educational Leadership.Retrieved March 19, 2005, fromw w w . c e p a . g s e . r u t g e r s . e d u /What%20We%20Know%20_long_%202003.pdf

Lonero, L. P. (2001). Driver EducationContent. Transportation Research E-Circular, E-C024. January, 17-21.Retrieved March 19, 2005, from http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/circulars/ec024.pdf

Lowe, K. B., Kroeck, K. G., &Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996).Effectiveness correlates of transformationand transaction leadership: A meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature.Leadership Quarterly, 7, 385-425.

Lund, A. K., & Williams, A. F. (1985). Areview of literature evaluating the defensivedriving course. Accident Analysis andPrevention, 17, 6, 449-460.

Lund, A. K., Williams, A. F., & Zador, P.(1986). High school driver education:Further evaluation of the Dekalb Countystudy. Accident Analysis and Prevention,18, 4, 349-357.

Mayhew, D. R., & Simpson, H. M. (2002).The safety value of driver educationtraining. Injury Prevention, 8, ii3-ii8.

Popper, M., & Mayseless, O. (2003). Backto basics: Applying a parenting perspectiveto transformational leadership. TheLeadership Quarterly, 14, 41-65.

Popper, M., & Mayseless, O. & Castelnovo,O. (2000). Transformational leadershipand attachment. Leadership Quarterly, 11,267-289.

Robinson, A. R. (2001). Objectives ofadvanced driver education. TransportationResearch E-Circular, E-C024. January, 31-

33. Available at: http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/circulars/ec024.pdf

Robinson, A. R. (2002). Discussion Paper.In D. R. Mayhew, & H. M. Simpson, Thesafety value of driver education training.Injury Prevention, 8, (pp. ii3-ii8).

Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. D.(1993). The motivational effects ofcharismatic leadership. A self conceptbased theory. Organizational Science, 4,577-593.

Sosik, W. D., Avolio, B. J., & Kahai, S. S.(1997). Effects of leadership style andanonymity on group potency andeffectiveness in a group decision supportsystem environment. Journal of AppliedPsychology, 82, 89-103.

Sosik, J. J., Godshalk, V. M., & Yammarino,F. J. (2004). Transformational leadership,learning goal orientation, and expectationsfor career success in mentor-protégérelationships: A multiple levels of analysisperspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 15,241-261.

Stock, J. R., Weaver, J. K., Ray, H. W., Brink,J. R., & Sadof, M. G. (1983). Evaluationof safe performance secondary schooldriver education curriculum demonstrationproject. Washington D.C.: NationalHighway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S.Department of Transportation.

Waller, P. F. (1975). Education for driving:An exercise in self delusion? DriverResearch Colloquium, June 4-5. AnnArbor, Michigan: University of MichiganHighway Safety Research Institute.

Weaver, J. K. (1987). Summary ofpreliminary results: Follow-up evaluationsafe performance curriculum drivereducation project. Washington, D.C.:National Highway Traffic SafetyAdministration, U.S. Department ofTransportation.

Yammarino, F. J., & Bass, B. M. (1990).Transformational leadership and multiplelevels of analysis. Human Relations, 43,975-995.

Yukl, G. A. (1999a). An evaluation ofconceptual weaknesses intransformational and charismaticleadership. The Leadership Quarterly,10(2), 285-305.

Yukl, G. A. (1999b). An evaluative essayon current conceptions of effectiveleadership. European Journal of Work andOrganizational Psychology, 8(1), 33-48.

participation of the membership isextremely important and valuable in thisprocess. If you receive a survey orquestionnaire, please return it. You arethe most important part of ADTSEA.

The Executive Committee hopesthat your year has been a professionallysuccessful one. Past President andProgram Chair, Beth Weaver-Shepardand Division Chairs: John Papa, ScottCalahan, Bill Van Tassel, DavidKinnunen, and Michael Manser haveplanned a wonderful program for us forour 50th conference. Comecelebrate all that is ADTSEA!


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The investigator acknowledgeslimitations in this study. One was theassumption that verbalizing anexplanation equates to understandingthe meaning of a sentence. Althoughthe investigator scored each sentenceexplanation based on his professionalcompetence in driver education, it ispossible that he misinterpreted theparticipant’s attempted explanation.After all, the investigator was also tryingto record the narrative data using a"speed writing" technique. Anotherlimitation was the limited data gatheringtime. Perhaps future investigators willbe able to arrange more in-depthinterviews and possible focus groups.One last limitation was thegeneralizability of the findings. AlthoughDMV customers were randomlyselected by the investigator, a more validapproach would be randomly selectedqueue tickets after the customer has leftthe CSC Information counter. At best,this study’s results are applicable to the50 customers who decided toparticipate.

In conclusion, the DMV readingmaterials (Driver’s Manual and sampleknowledge tests) are professionallyprepared and generally readable andmeaningful to customers. A procedurefor measuring safety literacy at the DMVhas been developed and, in this initialeffort, it has rendered suggestions forimproving the reading materials.References

IOM. 2004. Health literacy. Institute ofMedicine. Washington, DC: TheNational Academies Press, p. 37.

Ratzan SC, Parker RM. (2000).Introduction. In: National Library ofMedicine Current Bibliographies in

Medicine: Health Literacy. Selden CR,Zorn M, Ratzan SC, Parker RM,Editors. NLM Pub. No. CBM 2000-1. Bethesda, MD: National Institutesof Health, U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services.

USDHHS. (2000). Healthy People 2010:objectives for improving health. USDHHS, Washington, DC.

VA DMV. (2004). Virginia Driver’sManual. Virginia Department ofMotor Vehicles, Richmond, VA.

VA DMV. (2005). Sample knowledgetests for licensed driving. VirginiaDepartment of Motor Vehicles,Richmond, VA.

http://www.dmvnow.comAcknowledgment: The investigator

wishes to acknowledge Anne Atkins,Director of Communications at the VADMV, for her logistical assistance at thecustomer service centers.A detailed report, Safety Literacy at

the DMV, is available from the author

([email protected])

conducted to increase the effectivenessof programs aimed at highway safety foryoung drivers. As Robinson (2002)concludes,

Improving driver education shouldbe the goal of all who truly have aninterest in highway safety. Drivereducators alone cannot improve drivereducation programs. The general publicand highway safety professionals viewdriving as a simple task and have beenbombarded by the publicity that drivereducation does not work. However, allmust discontinue under appreciating thedriving task and the benefits of drivereducation if we are going to make anyeffective changes. There must be astrong coalition of advocates behindchanges to driver education. (p. ii7)

ReferencesAntonakis, J., Avolio, B. J., &

Sivasubramaniam, N. (2003). Contextand leadership: An examination of thenine-factor full-range leadership theoryusing the Multifactor LeadershipQuestionnaire. The Leadership Quarterly,14, 261-295.

