Summary

In this approach, a systematic review is done with the purpose to identify and

describe the main characteristics of the Island of Happiness, Bali, Indonesia, Asia, the

World Ocean, the sea, the factors and forces in the formation of the world coastal features

and forces, the water cycle that describes how water is exchanged through Earth’s land,

Ocean and atmosphere and indicates the surface runoff, one of its major component, like

the primary agent in soil erosion by water.

Two important geographic areas where the atmosphere communicates with deeper

layers of the ocean were also identified, the North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean and

due to their distinct atmospheric conditions and geographic settings, surface waters near

the poles can be buried into deeper layers, bringing along their heat signatures, thus

warming the interior of the ocean. The connectivity in the World Ocean makes of Indonesia

for its location between the Pacific and Indian Ocean an ideal place through its passages

to contribute to the factors that influence on the global World Ocean temperature.

The second part is dedicated to identify the current global world main concerns:

the climate change and its consequences that dominate the planet and are considered like

a nontraditional challenge due to the natural presence of the main factors taking part in its

generation in the world and those of Indonesia and Bali’s Island of Happiness where the

prototype project would be done. Against this particular challenge, the humanity has the

responsibility to find better solution to resolve it due to our participation to generate it since

the industrial revolution in 1750 approximately.

In the third part, after considering the programmed climate action already done and

others to be done in the future, based on the findings in the part one and the main

concerns of the Global World, of Indonesia and Bali in particular in the second part a new

seawall design and construction are described. This design is not only for the coastal

shoreline protection, but also attempts to give solution to the main causes of beach

erosion like waves and the connectivity between sediment sources and sink in the Turtle

Island and the entire Indonesia using a source material mainly to reduce the greenhouse

gas emissions and based mainly on Balinese architecture and Tri- Hita Concept.

INTRODUCTION

Bali is a province of Indonesia located between the islands of Java and

Lombok Island. It is also known like the Islands of thousands Temples, the Islands

of Gods, and Bali Dwipa and it is compounded of several small islands, including

the island of Nusa Pemida, Nusa Lembongan Island, Nusa Ceningan Island,

Serangan Island and Menjangan Island.

Serangan Island, also referred as Turtle Island, is located in the heart of

Bali’s prime real estate, Denpasar. For its spanning of 500 hectares with 3000 m of

coral reefs, 92 birds species, this island, considered like unique eco-development,

is doing an invitation to the world- class master- planners, architects and partners

of diverse fields to co-create a world of Happiness in the Island Bali, so its name

Island of Happiness where they apply the concept of Tri- Hita, the harmony

between Creation, Nature and Culture, what implies a full atmosphere protection.

Kura- Kura means tortoise. According to its etymology, it is a reduplication of

Kura, from Malay Kura- Kura, or in other words, Indonesian terms derived from

Malay.

In terms of global tectonics, the Indonesian archipelago occupies the

collision zone between the Indo- Australian, Pacific and Eurasian plates. It is a

region of continuing instability marked by frequent earthquakes and volcanic

eruptions. Indonesia coastlines show the effects of past and present tectonic

instability, volcanic eruptions and changes of sea level. There have been upward

and downward movements of the land. Many characteristics of Indonesia coastal

landforms are related to their development under tropical, humid tropical

conditions.

The coastal landforms, any of the relief features present along any coast,

are the result of a combination of processes, sediments and the geology of the

coast itself. The coastal environment of the World is made up of a wide variety of

landforms, classified in two broad categories: erosional and depositional and may

occur on any reach of coast. Between those processes, there is the most

prominent that involves waves and the currents they generate along with tides.

Other factors that affect coastal morphology are climate and gravity.

In Indonesia, coastal erosion started in the 1970s with the substitution of

mangrove forests in some areas, principally in Java, by shrimp ponds. Confronting

existing challenges that affect man- made infrastructure and coastal ecosystems

such as shoreline erosion, coastal flooding, and water pollution is already a

concern in many areas, like Bali. Addressing the additional stress of climate

change may require new approaches to managing land, water, waste and

ecosystems.

Due to the impact of the sea and associated coastal processes upon the

landforms of the coast, it is fundamental a form of coastal defense to protect

against those effects. The coastal management is a complex process where the

main factors afore cited have to be considered. In fact, in Indonesia, mainly in Bali,

many efforts are made and one selected form like response to coastal erosion,

shoreline fluctuations is focus on the construction of seawalls with specific purpose

to protect areas of human habitation, conservation and leisure activities from the

action of tides, waves, or tsunamis. So Kura- Kura Bali Island of Happiness is

offering one opportunity to collaborate with a group of brilliant minds to build a

prototype community for a sustainable World and consists to propose a new

sustainable approach to seawall design and construction for Bali and eventually for

the entire Indonesia and the global World.

This challenge raises many questions. First, why are Bali or Island of

Happiness and Indonesia? Second, what is the real objective of this project design

and construction of a prototype seawall for Bali, Indonesia and the global world or

in other words what is the current global concern or problem they need to resolve?

Third, how could it be to fullfil the criterions to be selected for that purpose?

A look about Asia,

World Ocean, factors

and forces in the

formation of coastal

features and water

cycle.

PART ONE

CHAPTER I: General features

Asia continent

Asia is the largest continent on Earth. It is connected to Europe in the west.

Together Asia and Europe are called Eurasia.

Covering about 30% of the world’s land area, it has more people than any

other continent with about 60% of the world’s total population. Stretching from the

icy Arctic in the north to the hot and steamy equatorial lands in the south, Asia

contains huge, empty deserts, some of the world’s highest mountains and largest

rivers.

Asia is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Arctic

Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. It is separated from Europe by the Pontic Mountains

and the Turkish Straits. A long, mainly land border in the west separates Europe

and Asia. This line runs North- South down the Ural Mountains in Russia, along the

Ural River to the Caspian Sea, and through the Caucasus Mountains to the Black

Sea.

There are 49 countries in Asia. Among them are Nepal, Bangladesh, China,

Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, Cambodia,

Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Afghanistan, Bahrain, Bhutan, Brunei,

Iran, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Kyrgyzstan, Lebanon,

Maldives, India, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka, Syria, Taiwan,

Tajikistan, Thailand, Turkmenistan, United Arab Eramites, Uzbekistan, Yemen.

➢ Eurasian countries

Some European countries are also partly in Asia. About three- quarters

of Russia is in Asia, while the rest is in Europe. Small parts of four other Asian

countries are in Europe: Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey. Also,

the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt lies in Western Asia and the rest of it is in Africa.

Asia

Area 44, 579,000 km²

Population 4, 462,676,731

Population Density 100 /km²

Subdivisions West Asia

Central Asia

South Asia

South East Asia

North East Asia

Actually, Asia is the most technological developed continent.

➢ Asia’s division

1. West Asia: Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman,

Bahrain, Qatar, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and all other Arabic Nations.

2. Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan,

Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Armenia.

3. South Asia: Pakistan, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, India.

4. South East Asia: Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia,

Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, Papua New Guinea, Philippines.

5. North East Asia: Mongolia, Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea.

➢ The Polar Zone

The polar regions of Earth, also known as Earth’s frigid zones, are the

regions of Earth surrounding its geographical poles (the North and South Poles).

These regions are dominated by Earth’s polar ice caps, the Northern resting on the

Arctic Ocean, and the southern on the continent of Antarctica.

Polar regions receive less intense solar radiation than the other parts of

Earth because the sun’s energy arrives at an oblique angle, spreading over a large

area, and also travels a longer distance through the Earth’s atmosphere in which it

may be absorbed, scattered, which is the same thing that causes winter to be

colder than the rest of the year in temperate areas.

Eight countries, plus Antarctica, lie in polar zones, that is, they possess

portions of land located within the Arctic or Antarctic circles. These invisible lines of

latitude loop around the globe at approximately 66.50 North and South,

respectively. Although no individual nations are contained fully within these

boundaries, continents with countries whose land falls within polar zones include

North America, Europe, Asia, Antarctica.

Circumpolar Arctic Region: There are many settlements in Earth’s North Polar

Region. Countries with claims to Arctic regions are: the United States (Alaska),

Canada (Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, approximately two- fifths

of its entire land mass and two- thirds of its total maritime coastline), Denmark

(Greenland), Norway, Finland, Sweden, Iceland and Russia. The historic residents

of North America’s polar zones are the Inuits, who have made their livelihoods

hunting and fishing in the harsh climate for more than 9000 years.

The Antarctic: Antarctica’s landmass lies almost exclusively within the Antarctic

Circle. It is the coldest place on the planet, and 98% of it is permanently covered

by ice and snow. Antarctica isn’t owned by one single country. In 1961, the

Antarctica Treaty established the continent as a natural reserve devoted to

scientific study and exploration. It remains an area of peaceful international

cooperation.

CHAPTER II: Indonesia’s description

➢ Physical features of Indonesia:

Situated between the Indian and Pacific, Indonesia, or the Republic of

Indonesia, consists of more than seventeen thousands islands. It is the world’s

largest island country. At 1,904,569 square kilometers, Indonesia is the world’s

14th- largest country in terms of land area and world’s 7th – largest country in terms

of combined sea and land. It has an estimated population of over 261 million

people and is the world fourth most populous country.

Some of the islands are very large and densely populated, others are small

and uninhabited. The five primary islands in Indonesia are Java, Sumatra,

Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Papua New Guinea. There is also a group of islands

called the Greater Sunda Islands. They are called this because they lie on the

Sunda Shelf. The Greater Sunda Islands are Java, Bali, Sumatra and Kalimantan.

➢ Krakatau volcano

Between Sumatra and Java lies the Krakatau volcano, in the Sunda straight.

The complex is made up of Panjang, Sertung, Rakuta, and Anak Krakatau islands.

The volcano belongs to the Lampung Province. Its largest explosion was on

August 26, 1883, and caused around 36,000 deaths due to mass tsunamis. The

explosion was equivalent to 200 megatons of TNT. Since then, the volcano has

been dormant for almost 44 years but has now awoken.

➢ Barisa Mountain range

In Southern Sumatra, there is an area that includes more than 2,300 square

miles of lowland, and sub- montane forest. This area is called the Barisa Mountain

range. It is about 650 km long and 100 km wide, and has a maximum elevation of

3,800 m. There are many dormant and active volcanoes around this area. The

forest of the Southern Barisa Mountains consists of forestry, agriculture, and

villages. The forest used to be very dense, but even since 1990, more than 20

percent of the forest area has been lost due to coffee plantations. Different types of

plants grow in this area and there are more than 4,000 different types of plant

species growing in this area such as Rafflesia flowers, and titan arum flowers.

There are also many different types of animals living in this area, such as

Sumatran tigers and Asian elephants. Many of the villages are being destroyed by

these animals

➢ Ijen plateau

Ijen plateau is a turquoise sulphur Lake. It is In East Java, lies

Indonesia’s most famous crater, the Ijen plateau. In the Ijen plateau is a

turquoise sulfur lake. It is surrounded by the crater walls and is 2,148m above

sea levels. Because of the massive amounts of sulphur in the lake, there are

many sulphur miners. This plateau also consists of many animals and plants

such as coffee plantations, strawberries, and Kopi luwak, which is a certain type

of coffee bean. The homegrown sulphur is a very pure and natural source of

sulphuric acid, and is in great demand in the oil refining business. Their pure

sulphur is also used for the production of fertilizers.

➢ Climate

The climate is almost entirely tropical because Indonesia is multiple islands.

The interior uplands record substantially higher rainfall than most coastal regions,

so that river systems carry a very large runoff from the high hinterlands.

The temperature on the mainland is maintained constant due to the warm

waters, which make up 81 percent of Indonesia’s area. The high mountainous

region is on average 26 degrees celcius, and the coastal plains average 28

degrees Celcius. Usually the reason for different types of climates is temperature

of air pressure, but in Indonesia’case, rainfull is the cause for the type of climate in

Indonesia. The wet season is between November and March. During these

months, the average rainfull is 240 inches. Because of this, the humidity ranges

from 70 and 90 percent. Between June and September, monsoons blow in from

the South and East, and from the Northwest between December and March.

Source: Wikipedia.

➢ Musi River

The longest river in Sumatra, Indonesia is the Musi River. It is located in

southern Sumatra and it is about 750 kilometers long. It drains most of the south

Sumatra province. It flows through the provincial capital, Palembang, then later

joins several other rivers, such as Banyasin river. They join to for a delta in

Sungsang. Its depth is 6.5 meters and is navigable by large ships. These large

ships travel to major ports in the capital used to export petroleum, rubler, and coal.

CHAPTER III: Bali’s description

➢ Bali’ s history

Bali was inhabited by around 2000 BC By Austronesian people who

migrated originally from Taiwan through Maritime Southeast Asia.

Culturally and linguistically, the Balinese are closely related to the

peoples of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia, the Philippines, and

Oceania.

In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson,

and artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies, and musicologist Colin MC

Phee created a western image of Bali as an enchanted land of aesthetes at

peace with themselves and nature, and western tourism first developed on

the island. Bali was included in the Republic of the United States of

Indonesia when the Netherlands recognized Indonesian independence on

29 December 1949.

B

➢ Bali’ s Geography

The island of Bali lies 3.2 km east of Java and is approximately 8

degrees south of the equator. Bali and Java are separated by the Bali strait.

East to the West, the island is approximately 153 km wide and spans

approximately 112 km north to south; its land area is 5,632 km2. Bali’s

central mountains include several peaks over 3,000 meters in elevation. The

highest on Bali from Wikipedia is Mount Agung, v3, 142m, known as the

mother mountain, which is an active volcano. Mountains range from center

to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali’s volcanic

nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges

provide the high rainfall that supports the highly productive agriculture

sector. The longest river, Ayung River, flows approximately 75 km.

The island is surrounded by coral reefs. Beaches in the south tend to

have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand. Bali has

no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small sampan

boats.

CHAPTER IV: Serangan or Turtle Island

Bali’s description and concept of Tri Hita

Karana

➢ Serangan Island Geography and History

Serangan Island is located 10 km south of Denpasar, Bali capitol and is

often referred to as Turtle Island, due to the fact to be a frequent nesting ground for

green sea turtles. Over the years, this has changed, and consumption of turtle

meat and the use of sea turtles in ceremonies is now a tale of the past.

➢ Sakenan Temple

Serangan Island is also home to Sakenan Temple, located on the

westernmost edge of the island. Sakenan Temple on its western shore is one of

the holiest in Bali, where thousands attend three days of temple festivities ever 210

days a year, coinciding with the Kuningan celebrations. Various sacred dances are

performed during this period.

In the old days, pilgrims from the various village temples of South Denpasar

would journey on foot by low tide to Sakenan Temple. They would carry ancient

heirlooms and sacred temple objects by traversing marshes and muddy mangrove

forests from Pesangganan, near the Benoa Harbour maingates towards the

western banks of Serangan. At high tide, fleets of traditional outriggers called

janggolan transport the crowd across the waves.

➢ Serangan Island Atmosphere and activities

Serangan Island is small, hot and humid, with average beaches to enjoy. It

is considered among the least visited attractions in Bali, but several unique

features of this small island make it a stand out.

The island’s population is mostly involved in the fishing industry. A bugis

Muslim community lives alongside the predominant Hindu residents. On its

northern shore, many locally made fishing boats are moored by the village.

A turtle breeding pen operated by Citra Taman Penyu breeds green sea

turtles and hatchling here. Large specimens are kept in pens and visitors may

participate in feeding times. Regular releases are also a highlight in which you can

join in.

➢ Sport in Serangan

Serangan is also famous for its water sports, especially surfing on its

eastern side. This led to be officially chosen as among the three other main venues

for the first Asian Beach Games held in Bali in 2008, hosting the surfing and

windsurfing segments.

The shark Island conservation project provides safe swimming with white-

tip reefs sharks. Its base is located beside Agus Bar and Restaurant on Jalan

Tukad Punggawa, while its 10 X 10 m pontoon is used as a shark nursey and

houses a dozen black- tip pups and larger white- tip pups and larger white- tip reef

sharks.

Serangan Island is easily reachable from Denpasar, and is only 15 minutes

from the Kuta and Sanur areas. The island’s southernmost tip is only a half

kilometer from the northern most tip of Tanjung Benoa, and Serangan’s arid

western coast and Benoa Barbour are only 770m apart.

➢ Some projects in Serangan or Turtle Island

Reclamations in the 90s have led to a drastic change of pilgrim’s ways and

the natural landscape. Once a separate land mass only reachable by traditional

wooden boats, it is now easily accessed via a 110 m bridge.

A 2.8 Km roading following the beach reclamation project carried out by the

Bali Turtle Island. Development Corporation connects now the Island. This road is

easily accessible from the Jalan Bypass Ngurah Rai main road from Sanun, and

across the Lotte Mart department store in Pensanggaram. Its close proximity to

Bali water sport lovers in Tanjung Benoa, and boat passengers embark from

Benoa Harbour, to see or pass the island.

The PT BTID (Bali Turtle Island Development) corporation was a company

under the Soeharto regime that planned for a golf course, resort complex, artificial

lagoons, water sport and recreational features as other supporting tourism facilities

to be built on the island. Beach reclamations were carried out, and the bridge built.

The once 112 ha island now measures 481 ha. So further development will

be done in this island.

➢ Balinese Life Concept Tri Hita Karana

Three Angle Point of Bali Life Concept

The Balinese Life Concept of Tri Hita Karana is fundamental from the Hindu

Religion concept taking three angle points of Harmony life concept (Harmony

between Creation, Nature and Culture). The Concept of Tri Hita Karana is very

popular and is implemented throughout the Balinese Life. It is also implemented by

hotels, restaurants and other buildings. Other countries have also adopted this life

concept for the importance to keep the life balances and earth.

It is also an own contextual with Hindu Religion Concept. This Balinese Life

Concept is called by Tri Hita Karana, three keys elements of Harmony or balance

to create the peaceful and happiness. The Tri Hita Karana word is come from

Sanskrit Language that has meaning to keep the harmony and balance between

human to God, human to human and human to environment.

➢ Key message

To apply this concept, it is fundamental to protect the atmosphere and more

specifically the environment through which is expressed the harmony between

Creator, Nature and Culture. Such objective implies the consideration about the

concerns about the climate change or global warming, the ozone layer depletion,

the greenhouse gas reduction.

CHAPTER V: The World Ocean

The world Ocean or global Ocean is the interconnected system of Earth’s

oceanic waters, and comprises the bulk of the hydrosphere, covering 361,132,000

squares kilometers.

1. PACIFIC OCEAN

➢ Geography

The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth’s oceanic divisions. It

extends from the Arctic Ocean in the North to the Southern Ocean (or depending

on definition to Antarctic) in the South and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the

West and the Americas in the East.

At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square miles) in area, this largest

division of the World Ocean, and in turn the hydrosphere, covers about 46% of

Earth’s water surface and about one third of its total surface area, making it larger

than all of Earth’s land area combined. The Equator subdivides

it into the North Pacific Ocean and South Pacific Ocean.

➢ Climate

In the tropical and subtropical Pacific the El Nino Southern Oscillation

affects weather conditions. In the tropical Western Pacific, the monsoon and the

related wet season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter

which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass Worldwide, tropical cyclone

activity peaks in late summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and

sea surface temperatures is the greatest.

However, each particular basin has it its own seasonal patterns. On a

worldwide scale, May is the least active month. November is the only month in

which all the tropical cyclone basins are active. The Pacific hosts the two most

active tropical cyclone basins, which are the northwestern Pacific and the eastern

Pacific.

Pacific hurricanes from South of Mexico, sometimes striking the western

Mexican coast and occasionally the southwestern United States between June and

October, while typhoons forming in the northwestern Pacific moving into southeast

and east Asia from May to December. Tropical cyclones also form in the South

Pacific basin, where they occasionally impact island nations. In the Southern

hemisphere, because of the stormy and cloudy conditions associated with extra

tropical cyclones riding the jet stream, it is usual to refer to the westerlies as the

Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking Sixties according to the varying

degrees of latitude.

2. ATLANTIC OCEAN

➢ Geography

The second largest of the world’s oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000

square kilometers (41,100,000 square miles) interconnected global ocean. As one

component of the interconnected global ocean, it is connected in the north to the

Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the

South. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean

and the South Atlantic Ocean at about 80 N. Occupies an elongated basin

extending between Eurasia and Africa to the East and the Americas to the West.

➢ Climate

Climate is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and

water current and winds. Because of the ocean’s great capacity to store and

release heat, maritime climates are more moderate and have less extreme

seasonal variations from inland climates. Precipitations can be

approximated from coastal whether data and air temperature from water

temperatures.

The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is

obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude. The

warmest zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest

zones are in high aptitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the

areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents influence climate by transporting

warm and cold waters to other regions. The winds that are cooled or

warmed when blowing over these currents influence adjacent land areas.

The Gulf Stream and its northern extension towards Europe, the

North Atlantic Drift is thought to have at least some influence on climate. For

example, the Gulf Stream helps moderate winter temperatures along the

coastline of Southeastern North America, keeping it warmer in winter along

the coast than inland areas. The Gulf Stream also keeps extreme

temperatures from occurring on the Florida Peninsula.

In the higher latitudes, the North Atlantic Drift warms the atmosphere

over the oceans, keeping the British Iles and north- Western Europe in

winter like other locations at the same high latitude. The cold water currents

contribute to heavy fog off Africa’s north- western coast. In general, winds

transport moisture and air over land areas.

Hurricanes are also a natural hazard in the Atlantic, but mainly in the

northern part of the ocean. Rarely tropical cyclones form in the southern

parts. Hurricanes usually form annually between June and November.

3. INDIAN OCEAN

➢ Geography

Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world’s oceanic divisions,

covering 70,560,000km2 (27,240,000 sq mi approximately 20% of the water on

the Earth surface). It is bounded by Asia on the north, on the west by Africa, on

the East by Australia, and on the South by the Southern Ocean, or depending

on definition by Antarctic.

The Indian Ocean covers 70,560 km2, including the Red Sea and the

Persian Gulf, but excluding the Southern Ocean.

➢ Climate

The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate.

Strong northeast winds blow from October until April, from May until October

south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea, the violent monsoon brings

rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the Southern hemisphere, the winds are

generally milder, but storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon

winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and

the Bay of Bengal.

The Indian Ocean is the warmest ocean in the world. Long- term ocean

temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indian Ocean, at

about 0.7-1.20C (1.3- 2.20 F) during 1901- 2012. Indian Ocean warming is the

largest among the tropical oceans, and about 3 times faster than the warming

observed in the Pacific. Research indicates that human induced greenhouse

warming and change s in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño events are a

trigger to this strong warming in the Indian Ocean.

4. SOUTHERN OCEAN

Also known as the Antarctic Ocean or Austral Ocean comprises the

Southernmost waters of the World Ocean., generally taken to be south of 600 S

latitude and encircling Antarctica. As such, it is regarded as fourth- largest of

the five principal oceanic divisions: smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian

Oceans, but larger than the Arctic Ocean. This ocean zone is where cold

northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic

waters.

➢ Geography

The Southern Ocean, geologically the youngest of the oceans, was

formed when Antarctica and South America moved apart, opening the Drake

Passage, 30 million years ago.

With a northern limit at 600 S, the Southern Ocean differs from the other

oceans in that its largest boundary, the northern boundary, doesn’t abut a

landmass. Instead, the northern limit is with the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific

Oceans.

One reason for considering it as a separate ocean stems from the fact

that much of the water of the Southern Ocean differs from the water in the other

oceans. Water gets transported around the Southern Ocean south of, for

example, New Zealand, resembles the water in the Southern Ocean South of

South America more closely than it resembles the water in the Pacific Ocean.

The Southern Ocean has typical depths of between 4,000 and 5,000 m

(13,000 and 16,000 ft) over most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow

water. The Southern Ocean’s greatest depth of 7,236m (23,740ft) occurs at the

southern end of the South Sandwich Trench, at 60, 00’S, 0240 W. The Antarctic

continental shelf appears generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at

depths up to 800m (2,600 ft), compared to a global mean of 133m (436 ft).

➢ Climate

Sea temperatures vary from about -2 to 100 C (28 to 500F). Cyclonic

storms travel eastward around the continent and frequently become intense

because of the temperature contrast between ice and open ocean. The ocean

area from about latitude 40 south to the Antarctic Circle has the strongest

average winds found anywhere on earth. In Winter the Ocean freezes outward

to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south surface

temperatures well below 0 degrees C. At some coastal points, persistent

intense drainage winds from the interior keep the shoreline ice-free throughout

the winter.

5. ARCTIC OCEAN

➢ Geography

The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world’s five major

oceans. Located mostly in the Arctic North Polar Region in the middle of the

Northern Hemisphere, the Arctic Ocean is almost completely surrounded by

Eurasia and North America. It is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year

and almost completely in winter. Because of its relative isolation from other

oceans, the Arctic has a uniquely complex system of water flow. It is classified

as a Mediterranean sea, which has only limited communication with the major

ocean basins (these being the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans) and where

the circulations is dominated by thermoline forcing.

The Arctic Ocean has a total volume of 18,07x 106 km, equal to about

1.3% of the world Ocean. Mean surface circulation is predominantly cyclonic on

the Eurasian side and anticyclonic in the Canadian basin. Water enters from

both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and can be divided into three unique water

masses. The deepest water mass is called Arctic Bottom Water and begins

around 900 meters (3,000 feet) depth. It is composed of the dense water in the

world Ocean and has two main sources:

➢ Arctic shelf water and Greenland Sea. Deep Water.

Arctic bottom water is critically important because of its outflow, which

contributes to the formation of Atlantic Deep Water. The overturning of this water

plays a key role in global circulation and the moderation of climate. In the depth

range of 150- 900 meters (490- 2950 feet) is water mass referred to as Atlantic

water. Inflow from the North Atlantic Current enters through the Fram Strait, cooling

and sinking to form the deepest layer of halocline, where it circles the Arctic Basin

counter- clockwise.

This is the highest volumetric inflow to the Arctic Ocean Boundary current.

The final defined water mass in the Arctic Ocean is called Arctic Surface Water and

is found from 150- 200 meters (490- 660 feet). The most important feature of this

water mass is a section referred as the sub-surface layer. It is a product of Atlantic

Water that enters through canyons and is subjected to intense mixing on the

Siberian Shelf.

➢ Climate

Under the influence of the Quaternary glaciations, the Arctic Ocean is

contained in a polar climate characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow

annual temperature ranges. Winters are characterized by the polar night, extreme

cold, frequent low- level temperature inversions, and stable weather conditions.

Cyclones are only common on the Atlantic side. Summers are characterized by

continuous daylight (midnight sun) and temperatures can rise above the melting

point 00 C (320 F). Cyclones are more frequent in summer and may bring rain or

snow. It is cloudy year- round, with near cloud cover ranging from 60% in winter to

over 80% in summer.

Seasonal boundaries Strongest storm Seasonal statistics

First System formed April 19, 2017

Last system dissipated November 9, 2017

Name Maria

Maximum winds 175 mph (280km/H) 1 min

Lowest pressure 908 mbar

Total depressions 18

Total Storms 17

Hurricanes 10

Major hurricanes

6

Total fatalities/damages 441/ US $ 368. 86 billion

Season summary 2017

➢ The 5 layers of the ocean

The ocean has 5 different and distinct layers and each one has its own

unique characteristics. The layers range from the surface layer where most ocean

activities occur, to the deep dark depths of the water. As the depth increases, the

temperature, light, and sea life decreases. From the deep to the surface areas are:

- Hadalpelagic Zone (the Trenches): Is found from the ocean basin and

below. Japan’s Marine is the deepest part of the ocean ever to be explored

by man.

- Abyssopelagic Zone (Abyss): Lies just above the Hadalpelagic layer. Over

75% of the ocean floor lies can be found within this zone with the continental

rise starting here.

- Bathy pelagic Zone (Midnight zone): Lies just above the Abyss

- Mesopelagic Zone (Twilight Zone): Lies above the Bathypelagic Zone.

- Epipelagic Zone (Sunlight Zone): The Epipelagic Zone is known as the

surface layer or the sunlight zone of the ocean ranging from the surface to

656 feet. There is plenty of light and heat within this layer although both

decrease as the depth increases. Pressure is also minimal and increases

with depth. Most oceanic activities like leisure, fishing, and sea transport

occur in the Epipelagic zone. The coral reefs can be found in this layer and

the photosynthesis process occurs here.

➢ Current patterns throughout the whole ocean

An idealized version of the current patterns throughout the whole ocean

shows clearly although the surface and deep current patterns may appear

separate, they are actually closely linked. Deep water sinking in the northern North

Atlantic is replaced at the surface by warmer water from nearer the equator.

Similarly, the dense water farming off Antarctica is replaced by upwelling of deep

water derived originally from the North Atlantic. Thus, there is a global

thermohaline circulation that converts surface water in high latitudes into deep

water that moves away from its source, mixing with the water into which it flows.

This flow can be traced from the northern North Atlantic, through the South

Atlantic into the Circumpolar Current, and then back again via upwelling in the

Pacific and Indian Oceans to the surface layers. Water flows from the Pacific to the

Indian Ocean through the Indonesian passages, and the circuit is completed by

warm water in the Agulhas Current south of Africa, which enters the South Atlantic

and moves the northward, crossing the equator again and merging into the Gulf

Stream.

CHAPTER VI: Factors and forces in the

formations of coastal features

➢ Seas

Seas are smaller and particularly enclosed by land. There are over 50

smaller seas scattered around the world. The six largest seas in the world are:

1. Mediterranean Sea : 1,144,800 square miles

2. Caribbean Sea : 1,049,500 square miles

3. South China : 895,400 square miles

4. Bering Sea : 884,900 square miles

5. Gulf of Mexico : 615,000 square miles

6. Okhotsk Sea : 613,000 square miles

ocean Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean

Sea • Andaman Sea, Arafura Sea, Bali Sea, Banda Sea, Celebes Sea, Ceram Sea, Flores Sea, Halmahera Sea, Java Sea, Molucca Sea, Natuna Sea, Philippines Sea, Savu Sea, South China Sea, Timor Sea.

•

Trait • Alas Strait, Alor Strait, Badung Strait, Banqka Strait, Berhala Strait, Dampier Strait, Gaspar Strait, Karimata Strait, Laut Strait, Lombok Strait, Madura Strait, Makassar Strait, Malacca Strait, Mentawi Strait, Ombai Strait, Pitt Strait, Riau Strait, Rupat Strait, Sape Strait, Selavar Strait, Singapore Strait, Sumba Strait, Sunda Strait, Torres Strait

• Wetar Strait

Gulf • Balikpapan Bay, Bintuni Bay, Boni Gulf, Cenderawasih Bay, Jakarta Bay, Lampung Gulf, Pelabuhanratu Gulf, Saleh Bay, Semangka Gulf, Tolo Bay, Tomini Gulf.

•

➢ Bali Sea

a. Geography:

The Bali Sea is the body of water north of the island of Bali and South of

Kangean Island in Indonesia. The Sea forms the south- west of the Flores Sea,

and the Madura Strait opens into it from the west. The sea has an area of 45,000

km2 (17,000sqm) and a maximum depth of 1,590m (5,217ft).

b. Extent

The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the Bali Sea as

being one part of the East Indian Archipelago. The IHO defines its limits:

- On the North, a line from the Western Patemoster Island to the East point of

Sepandjang and through this island to the West point of Gedeh Bay on the

South coast of Kangean (70O1’S115018’E)

- On the South, a line from Tanjong Banenan through the Southern points of

Balt and Noesa Islands to Tanjong Bt Gendang, the Southwest extreme of

Lombok, and its South coast to Tanjong Ringgit the Southeast extreme, a

line to Tanjong Mangkoen (90O1’S116043’E) the Southwest extreme of

Soembama.

- On the East, the West and North coasts of Soembana as far East as

Tanjong Sarokaja (8022’S117010’E), the Western limit of Flores Sea [a line

from Tg Sarokaja Patermoster island] (7026’S1170O8’E).

c. Circulation

The circulation and mass water properties in Bali are a continuation from

Flores Sea in the north. In oceanographic, Bali Sea is concerned with the

Indonesian through flow coming from the Pacific Ocean, the flow of which is

mostly passing through Bali Strait and Lombock Strait.

The landforms that develop and persist along the coast are the result of a

combination of processes acting upon the sediments and rocks present in the

coastal zone. The most prominent of these processes involves waves and the

currents that they generate, along with tides. Other factors that significantly affect

coastal morphology are climate and gravity.

➢ Waves

The most obvious of all coastal processes is the continual motion of the

waves moving toward the beach. Waves vary considerably in size over time at any

given at any given location and also vary markedly from place to place. Waves

interact with the ocean bottom as they travel into shallow water as a result they

cause sediment to become temporarily separated and available for movement by

coastal currents. The larger the wave, the deeper the water in which this process

takes place and the larger the particle that can be moved. Even small waves that

are only a few centimeters high can pick up sand as they reach the shore. Larger

waves can move cobbles and rock material as large boulders.