Avolio, B. J. (1999). Full LeadershipDevelopment. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.

Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M., & Jung, D. I.(1995). Construct validation and normsfor the multifactor leadership questionnaire(MLQ-Form 5X). New York: Center forleadership studies, Binghamton University,State University of New York.

Avolio, B. J., Gardner, W. L., Walumbwa, F.O., Luthans, F, & May, D. R. (2004).Unlocking the mask: A look at the processby which authentic leaders impact followerattitudes and behaviors. The LeadershipQuarterly, 15, 801-823.

Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership andperformance beyond expectations. NewYork: Free Press.

Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill’sHandbook of Leadership: Theory,research, and managerial applications.(3rd ed.). New York: The Free Press.

Bass, B. M. (1999). Two decades ofresearch and development intransformational leadership. EuropeanJournal of Work and OrganizationalPsychology, 8, 9-32.

Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. (1990).Transformational leadership development:Manual for the Multifactor LeadershipQuestionnaire. Palo Alto, CA: ConsultingPsychologist Press.

Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993).Transformational leadership: A responseto critiques. In N. M. Chemers & R. Agmarl(Eds.), Leadership theory and research:Perspectives and directions (pp. 49-80).San Diego: Academic Press.

leaders. Geijsel, Sleegers, Leithwood,and Jantzi (2003) have pointed out thateducation has been slower than otherdisciplines of the marketplace toconduct research about theeffectiveness of transformationalleadership theory in educationalsettings. Leithwood, Jantzi, andSteinbach (1999) summarized a numberof studies that began in the late 1980sand early 1990s regardingtransformational school leadership.Furthermore, these authors havereported evidence regarding the effectsof transformational leadership on schoolorganizations, teachers, and mostrecently on students (Leithwood &Jantzi, 1999, 2000). Clearly, there isenough evidence of the success of theeffectiveness of transformationalleadership theory to warrantconsideration of its applicability to thefield of driver and traffic safetyeducation.Conclusions

This review of literature supports thetheory that transformational leadersmotivate followers to perform at higherlevels, to exert greater effort, and toshow more commitment than othertypes of leaders. In the case of driverand traffic safety education, forexample, the youth would beempowered by a transformationalleader to become engaged in a lifestyleof safety and health because they havethemselves become convinced of thisvision.

It is important for future studies tobe conducted on the effectiveness oftransformational leadership theory in thearea of driver and traffic safetyeducation for two main reasons. First,teacher preparation can greatly benefitfrom leadership training especially interms of transformational leadershiptheory. Second and most importantly,much more research needs to be

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It is almost impossible for anyoneto do research today without havingsome sort of contact with the Internet,either by searching the Internet forinformation or by reviewing a student’sor colleague’s research. No longer canscholars decry or avoid using theInternet by condemning it due to the lackof scholarship. Everyday new peer-reviewed e-journals or existing scholarlyjournals are added to the plethora ofinformation on the Internet. Therefore,every individual must be knowledgeableabout what is out there in the world ofcyberspace as it relates to theirdiscipline. As scholars in our discipline,we have the fortunate advantage ofhaving in-depth knowledge of oursubject area. By using this knowledgeand following six points of considerationwhen evaluating information on theInternet, scholars can be confident intheir use of information extracted fromthe Internet.

The first point of considerationshould be: “Who has created thecontent?” A good place to start is to lookat the URL to determine under whichdomain it resides. Is it U.S. or foreign?If it is a foreign site, you will see a twoletter country code. For example “uk”indicates the United Kingdom. Does itend in .edu, .gov, or .mil? These domainnames indicate educational institution,government entity or military web sitesrespectively. Other domain names needto be carefully evaluated as in .org fororganization or .com for a commercialsite. It should be noted that an .orgdomain name is used for non-profitorganizations and, therefore cansometimes contain valuableinformation. Is the creator an individualor an organization? If the creator is anindividual, is this individual considereda scholar in your field or in a relatedone? If an organization was the creator,is the organization considered a credibleprofessional or non-profit organization?If you do not know the individual ororganization, it will necessitate checkingother reliable print or online sources toascertain the credibility of theorganization or individual.

A second point of consideration thatis quickly identifiable is the date that theweb site was created. Has it beencontinually updated on a fairly regularbasis as new information is added to thediscipline’s area? Also, are the hotlinksused in the web site still active, whichindicates someone is still monitoringand updating the site as necessary? Ifa site is old, it still may have somehistorical value in your discipline, but itshould be looked at cautiously and becompared with other sources.

With the ability for any individual ororganization to publish on the Internet,the third consideration of determiningwhether the information is correct andfactual has been the most troublesometo professionals and scholars. It isextremely prudent and necessary whenusing information gleaned from theInternet to cross-check the credibility,reliability and scholarship of theinformation using a variety of print andelectronic resources that are known toyou and other scholars as being credibleand reliable.– Unfortunately, there arenumerous sites on the Internet thatcontain lies, incorrect information andare blatantly bogus. One of my favoriteintentionally bogus sites is http://city-mankato.us . This web site purports thatthe city of Mankato, located inMinnesota, is always a balmy 70degrees and is a mecca for vacationersdue to its climate and beautiful sandybeaches. While this site is intentionallyand easily discovered as bogus bydoing some quick checking of a reliablesource, other sites can be deceptive andintentionally misleading and factuallyincorrect. This is the case in the websites that try to swindle individuals byasking for money supposedly to helpvictims’ families of 9/11 or otherdisasters. Also, included in this groupwould be web sites sponsored by hategroups. Some of these sites areextremely deceptive, as in the case ofthe Institute for Historical Review (http://www.irh.org). This organizationattempts to make itself appear scholarlybut it is, in reality, an organization thatpurports to deny the Holocaust. By justgiving a cursory glance at their web site,

one could easily believe that this couldbe a scholarly organization. Only byinvestigating the web site carefully andcomparing credible Holocaust researchwith the false claims on this site, doesone recognize this site for what it is - asite that denies the Holocaust. Thisorganization has become extremelysophisticated in conveying its messageof hate by using only parts of historicalfact, obfuscating information andprotesting too much that the site is notdenying the Holocaust but onlyquestioning it.

It is imperative that we make ourcolleagues and students aware of thesetypes of bogus web sites, not only inour disciplines but by making othersaware of sites like the ones mentionedabove to show how some use theInternet for their own evil intentions. Tofind a number of lists of other bogussites, one can search “bogus sites”using Google.

Statistics that are used on any website are also a concern when evaluatingthe web site. Sources for statistics usedshould be cited, and just as is done intraditional research, sources forstatistics should be tracked down to theoriginal source(s). Sometimes this willmean that one needs to obtain a copyof the original study or, if it is somehowrelated to government information,using the following web portal (http://firstgov.gov). This is the U.S.government’s portal which is keywordsearchable and also searchable bybranch, department, etc. Since the U.S.government is the largest publisher inthe United States and collects a wealthof statistics, this web portal is anexcellent place to validate the statisticsthat are reported on a web site.

As in other types of information,ascertaining whether it is scholarly orpopular is the fourth point ofconsideration. Today, a number ofscholars have chosen for a variety ofreasons to publish valuable informationon the Internet. Some of this is freelyaccessible but most is only availablethrough fee based databases whichprovide a wealth of scholarly

Using the Internet WiselySusan Motin, M.L.S., Associate Professor, Learning Resourses & Technology Services,

St. Cloud State University

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Driver Education and Physics: An Interdisciplinary Unit StudyBarbara E. Brody, M.Ed. and Stewart A. Williamson, M.Ed.

Peoples Academy, Morrisville, VTIntroduction

One of the important conceptsstudents need to learn is how onesubject can be linked or transferred toanother subject. What we learn in Math,Science, English, History, Health andthe Arts are all interconnected. DriverEducation can play an active role andan important link to help studentsunderstand this concept. Most studentswill take Driver Education. Only somestudents opt to take such subjects asPhysics, Languages, High Level Math,or AP classes. A secondary goal of thisunit is to have all students realize thatthey are capable of understanding thebasic applications of physics and wouldconsider adding physics to their coursestudy during their Junior/Senior Year. Itwill also enable the Physics studentsto review some basic driving concepts.

Most states require a student totake Driver Education before they canreceive their license. We know thatstudents are very motivated to workhard in Driver Education and thereforethey will work hard to complete allnecessary requirements. One of thebenefits of having Driver Educationduring the school day is that this canprovide the teacher and the curriculumthe opportunity to link other academicsubjects together. This link mayencourage students to explore thoseother classes that they may not havethought they were capable of taking.

The following is an example of waysa Driver Education course and aPhysics course can interrelate andprovide learning experiences to thestudents in both areas of study at theexact same time. The unit we chosewas National Laws and Driving. Welooked at the laws of motion as it relatesto acceleration, deceleration, stoppingtime, and reaction time. We alsoconsidered the different type of brakingand driving systems.Participants

In early November of 2005 highschool students from the Physics andDriver Education classes at PeoplesAcademy in Morrisville Vermont tookpart in a collaborated assignment tounderstand how Newton’s laws of

motion effects a drivers ability tomaintain vehicle control. Students inthe Physics class produced, collectedand analyzed data on the forces of thekinetics of driving a vehicle. DriverEducation students drove the vehicle atdifferent speeds to study rates changein velocity, stopping distance andreaction time. Officers Ryan Burkeeand Mike Reeve of the Morrisville PoliceDepartment, assisted in securing a saferoad environment, data collection,analysis, and group discussion.Methods/ Measurements

Roadway: A 0.25 mile straightstretch of paved roadway was inspectedand a closed off by the police officers.A wheel-tape and chalk were used tomark off ten-foot increments along theroadway.

Vehicles: The vehicles wereprovided by sales manager, ScottKirkpatrick of McMahon Chevrolet.Vehicle One was the school’s drivereducation car, a Chevrolet Malibu, withfront wheel drive and anti-lock brakes.Vehicle two, a Chevrolet Cavalier hadfront wheel drive but no anti-lock brakes.The cars’ masses were not measured,but approximated to be fairly similar.Third optional vehicle was a DodgeDakota 4 by 4 pickup (rear wheel driveand xxx).

In Car Participants: Students in thedriver education course drove the carfor all but three of the trials. In theinterest of safety and driver confidencethe Driver Education teacher drove thetrails above 40 mph. Students in thedriver education vehicle drove, videotaped and collected data on speed andtime. The driver education teacher wasin the front passenger seat for all of thetrials, except for the high speed trialsthat she drove.

Out of Car Participants: Threegroups of students were organizedalong the roadway with stopwatches,digital cameras and digital videorecorders. The first group wasorganized along the starting line. Thesecond group was spread along the sideof the roadway. The final group wasgathered near the anticipated distanceof full stop to monitor the motion of the

car and passengers while rapiddeceleration occurred. Communicationbetween the drivers, the teachers, thepolice officers, the data collectors andthe photographers was carried out withwalkie-talkies… and some verbalcommunication.

Stopping Time and StoppingDistance of a Moving Car:Each student driver accelerated fromrest to a specified speed (20 or 30 mph)and maintained that speed until theyreached a mark on the road surface atwhich time they initiated an EmergencyBraking procedures. Stopping timesand distances were recorded along withany potential errors.

The police officers placed chalkmarks on the road for full-stop location.The students then measured thedistance once the car had driven off.Each trial was completed three timeswith the student driving all but the threetrials at 40-50 mph.

Reaction Time in a Moving Car:While it was the intention of the

class to gather data on reaction time,this was not completed due to timeconstraints. A visual signal (shinning ahalogen flashlight from 300 meters) wasto indicate the time to start rapiddeceleration by the driver. Video wouldbe taken from behind and inside thevehicle for later determination ofreaction time with digital videoprocessing equipment.

Acceleration of a car from rest:Two student drivers accelerated to

25 miles per hour as fast as possiblefor three trials each in both cars. Theyapplied the brakes to indicate to the outof car data collectors that the desiredspeed had been reached. The brakelights indicated the end of the trial. *Thedata inside the car for these runs wasfar more accurate than those outside.Analysis

The police officers returned to classto discuss crash scene analysistechniques and the various formulasand equations used to evaluate causesof collisions. Each student alsocompleted a lab report with dataanalysis and conclusions about the

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(from page 6) and presenting a vision that providesmeaning in their lives. Sosik, Godshalk,and Yammarino (2004) comment thatinspirational motivation “entailscommunicating high performanceexpectations that activate self-fulfillingprophecies for individuals” (p. 245).Transformational leaders inspire andmotivate by their optimism, enthusiasm,and by offering an attractive future.Furthermore, these leadersdemonstrate a commitment to sharedgoals with their followers.

Third, individualized consideration

refers to the leader’s consistent effortto treat followers as unique and specialindividuals and to act as a mentor whois concerned to develop his/herfollower’s greatest potential. Antonakis,Avolio, & Sivasubramaniam (2003)argue that leaders display individualizedqualities by “advising, supporting, andpaying attention to the individual needsof followers, and thus allowing them todevelop and self-actualize” (p. 265).