Generally, small waves cause sediment, usually sand to be transported

toward the coast and to become deposited on the beach. Larger waves, typically

during storms are responsible for the removal of sediment from the coast and its

conveyance out into relatively deep water. Waves erode the bedrock along the

coast by abrasion. The suspended sediment particles in waves, especially pebbles

and larger rock debris, have much the same effect on a surface as sandpaper

does. Waves have considerable force and so may break up bedrock simply by

impact.

➢ Longshore currents

Waves usually approach the coast at some acute angle rather than exactly

parallel to it. Because of this the waves are bent (or refracted) as they enter

shallow water, which in turn generates a current along the shore and parallel to it.

Such a current is called a longshore current, and it extends from the shoreline out

through the zone of breaking waves. The speed of the current is related to the size

of the waves and to their angle of approach.

Under quiescent conditions, longshore currents move only about 10- 30

centimeters per second; however, under stormy conditions, they may exceed one

meter per second. The condition of waves and longshore current acts to transport

large quantities of sediment along the shallow zone adjacent to the shoreline

Because longshore currents are caused by the approaching and refracting

waves, they may move in either direction along the coast, depending on the

direction of wave approach. This direction of approach is a result of the wind

direction, which is the ultimate factor in determining the direction of longshore

currents and the transport of sediment along the shoreline.

➢ Rip currents

Another type of coastal current caused by wave activity is the rip current. As

waves move toward the beach, there is some net shoreward transport of water.

This leads to a slight but important upward slope of the water level (setup), so that

the absolute water level at the shoreline is a few centimeters higher than is beyond

the surf zone. This situation is an unstable one, and water moves seaward through

the surf zone in an effort to relieve the instability of the sloping water.

The seaward movement is typically confines to narrow pathways. In most

cases, rip currents are regularly spared and flow at speeds of up to several tens of

centimeters per second. In some locality, rip currents persist for months at the

same site, whereas in others they are quite ephemeral.

➢ Tides

The rise and fall of sea level caused by astronomical conditions are regular

and predictable. There is a great range in the magnitude of this daily or semi- daily

change in water level. Along some coasts, the tidal range is less than 0.5 m, where

as in the Bay of Fundy in southern Canada, the maximum tidal range is just over

16 meters. A simple classification of coasts is based on tidal range. Three

categories have been established:

- Micro- tidal (less than 2 meters)

- Meso- tidal (2- 4 meters)

- Macro- tidal (more than 4 meters).

Micro- tidal coasts constitute the largest percentage of the world’s coasts,

but the other two categories also are widespread.

The role of tides in molding coastal landforms is twofold:

1. Tidal currents transport large quantities of sediment and may erode

bedrock.

2. The rise and fall of the tide distribute wave energy across a shore zone

by changing the depth of water and the position of the shoreline.

Tidal currents transport sediment in the same way that longshore current do.

The speeds necessary to transport the sediment, typically sand, are generated

only under certain conditions, usually in inlets, at the mouths of estuaries, or any

other place where there is a constriction in the coast through which tidal exchange

must take place. Tidal currents on the open coast, such as along a beach or rocky

coast, are not swift enough to transport sediment.

The rise and fall of the tide along the open coast has an indirect effect on

sediment transport. As the tide comes in and then retreats along a breach or on a

rocky coast, it causes the shoreline accordingly. This movement of the shoreline

changes the zone where wave and longshore currents can do their work. Tidal

range in combination with the topography of the coast is quite important in this

situation. The greater the tidal range, the more effect this phenomenon has on the

coast.

The slope of a beach or other coastal landform also is important, because a

steep cliff provides only a nominal change in the area over which waves and

currents can do their work even in a macro- tidal environment. On the other hand,

a broad, gently sloping beach or tidal flat may experience a change in the shoreline

of one kilometer during a tidal cycle in a macro- tidal setting. Examples of this

situation occur in the Bay of Fundy along the West German coast of the North Sea.

➢ Other factors and Processes

Climate is an extremely important factor in the development of coastal

landforms. The elements of climate include rainfall, temperature and wind.

- Rainfall

It is important because it provides runoff in the form of streams and also is a

factor in producing and transporting sediment to the coast. This fact gives rise to a

marked contrast between the volume and type of sediment carried to the coast in a

tropical environment and those in a desert environment.

- Temperature

It is important for two different reasons. It is a factor in the physical

weathering of sediments and rock along the coast and in adjacent drainage basins.

This is particularly significant in cold regions where the freezing of water within

cracks in rocks to fragment and yield sediment. Some temperature and arctic

regions have shore ice up to several months each year. Under these conditions,

there is no wave impact, and the coast becomes essentially static until the ice

thaws or breaks up during severe storms. Such conditions prevail for three to four

coasts of the Great Lakes in North America.

- Winds

They are important because of its relationship to waves. Coasts that

experience prolonged land intense winds also experience high- wave energy

conditions. Seasonal patterns wind in both direction and intensity can be translated

directly into wave conditions. Wind also can be a key factor in directly forming

coastal landforms, particularly dunes. The persistence of onshore winds throughout

much of the world’s coast gives rise to sand dunes in all places where enough

sediment is available and where there is a place for it to accumulate.

➢ Gravity

It plays a major role in coastal processes. It is indirectly involved in

processes associated with wind and waves and directly involved through down

slope movement of sediment and rock. This role is evident along shorelines cliffs

where waves attack the base of the cliffs and undercut the slope, resulting in the

eventual to collapse of rocks into the sea or their accumulation as debris at the

base of the cliffs.

➢ Processes in Indonesia Coastal Waters

- Köppen climate classification

In terms of Köppen classification, most Indonesia coastal regions are in

category A, which means temperatures in the coolest month of at least 180 C, but a

few sectors have a long and dry winter season to be placed in the semi- arid

category BS. The interior uplands record substantially higher rainfall than most

coastal regions, so that river systems carry a very large runoff from the high

hinterlands.

Köppen climate classification scheme symbols description table.

1st 2nd 3rd Description

A

f

Tropical

Rainforest

m Monsoon

w Savanna, Wet

s Savanna, Dry

B

W

Arid

Desert

S Steppe

h

Hot

k Cold

n Mild

C

s

Temperate

Dry summer

w Dry winter

f Without dry season

a

Hot summer

b Warm summer

c Cold summer

D

s

Cold (continental)

Dry summer

w Dry winter

f Without dry season

a

Hot summer

b Warm summer

c Cold summer

d Very cold winter

E

T

Polar

Tundra

F Eternal winter (ice cap)

Based on vegetation, widely used, it is an empirical climate system. It was

first published by Russian German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1884, with

several later modifications by Köppen in 1918, 1936. The Köppen climate

classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups: A (tropical), B

(dry), C (temperate), D (continental) and E (polar). The second letter indicates the

seasonal precipitation type and the third letter indicates the level of heat.

- Coastal features

The shaping of these various coastal features has been influenced by the

wave regime in Indonesian coastal waters. A strong swell transmitted from the

Southern Ocean moves in from the south- west to the south coasts of Sumatra and

Java. Wave action in Indonesian coastal waters is determined by local winds.

Between April and November south- easterly winds are dominant over sea areas

south of Indonesia and waves from this direction are important along the south-

facing coasts of Java, Bali Lombock, and Sumbaya, and on the south coast of

Timor. As this season, winds over the Java Sea are easterly to northeasterly, and

there are lighter breezes from various directions in the equatorial zone to the

month.

In the wet season, the winds over Indonesian waters are gentler and more

variable but typically westerly. With the exception of the southern shores of

Sumatra, Java, and the Lessen Sunda islands, which receive on southwesterly

ocean swell and relatively strong southeasterly wave action in the winter, the

coasts of Indonesia are exposed only to low- wave energy.

Tidal movements in Indonesia waters result from impulses arriving from the

Pacific and Indian Oceans. One wave moves into the Straits of Malacca from the

northwest, augmenting its range and generating strong currents as the

configuration narrows. Another arrives from the South China Sea, diverging

through the narrow waters west of Kalimantan, and producing an interacting

system with the Malaccon tides south of Singapore.

Tides from Pacific Ocean advance through the south Philippine Sea to the

north coast of Irian Jaya and penetrate the straits around the Moluccas, while tides

from the Indian Ocean move through the waters south of Java to the Timor and

Arafura seas, augmenting in the coastal waters of Irian Java.

Within the Java and Banda seas there are minor that complex tides, the

patterns being related to deep basins within the configuration of the eastern

Indonesian archipelago.

Spring tide ranges are a meter or less on the south west coast of Sumatra,

in the narrows of the Straits of Makassar. On the south coast of Java they are 1 to

1.5 meters, but less than 1 meter on the north coast, except in the Straits of

Madura where Surabaya has 1.7 m. They are up to 1 meter on the south- west

coast of Kalimantan, and somewhat larger (up to 2.8 meters) on the east coast.

Sulawesi has small tide ranges, exceeding 1 meter only on the north coast to the

south records tide ranges that locally exceed 10 meters. North- east of the Arafura

Sea tide ranges of more than 5 meters occur in estuarine inlets along the southern

coast of Irian Java, where tidal bores are generated , moving upstream as steep

waves as the tide rises.

Tidal oscillations are also complicated by wind action. Northeast winds over

the China Sea build up the water level south of Singapore by as much as 0.5 m

between January and March, while south last winds raise winter sea levels a

similar amount along the southern coasts between Timor and Java.

In addition to these regular tidal and seasonal alternations, there are

irregular surges generated by Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in the

Indonesian region. These tsunamis are occasionally devasting, causing shoreline

erosion, displacing material from coral reefs, over- washing beaches, and flattening

mangroves fringes. The most severe tsunami so far recorded was that generated

by the Krakatau explosion in 1883, when waves reached to 30 meters on the

adjacent shores of Sunda Strait, washing away the lighthouse on Java Head.

Lesser surges were the then experienced all around the coasts of Indonesia. In

1979, massive landslides occurred on the coasts of Lourblen and Nusa Tenggara

as the result of tsunami.

- Landforms of erosional coasts

There are two major types of coastal morphology: one is dominated by

erosion and the other by deposition. They exhibit distinctly different landforms,

though each type may contain some features of the other.

- Erosional coasts

They are those with little or no sediment and typically exhibit high relief and

rugged topography. They tend to occur on the leading edge of lithospheric plates,

the next coasts of both North and South America are excellent examples.

Glacial activity also may give rise to erosional coasts, as in northern New

England and in the Scandinavian countries. These coasts are dominated by

expose bedrock with steeps slopes and high elevations adjacent to the shore.

Although these coasts are erosional, the rate of shoreline retreated is low due to

the resistance of bedrock to erosion. The type of rock and its lithification are

important factors in the rate of erosion.

- Sea cliffs

The most widespread landforms of erosional coasts are sea cliffs. These

steep to vertical bedrock cliffs range from only a few meters high to hundreds of

meters above sea level. Their vertical nature is the result of wave- induced erosion

near sea level and the subsequent collapse of rocks at higher elevation. Cliffs that

extend to the shoreline commonly have a notch cut into them where waves have

battered the bedrock surface.

At many coastal locations, there is a thin, narrow veneer of sediment

forming a beach along the base of sea cliffs. This sediment may consist of sand,

but it is more commonly composed of coarse material, cobles or boulders.

Beaches of this kind usually accumulate during low wave- energy conditions and

are removed during the stormy season when waves are larger. The coasts of

California and Oregon contain many places where this situation prevails. The

presence of only a narrow beach along a rocky coast provides the cliffs protection

against direct wave attack and shows the rate of erosion.

➢ Steep and cliffed coast in Indonesia

Cliffed coasts are relatively rare in the humid tropics. Steep coast are

extensive in Indonesia, especially around Sulawesi, and the islands to the east. On

the other hand, cliffs have developed along sectors of the coasts of Sumatra, Java

and the islands east to Sumba, which are exposed to the relatively strong wave

action generated across the Indonesian islands. The explosive eruption of

Krakatau in Sunda Strait in 1883 left high cliffs cut in volcanic materials on the

residual islands.

➢ Wave cut platforms

At the base of most cliffs along a rocky coast, one finds a flat surface at the

mid- tide elevation. This is a benchlike feature called a wave – cut platform or

wave- cut bench. Such surfaces may measure from a few meters to hundred

meters wide and extend to the base of adjacent cliff. They are formed by wave

action on the bedrock along the coast. The existence of extensive wave- cut

platforms implies that sea level didn’t fluctuate during the periods of formation.

Multiple platforms of this type along a reach of coast indicate various positions of

sea level.

➢ Sea stacks

Erosion along rocky coasts occurs at various rates and is dependent on the

rock type and on the wave energy at a particular site. As a result of those

conditions, wave- cut platforms may be incomplete, with erosional remnants on

horizontal wave- cut surface. These remnants are called sea stacks, and they

provide a type of coastal landform. Some are many meters high and form isolated

pinnacles on the otherwise smooth wave- cut surface. Because erosion is a

continual process, these features are not permanent and will be eroded, leaving no

trace of their existence.

➢ Sea arches

Another type of erosional landform is the sea arch, which forms as the result

of different rates of erosion due to varied resistance of bedrock. These archways

have an arcuate or rectangular shape, with the opening extending below water

level. The height of an arch can be up to ten of meters above sea level.

It is common for sea arches to form when a rocky coast undergoes erosion

and a wave- cut platform develops. Continued erosion can result in the collapse of

an arch, leaving an isolated sea stack on the platform. Further erosion removes the

stack, and only the wave- cut platform remains adjacent to the eroding coastal cliff.

➢ Depositional coast

Depositional coasts are characterized by abundant sediment accumulation

over the long term. Coasts adjacent to the trailing edge of lithospheric plates tend

to have widespread coastal plains and low relief. The Atlantic and Gulf coasts of

the United States have numerous estuaries and lagoons with barrier islands or

may develop river deltas. They are characterized by and accumulation of a wide

range of sediment types and by many varied coastal environments. The sediment

is dominated by mud and sand. Some gravel may be present, especially in the

form of shell material.

Depositional coasts may experience erosion at certain times and places due

to such factors as storms, depletion of sediment supply, and rising sea level. The

latter is a problem as the mean annual temperature on the Earth rises and the ice

caps melt, but the long- range tendency along these coasts is that of sediment

deposition.

Waves, waves- generated currents, and tides influence the development of

depositional landforms. Waves exert energy that is distributed along the coast

parallel to it. This is accomplished by the waves as they strike the shore and also

by the longshore currents that move along it. In contrast, tides tend to exert their

influence perpendicular to the coast as they flood and ebb. The result is that the

landforms that develop along some coasts are due mainly to the tidal processes.

As a consequence, investigators use terms of wave- dominated coasts, tide

dominated coasts, and mixed coasts.

➢ Wave- dominated coast

It is one that is characterized by well- developed sand beaches formed on

long barrier islands with a few widely spaced tidal inlets. The barrier islands tend to

be narrow and rather low in elevation. Longshore transport is extensive and the

inlets are often small and unstable.

Jetties are commonly placed along the inlet mouths to stabilize them and

keep them open for navigation. The Texas and North Carolina coasts of the United

States are excellent examples of this coastal type.

➢ Tide- dominated coast

Tide- dominated coasts tend to develop where tidal range is high or where

energy is low. The result is a coastal morphology that is dominated by funnel-

shaped embayment and long sediment bodies oriented essentially perpendicular to

the overall coastal trend. Tidal flats, salt marches, and tidal creeks are extensive.

The West German coast of the North Sea is a good example of such a coast.

➢ Mixed coasts

Are those where both tidal and wave processes exert considerable

influence. These coasts have short stubbly barrier islands and numerous tidal

inlets. The barriers commonly are wide at one end and narrow at the other. Inlets

are stable and have large sediment bodies on their landward and seaward sides.

The Georgia and South Carolina coasts of the United States typify a mixed coast.

➢ General coastal morphology

Depositional coasts can be described in three types:

1. Deltas

2. Barrier island/ estuarine systems

3. Strand- plain coasts.

The latter two have numerous features in common.

➢ Deltas

An accumulation of sediment at the mouth of a river extending beyond the

trend of the adjacent coast is called a delta. Deltas vary greatly in size and shape,

but they all require that more sediment is deposited at the river mouth than can be

carried away by coastal processes. A delta also requires a shallow site for

accumulation, a sloping continental shelf.