Finally, the attribute of intellectual

stimulation involves the leader’s effortsto stimulate the followers to be creativeand innovative, as well as the effort onthe part of the leader to encouragefollowers to reframe problems andapproach them in new ways, and toquestion assumptions (Popper,Mayseless, & Castelnovo, 2000). Whendisplaying this attribute, leaders will“appeal to followers’ sense of logic andanalysis by challenging followers tothink creatively and find solutions todifficult problems” (Antonakis et al.,2003, p. 265).Outcome Variables for

Transformational Leadership

Much has been written in theliterature on leadership researchconcerning the various outcomevariables of transformational andtransactional leadership (Judge &Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck, &Sivasubramaniam, 1996). Bass andAvolio’s Multifactor LeadershipQuestionnaire (MLQ) remains the mostwidely used instrument to assess thenine factors in the “full-range leadershiptheory” in studying these variables(Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1995). Some ofthese outcome variables fortransformational and transactionalleadership include the leader ’sperceived effectiveness, the follower’s

sense of self-efficacy, and the follower’ssatisfaction with the leader. In eachcase, the research found thesevariables were higher among subjectswhose leaders were transformationalleaders (Bycio, Hackett, & Allen, 1995;Popper, Mayseless, & Castelnovo,2000; Yammarino & Bass, 1990). Thefindings were similar in studiesregarding measures of behavior andperformance (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Dvir,Eden, Avolio, & Shamir, 2002; Howell& Avolio, 1993). Furthermore, theliterature reveals the impact thattransformational leaders have on theirfollowers’ attitudes, values, and self-concept (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa,Luthans, & May, 2004; Ehrhart & Klein,2001; Howell & Shamir, 2005; Shamir,House, & Arthur, 1993).

Bass, Avolio, Jung, and Berson(2003) studied the extent to whichratings of transformational andtransactional leadership were mediatedby levels of unit cohesion and potencyin predicting platoon performance incombat simulation exercises. Resultsshowed that transformational leadershippredicted unit performance in infantryteams. Finally, Popper and Mayseless(2003) have attempted to broaden thediscussion of the various leadershipoutcome variables by relatingtransformational leadership theory tothe literature on parenting:

Leader-led relationships areanalogous to parent-children dynamicsin many respects. Leaders, like parents,are figures whose role includes guiding,directing, taking charge, and taking careof others less powerful than they andwhose fate is highly dependent on them.The extent of the dependence ofchildren on parents, or followers onleaders, renders the influence of thelatter highly important . . . . We assumethat leaders with whom followers formemotional relationships function in manyrespects like parents. Just as parentsprotect, guide, and teach children,helping them to grow into functioningand autonomous adults, so dotransformational leaders in theirrelationships with their followers. (p. 42)

The authors recommend a numberof possible research avenues derivedfrom studying the analogy betweengood parents and transformational

addition to being widely studied andgaining important support in theliterature in the past decade,transformational leadership theory hasdone much to revitalize leadershipresearch (Bryman, 1992; Judge &Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck, &Sivasubramaniam, 1996). Theresearch has found thattransformational leaders motivatefollowers to perform at higher levels, toexert greater effort, and to show morecommitment than other types of leaders(Bass & Avolio, 1990; Sosik, Avolio, &Kahai, 1997; Yammarino & Bass, 1990).In fact, Avolio (1999) makes it clear that“transformational leadership involvesmotivating others” (p. 41).

Through their extensive researchon transformational leadership, Bassand Avolio (1999) argue that through theFull Range Leadership Development

Workshop, leaders can be trained intransformational leadership qualities.The authors note that the process bywhich leaders develop transformationalleadership attributes “initially dependsupon their own unique characteristics,qualities, abilities, and desires” (Bass

& Avolio, 1999, p. 18).

Attributes of Transformational

Leadership

The most current version oftransformational leadership theorypresents four distinct factors thatcharacterize the attributes oftransformational leadership: (1)idealized influence; (2) inspirationalmotivation; (3) individualizedconsideration; (4) intellectualstimulation. First, idealized influence

refers to leader’s behavior and thefollower’s attributions about the leader(Popper, Mayseless, & Castelnovo,2000). An idealized leader thinks aboutthe needs of the followers before his/her own needs, demonstrates highethical standards, sets challenginggoals, and avoids the use of power forpersonal gain (Bass & Steidlmeier,1999). Thus, the transformationalleader becomes a role model or amentor for the followers (Sosik,Godshalk, & Yammarino, 2004).

Second, inspirational motivation isdefined as the way in which atransformational leader inspires andmotivates followers by challenging them


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A Case for Applying the Contributions of

Transformational Leadership Theory to Driver and Traffic Safety EducationPhilip Pidgeon, Ed.D., Automotive Safety Research Institute, Clemson University

Kim E. Alexander, M.Ed., Automotive Safety Research Institute, Clemson UniversityClinton Isbell, Ed.D., Leadership, Counselor Education & HRD, Clemson University

Introduction

As long as motor-vehicle crashescontinue to be the leading cause ofdeath overall and the most commoncause of death among children andyoung adults in the United States(CDC, 2004), there remains much workto be done in educational leadershipand youth traffic safety education. Thisreview of literature is intended to addto the existing, although limited, bodyof knowledge concerning the effect oftransformational leadership on youthtraffic safety education.Transformational leadership is a formof leadership that occurs when leaderselevate and broaden the interests oftheir followers by instilling a visionwhich calls them to look beyond theirown self-interest for the good of thegroup (Bass, 1990). Transformationalleaders tend to have a clear vision andmost importantly they manage tocommunicate it effectively to theirfollowers. Renewed interest ineducational leadership has recently ledto the systematic empirical inquiry oftransformational leadership theory inschools (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003).The question is, can driver and trafficsafety education benefit from thecontributions of transformationalleadership theory?Current Trends in Driver and Traffic

Safety Education

In discussing the need forimprovements in driver and trafficsafety education, it is important to noterecent attempts to redefine drivereducation. Currently there is a nationaldebate between traffic safety educatorsand researchers concerning the natureof driver education and the need toimprove and revise the methods usedto train instructors (Lonero, 2001).Robinson (2001) discusses the meritsof “advanced driver education” andsuggests that we should focus attentionon the students’ motivation to drivesafely while providing realisticexperiences that will teach safe drivingpractices. Mayhew and Simpson(2002) note that the “task of shaping

or modifying risky driving behaviorsthat reflect adolescent lifestyle is adaunting one and will require a betterunderstanding of the developmentaland psychosocial context in whichsuch behavior takes place” (p. ii5).Clearly, these authors point out theneed to address the role of leadershipin driver and traffic safety education.