The size of a delta is related to the size of the river, specifically to its

discharge. The shape of a delta is a result of the interaction of the river with tidal

and wave processes along the coast. River- dominated deltas are those where

wave and tidal current energy on the coast is low and the discharge of water and

sediment are little affected by them. The result is an irregular shaped delta with

numerous digitate distributed. The Mississippi Delta is a good example of a river

dominated delta.

Waves may remove much of the five deltaic sediment and smooth the outer

margin of the delta landform. This results in a smooth, cuspate delta that has few

distributaries. The Sao Francisco Delta in Brazil is such a delta. Some wave-

dominated deltas are strongly affected by longshore currents, and the river mouth

is diverted markedly along the coast. The Senegal Delta on the west coast of Africa

is an example.

Tide- dominated deltas tend to be developed in wide, funnel- shaped

configurations with long sand bodies that fan out from the coast. These sand

bodies are oriented with the strong tidal currents of the delta. Tidal flats and salt

marches also are common. The Ord Delta in northern Australia and the Ganges-

Brah maputra Delta in Bangladesh are representative of such a deltaic type.

In Indonesia there are extensive deltas and broad coastal plains, especially

in Java, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya.

➢ Barrier island/ estuarine systems

Many depositional coasts display a complex of environments and landforms

that occur together. Irregular coasts have numerous embayments, many of which

are fed by streams. Such embayments are called estuaries and they receive much

sediment due to runoff from an adjacent coastal plain. Seaward of the estuaries

are elongate barrier islands that generally parallel the shore. Consisting mostly of

sand, they are formed primarily by waves and longshore currents. These barrier

islands are formed primarily by waves and longshore currents. These barrier

islands are typically separated from the main

island and may have lagoons, which are long,

narrow, coastal bodies of water situated

between the barrier and the main island.

In Indonesia, mangroves of depositional

coasts are typically sandy or swampy, and in

the humid tropics swampy sectors are usually

occupied by mangroves, which colonize the

upper part of the inter- tidal zone.

Reefs built up by coral and associated organisms occur extensively in

Indonesia waters especially in the Flores, Banda Seas, and Bali. Coral growth

requires clear warm water, with temperatures that don’t fall below 180 C, and

salinity within the range 27 to 38 parts per thousand. Such conditions are widely

satisfied in the Seas around Indonesia, the chief exceptions being off the mouth of

rivers, where salinity is diluted and the sea made turbid by the discharge of

suspended sediment loads. Thus coral reefs are scattered in Jakarta Bay, in the

clearer water seaward of the muddy areas off river mouths.

Coral Reefs in Indonesia.

Major barrier reefs include the Great Sunder Reef, which rises from

submerged shelf margins south- east of Kalimantan, the reef east of Sulawesi, and

the similar reefs of the south- west coast of Sumatra, which curve out toward the

islands of Batu and Banjak.

Emerged reef features are widespread in the Indonesia region. They are

found in Northern Sumatra, along the south coast of Java, and especially around

Sulawesi and along the islands east of Bali, notably Sumbawa and Timor. There

are common in eastern Indonesia, particularly in the Banda Sea.

➢ Mangroves in Indonesia

Shorelines of depositional coasts are typically sandy on swampy, and in the

humid tropics swampy sectors are usually occupied by mangroves, which colonize

the upper part of the inter- tidal zone. Once established, mangroves can protect the

Mangroves in Indonesia

coast from wave scour and may promote the accretion of sediment to build up new

depositional terrain to hide- tide level. On accreting shores, the mangroves spread

forward, and as deposition attains hide- tide level nipa palms, or rain forest, or

freshwater swamp vegetation, move in from the rear. The constructive and

protective value of mangrove is often demonstrated where they have died back, or

been cut down, exposing the substrate which is then rapidly eroded by wave scour.

➢ Strand- plain coasts

Some wave dominated- coasts don’t contain estuaries and have no barrier

island system. These coasts have beaches and dunes, and may have coastal

marshes. Examples include parts of Western Louisiana and Eastern Texas. In

most respects, they are similar in morphology to barrier islands but lack inlets.

➢ Beaches

There is a common trend to the beach profile; some variations exist because

of energy conditions and because of the material making up the beach. A beach

that is accumulatively sediment and experiencing low energy conditions tend to

have a steep foreshore, whereas the same beech would have a relatively gentle

foreshore during storm conditions when erosion is prevalent. The grain size of

beach sediment also is an important factor in the slope of the foreshore. Examples

include the gravel beaches of New England, as contrasted to the gently sloping

sand beaches of the Texas coast.

Beaches of sand and gravel are extensive around the coasts of Indonesia,

especially near the months of rivers delivering this kind of material, adjacent to

cliffs of sandstone or conglomerate, and along shoreline to the rear of fringing coral

reefs.

➢ Coastal dunes

Landwards of the beach are commonly found large linear accumulations of

sand known as dunes. They form as the winds carries sediment from the beach in

a landward direction and deposit it whenever an obstruction hinders further

transport. Sediment supply is the key limiting factor in dune development and is the

primary reason why some coastal dunes, such as those on the west Florida

peninsula are quite small, whereas others in such areas as the Texas coast and

the Florida panhandle have large dunes.

Coastal dunes are poorly developed in the humid tropics generally, and in

Indonesia they occur only on a few sectors, notably in southern Java, where the

fluvial nourished beaches near Yogyakarta and backed dune topography, and

locally in southwestern Sumatra.

➢ Balinese architectures The Balinese architecture is a centuries- old architectural tradition influenced

by Balinese culture developed from Hindu influences through ancient Javanese

intermediary, as well as pre-Hindu-elements of native Balinese architecture.

Contemporary Balinese architecture combines traditional aesthetic

principles, island’s abundance of natural materials, famous artistry and

craftsmanship of its people, as well as international architecture influences, new

techniques and trends. The common theme in Balinese design is the tripartite

divisions.

CHAPTER VII: Water cycle

The water cycle describes how water is exchanged (cycled) through Earth’s

land, ocean and atmosphere. Water always exists in all three places, and in many

forms, as lakes and rivers, glaciers and ice sheets, oceans and seas, underground

aquifers and vapor in the air and clouds.

The water cycle consists of three major processes, evaporation,

condensation, and precipitation.

➢ Evaporation

It is the process of a liquid’s surface changing to a gas. In the water cycle,

liquid water (in the ocean, lakes, or rivers) evaporates and becomes water vapor.

Water vapor surrounds us, as an important part of the air we breathe. Water

vapor is also an important greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases such as water

vapor and carbon dioxide insulate the Earth and keep the planet warm enough to

maintain life as we know it.

Water vapor is an invisible gas and it is not evenly distributed across the

atmosphere. Above the ocean, water vapor is much more abundant, making up as

much as 4% of the air. Above, isolated deserts, it can be less than 1%.

The water cycle’s evaporation process is driven by the sun. As the sun

interacts with liquid water on the surface of the ocean, the water becomes an

invisible gas (water vapor). Evaporation is also influenced by wind, temperature,

and the density of the body of water.

➢ Condensation

It is the process of a gas changing to liquid. In the water cycle, water vapor

in the atmosphere condenses and becomes liquid. Condensation can happen high

in the atmosphere or at ground level. Clouds form as water vapor condenses, or

become more concentrated (dense). Water vapor condenses around tiny particles

called cloud condensation nuclei (CCN). CCN can be specks of dust, salt, or

pollutants. Clouds at ground level are call fog or mist.

Liquid evaporation, condensation is also influenced by the sun. As water

vapor cools, it reaches its saturation limits, or dew point. Air pressure is also an

important influence on the dew point of an area.

➢ Precipitation

Unlike evaporation and condensation, precipitation is not a process.

Precipitation describes any liquid or solid water that falls to Earth as a result of

condensation in the atmosphere. Precipitation includes rain, snow and hail.

Fog is not precipitation. The water in fog doesn’t actually precipitate or

liquefy, and fall to Earth Fog and mists are a part of the water cycle, called

suspensions: they are liquid water suspended in the atmosphere.

Precipitation is one of many ways water is cycled from the atmosphere to

the Earth or ocean.

➢ Other processes

- Runoff describes a variety of ways liquid water moves across land.

Snowmelt, for example, is an important type of runoff produced as snow

or glaciers melt and form streams or pools.

- Transpiration is another important part of the water cycle. It is the

process of water vapor being released from plants and soil.

Evatransporation is the combined components of evaporation and

transpiration, and it is sometimes used to evaluate the movement of

water in the atmosphere.

➢ The water cycle and climate

The water cycle has a dramatic influence on Earth’s climate and

ecosystems.

Climate is all the weather conditions of an area, evaluated over a period of

time. Two weather conditions that contribute to climate change include humidity

and temperature. These weather conditions are influenced by water cycle.

Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air. As water vapor is not

evenly distributed by the water cycle, some regions experience higher humidity

than others. This contributes to radically different climates. Islands or coastal

regions, where water vapor makes up more of the atmosphere, are usually much

more humid than inland regions, where water vapor is scarcer. An Inland is within

the land, more or less remote from the ocean or from open water, while an Island is

a contiguous area of land, smaller than a continent, totally surrounded by water.

A region’s temperature also relies on the water cycle. Through the water

cycle, heat is exchanged and temperatures fluctuate. As water condenses, it

releases energy and warms the local environment.

➢ The water cycle and the landscape

The water cycle also influences the physical geography of the Earth. Glacial

melt an erosion caused by water are two of the ways the water cycle helps create

Earth’s physical features. As glaciers slowly expand across a landscape, they can

carve away entire valleys, create mountain peaks, and leave behind rubble as big

as boulders. Yosemite Valley, part of Yosemite National Park in the U.S. state of

California, is a glacial valley. The famous Matterhorn, a peak on the Alps between

Switzerland and Italy, was carved as glaciers collided and squeezed the earth

between them. Canada “Big Rock” is one of the world’s largest “glacial erratics”

boulders left behind as a glacier advances or retreats.

Glacial melt can also create landforms. The Great Lakes, for example, are

part of the landscape of the Midwest of the United States and Canada. The Great

Lakes were created as an enormous ice sheet melted and retreated, leaving liquid

pools.

The process of erosion and the movement of runoff also create varied

landscapes across the Earth’s surface. Erosion is the process by which earth is

worm away by liquid water, wind, or ice.

Erosion can include the movement of runoff. The flow of water can help

carve enormous canyons, for example. These canyons can be carved by rivers on

high plateaus (such as the Grand Canyon, on the Colorado Plateau in the U.S.

state of Arizona). They can also be carved by currents deep in the ocean (such as

the Monterey Canyon, in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the U.S. state of

California).

➢ Reservoirs and Residence Time

Reservoirs are where water exists at any point in the water cycle. An

underground aquifer can store liquid water, for example. The ocean is a reservoir.

Ice sheets are reservoirs. The atmosphere itself is a reservoir of water vapor.

Resident time is the amount of time a water molecule spends in one

reservoir. For instance, the residence time of “fossil water”, ancient groundwater

reservoirs, can be thousands of years. Some fossil water reservoirs beneath the

Sahara Desert have existed for 75,000 years.

Residence time for water in the Antarctic ice sheet is about 20,000 years,

what means a molecule of water in the atmosphere is the shortest of all about nine

days.

Calculating residence time can be an important tool for developers and

engineers. Engineers may consult a reservoir’s residence time when evaluating

how quickly a pollutant will spread through the reservoir. Residence time may also

influence how communities use an aquifer.

Current Global

Environmental

Concerns and

Issues in

Indonesia

PART TWO

CHAPTER VIII: Climate change

➢ General consequences

Global climate change has already had observable effects on the

environment. Glaciers have shrunk, ice on river and lakes is breaking up earlier,

plant and animal ranges have shifted and trees are flowering sooner.

Effects that scientists had predicted in the past would result in from

global climate change are now occurring: loss of sea ice, accelerated sea level

rise and longer, more intense heat waves.

Scientists have high confidence that global temperatures continue to rise

for decades to come, largely due to greenhouse produced by human activities.

The intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which includes more

than 1,300 scientists from the United States and other countries, forecasts a

temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next century.

The IPCC predicts that increases in global mean temperature of less

than 1.8 to 5.4 degrees Fahrenheit (1 to 3 degrees Celsius) above 1990 levels

will produce beneficial impacts in some regions and harmful ones in others. Net

annual costs will increase over time as global temperatures increase.

The Earth's average temperature has increased about 1 degree

Fahrenheit during the 20th century. It’s an unusual event in our planet's recent

history. Earth's climate record, preserved in tree rings, ice cores, and coral

reefs, shows that the global average temperature is stable over long periods of

time. Small changes in temperature correspond to enormous changes in the

environment

At the end of the last ice age, when the Northeast United States was

covered by more than 3,000 feet of ice, average temperatures were only 5 to 9

degrees cooler than today.

➢ Impacts of changes in storm surge and precipitation:

Coastal areas are vulnerable to increase in the intensity of storm surge and

heavy precipitation. Storm surges flood low- lying areas, damage property, disrupt

transportation systems, destroy habitat and threaten human health and safety. For

example low- lying areas of New York, Long Island, and New Jersey were flooded

by several feet of water by the storm surge from Super storm Sandy in 2012. Sea

level rise could magnify the impacts from raising the base on which storm surges

build.

Climate change is likely to bring heavier rainfall to same coastal areas,

which would also increase runoff and flooding. Increases in spring runoff may also

threaten the health and quality of coastal waters. Some coastal areas such as the

Gulf of Mexico and Chesapeake bay are already experiencing dead zones that

occur when land- based sources of pollution (e.g. agricultural fertilizers) contribute

to algal blooms. When the algae sink and decompose, the process depletes the

oxygen in the water. As increase in spring runoff bring more nitrogen, phosphorus,

and other pollutants into coastal waters, many aquatic species could be

threatened. Decreases in precipitation could also increase salinity of coastal

waters. Droughts reduce fresh water input tidal rivers and bays, which raise salinity

in estuaries, and enables salt water to mix further upstream.

➢ Impacts to Coral Reefs and Shellfish

High sea surface temperatures increases the risks of coral bleaching, which

can lead to coral death and the loss of critical habitat for other species.

The rising concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere has

increased the absorption of CO2 in the ocean, which subsequently makes the

oceans more acidic. A more acidic ocean affects adversely the health of many

marine species, including plankton, mollusks, and other shellfish. In particular,

corals can be very sensitive to rising acidity, as it difficult for them to create and

maintain the skeletal structures needed for their support and protection.

➢ Regional consequences

According to the IPCC, the extent of climate change effects on individual

regions will vary over the time and with the ability of different societal and

environmental systems to mitigate or adapt to change.

➢ Future effects in United States

Some of the long-term effects of global climate change in the United

States according to the Third National Climate Assessment Report are:

1. Change will continue through this century and beyond.

Global climate is projected to continue to change over this century and

beyond. The magnitude of climate change beyond the next few decades

depends primarily on the amount of heat- trapping gases omitted globally,

and how sensitive the Earth’s climate is to those emissions. .

2. Temperature will continue to rise

Because human- induced warming is superimposed on a naturally varying

climate, the temperature rise has not been, and will not be uniform or

smooth across the country or over time.

3. Frost-free season will lengthen

In a future in which heat- trapping gas emissions continue to grow,

increases of a month or more in the lengths of the frost- free and growing seasons

are projected across most of the U.S. by the end of the century with slightly smaller

increases in the northern Great Plains. The largest increases in the frost- free

season, more than eight weeks, are projected for the western U.S., particularly in

high elevation and coastal areas. The increases will be considerably smaller if

heat- trapping gas emissions are reduced.

4. Changes in precipitation patterns

Average U.S. pattern precipitations have increased since 1900, but some

areas have had increases greater than the national average, and some

areas have had decreases. More winter and spring precipitation is projected

for the northern United States, and less for the Southwest, over this century.

From global climate changes, vital signs of the planet

5. More droughts and heat waves

Droughts in the Southwest and heat waves, periods of abnormality hot

weather lasting days to weeks, everywhere are projected to continue rising,

and a reduction of soil moisture, which exacerbates heat waves, is projected

for much of the western and central U.S. in summer.

6. Hurricanes will become stronger and more intense

The intensity, frequency and duration of North Atlantic hurricanes, and the

frequency of the strongest (category 4 and 5) hurricanes, have all increased

since the early 1980s. The relative contributions of human and natural

causes to these increases are still uncertain. Hurricane- associated storm

intensity and rainfall rates are projected to increase as the climate continues

to warm.

7. Sea-level will rise 1-4 feet by 2100

Global sea level has risen by about the 8 inches since reliable record

keeping began in 1880. It is projected to rise another 1 to 4 feet by 2100.