While many studies havesuggested the ineffectiveness of drivereducation in accounting for crashreduction (Lund & Williams, 1985;Lund, Williams, & Zador, 1986; Stocket al., 1983; Waller, 1975; Weaver,1987), recent research has provideda more hopeful outlook for suchprograms. Mayhew and Simpson(2002), point out that youth trafficsafety programs “might prove to beeffective in reducing collisions if theyare more empirically based,addressing critical age and experiencerelated factors” (p. ii3). The authorsconclude that there is a need toincorporate instructional methods toaddress lifestyle and psychosocialfactors in driver and traffic safetyeducation programs. And, asRobinson (2002) aptly notes, “aconcentrated effort needs to bedevoted to broadening our view on therole of driver education, improvingdriver education, and changing theways we evaluate driver education” (p.ii8).

Educational Leadership Theory

Research indicates that effectiveleadership can have a major impacton student learning. According toLeithwood, Louis, Anderson, andWahlstrom (2004), “the total (direct orindirect) effects of leadership onstudent learning account for about aquarter of total school effects” (p. 3).It would follow that for driver and trafficsafety education programs to beeffective, it is important to consider therole of leadership in such programs.

Increasingly, educational leadersare examining the influence ofleadership on schools. Recent studiesin educational leadership have

provided robust understandings of theways in which cultural norms can facilitatestudent learning and school improvementefforts (Leithwood et al., 2004). In fact,scholars in educational leadership haveargued that leadership practices such as“articulating a vision, fostering theacceptance of group goals and creatinghigh performance expectations” contributeto a school culture that supportsimprovement in student learning(Leithwood et al., 2004, p. 6; Leithwood &Jantzi, 1997, 2000; Leithwood, Jantzi, &Steinbach, 1999). Thus, culturemanagement is emerging as a criticalfunction of successful leadership in theschool setting. In the effort to promotesuccessful schools, one of the recentapproaches to culture management ineducation is the study to transformationalleadership theory.Transformational Leadership Theory

A substantial body of research onleadership in the last 20 years has focusedon two major types of leaders:transactional and transformational (Bass,1985, 1999). A transactional leader isdescribed as one who responds to her orhis followers by establishing a close linkbetween the follower’s effort and therewards. However, this view of leadershiphas been criticized in that leadership isexpected to do more than maintain a give-and-take relationship in terms ofperformance and reward (Hollander,1978). Conger (1999) notes that “the‘transactional’ term has at times beenapplied in a somewhat derogatory way tothe activity of managing” (p. 149).Consequently, to be a purely transactionalleader one is thought to be the “calculatingmanager” (Conger, 1999, p. 149). Incontrast, transformational leadershipmotivates followers to achieveperformance beyond expectations bytransforming the attitudes, beliefs, andvalues of followers as opposed to merelygaining their compliance (Bass, 1985;Burns, 1978; Yukl, 1999a; Yukl, 1999b).

A transformational leader can bedescribed as having a vision and inspiringrespect and trust in his/her followers. In


(more on page 10)

o Avoiding word series (e.g., ". . . look,listen, slow down, and be preparedto stop"). To correct this perhaps thesentence could be rewritten as twosentences.o Avoiding idiomatic wording (e.g.,"reduce your speed by one-half").This would be clarified throughparenthetical phasing.o If legalese wording is necessary

perhaps a trailing qualifying sentencecould be included (e.g., retaining theexpression "liability insurance" butfollowing it with a concise definitionsentence).o Using graphics to exhibit "a bed of apick-up truck" or "a camper shell."o Whenever possible, using activerather than passive voice (e.g.,"Bicycles are vehicles . . ." instead of

"Bicycles are considered vehicles .. .")Some figurative speech that

challenged the participants was retainedsince it was consistent with state-approved driver education curriculum(e.g., "space cushion"). Otherterminology was unchanged because itwas meant to mirror statutory code. Still,other sentences were not revisedbecause they were extracted directlyfrom text. Hence, participants did nothave the luxury of viewing the sentencein the context of its larger paragraphwithin the DMV Driver’s Manual.Background Information

The primary reasoning forparticipants’ coming to the DMV waslicensing. English was the languageread by all but one of the respondents.Participants reportedly did not visit theDMV website regularly (perhaps onceor twice yearly). Of the 23 participantssuggesting improvements to DMVprinted materials, "more pictures" wasmost commonly expressed. At least 16participants revealed some collegeeducation. While describing race,ethnicity and/or cultural heritage: 11White, 10 Black/African American, 9Latino/Hispanic, 3 Asian, 3 Other(multiracial), and 14 did not specify. Amajority of respondents consideredthemselves good drivers and justifiedthis by being attentive, and following therules and not committing traffic violations(tickets). Only 19 participants offeredconstructive responses for betteringDMV operations and most commentswere positive in nature.Conclusion, Discussion and

Recommendations

A majority of participants in thisstudy were able to read sentencesselected from the DMV Driver’s Manualand sample knowledge tests. This wasdespite some of the sentences havinglow reading ease and high grade levelratings. Accordingly, a majority of theparticipants verbalized adequateexplanations of the sentences’ meaning.Still, there were some readablesentences that challenged participants’ability to explain their meaning. Relyingon numeric and narrative data providedby the participants, the investigatorsuggested revisions to many of theselected sentences to improve theirreadability.

Figure 1: Selected sentences: original and suggested revision1. When approaching railroad tracks you should look, listen, slow down, and be

prepared to stop.When you come to railroad tracks go slow. Look and listen for a train because you might

have to stop.2. When driving on packed snow, reduce your speed by one-half.When driving on packed snow, reduce your speed by one-half (if 40 mph go back to 20).3. If you drive in Virginia without liability insurance coverage on your vehicle, you face a

$500 fine.If you drive in Virginia without liability insurance coverage on your vehicle, you face a

$500 fine. Liability insurance coverage helps pay costs if you cause a crash.4. Legally, you are considered to be driving under the influence if your blood alcohol

content (BAC) is .08% or higher.5. The speed limit in business zones is 25 mph.The speed limit in business zones (near office buildings) is 25 mph.6. If you were convicted of two or more moving violations (one or more if under age 21)

since your license was last issued, you must reapply for your license.7. For your own protection, do not use a suspended or revoked driver's license, lend

anyone your driver's license, or allow an unlicensed driver to operate your vehicle.For your own protection, do not use a suspended or revoked driver's license. Do not

lend anyone your driver's license or allow an unlicensed driver to operate your vehicle.8. It is illegal to use a radar detector in Virginia.9. U-turns are allowed in business districts, cities, and towns only at intersections.You can U-turn only at intersections if you are driving in towns and cities.10. It is illegal to transport children under age 16 in the bed of a pick-up truck if it is

equipped with a camper shell. <no revision but needed illustration>11. The most common mistake that drivers make when backing is failing to look both

ways behind them.The most common mistake that drivers make when backing is not looking to the left or

right sides behind them.12. Double solid yellow lines painted down the middle of the road mean passing is not

permitted in either direction. <no revision but needed illustration>13. Passing is prohibited at intersections, on hills and curves, and at railroad crossings.14. If you are traveling slower than the traffic around you on a multi-lane roadway,you

must drive in the right-hand lane. <no revision but needed illustration>15. Alcohol causes slower reactions, poor judgment and loss of concentration.