This is the result of added water from melting land ice and the expansion of

seawater as it warms.

In the next several decades, storm surges and high tides could combine

with sea level rise and land subsidence to further increase flooding in many

regions. Sea level rise will continue past 2100 because the oceans take a

very long time to respond to warmer conditions at the Earth’s surface.

Ocean waters will continue to warm and sea level continue to rise for many

centuries at rates equal to or higher than those of the current century.

8. Arctic likely to become ice- free

The Arctic Ocean is expected to become essentially ice free in summer

before mid- century.

➢ Warming of the Polar Regions

The effects of climate change are not the same in all parts of World. While

Earth’s average temperature has risen 0.60C (1.00F) during the 20th century, some

areas of our planet are warming faster than others. The Arctic is warming twice as

fast as other parts of the World. In Alaska (USA) average temperatures have

increased 3.00C (5.40F) between 1970 and 2000. The warmer temperatures have

caused other changes in the Arctic Region such as melting ice and shrinking polar

bear habitat. Since 1945, the Antarctic Peninsula has warmed about 4.50F (2.50C).

The Southern Ocean is also warming faster than expected.

The Polar Regions are particularly vulnerable to global warming. The ice

and snow in the polar regions because of its light color and high albedo, reflect

most incoming solar energy back out to space. However, as more greenhouse gas

gases causes our planet to warm, some of this ice and snow melt, less of the solar

radiation is reflected out to space, and more of it is absorbed by the Earth’s surface

and oceans. The added energy warms the Polar Regions, causes more ice to melt

and more warming.

➢ Albedo

Albedo is the measure of diffusive reflection of solar radiation received by a

body, for example a planetary body such as Earth. The average albedo of the

Earth at the top of the atmosphere, its planetary albedo, is 30 to 35% because of

cloud cover, but widely varies locally across the surface because of different

geological and environmental features.

CHAPTER IX: Greenhouse gas

➢ Concept definition

A greenhouse gas is a gas that absorbs and emits radiation within the

thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse

effect.

➢ Sources

The primary greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere are water vapor,

carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone.

Compound

Formula

Concentration in

atmosphere[25] (ppm)

Contribution

(%)

Water vapor and clouds H

2O 10–50,000(A) 36–72%

Carbon dioxide CO2 ~400 9–26%

Methane

CH

4 ~1.8 4–9%

Ozone

O

3 2–8(B) 3–7%

Source: Wikipedia CO2 in Earth’s atmosphere if half of global warming

emissions are not absorbed (NASA simulation: 9 Nov. 2015)

➢ Consequences

Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth’s surface

would be about -180 C (00 F), rather than the present average of 150 C. In the Solar

System, the atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain gases that cause

a greenhouse effect.

Human activities since the beginning of the industrial Revolution, between

the years 1740 and 1754, have produced a 40% increase in the atmosphere

concentration of carbon dioxide, from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017.

This increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions

by various natural sinks involved in the carbon cycle. The vast majority of

Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, e.i, emissions produced by human

activities, come from combustion of fossil fuels principally coal, oil, and natural gas,

with modest additional contribution coming from deforestation, changes in land

rise, soil erosion, and agriculture (including animal agriculture), though some of the

emissions of this sector are offset by carbon sequestration.

Changes since the industrial revolution global carbon emissions by country

It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the

present rate, Earth’s surface temperature could exceed historical values as early

as 2047, with potentially harmful effects on ecosystems biodiversity and the

livelihoods of people worldwide. Recent estimates suggest that on the current

emissions trajectory the Earth could pass a threshold of 20 C global warming ,

which the United Nations IPOC designated as the upper limit to avoid dangerous

global warming by 2036.

Country % of World total Metric CO22 per person

Pepople’s Rep. of China 23.6 1,132.7

United States 17.9 16.9

India 5.5 1.4

Russian Federation 5.3 10.8

Japan 3.8 8.6

Germany 2.6 9.2

Islamic Rep. of Iran 1.8 7.3

Canada 1.8 15.4

South Korea 1.8 10.6

United Kingdom 1.6 7.5

Top-10 annual energy-related CO2 emitters for the year 2009

➢ Role of Water Vapor

Water vapor accounts for the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect,

between 36% and 66% for clear sky conditions and between 66% and 85% when

including clouds. Water vapor concentrations fluctuate regionally but human

activity doesn’t directly affect it, except at local scales, such as near irrigated fields.

Indirectly, human activity that increases global temperatures will increase water

vapor concentrations, a process known as water vapor feedback. The atmospheric

concentration of vapor is highly variable and depends largely on temperature, from

less than 0.01% in extreme cold regions up to 3% by mass in saturated air at about

320 C.

➢ Ocean warming

Since 1955, over 90% of the excess heat trapped by greenhouse gas

has been stored in the oceans. The remainder of this energy goes into melting

sea ice, ice caps, and glaciers, and warming the continents’s land mass. Only

the smallest fraction of this thermal energy goes into warming the atmosphere.

Human thus, living at the interface of the land, ocean and atmosphere only feel

a sliver of true warming cost of fossil fuel emissions

This 90% of extra heat taken up by the ocean is mostly in the upper 700

meters layer, about 60% of the excess heat, while 30% is stored in layers deeper

than 700 meters (IPCC 5th Assessment Report). The ocean absorbs most of this

anthropogenic heat because:

1. Water has a high capacity: it takes much more heat to warm 1 liter of

water than it does to warm the same volume of air or more other

substances.

2. The ocean is deep: The world’s oceans cover 71% of the earth surface

and are about 4 km deep on average. This represents a tremendous

reservoir of heat.

3. The ocean is dynamic: heat, carbon, oxygen and various other quantities

exchanged with the atmosphere are mixed throughout the ocean through

currents, internal waves, eddies, and various other circulations

mechanisms.

The largest changes in ocean temperatures were observed in the upper 75

meter, due to close proximity to the atmosphere and the large mixing within this

layer (IPCC 5th Assessment report). As we trap more energy in the earth climate

system, heat penetrates further into the ocean. Two important geographic areas

where the atmosphere communicates with deeper layers of the ocean are the

North Atlantic and the Southern Ocean. Because their distinct atmospheric

conditions and geographic settings, surface waters near the poles can be buried

into deeper layers, bringing along their heat signatures, thus warming the interior of

the ocean.

➢ Carbon sink

A carbon sink is a natural o artificial reservoir that accumulates and stores

some carbon- containing chemical compound for an indefinite period. The process

by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere is known

sequestration.

The natural sinks are:

- Absorption of carbon dioxide by the oceans via physicochemical and

biological processes

- Photosynthesis by terrestrial plant

Natural sinks are typically much bigger than artificial sinks. The main

artificial sinks are:

- Landfills

- Carbon capture and storage proposals

Carbon sources include:

- Combustion of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil) by humans for

energy and transportation

- Farmland (by animal respiration); these are proposals for improvements

in farming practices to reverse this.

Oceans

Oceans are at present CO2 sinks, and represent the largest active

carbon sink on Earth, absorbing more than a quarter of the carbon dioxide

that humans put into the air. The solubility pump is the primary mechanism

responsible for the CO2 absorption by the oceans.

The biological pump plays a negligible role because of the limitation

to pump by ambient light and nutrients required by the phytoplankton that

ultimately drive it.

➢ Implications for policy

As the scientific and policy community shifts its attention to the climate’s response

to increase greenhouse gas emissions (a.k.a climate sensitivity, we must not

underestimate the magnitude, variability, and uncertainty in the ocean’s ability to

store and exchange heat with the atmosphere, which in turn influences climate on

a global scale. One such example is the naturally occurring heat exchanges during

el Nino Southern Oscillations events. Another example is the highly discussed role

of the Deep Ocean and natural variability in the recent warming hiatus period.

The complex interactions between continued emissions of greenhouse

gases, consequent energy imbalance, and changes in the storage and

transport properties of heat in the ocean will largely determine the speed and

magnitude of long-term anthropogenic climate change impacts. These

interactions have significant policy and economic implications and must not be

ignored in the climate policy discussion forum.

As the climate negotiators are now shifting their focus towards reaching

an agreement on appropriate stabilization targets and designing mitigation and

adaptations strategies required to meet the targets, understanding and

incorporating the highly important role of the ocean as the most powerful

climate change mitigator becomes of utmost importance.

CHAPTER X: El Niño- Southern Oscillation

➢ Concept

El Niño- Southern Oscillation is an irregularly periodic variation in winds

and temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific Ocean, affecting much of the

tropics and subtropics. It fluctuates between three phases: Neutral, La Niña,

and El Niño.

➢ El Niño

The warming phase is known El Niño., is Spanish for “the boy”, and the

capitalized term El Niño refers to the Christ Child, Jesus, because periodic

warming in the pacific near South America is usually noticed around Christmas.

➢ La Niña

The cooling phase is known la Niña. La Niña, Spanish pronunciation for

the girl, is a coupled ocean atmosphere phenomenon that is the counterpart of

El Niño as part of the broader El Niño Southern Oscillation climate pattern.

➢ Southern Oscillation

It is the accompanying atmospheric component, coupled with the sea

temperature change. El Niño is accompanied with high and La Niña with low air

surface pressure in the tropical western Pacific. The two periods last several

months each typically occurring very few years and their effects vary in

intensity. This component is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the

tropical Eastern and the Western Pacific Ocean waters. The strength of the

Southern Oscillation is measured by the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI). The

SOI is computed from fluctuations in the surface air pressure difference

between Tahiti (in the Pacific) and Darwin, Australia (on the Indian Ocean)

➢ Walker- circulation

The two phases relate to the Walker circulation, discovered by Gilbert

Walker during the early twentieth century. The Walker circulation is caused by the

pressure gradient force that results from a high pressure system over the Eastern

Pacific Ocean and a low pressure system over Indonesia. When the Walker

circulation weakens or reverses, an El Niño results causing the ocean surface to

be warmer than average, as upwelling of cold water occurs or not at all. An

especially strong Walker circulation causes a La Niña, resulting in cooler ocean

temperatures due to increased upwelling.

El Niño episodes have negative SOI, meaning there is lower pressure

over Tahiti and higher pressure in Darwin. La Niña episodes have positive SOI,

meaning there is higher pressure in Tahiti and lower in Darwin.

El Niño episodes are defined as sustained warming of the central and

eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in a decrease in the strength of

the Pacific trade winds, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern

Australia. La Niña episodes are defined as sustained cooling of the central and

eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, thus resulting in an increase in the strength of

the Pacific trade winds, and the opposite effects in Australia when compared to

El Niño.

Although the Southern Oscillation Index has a long station record going

back to the 1800s, its reliability is limited due to the presence of both Darwin

and Tahiti of South of the Equator, resulting in the surface air pressure at both

locations being less directly related to ENSO. So a new index was created, the

Equatorial Southern Oscillation Index (EQSOI). For that, two new regions,

centered on the Equator were delimited to create it. The Western one is located

over Indonesia and the Eastern one is located over equatorial Pacific, close to

the South America coast, and data on EQSOI goes back only to 1949.

According to the scientist Trenbert and Fasullo (2013), global warming

first became evident beyond the bounds of natural variability in the 1970s, but

increases in global mean surface temperatures have stalled in the 2000s.

Increases in atmospheric greenhouse gases, notably carbon dioxide, create an

energy imbalance at the top- of- atmosphere (TOA) even as the planet warms

to adjust to this imbalance, which is estimated to be 0.5-1 Wm-2 over the 2000s.

Trenbert and Fasullo presented the fact that El Niño events dominated the

period of 1976 through 1998, and la Niña dominated from 1999 to 2012.

The average Niño 3.4 sea surface temperature anomaly for 1976 to

1998 is almost +0.30C, indicating that El Niño events dominated that period,

and from 1999 to 2012, the average Niño 3.4 sea surface temperature anomaly

is slightly negative, indicating that La Niña events were slightly stronger than El

Niño events in more recent years.

During El Niño events, trade winds in the western tropical Pacific

reverse, and in the eastern tropical Pacific, the trade winds are weaker than

normal and sometimes reverse, depending on the strength and location of the

El Niño. During La Niña events, the trade winds are stronger than normal.

According to Trenbert and Fasullo, the bottom line is:

For the past decade, more than 30% of the heat has apparently

penetrated below 700 m depth that is traceable to changes in surface winds

mainly over the Pacific in association with a switch to a negative phase of the

Pacific Decadal Oscillation (ADO) in 1999.

CHAPTER XI: Concerns or Issues in Indonesia

➢ Carbon emitters

Indonesia is one of the biggest carbon emitters in the World. The forest fires

have pushed the country into the ranks of global greenhouse gas emitters.

Industrial agriculture in the region has disturbed ancient peat swamps, draining

them of water and making them more susceptible to burning. Burning peatlands

could release tones of carbon into the atmosphere, meaning that the fight to

contain forest fires in Indonesia has been linked to the battle to prevent climate

change.

Back in 2015, Greenpeace warmed that the amount of CO2 released by the

Indonesian forest fires was equivalent to the annual emissions of the UK.

Data collected by the Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS)

and its global fire assimilation system shows that carbon emissions from forest

fires this year have so far been less than the average daily from 2003- 2016, but

that number is rising daily.

Source: CAMS

CO2 emissions from 2017’s fires are yet to reach previous years but have been

increasing daily. Source: CAMS

➢ Forest fires

As satellite data of the fire hotspot shows, forest fires affected the length and

breadth of Indonesia. Among the worst hit areas are southern Kalimantan (Borneo)

and Western Sumatra. The fires have been raging since July, with efforts to

extinguish them hampered by seasonal dry conditions exacerbated by El Niño

effect.

➢ Local Consequences

Indonesia’s tropical forests represent some of the most diverse habitats on

the planet. The current fire outbreak adds to decades of existing deforestation by

palm oil, timbre and other agribusiness operators, further imperiling endangered

species such as the orangutan.

Financial damage to the region’s economy isn’t still being counted, but the

Indonesia government’s own estimates suggest it could be as high as $47bn, a

huge blow to the country’s economy. A World Bank study on forest fires last year in

Riau Province estimated that they caused $935m of losses relating to lost

agricultural productivity and trade.

➢ Fires ‘causes

Forest fires have become a seasonal phenomenon in Indonesia. At the root

of the problem is the practice of forest clearance known as slash and burn, where

land is set on fire as a cheaper way to clear it for new planting. Peat soil, which

characterizes much of the affected areas, is highly flammable, causing localized

fires to spread and making them difficult to stop.

➢ Global problem

As well as Indonesia, the acrid haze from the fires is engulfing neighboring

Malaysia and Singapore and has reached as far as Southern Thailand.

Devasting forest fires have become an annual event in Indonesia in the last

20 years, a period that has seen extensive deforestation and agricultural

development, related in part to the booming palm oil industry in the country.

➢ Health risks

As well as posing a risk to the environment, the fires also threaten human

health. Last year, a study by scientists at Harvard University estimated that

pollution caused by 2015 fires had led to more than 100,000 premature deaths in

southern Asia.

Another study focusing on the short term impact of the fires, suggested that

12,000 people had died, with 69 million exposed to poor air quality.

➢ Deforestation and land use activities

Deforestations and land use activities are Indonesia’s largest source of

carbon emissions. Indonesia is the top exporter of palm oil. To expand plantations

of oil palms, farmers often use the lash - and - burn techniques to open new

plantations. With this year’s El Niño, with temperatures rising above the 1997

levels, the fires were some of the worst of recent times. At one point daily

emissions in Indonesia surpassed emissions from the entire US economy as a

result of the fires.

The issue of forest fires may also spur other countries to help more because

the scale of the impact was enormous both for Indonesia and the International

community.

➢ Pollution in Indonesia

The most insidious form of man’s impact on the Indonesian coastal

environment is pollution and it is not uncommon to huge quantities of waste to be

disposed of in waterways. The biggest culprits behind this practice are hotels and

restaurants. This practice follows an out of sight, out of mind mentality, where

people are in denial about how much their actions contribute to a bigger problem.

This includes additional sedimentation due to soil erosion, and to mining and

dredging activities. More specially, chemicals derived from the fertilizers,

pesticides, and herbicides that have been used increasingly in recent years to

improve agricultural productivity, especially in rice fields, have seeped or flowed

into rivers and thence to estuaries and coastal waters, including brackish- water

fishponds. The fertilizers can lead to excessive nutrient concentration, resulting in

algal blooms that impoverish or destroy the habitats of fish and crustaceans; the

toxic chemicals intended to kill weeds and pests can also destroy organisms that

live in coastal waters. As 98% of marine fish production in Indonesia is derived

from traditional artisanal fisheries centered mainly in coastal and estuarine waters,

this is a serious problem.

It has been compounded by the discharge of toxic chemicals, including

heavy metals like cadmium and mercury as dissolved salts, into waters draining

from industrial areas, particularly in the Jakarta Bay region. Petrochemical wastes

and oil spills have also had additional adverse effects on marine ecosystems,

fouling bracing- water fishponds and tainting fish caught in estuaries or nearshore

waters subject to this pollution. These various forms of pollution constitute an

unwelcome environmental change in the coastal environments especially near the

more densely populated regions of Indonesia.

➢ Energy’s source in Indonesia

Indonesia, a coal producer, has also been leaning more heavily on coal for

energy generation, after China cuts drastically imports. Coal shipments to China

have fallen by close to 50% according to Greenpeace, while local coal use doubled

in the six years ending in 2014. Coal now makes up about 35% of domestic

electricity, according to Greenpeace.

➢ Pollution in Bali from space

Bali is a serene Island of Indonesia located in the heart of the Indian Ocean.

It is widely known for its distinct flora and fauna, beautiful beaches and world class

surf spots. Rich with tradition and culture, Bali is an ideal tourist destination for the

masses. Over the years, increasing tourism and the growing population in Bali has

caused an excess of garbage pollution in the landfills, on the streets and beaches,

and ultimately the streams and oceans, so it faces issues with depleted fisheries,

water scarcity and marine pollution. Tourism development has already consumed

30% of the Bali coastline and concerns of eroding shoreline are expanding

throughout the island.

The island generates up to 20,000 cubic meters of trash daily and 75% is

left uncollected on the roadside and at illegal dumps, posing a mounting problem

and health hazard to the surrounding community. The pollution is becoming a

widespread issue affecting not only the health of the environment but also the

health of local and visiting populations.

➢ Impact on marine life

Bali is located within the coral triangle, which is home to almost 600 species

of coral. The irresponsible disposal of fishing nets and plastic litter pose a threat to

the survival of coral reefs that are an important part of the marine ecosystem as

they provide support for thousands of species of fishes, including Tuna, but also

have medicinal properties that have yet to be discovered. Coral reefs are also

beneficial to the people who live in its vicinity, who rely on coral reefs for food,

income and protection from bad weather. Therefore, the threat to coral reefs in

waters surrounding Bali due to the carelessness of waste disposal in Bali poses a

big problem.

Impact on Marine Life

The water pollution on the coasts of Bali also endangers marine animals.

Manta Rays who live off the coast of Bali are put at risk during the rainy seasons

when the waste from Bali’s waterways is walked out into the open sea. As Manta

Rays are filter feeders, they swim with their mouths open in order to catch

plankton. This behavior puts them at risk of ingesting the plastic that pollutes the

water, which in turn is harmful to the animal as they are unable to digest most of

the waste that they ingest.

➢ Impact on Humans

The water pollution problem in Bali is also harmful to the tourists who visit

the Island. Surfers especially are at risk of getting infections as a result of being

exposed to the polluted water. Ingesting the water may also result in

stomachaches and diarrhea, among other health problems.

➢ Investigations

Investigations from Bali environment Agency found that waste from hotels,

hospitals, and other industries failed to meet the criteria for waterway disposal.

Laboratory tests on water from 6 beaches in Bali showed that not only did the

water samples fail to meet the environmental quality standards; they also

contained pollutants such as nitrites, nitrate, lead and phosphates.

Among these 6 beaches were the famous Kata beach and other popular

beaches, Jinbarau and Nusa Dua, and so on.

➢ Volcanoes

Indonesia contains more volcanoes than any other nation in the world; more

than 75 of its mountains are considered active volcanoes. Some of the Earth’s

most violent eruptions ( scale 7 of Volcanic Explosivity Index) have occurred in the

Indonesian archipelago on 22 September 1815 at coordinate 8.00 0S 115.20 0 E

and three years later on 8 September 1818 from subsequent volcanic activities at

coordinate 7.0S117.00 E. Two more tsunamis were recorded in 1857 and 1917 with

maximum height of 3 meters (9.8ft) and 2 meters (6.6ft) respectively. The 1815

eruption of Mount Taubora, the largest ever in recorded history, killed over 70,000

people, and its resulting ash cloud affected weather across the globe. In 1883, the

volcano Krakatoa blew the island of the same name to pieces, producing an ash

cloud 50 miles high and an explosion heard over 2,000 miles away in Australia.

Indonesia’s Tsunamis

Bali is mostly composed of lower tertiary sediments intruded and overlain

with plutonic and volcanic rock. Three major volcanic complexes dominate the

skyline on the island Bali: Buyun, Butur and Agung. The less active Mt. Buyun, Mt.

Butur were formed around 100 Kya, while Mt. Agung, a stratovolcano, marks the

highest point on the island with and elevation of 10,308 feet and most famous for

its 1963 plinian eruption spreading freshly formed volcanic sediments across the

island.

CAPITULO XII: Main Sources of carbon

dioxide emissions

➢ Generalities

There are natural and human sources of carbon dioxide emissions. Natural

sources include decomposition, ocean release and respiration. Human sources

come from activities like cement production, deforestation and the burning of fossil

fuels like coal, oil and natural gas. Due to human activities, the atmospheric

concentration of carbon dioxide has been rising extensively since the Industrial

Revolution and has now reached dangerous levels not seen in the last 3 million

years.

Human sources of carbon dioxide emissions are much smaller than natural

emissions but they have upset the natural balance existed for many thousands of

years before the influence of humans. This is because natural sinks remove

around the same quantity of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than are

produced by natural sources. This had kept carbon dioxide levels balanced and in

a safe range. But human sources of emissions have upset the natural balance by

adding extra carbon dioxide to the atmosphere without removing any.

A. Human Sources

Since the Industrial Revolution, human sources of carbon dioxide emissions

have been growing. Human activities such as the burning of oil, coal and gas,

deforestation are the primary cause of the increased carbon dioxide concentrations

in the atmosphere.

87% of all human- produced carbon dioxide emissions come from the

burning of fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil. The reminder results from the

cleaning of forests and other land use changes (9%) and some industrial

processes such as manufacturing (4%).

➢ Fossil fuel combustion/ Use

The largest human source of carbon dioxide emissions is from the

combustion fossil fuels. This produces 87% of human carbon dioxide emissions.

Burning these fuels releases energy which is most commonly turned into heat,

electricity or power for transportation. Some examples of where they are used in

power plants, cars, planes and industrial facilities. In 2011, fossil fuel use created

33.2 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions worldwide. The three types of fossil

fuels that are used the most are coal, natural gas and oil. Coal is responsible for

43% of carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion, 36% is produced by oil and

20% from natural gas.

Coal is the most carbon intensive fossil fuel. For every tone of coal burned,

approximately 2.5 tones of CO2 are produced. Of all the different types of fossil

fuels, coal produces the most carbon dioxide. Because of this and its rate of use,

coal is the largest fossil fuel source of carbon dioxide emissions. Coal represent

one third of fossil fuels share of world total primary energy supply but is

responsible for 43% of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels use.

The three main economic sectors that use fossil fuels are: electricity/ heat,

transportation and industry. The first two sectors, electricity/ heat and

transportation, produced nearly two- thirds of global carbon dioxide emissions in

2010.

Electricity and heat generation is the economic sector that produces the

largest amount man- made carbon dioxide emissions. This sector produces 41% of

fossil fuel related carbon dioxide emissions in 2010. Around the world, this sector

rise the giant carbon footprint.

Almost all industrialized nations get the majority of their electricity from the

combustion of fossil fuels (around 60-90%). Only Canada and France are the

exception.

Electrical Energy Produced By Fossil Fuel Combustion

(Billion Kilowatthours)

G8 Nation Fossil Fuel Combustion Total %

Canada 136.31 622.98 21.9%

France 44.65 532.57 8.4%

Germany 340.38 567.33 60.0%

Italy 286.35 201.7 70.4%

Japan 759.93 1031.22 73.7%

Russia 668.26 996.82 67.0%

United Kingdom 244.5 342.48 71.4%

United States 2,788.87 4,100.14 68.0%

Source: International Energy Statistics Database (2011), Energy Information Administration

The industrial, residential and commercial sectors are the main users of

electricity covering 92% of usage. Industrial is the largest consumer of the three

because certain manufacturing processes are very energy intensive. Specifically,

the production of chemicals, iron/ steel, cement, aluminum, pulp and paper account

for the great majority of industrial electricity use. The residential and commercial

sectors are also heavily reliant on electricity for meeting their energy needs,

particularly for lighting, heating, air conditioning and appliances.

➢ Transportation sector

The transportation sector is the second largest source of anthropogenic

carbon dioxide emissions. Transporting goods and people around the world

produced 22% of fossil fuel related carbon dioxide emissions in 2010. This sector

is very energy intensive and it uses petroleum based fuels (gasoline, diesel,

kerosene, etc.) almost exclusively to meet those needs.

Since the 1900s, transportation related emissions have grown rapidly,

increasing by 45% in less than two decades.

Roads transport accounts for 72% of this sector’s sector carbon dioxide

emissions. Automobiles, freight and light- duty trucks are the main sources of

emissions for the whole transport sector and emissions from these three have

steadily grown since 1990. Apart from road vehicles, the other important sources of

emissions for this sector are marine shipping and global aviation.

Marine shipping produces 14% of all transport carbon dioxide emissions.

While there are a lot less ships than road vehicles used in the transportation

sector, ships burn the dirtiest fuel on the market, a fuel that is so unrefined that it

can be solid enough to be walked across at room temperature. Because of this,

marine shipping is responsible for over 1 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions.

This is more than the annual emissions of several industrialized countries

(Germany, South Korea, Canada, UK, etc.) and this sector continues to grow

rapidly.

Global aviation accounts for 11% of all transport carbon dioxide emissions.

International flights create about 62% of these emissions with domestic flights

representing the remaining 38%. Over the last ten years, aviation has been one of

the fastest growing sources of carbon dioxide emissions. Aviation is also the most

carbon- intensive form of transportation, so its growth comes with a heavy impact

on climate change.

Emissions caused by the transportation of people and goods have grown so

rapidly that it has surpassed emissions from the industrial sector, which has had a

huge impact on climate change. This trend started in 1990s and has continued

ever since causing an increase in indirect emissions.

The emissions caused by transportation of goods are examples of indirect

emissions since the consumer has no direct control of the distance between the

factory and the store. The emissions caused by people travelling by car, plane,

train, etc. are examples of direct emissions.

Since the distance traveled by goods during production is continuing to

grow, this is putting more pressure on the transportation of people and goods all

over the world comes from the combustion of fossil fuels.

➢ Industrial sector/ processes

The industrial sector is the third largest source of man- made carbon dioxide

emissions. This sector produced 20% of fossil fuel related carbon dioxide

emissions in 2010. The industrial sector consists of manufacturing, construction,

mining, and agriculture. Manufacturing is the largest of the 4 and can be broken

down into 5 main categories: paper, food, petroleum, refineries, chemicals, and

metal/ mineral products. These categories account for the vast majority of the fossil

fuel use and CO2 emissions by this sector.

Manufacturing and industrial processes all combine to produce large

amounts of each type of greenhouse gas, but specifically large amounts of CO2.

This is because many factoring facilities directly use fossil fuels to create heat and

steam needed at various stages of production. For example factories in the cement

industry have to heat up limestone to 14500 C to turn it into cement, which is done

by burning fossil fuels to create the required heat.

There are many industrial processes that produce significant amounts of

carbon dioxide emissions as a byproduct of chemical reactions needed in their

production processes. Industrial processes account for 4% of human carbon

dioxide emissions and contributed 1.7 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions in

2011.

Many industrial processes emit carbon dioxide directly through fossil fuels.

There are four main types of industrial process that are a significant source of

carbon dioxide emissions: the production and consumption of mineral product such

as cement, the production of metals such as iron and steel, the production of

chemicals and petrochemical products.

Cement production produces the most amount of dioxide amongst all

industrial processes. To create the main ingredient in cement, calcium oxide,

limestone is chemically transformed by heating it to very high temperatures. This

process produces large quantities of carbon dioxide as a byproduct of the chemical

reaction. So making 1000 Kg of cement produces nearly 900 Kg of carbon dioxide.

Steel production is another industrial process that is an important source of

carbon dioxide emissions. To create steel, iron is melted and refined to lower its

carbon content. This process uses oxygen to combine with the carbon in iron which

creates carbon dioxide. On average, 1.9 tons of CO2 are emitted for every ton of

steel produced.

Fossil fuels are used to create chemicals and petrochemical products which

lead to carbon dioxide emissions. The industrial production of ammonia and

hydrogen most often uses natural gas or other fossil fuels as a starting base,

creating carbon dioxide in the process. Petrochemical products like plastics,

solvents, and lubricants are created using petroleum. These products evaporate,

dissolve, or wear out over time releasing even more carbon dioxide during the

product’s life.

➢ Land use changes

Land use changes are substantial source of carbon dioxide emissions

globally, accounting for 9% of human carbon dioxide emissions and contribute 3.3

billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions in 2011. Land use changes are when the

natural environment is converted into areas for human use like agricultural land or

settlements. From 1850 to 2000, land use and land use change released and

estimated 396- 690 billion tons of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, or about 28-

40% of total anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions.

Deforestation has been responsible for the great majority of these

emissions. Deforestation is the permanent removal of standing forests and is the

most important of type of land use change because its impact on greenhouse gas

emissions. Forests in many areas have been cleared for timber or burned for

conversion to farms and pastures. When forested landed is cleared, large

quantities of greenhouse gases are released and this ends up increasing carbon

dioxide levels in three different ways.

Trees act as a carbon sink. They remove carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere via photosynthesis. When forests are cleared to create farms or

pastures, trees are cut down and either burnt or left to rot, which adds carbon

dioxide to the atmosphere.

Since deforestation reduces the amount of trees, this also reduces how

much carbon dioxide can be removed by the Earth’s forests. When deforestation is

done to create new agricultural land, the crops that replace the trees also act as a

carbon sink, but they are not effective as forests. When trees are cut for lumber the

wood is kept which locks the carbon in it but the carbon sink provided by forests is

reduced because of the loss of trees.

Deforestation also causes serious changes in how carbon is stored in the

soil. When forested land is cleared, soil disturbance and increased rates of

decomposition in converted soils create carbon dioxide emissions. This also

increases soil emission and nutrient leaching which further reduces the area’s

ability to act as a carbon sink.

B. Natural sources

Carbon dioxide is also released into the atmosphere by natural processes.

The Earth’s oceans, soil, plants, animals and volcanoes are all natural sources of

carbon dioxide emissions.

Human sources of carbon dioxide are much smaller than natural emissions

but they upset the balance in the carbon cycle that existed before the Industrial

Revolution. The amount of carbon dioxide produced by natural sources is

completely offset by natural carbon sinks and has been for thousands of years.

Before the influence of humans, carbon dioxide levels were quite steady because

of this natural balance

42.84% of all naturally produced carbon dioxide emissions come from

ocean- atmosphere exchange. Other important natural sources include plant and

animal respiration and decomposition (28.56%). A minor amount is also created by

volcanic eruptions.

➢ Ocean – atmosphere exchange

The largest natural source of dioxide emissions is from ocean- atmosphere

exchange. This produces 42.84% of natural carbon dioxide emissions. The oceans

contain dissolved carbon dioxide, which is released into the air at the sea surface.

Annually, this process creates about 330 billion tons of carbon dioxide emissions.

Many molecules move between the ocean and the atmosphere through the

process of diffusion, carbon dioxide is one of them. This movement is in both

directions, so the oceans release carbon dioxide but they also absorb it. The

effects of this movement can be seen quite easily, when water is left to sit at in a

glass for long enough, gases will be released and create air bubbles. Carbon

dioxide is amongst the gases that are in the air bubbles.

➢ Plant and animal respiration

An important natural source of carbon dioxide is plant and animal

respiration, which accounts for 28.56% of natural emissions. Carbon dioxide is a

long byproduct of the chemical reaction that plants and animals use to produce the

energy they need. Annually this process creates about 220 billion tons of carbon

dioxide emissions.

➢ Soil respiration and decomposition

Another important natural source of carbon dioxide is soil respiration and

decomposition, which accounts for 28.56% of natural emissions. Many organisms

that live in the Earth’s soil use respiration to produce energy. Annually these soil

organisms create about 220 billon tons of carbon dioxide emissions.