Alcohol causes slower reactions, poor judgment and loss of clear thinking.16. The shape of a traffic sign communicates important information about the sign's

message.The shape of a traffic sign tells important information about the sign's message.17. It is unlawful to avoid a traffic signal, sign or control device by driving off the roadway

and onto or across public or private property. <no revision but needed illustration>18. Use the three-second rule to determine if you are far enough behind the vehicle ahead

of you.19. Avoid driving in someone else's blind spot.20. Bicycles are considered vehicles and have the same rights-of-way as motor vehicles.Bicycles are vehicles and have the same right-of-way (rules of the road) as motor vehicles.21. Create a space cushion around your vehicle by staying in the middle of your lane.22. Motorists are conditioned to look for four-wheeled vehicles; but they don't expect to

see two-wheeled vehicles.Motorists are used to look for four-wheeled vehicles; but they don't expect to see two-

wheeled vehicles.23. As you scan the road, avoid a fixed stare.24. Place your hands on the steering wheel at the 8 o'clock and the 4 o'clock positions.25. Securing a child in a correctly installed child safety seat can significantly reduce the

possibility of death or injury.Securing a child in a properly installed child safety seat can significantly reduce the possibility

of death or injury to the child.


(more on page 5)

(from page 3) Table 1 Literacy and Reading Scores Literacy Readingreading explaining ease level (1-3) (1-3) (1-100) 1-12)

1. 2.5 2.4 78.8 5.91r. -- -- 99.0 1.82. 2.0 2.3 78.2 4.82r. -- -- 75.7 7.13. 2.4 1.7 25.3 12.03r. -- -- 35.5 11.74. 2.0 2.0 51.1 11.05. 2.0 2.1 75.5 4.95r. -- -- 67.7 6.76. 2.6 1.4 57.7 12.07. 2.1 1.6 38.4 12.07r. -- -- 55.0 9.18. 2.8 2.7 44.4 9.59. 2.4 1.7 39.5 10.79r. -- -- 60.0 8.410. 2.3 2.0 66.1 9.911. 2.3 2.0 75.1 7.011r. -- -- 75.1 7.012. 2.4 2.4 53.9 10.413. 2.5 2.5 50.4 9.414. 2.4 2.0 64.6 9.415. 2.3 2.1 35.9 10.715r . -- -- 57.2 8.016. 2.2 1.9 37.4 11.216r. -- -- 57.0 8.517. 2.3 1.7 46.1 12.018. 2.1 1.9 60.1 9.019. 2.4 2.2 54.7 7.320. 2.7 2.2 32.5 11.720r. -- -- 56.2 9.121. 3.0 2.6 67.5 7.522. 2.3 2.2 55.9 7.422r. -- -- 66.5 5.923. 2.9 2.0 100 1.024. 2.9 2.0 79.5 6.125. 3.0 2.4 27.8 12.025r. -- -- 30.6 12.0Mean 2.4 2.1See Figure 1 on page 5 for text ofquestions and revisions

assistance. This ability wasdemonstrated consistently across thefour or five sentences selected for themdespite some of the sentences havingless than desired reading ease andgrade level ratings.

o The previous deduction has somequalifications, though. It wasinteresting how some sentences hadhigher safety literacy reading scores(2.6 or greater), but correspondingly,their reading ease and grade levelratings would qualify them as beingchallenging to read [e.g., "6. If you

were convicted of two or more movingviolations (one or more if under age 21)since your license was last issued, youmust reapply for your license."]o Contrarily, there were sentences withlower safety literacy reading scores(2.3 or lesser) yet they were rated ashaving high reading ease anddesirable grade levels (e.g., "1. Whenapproaching railroad tracks you shouldlook, listen, slow down, and beprepared to stop.").o These inconsistencies necessitatedlooking closer at the second part of thesafety literacy definition--being able toexplain the sentences’ meaning--bothin terms of numeric scoring andnarrative data.

Safety Literacy - ExplainingMean safety literacy explaining

scores ranged from 1.4 to 2.7 with 15 ofthe 25 selected sentences having a scoreof 2.0 or higher. The total mean scorefor all 25 selected sentences was 2.1.From these numeric data, theinvestigator deduced:

o Generally, the 50 randomly selectedparticipants demonstrated the secondpart of the safety literacy definition:being able to verbally explain asentence’s meaning as an indicationof understanding the sentence.However, there were a number ofsentences that challenged them interms of providing a verbal meaning(mean score of less than 2.0). Forexample, "3. If you drive in Virginiawithout liability insurance coverage onyour vehicle, you face a $500 fine."o To determine why these sentenceswere challenging, the investigatorexamined the participants’ verbalizedexplanations. The narrative data werescrutinized. From this effort, theinvestigator concluded somesentences needed modification toimprove their readability.Suggested Sentence Revisions

The investigator made suggestedrevisions to selected sentences (seeTable 1). Sentences were restructured.Where appropriate, actual participantexpressions where substituted.Although the intent was to reduce wordcount and syllabication, it wasnecessary at times to add qualifyingterms and phrasing. Other suggestedrevisions:

explanation, etc.)Once the participant completed this

section, he/she responded in writing toeight background information items onthe questionnaire. At this point of theinterview, if a participant asked forassistance while responding tobackground questions, the investigatorprovided clarifying information asrequired by informed consent protocol.It is noteworthy that 14 of the 50participants stopped the interview toretrieve their processed license and allbut two of these 14 participants returnedto finish the interview.

Results

For this study, safety literacy is theability of a person to read safetyinformation and provide a verbalexplanation of its meaning. Theinvestigator measured safety literacy byscoring participants’ ability to read aloudselected sentences as well as verballyexplain the sentences’ meaning. Bothnumeric and narrative data werecollected and analyzed. Afterward, theinvestigator revised selected sentencesto improve their readability scores (seeTable 1)

Safety Literacy - Reading

Mean safety literacy reading scoresranged from 2.0 to 3.0 with all selectedsentences having a score of 2.0 orhigher. The total mean score for all 25selected sentences was 2.4. Theinvestigator also calculated FleschReading Ease as well as Flesch-Kincaidgrade level ratings (built-in spelling toolsin Microsoft® Word) for each selectedsentence. Sentence reading ease ratingsranged from 25.3 to 100 with sentencegrade levels ranging from 1.0 to 12. Themean reading ease rating for sentenceswas 55.9 whereas the mean sentencereading level was 9.0. Ten of the 24selected sentences met the minimumdesired reading ease rating of 60 whereas 9 of the 25 sentences had a readinglevel not exceeding the 7th grade level.From these numeric data, theinvestigator deduced:

o Generally, the 50 randomly selectedparticipants demonstrated the first partof the safety literacy definition: beingable to read aloud with minimalhesitation, stopping or asking for


(continued on page 4 )

Safety Literacy at the DMVRichard E. Miller, Ed.D.

Health, Fitness and Recreation ResourcesGeorge Mason University

Introduction

Although materials prepared by theDepartment of Motor Vehicles (DMV) areprofessionally prepared and well-designed, more assurance of adequatesafety literacy is needed. Consideringnearly half of all American adults—90million people—have difficultyunderstanding and acting upon healthinformation (IOM, 2004), by logicalextension, a comparable number ofindividuals are challenged in processingand applying traffic and highway safetyinformation. Using health literacy as atemplate (Ratzan and Parker, 2000), thesafety counterpart would be the degreeto which individuals have the capacityto obtain, process, and understand basicinformation and services needed tomake appropriate safety decisions.

There are various kinds of literacysuch as oral, print, text and numeracy."Basic print literacy is the ability to read,write and understand written languagethat is familiar and for which one hasthe requisite amount of backgroundknowledge" (IOM, 2004, p. 37). This kindof literacy is demonstrated whensomeone can decode letters, sound-outwords, and understand the meaning ofprinted text. However, basic print literacyhas familiarity and backgroundknowledge requirements. The materialshould also be culturally relevant(USDHHS, 2000). For this study, safetyliteracy is a form of basic print literacyand operationalized as: the ability of aperson to read safety information andprovide a verbal explanation of itsmeaning.

An opportunity arose to contributeto the body of knowledge on safetyliteracy during a Virginia Department ofMotor Vehicles communications audit ofprinted material. The investigatordeveloped a procedure for measuringsafety literacy at DMV customer servicecenters (CSCs) and applying the resultsto improving customer communications.Procedure Pilot

The investigator field-tested aprocedure for randomly approachingDMV customers and interviewing themwith a safety literacy questionnaire.Customers were more approachable

outside the knowledge automatedtesting system (KATS) area comparedto the general seating and exiting areasof the customer service center (CSC).Since customers were involved in atransaction, the KATS area allowedabout 10 minutes of interviewing. To pilotthe interview, the investigator greeted(with name tag visible), explained brieflythe purpose of the study, and asked ifthe customer would like to participate.Upon agreeing, the interview proceededif the participant responded affirmativelyto two verbally-posed screeningquestions: "Are you 18 years of age orolder?" and "Do you read English whileat the DMV?" Then, the investigator satnext to him/her, secured informedconsent, and proceeded with theinterview.

The original safety literacyquestionnaire was composed of a rapidestimate of adult literacy in safety, anassessment of the subject’s ability tounderstand traffic safety-phrasesspoken to him/her, and a solicitation ofcustomer background information. Afterfield-testing, the rapid estimate sectionwas removed because all of thecustomers were familiar with theterminology regardless of itssyllabication. The revised questionnaireretained customer backgroundinformation items preceded by a sectioncontaining 25 sentences selected fromthe DMV Driver’s Manual (VA DMV,2004) and online knowledge tests (VADMV, 2005).

During the interview, the investigatorperfected a "speed-writing" technique toadequately record the participant’snarrative responses to each question.Since the interview was limited to 10minutes, the investigator was restrictedto randomly selecting four or fivesentences from the pool of 25 for eachparticipant to respond. Participants readaloud and then explained the meaningof the selected sentence "as if you weretalking to a friend."The Study

Once piloted, the procedure wasimplemented at three CSCs. Customerswere randomly selected as they satoutside the KATS testing area. Most

participants had been photographed andawaited their call back to the customerservice representative. Fifty of 64customers agreed to participate(response rate .78). The investigatorapproached, greeted, screened, sat nextto the participant, secured agreement/informed consent, and then proceededwith the interview.

During the interview, data werecollected as participants read aloud andexplained the meaning of four or fiverandomly selected sentences from thepool of 25 items on the questionnaire.Each selected sentence was pointed outto the participant as he/she held a copyof the questionnaire. While readingaloud, the participant’s safety literacywas scored by the investigator:

3 - Participant appears to have nodifficulty reading aloud (each word in)the sentence

2 - Participant appears to havesome difficulty in reading aloud (eachword in) the sentence (e.g., hesitating,stopping, asking for help, requestingconfirmation, etc.)

1 - Participant has difficulty readingthe sentence aloud to the pointinability to finish the sentence

After reading of a sentence aloud,the participant was asked to explain itsmeaning before proceeding to the nextselected sentence. The investigator, acertified driver education instructor,recorded participants’ explanations asnarrative data using the "speed-writing"technique. Each sentence explanationreceived a score by the investigator:

3 - Participant’s verbal explanationindicates a sufficient understanding ofthe sentence’s meaning

2 - Participant’s verbal explanationindicates a lack of someunderstanding of the sentence’smeaning ("parrots" the sentence byreading directly from the instrument,omits explaining parts of the sentence,etc.)

1 - Participant’s verbal explanationindicates lack of understanding of thesentence’s meaning (admits notunderstanding, provides incorrectexplanation, declines to offer


Allen Robinson

(Carol continued on page 11)

Exciting TimesDr. Allen Robinson, CEO

John W. Palmer

Editor’s Notes

What is ADTSEA?Carol Hardin, President Elect

Carol Hardin

President Jim Gibb has asked me to share with yousome of the plans for theupcoming year in ADTSEA. Lastyear at the ADTSEA Conferencein Honolulu, HI, the RegionReports reflected a need to lookat ADTSEA. What were theplans when ADTSEA began?Where is it now? Where are wegoing? On the ADTSEA website it asks, "What is ADTSEA?"The response tells us thatADTSEA is a national advocatefor quality traffic safety educationand that ADTSEA creates andpublishes policies and guidelines for the discipline as well as develops educationalmaterials, conducts conferences, workshops and seminarsand provides consultative services.

The ADTSEA Constitution states that the purpose ofthe organization (Article II: Section 1 and 2):

… Shall be to promote traffic safety and its concomitantbenefits by improving and extending driver education/training activities in schools, colleges, universities, theprivate sector, industry and other institutions.… Shall work toward accomplishing its purpose throughconferences, development and dissemination ofmaterials, consulting, technical assistance and throughother activities appropriate to carry out Section 1.

Through these efforts, it is the intent of the Association toimprove the quality of teaching and training in schools,colleges, universities, the private sector, and industry.