Any respiration that occurs below ground is considered soil respiration. Plant

roots, bacteria, fungi and soil animals use respiration to create the energy they

need to survive but this also produces carbon dioxide. Decomposers that work

under ground breaking down organic matter like dead trees, leaves and animals

are also included in this. Carbon dioxide is regularly released during

decomposition.

➢ Volcanic eruptions

A minor amount carbon dioxide is created by volcanic eruptions, which

accounts for 0.03% of natural emissions. Volcanic eruptions release magma, ash,

dust and gases from deep below the Earth’s surface. One of the gases released is

carbon dioxide. Annually this process creates about 0.15 to 0.26 billion tons of

carbon dioxide emissions.

The most common volcanic gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide and

sulfur dioxide. Volcanic activity will cause magma to absorb these gases, which

passing through the Earth’s mantle and crust. During eruptions, the gases are then

released into the atmosphere.

CHAPTER XIII: Methane

➢ Methane

Methane is the second most prevalent greenhouse gas, and plays important

part in global warming. There is much more CO2 than methane in Earth’s

atmosphere. However, methane’s global warming potential (GWP), its warming

potency compared to CO2, is around 30, that means it is 30 times more effective at

trapping heat in the atmosphere than CO2 over a 100- year period. So, over 100

years, adding one molecule of methane to the atmosphere would have some effect

as adding 30 molecules of CO2.

Since the industrial revolution, from around 1750, there has been a 250 per

cent increase in the amount of methane in the atmosphere. Methane (CH4) is

responsible for about one fifth of the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Methane emissions as a result of human activity are currently at around 320

million tons per year far exceeding the levels from natural sources (250 million

tons).

Another source of methane that is causing concern is the vast amount

locked away under the oceans and within the Arctic permafrost. The frozen

methane underground is not a problem, if it stays trapped here. Under low

temperature conditions, the methane clathrate remains stable. However, due to

human activity, global temperatures are changing rapidly, causing the permafrost

to thaw and the oceans to warm up. This will be a slow process but, once it starts,

will be hard to stop and has the potential to release huge amounts of methane into

the atmosphere.

CHAPTER XIV: Nontraditional challenge

➢ Traditional environmental challenge

Traditional environmental challenges generally involve behavior by a small

group of industries who create products or services for a limited set of consumers

in a manner that causes some form of damage to the environment which is clear.

One example is a gold mine might release a dangerous chemical by product into a

waterway that kills the fishes in the waterway that is a clear environmental

damage.

➢ Nontraditional environmental challenge

CO2 is a naturally occurring colorless, odorless trace gas that is essential to

the biosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced by animals and utilized by plants

and algae to build their body structures liked described in the previous chapter.

Plant structures buried for tens of millions of years sequester carbon to form

coacal, oil and gas which modern industrial societies find essential to economic

vitality. Over 80% of the world energy is derived from CO2 emitting fossil fuels and

over 91% of the world energy is derived from non carbon neutral energy sources.

Scientists attribute the increases of CO2 in the atmosphere to industrial

emissions and have linked CO2 to global warming. This essential nature to the

world’s economies combined with the complexity of the science and the interested

parties make climate change a non- traditional environmental challenge.

CHAPTER XV: Coastal erosion

➢ Coastal erosion

It is the wearing away of land and the removal of beach or dune sediments

by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, drainage or high winds. Waves

generated by storms, winds, or fast moving motor craft, can cause coastal erosion,

which may take the form of long- term losses of sediments. The study of erosion

and sediment redistribution is called coastal morphodynamics.

On non- rocky coasts, coastal erosion results in dramatic or non dramatic

rock formations in areas where the coastline contains rock layers or fracture zones

with varying resistance to erosion. Softer areas become eroded much faster than

harder ones.

Examples

- A place where erosion of a cliffed coast occurred is at Wamberal in the

Central Coast region of New South Wales where houses built on top of

the cliffs began to collapse into the sea. This is due to waves causing

erosion of the primarily sedimentary material on which the building

foundations sit.

- Dunwich, the capital of The English medieval wool trade, disappeared

over the period of a few centuries due to redistribution of sediment by

waves. Human interference can also increase coastal erosion: Hallsands

in Devon, England was a coastal village that washed away over the

course of a year, an event directly caused by dredging of shingle in the

bay in front of it.

- The California Coast, which has soft cliffs of sedimentary rock and is

heavily populated, regularly has incidents of housing damages as cliff

erodes. Devil’s Slide, Santa Barbara, the coast just north of Ensenada,

and Malibu are regularly affected.

- The Holderness coastlines on the east coast of England, just north of the

Humber Estuary, is one of the fastest eroding coastline in Europe due to

its soft clay cliffs and powerful waves.

- Fort Ricasoli, a historic 17th century fortress in Malta is being threatened

by coastal erosion, as it was built on a fault in the headland which is

prone to erosion. A small part of one of the bastion wall has already

collapsed since the land under it has eroded, and there are cracks in

other walls.

➢ Three key processes

Coastal ecosystems play a remarkable role in shaping the physical structure

of our coastlines, and in so doing provide critical services to people in reducing the

physical impacts of erosion, storm damage and flooding. These ecosystems

support three key processes: wave attenuation, storm surge reduction and

shoreline elevation.

1. Wave attenuation: wind and swell waves scour the coast and can drive erosion

and the shifting of sediments. Layer waves con overtop beaches, dunes and

artificial barriers such as seawalls causing flooding. Coastal ecosystems have a

complex tangle of shoots, roots, shells or coral skeletons that cause friction, rapidly

diminishing wave’s energy.

2. Storm surge attenuation: major storms and typhoons create a storm surge, a

rise in the water level along tens or hundreds of kilometers of coastline and the

end- result can be devasting floods. During storms, coastal ecosystems continue to

reduce incoming overlying wind and swell waves, but where they are sufficiently

extensive, they also provide resistance to the landward flow of the storm surge

itself. This way, even a partial reduction in surge heights can prevent large areas of

flooding.

3. Maintaining shoreline elevation: on average, sea levels are now rising over 3

mm per year, with considerable local variation. Such rates are set to continue or

increase over coming decades. While no human engineering can alter this fact,

many coastal ecosystems have a capacity to grow vertically, raising the elevation

of the seabed or land on which they are growing. Coral reefs, oyster reefs, salt

marshes, and mangroves have all been shown to be able to keep up with rising

sea levels. Such processes are not guaranteed, as they can countered by other

natural processes of erosion or natural subsidence, but in at least some places

they can make a remarkable difference. Reefs, mangroves, marshes and sea

grass meadows can become dynamic self- maintaining barriers and coastal

defenses.

➢ Extent and causes

Coastal erosion and accretion are natural processes; however, they had

become anomalous and widespread in the coastal zone of Asia and other

countries in the Indian Ocean owing to combinations of various natural forces,

population growth and unmanaged economic development along the coast, within

river catchments and offshore. This type of erosion has been reported in China,

Japan, India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Bangladesh and Malaysia.

In Indonesia, coastal erosion started in the northern coast of Java Island in

the 1970s when most of the mangrove forest had been converted to shrimp ponds

and other aquaculture activities, and the area was also subjected to unmanaged

coastal development, diversion of upland freshwater and river damming. Coastal

erosion is prevalent throughout many provinces, such as Lampung, Northeast

Sumatra, Kalimantan, West Sumatra, Nusa, Tenggarra, Papua, South Sulawesi

(Nurkin, 1994), and Bali (Prasetya and Black, 2003).

US$ 79,667 million was provided by the government to combat coastal

erosion from 1996 to 2004, only for Bali Island in order to protect this coastal

tourism base. A combination of hard structures and engineering approaches

(breakwaters/ jetties/ revetments) of different shapes that fused functional design

and aesthetic values, and soft structures and engineering approaches (beach

nourishment) was used. They succeeded in stopping coastal erosion on Sanun,

Nusa Dua and Tanjong Benoa beaches, but were neither cost effective nor

efficient, because during low tide, all the coastal area was exposed up to 300

meters offshore; thus, these huge structures were revealed and become eyesores.

Such examples indicate there is a strong relation between major coastal

erosion problems throughout the region and degradation of the protective function

of coastal forest and trees, particularly mangrove forest. Artificial and natural

agents that induce mangrove loss and make coastal areas more susceptible to

coastal erosion include anthropogenic factors such as excessive logging, direct

land reclamation for agriculture, aquaculture, salt ponds, urban development and

settlement, and to a lesser extent fires, storms, hurricanes, tidal waves, and

erosion cycles owing to changing levels (Kovacs 2000).

Coral reefs worldwide are declining from multiple threats, however, ranging

from direct destruction by coastal development, through to overfishing, pollution

and climate change. While rising sea temperatures are having dramatics impacts in

many areas, it seems likely that reefs can survive or quickly recover from climate

change impacts if other threats are reduced or removed.

The Solutions

PART THIRD

CAPITULO XVI: Climate Action

Since the last century, there were many significant climate change political

events. In the current century XXI, at least eight climate events have been

celebrated and the last two were the Paris agreement in 2015 and Paris Host

Major Climate Summit on December 12, 2017.

A. Paris Agreement

The Paris Agreement, Paris climate accord or Paris climate agreement is an

agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

(UNFCCC) dealing with greenhouse gas emissions mitigation, adaptation and

finance starting in the year 2020. As of November 2017, 195 UNFCCC members

have signed the agreement, and 170 have become party to it. The agreement aims

to respond to the global climate change threat discussed in the above chapter by

keeping a global temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

But, the consensus about the necessity to fight against the global warming is

not generalized and there is some resistance against this action, such as President

Donald Trump decision in June 2017 to announce his intention to withdraw the

United States from the agreement. The earliest effective date of withdrawal for the

U.S will be November 2020.

Between the modifiers factors related to carbon dioxide emissions, there are

many used by the Humanity to satisfy their needs. So In July 2017, France’s

environment minister Nicolas Hulot announced France’s five- year plan to ban all

petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040 as part of the Paris Agreement. Hulot also

stated that France would no longer use coal to produce electricity after 2022 and

that up to € 4 billion will be invested in boosting energy efficiency.

Paris Agreement

Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention

on Climate Change

Parties

Signatories

Parties also covered by European Union ratification

Drafted 30 November – 12 December 2015

Signed 22 April 2016

Location New York

Sealed 12 December 2015

Effective 4 November 2016[1][2]

Condition Ratification/Accession by 55 UNFCCC parties,

accounting for 55% of global greenhouse gas emissions

Signatories 195[1]

Parties 170[1](complete list)

Depositary Secretary-General of the United Nations

Languages Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish

Paris Agreement at Wikisource

Between the modifiers factors related to carbon dioxide emissions, there are

many used by the Humanity to satisfy their needs. So In July 2017, France’s

environment minister Nicolas Hulot announced France’s five- year plan to ban all

petrol and diesel vehicles by 2040 as part of the Paris Agreement. Hulot also

stated that France would no longer use coal to produce electricity after 2022 and

that up to € 4 billion will be invested in boosting energy efficiency.

This agreement contains 29 articles, but for this review purpose, we are

going to focus only on few of them.

➢ Aims (Article two)

The aim of the convention is describe in article 2 “enhancing the

implementation” of the UNFCCC through

a) Holding the increase in the global average temperature to well below 20 C

above pre- industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature

increase to 1.50 C above pre- industrial levels.

b) Increasing the ability to adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and

foster climate resilience and low greenhouse gas emissions development, in

a manner that doesn’t threat food production.

c) Making finance flows consistent with a pathway towards low greenhouse

gas emissions and climate- resilient development.

Countries furthermore aim to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas

emissions as soon as possible. The agreement has been described as an

incentive for and driver of fossil fuel divestment.

The Paris deal is the world’s first comprehensive climate agreement and

will be implemented to reflect equity and the principle of common but different

responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national

countries.

➢ Nationally determined contributions

(Article 3)

The contributions that each

individual country should make in

order to achieve the worldwide goal

are determined by all countries

individually and called “Nationally

determined contributions” (NDCS).

Article 3 requires them to be ambitious,

represents a progression over time and set with

the view to achieve the purpose of these

agreement. The contributions should be reported every five years and are to be

registered by the UNFCCC Secretariat. Each further ambition should be more

ambitious than the previous one, known as the principle of progression. Countries

can operate and pool their nationally determined contributions. The intended

Nationally Determined Contributions pledged during the 2015 Climate change

Conference serve unless provided otherwise as the initial Nationally Determined

Condition.

The level of NDCS set by each country will set that country’s targets. As the

agreement provides no consequence if countries don’t meet their commitments,

consensus of this kind is fragile. A trickle of nations existing the agreement may

trigger the withdrawal or more governments bringing about total collapse of the

agreement.

B. Politics of global warming

The politics of global warming results from numerous cofactors arising from

the global economy’s interdependence on carbon dioxide (CO2) emitting by

hydrocarbon energy sources and because CO2 is directly implicated in global

warming, making global warming a nontraditional environmental challenge.

➢ Governance: global warming politic focus area

Government politics regarding climate change and many official reports on

the subject usually revolve around addressing one of the following areas:

Global carbon dioxide emissions by

jurisdiction

Global carbon dioxide emissions by

jurisdiction

1. Adaptation: social and other changes that must be undertaken to successfully

adapt to climate change. Adaptation might encompass, but is not limited to

changes in agricultural and urban planning.

- Local adaptation efforts

Cities, states, and provinces often have considerable responsibility in land

use planning, public health, and disaster management. Some have begun to take

steps to adapt to threats intensified by climate change, such as flooding, bushfires,

heat waves, and rising sea levels.

-Projects include:

a. By installing protective and/ or resilient technologies and materials in properties

that are prone to flooding.

b. Changing to heat tolerant tree varieties

c. Rainwater storage to deal with more frequent flooding rainfall. Changing to water

permeable pavements, adding water- buffering vegetation, adding underground

storage tanks, subsidizing household rain barrels

d. Reducing paved areas to deal with rainwater and heat

e. Adding green roofs to deal with rainwater and heat

f. Adding air conditioning in public schools

g. Surveying local vulnerabilities, raising public awareness, and making climate

change- specific planning tools like future flood maps.

h. Incentivizing lighter- colored roofs to reduce the heat island effect

i. Installing better flood defenses, such as sea walls and increased pumping

capacity

j. Buying out homeowners in flood- prone areas raising street to prevent flooding.

2. Finance: how countries will finance adaptation to and mitigation of climate

change, whether from public or private sources or from wealth/ technology

transfers from developed countries to developing countries and the management

mechanisms for those monies.

3. Mitigation: steps and actions that the countries of the world can take to mitigate

the effects of climate change.

4. Technology: the technologies that are needed lower carbon emissions through

increasing energy efficiency or replacement or CO2 emitting technologies and

technologies needed to adapt or mitigate climate change. It also encompasses the

way that developed countries in adopting new technologies or increasing

efficiency.

5. Loss and damage: first articulated in the 2012 conference and in part based on

the agreement that was signed at the 2010 United Nations Climate Change

Conference in Cancun. It introduces the principle that countries vulnerable to the

effects of climate change may be financially compensated in the future by countries

that fail to curb their carbon emissions.

C. Interaction of climate science and actual policy

In the scientific literature, there is a strong consensus that global surface

temperatures have increased in recent decades and that trend is caused primarily

by human- induced emissions of greenhouse gases. With regard to the global

warming controversy, the scientific mainstream puts neither doubt on the existence

neither of global warming nor on its causes and effects.

The politicization of science in the sense of a manipulation of science for

political gains is a part of the political process. It is part of the controversies about

intelligent design.

D. Climate and Clear Air Coalition To Reduce Short- Lived Pollutants

The Climate and Clear Air Coalition to reduce Short- Lived Climate

Pollutants (CCAC) was launched by the United Nations Environment Programme

(UNEP) and six countries: Bangladesh, Canada, Ghana, Mexico, Sweden and the

United States, on 16 February 2012.

➢ Aims

The CCAC aims to catalyze rapid reductions in short- lived climate

pollutants to protect human health agriculture and the environment. To date, more

than $ 47 million has been pledged to the climate and Clear Air Coalition from

Canada, Denmark, and the European Commission, Germany, Japan, The

Netherland, Norway, Sweden, and the United States. The program is managed out

of the United Nations Environmental Programme through on Secretariat in Paris,

France.

➢ Objectives

The Coalition’s objectives are to address short- lived climate pollutants by:

1. Raising awareness of short- lived climate pollutant impacts and mitigation

strategies.

2. Enhancing and developing new national and regional actions, including by

identifying and overcoming barriers, enhancing capacity and mobilizing support.