ADTSEA members still have the opportunity to talkwith several of the "founding fathers" of the organization,to extend their plan, and to bring ADTSEA’s vision, mission,and goals into the 21st century. During the next year, acommittee will begin the process of examining where theorganization is and where ADTSEA wants to go. Therewill be an auxiliary group, representing the regionalstructure of ADTSEA, which will serve to provide input asthe committee works toward its recommendations to theExecutive Committee and the membership. The

Spring and summer are exciting times for ADTSEA.We have completed ourplanning for the NSSPconference in Edmund,Oklahoma, and are puttingthe finishing touches on theADTSEA Conference inKalamazoo Michigan.

Plans are justbeginning for the NSSPconference to be held atPeace College in Raleigh,North Carolina July 5-9,2007. The ADTSEAConference will be inBurlington, Vermont July 29 – August 1, 2007 at theWyndham Hotel. Mark your calendars for theseupcoming conferences.

I know that state agencies continue to strugglewith driver education. Funding has been limited andstaffs continue to be burdened with additional tasks.I wish there were a simple answer to this problem.While there is not, we do see an improved environmentwithin the research community.

There is a general consensus that driver educationhas been held to a higher standard of effectivenesswhen compared to other highway safetycountermeasures. Two specific problems with the pastresearch design has been the lack of exposure controland an expectations that driver education should havea lasting effect beyond six months. Driver educationdoes have a positive effect for 6 months as do othercountermeasures. None of the countermeasures,including GDL, have had a positive impact beyondsix months.

It is difficult to determine how this will affect drivereducation in the future. There should be a positiveeffect and greater support for driver education. Weall need to remain optimistic.

As you can see in this edition of The Chronicle,the News and Views section has returned. Thanks toall of you who responded to the recent survey andexpressed your views.

A common thread connecting articlesappearing in the combined publicationsthis summer is consideration of newapproaches to delivery of drivereducation. The approaches range fromusing leadership theory to onlineinstruction with interdisciplinary teachingand how to use the Internet wisely in

between.As you read each of the articles remember that

every tool, technology, and approach can build or tear

down. As the user of tools (ect.) we need to learn how tomaximize the building up potential of the tool andminimizing the destructive potential of the approach ortool. As people who teach other people to use one of themost life enhancing and life destroying tools, motorvehicles, we know that the first step leading to maximizingthe building potential is to learn the limitations of the tool,the environment, and the user. With a solid knowledge ofthe limitations of each element users then learn habitsthat will maximize the positive and minimize the negative.I hope the summer edition of our two publications serveto help in the process of building not the process ofdestroying.


The ChronicleThe ChronicleThe ChronicleThe ChronicleThe Chronicle of the American Driver and Traffic Safety Education Association

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Publication Guidelines

Articles submitted for The Chronicle aresubject to peer review and should conformto the American Psychological Associationstyle. The basic reference for style is 1983Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association (3rd ed.).Authors are responsible for adherence tostyle. A Word for Mac 6.0 or RTF file isrequired for peer review. Articles may bereprinted with credits to the author and TheChronicle of ADTSEA.

Allen Robinson, Ph.D.Chief Executive, ADTSEA

IUP Highway Safety CenterIndiana, PA 15705-1092(724) 357-4051 (Office)(724) 357-7595 (Fax)

[email protected] (new)http://adtsea.iup.edu

~ ~ ~ ~ ~

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The Chronicle Editorial Deadlines

Winter ‘07 Issue Dec. 1, 2006Spring ‘07 Issue Mar. 1, 2007Summer ‘07 Issue June 1, 2007Fall ‘06 Issue Sept. 1, 2006

Printing Information

This publication is prepared usingPageMaker 6.5.2 and printed bySpeedy Print, Waite Park, MN.

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Maurice E.. Dennis, Ph.D.Director, Center for Alcoholand Drug Education StudiesTexas A&M University

Richard D. Ellis, Ed.D.Professor EmeritusUniversity of the State ofNew York-Albany

Allen Robinson, Ph.D.Director, IUP Highway SafetyIndiana Univ. of Pennsylvania

Dale O. Ritzel, Ph.D.Director, Center for InjuryControlSouthern Illinois University

Editorial Advisory Council

Table of Contents

Summer 2006 Volume 54 Number 3

Exciting Times .......................................................................... 2Allen Robinson,Ph.D., ADTSEA Chief Executive Officer

What is ADTSEA?..................................................................... 2Carol Hardin, President Elect ADTSEA

Safety Literacy at the DMV........................................................ 3Richard E. Miller, Ed.D., Health, Fitness and Recreation

Resources, George Mason University

A Case for Applying the Contributions ofTransformational Leadership Theory to Driver andTraffic Safety Education ............................................................6

Philip Pidgeon, Ed.D., and Kim E. Alexander, M.Ed.,Automotive Safety Research Institute,

Clinton Isbell, Ed.D., Leadership, Counselor Education &HRD, all from Clemson University

Driver Education and Physics: An Interdisciplinary Unit............8Barbara E. Brody, M.Ed. and Stewart A. Williamson, M.Ed.

Peoples Academy, Morrisville, VT

Using the Internet Wisely...................................................9Susan Motin, M.L.S., Associate Professor, Learning

Resourses & Technology Services, St. Cloud State Univ.

Teens Driving with Teen Passengers.......................................12Ryan Uttech, DE Teacher Licensure Candidate, SCSU

Abstracts ...........................................................................14-16

Publishing Information

Editor John Palmer, Ph.D.Send article submissions to:

John Palmer, Ph.D832 Halliday Road

St. Cloud, MN [email protected]

Advertising Information

Camera-ready advertisement may besubmitted to:

Allen Robinson, Ph.D.Executive Director, ADTSEAIUP Highway Safety Center

Indiana, PA 15705-1092724-357-4051

The Chronicle of the American Driver

and Traffic Safety Education Association

is published quarterly in cooperation with

the Indiana University of Pennsylvania

Highway Safety Center.

Ron Hales, Ph. D.Retired ProfessorCentral Washington Univ.

Raymond Ochs, Ed.D.Coordinator, Traffic SafetyInstituteEastern Kentucky University

The safety implications of vehicle seat adjustments. Cannabis and roadcrashes. Impaired Driving in Adults With Attention-Deficit/HyperactivityDisorder: A Controlled Study. Youthfulness, inexperience, & sleep loss.Influences on youthful driving behavior and potential for crash reduction.A conceptual framework for reducing risky teen driving behaviors amongminority youth. Can novice drivers be trained to scan for informationthat will reduce their crash likelihood? Parent involvement in noviceteen driving: a review of the literature. The effects of coffee and nappingon nighttime highway driving: a randomized trial.

summer 06 chronicle · teen driving with passengers crash statistics driving with passengers is...

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