3. Promoting best practices and showcasing successful efforts and

4. Improving scientific understanding of short- lived climate pollutants impacts and

mitigation strategies.

➢ Actions

Since its launch in February 2012, the Coalition has been working to identify

actions that will help to bring the health, agricultural, environmental and climate

benefits of reducing short- lived climate pollutants (SLCP). As on March 2014, the

CCAC has undertaken ten initiatives:

1. Reducing Black Carbon Emissions from heavy duty diesel vehicles and Engines:

working to reduce the climate and health impacts of black carbon and particulates

matter emissions, particularly in the transport sector. A Green Freight Call to Action

was issued in 2013.

2 .Mitigating Black Carbon and other Pollutants from brick production: Addressing

emissions of black carbon and other air pollutants from brick production to reduce

the harmful climate, air pollution, economic and social impacts from the sector.

3. Mitigating SLCPS from the municipal solid waste sector: Addressing methane,

black carbon, and across the municipal solid waste sector through work with cities

and national governments

3. Promoting HFC Alternative Technology Standards: Targeting governments and

the private sector in an effort to address rapidly growing HFC emissions.

4. Accelerating Methane and Black Carbon Reductions from oil and natural gas

production: working with key stakeholders to encourage cooperation and support

the implementation of new and existing measures to substantially reduce methane

emissions from natural gas venting leakage, and flaring. The CCAC Oil and Gas

Methane Partnership, involving the public sector and private companies, has

launched in 2014.

So the methane can be put to good use, for example for the purpose to resolve the

water pollution, the wastewater treatment plant is an alternative and collects

methane from the ponds, which is then used to generate electricity to help power

the treatment plant. The wastewater treatment plant, through these three stages,

aims to protect from rainfall events, remove microorganisms and produces

Groundwater recharge. For other part, engineers and developers can consult a

reservoir’s residence time when evaluating how quickly a pollutant will spread

through the reservoir.

Another way to prevent methane being made at landfill is to cover the site to stop

rain penetrating into the ground. Indonesia is the place to do that for its vast forest,

then the necessity for legislation to stop fires forest. For example, Australia

scientists are now looking at reducing methane levels at rubbish tips by growing

plants and trees on their surface. The idea is for the plants to take up the water that

would otherwise seep down and promote the anaerobic decomposition of rubbish.

This method, known as photocapping has been tested successfully by researchers

at Central Queensland University.

5. Addressing SLCPS from agriculture: Aiming to reduce emissions of methane and

black carbon from agricultural sector, not only helping to address climate change

but also to strengthen food security.

6. Reducing SLCPS from Household Cooking and Domestic Heating: working

through advocacy and education to raise awareness of the harmful effect of

emissions from this sector on Human health climate, agriculture and climate.

7. Cross- cutting efforts: the coalition has also identified cross- cutting efforts to be

undertaken in across all short- lived climate pollutants. To date, these actions are:

- Financing of SLCP mitigation in order to take advantage of all mitigation

opportunities, this initiative seeks to act as a catalyst of scaled- up SLCP mitigation

financing and will work with governments, the private sector, donors, financial

institutions, expert groups and investors networks to bolster these financial flows.

8. Supporting National Planning, for action on SLCPS (SNAP). This initiative has

developed a program to support national action plans for SLCPS, including national

inventory development, building on existing air quality, climate change and

development agreements, and assessment, prioritization, and demonstration of

promising SLCP mitigation measures.

9. Regional Assessments of SLCPS: The CCAC believes there is a need for- in

depth assessments of SLCPS, in key regions to help shape regional cooperation

and the action of national governments and to encourage new action. The Latin

American and Caribbean region is the first target for this initiative.

➢ Green Climate Fund

The Green Climate Fund (GFC) is a fund established within the framework

of the UNFCCC to assist developing countries in adaptation and mitigation

practices to counter climates change. The GCF is based in the new Songdo district

of Incheon, South Korea. It is governed by a Board of 24 members and initially

supported by a Secretariat

The objective of the Green Climate Fund is to support projects, programs,

policies and other activities in developing country Parties using thematic funding

windows. It is intended that the Green Climate Fund is the centerpiece of efforts to

raise Climate Finance under the UNFCC, and raise $ 100 billion a year by 2020.

According to the Climate & Development Knowledge Network, at the third

meeting of the Board in Berlin on March 2013, members agreed on how to move

forward with the fund, approaches for involving the private sector, plus ways to

measure results and ensure requests to monies are country- driven.

Green Climate Funds by Country[16]

Country Announced

($Millions)

Signed

($Millions) Signed per capita GDP per capita

Emissions per capita

(tonnes of CO2e)

Australia $187 $187 $7.92 $62,000 17

Austria $34.8 $34.8 $4.09 $51,000 8

Belgium $66.9 $66.9 $6.18 $48,000 9

Bulgaria $0.10 $0.10 $0.02 $8,000 7

Canada $277 $277 $7.79 $50,000 14

Chile $0.30 $0.30 $0.02 $15,000 5

Colombia $6.00 $0.30 < $0.01 $8,000 2

Cyprus $0.50 – 0 $27,000 7

Czech Republic $5.32 $5.32 $0.57 $20,000 10

Green Climate Funds by Country[16]

Country Announced

($Millions)

Signed

($Millions) Signed per capita GDP per capita

Emissions per capita

(tonnes of CO2e)

Denmark $71.8 $71.8 $12.73 $61,000 7

Estonia $1.30 $1.30 $0.99 $20,000 14

EU* $4,697 $4611.90 NA NA NA

Finland $107 $46.4 $8.49 $50,000 10

France $1,035 $1,035 $15.64 $43,000 5

Germany $1,003 $1,003 $12.40 $48,000 9

Hungary $4.30 $4.30 $0.43 $14,000 5

Iceland $1.00 $0.50 $1.55 $52,000 6

Indonesia $0.25 $0.25 < $0.01 $4,000 2

Ireland $2.70 – 0 $53,000 8

Italy $334 $268 $4.54 $35,000 7

Japan $1,500 $1,500 $11.80 $36,000 9

Latvia $0.47 $0.47 $0.24 $16,000 4

Green Climate Funds by Country[16]

Country Announced

($Millions)

Signed

($Millions) Signed per capita GDP per capita

Emissions per capita

(tonnes of CO2e)

Liechtenstein < $0.1 < $0.1 $1.48 $135,000 1

Lithuania $0.10 $0.10 $0.04 $16,000 5

Luxembourg $46.8 $33.4 $58.63 $111,000 21

Malta $0.20 $0.20 $0.47 $23,000 6

Mexico $10.0 $10.0 $0.08 $10,000 4

Monaco $1.08 $1.08 $28.89 $163,000 –

Mongolia < $0.1 – 0 $4,000 7

Netherlands $134 $134 $7.94 $52,000 10

New Zealand $2.56 $2.56 $0.57 $42,000 7

Norway $258 $258 $50.20 $97,000 9

Panama $1.00 $1.00 $0.25 $12,000 3

Peru $6.00 – 0 $7,000 2

Poland $0.11 $0.11 < $0.01 $14,000 8

Green Climate Funds by Country[16]

Country Announced

($Millions)

Signed

($Millions) Signed per capita GDP per capita

Emissions per capita

(tonnes of CO2e)

Portugal $2.68 – 0 $22,000 5

Romania $0.10 $0.10 < $0.01 $10,000 4

South Korea $100 $100 $1.99 $28,000 12

Spain $161 $161 $3.46 $30,000 6

Sweden $581 $581 $59.31 $59,000 6

Switzerland $100 $100 $12.21 $85,000 5

UK $1,211 $1,211 $18.77 $46,000 7

USA $3,000 $3,000 $9.41 $55,000 17

Vietnam $0.10 – 0 $2,000 2

➢ Integrated coastal management

Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) or integrated coastal

management (ICM) is a process of the coast using an integrated approach,

regarding all aspects of the coastal zone, including geographical and political

boundaries, in an attempt to achieve sustainability.

The dynamic processes that occur within the coastal zones produce diverse

and productive ecosystems which have been of great importance historically for

human populations. Coastal margins equate to only 8% of the world surface area

but 25% of global productivity. Stress on this environment comes with

approximately 70% of the world’s population being within a day’s walk on the

coast. Two- thirds of the world’s cities occur on the coast. The goals of ICZM are:

- Maintaining the functional integrity of the coastal resource systems

- Reducing resource- use conflicts

- Maintaining the health of the environment

- Facilitating the progress of multisectoral development

CHAPTER XVII: Indonesia’s efforts

A. Indonesia’s Resolution

At the Paris climate negotiations, Indonesia brought to the table a target of

an unconditional 29% emissions reduction by 2030, increasing to 41% on condition

of international assistance.

Indonesia’s plan also set a bar for moving from fossil fuel to cleaner energy

sources, setting a target of 23% of energy coming from renewable sources by

2030.

Indonesia committed four years ago to stop opening up new forests and

peatlands for plantation expansion. In recent months, the Indonesia government

led by President Joko Wikodo, has made international headlines for efforts aimed

at tacking the blazes. In December 2016, the President announced a move to ban

Industrial activity on the country’s peatlands. At the same time, new initiatives like

the peatlands restoration agency have been established.

➢ Integrated coastal zone management in Indonesia

Integrated coastal zone management in Indonesia is still remained in

infancy. Still there is sectoral approach.

The evolution of coastal management initiative in Indonesia mostly was

triggered by international and bilateral donor agencies through their programs and

projects and executed by different agencies and or organizations. This includes

Coremap and CTI. Most of the projects is pilot projects and it is not covered all the

geographical of coastal areas in Indonesia and be limited over only several years.

It is not continued and sustained in long term period.

In Indonesia, there are some types of Marine conservation management:

- National: Marine National Park- Government based- Ministry of Forestry

- National: National coastal Park- Government based- Ministry of Forestry

- Local: Local Marine Conservation Area- Government based- MMAF.

- Fish Sanctuary- Co- Management- International Donors

- Sasi, awig- awig, panglina; laut- community Based- Local People.

➢ Bali’s efforts

In the other hand, in Bali efforts addressing the pollution issue include

construction of new waste facilities in larger, more populated cities such as the

current project in Suwung: the waste facility in Suwung is focusing on combating

pollution, specifically in Southern Bali, by creating a final deposal site for waste.

Also efforts are being employed by tourists driven hotels and resorts to better

manage waste and reduce pollution produced in such locations. Local residents in

the highly popular tourist regions such as Kuta and Senur are also involved in

beach cleans up and participate in pollution control.

They are also locating the point source of pollution using satellite imagery,

which will help us to identify, isolate, and offer new insight on managing the

pollution issue in Southern Bali.

Community based coastal management is recognized globally as integral

feature of integrated coastal management. In Bondalem village Buleleng Bali, the

community established marine protected areas, enacted village regulation and

plant coral reef with the assistance NGOS and funded by international donor.

➢ Indonesia’s plan evaluation

But those efforts are not enough according to the experts. Like we can

evaluate, the Indonesia’s promise before Paris lagged behind other developing

countries such as Mexico and South Corea, which have been clear about spelling

out their emissions targets to the United Nations (UN).

World Resources Institute (WRI) said Indonesia needed a ban on all future

forest clearance, including licenses that were awarded some years ago, and have

yet to be activated. If Indonesia wanted to seriously protect its land and reduce

carbon emissions than it needs a permanent moratorium.

Its plan for moving from fossil fuel to cleaner energy sources is also

relatively low: it is just 23% of energy coming from renewable sources by 2030.

The Intend Nationally Determined Contributions or Indonesia’s emission

reduction plan (INDC) should be revised. According to the experts, its INDC would

affect the global efforts to adequately tackle climate change, since Indonesia is one

of the biggest carbon emitters. For Indonesia to meaningfully contribute to the

global target, its emissions should be stable or decrease even when the nation’s

economy grows. The latest assessment from Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change suggests this way of decoupling gross domestic product (GDP) growth to

be ideal. However, Indonesia may find that difficult to do, given that its economies

depend on high emission sectors as agriculture, forestry and energy.

At the moment, Indonesia does aim to decouple its GDP growth and

emission rate increase, but only through relative decoupling, though which

emissions rate increase is expected to be lower than GDP growth.

In relation to the global target as informed by climate science, the 29%

emissions reductions target is not ambitious enough. Furthermore, with the depth

of Indonesia’s problems, especially with the current forest fires, Indonesia’s target

should be higher. With the recent massive forest fires in Indonesia, the INDC

should include realistic simulations of peatlands management.

CHAPTER XVIII: seawall design and

construction

Based on the Indonesian plan evaluation by the experts, it is highlighted the

need to do more for an effective cooperation to the climate change. Considering

the scientists’ recommendation related to the new design to do it and answering to

the invitation of Kura Kura Bali Island of Happiness to collaborate with a group of

brilliant minds to build a prototype community for a sustainable world, by proposing

a new, sustainable approach to seawall design and construction, this chapter is

focus on activities to achieve that purpose and consist in a review about the

seawalls, materials, and at the end select our materials, design and construction.

A. Seawalls

Seawalls are hard engineered structures with a primary function to prevent

further erosion of the shoreline. They are built parallel to the shore and aim to hold

or prevent sliding of the soil, while providing protection from wave action. They

have a secondary function as coastal flood defenses. A well maintained and

appropriately design seawall will also fix the boundary between the sea and land to

ensure no further erosion will occur. This is beneficial if the shoreline is home to

important infrastructures or other buildings of importance.

It is important to highlight in Indonesia, main shore protection scheme is

hard structure, except Bali Island (both hard structures and beach nourishment)

and seawall structure is widely applied as much as other structures. In the aspect

of effective, efficient and inexpensive shore protection structure, seawall is the

continuous implemented as a favored approach for developing country like such as

Indonesia and specifically for Island Turtle where they try to do the best to develop

it and the vertical type is the main, if not the only on, seen there.

In addition, actually it is executing the first new project since October 2014 in

Jakarta, Indonesia, marking the beginning of work on a major coastal protection on

the National Capital Integrated Coastal Development (NCICD) project, which is

aimed at countering the effects of soil subsidence and rising sea levels.

The NCICD project is a world first in terms of scale and approach and the

entire plan consists of three phases: reinforcing the current seawall combined with

water treatment projects and revitalization of the coast; construction of the Garuda,

shaped seawall in the west combined with a new city for 300,000 residents and

600,000 workers and construction of an eastern seawall combined with a port

expansion project and a new airport.

Between the types of seawalls, are:

- Curved face: A curved- face seawall is designed to accommodate the

impact and runup of large waves while directing the flow from the land

being protected. Wave’s reflections from the wall also demand sturdy toe

protection.

- Stepped face: These seawalls are designed to limit wave runup and

overtopping by the hindering action of the stepped face on the advancing

wave front.

- Combination stepped and curved face

- Rubble: A rubble seawall is essentially a rubble breakwater that is placed

directly on the beach.

B. Coastal dynamics identification of Indonesia and Bali

➢ Indonesian and Balinese coastal regulations

Indonesia has a well- established tourism industry whose beginning was in

the 1970s, but obvious gaps within coastal management exist in the government

and within the private hotel and lodging industry.

The “Conservation Beach Project” (CBP) ongoing since 2000, amid the first

project of its kind on the island of Bali undertaken by the Indonesian Government

as Official Development Assistance financed by Japan since 2000. The intent of

the project is the “Conservation of property, tourism, Balinese culture and society,

and the coastal environment. Utilizing modern technology and methods, the study

found anthropogenic- induced causes of erosion. The CBC identified the follow

external causes for beach erosion within the southern tourist hubs:

- Mining sand from beach for building materials.

- Mining of coral sand from beach for building materials.

- Mining sand from the mouths of nearly coastal streams, decreasing the

sediment influx to the area.

- Constructing of dams and increased water withdrawals, decreasing

sediment load thus decreasing sediment flux to coast.

- Encroachment of hard structures within newly nourished beach area-

increasing the scour around newly erected buildings.

- Constructions of groins creating a sand deficit of the down drift beach

area.

➢ Sediments reservoirs

Due to conservation of mass, the sand that constitutes a beach mast has

some spatial and temporal origin, the moment and location when the grain broke

from the parent material. Likewise, if a beach is experiencing erosion (net loss of

mass), their must be mechanical energy acting upon the sediment and changing

location, possibly deposited offshore by being abraded into smaller fragments. By

identifying the pathways linking the sediment sources and sinks, educated

inferences are made about the time scale in which a perturbation to the fluxes

would result in accretion or erosion. The rate and flux balance determines whether

a shoreline is eroding or accreting and the rate at which it is doing so.

Relation of sediment flux to shoreline equilibrium (erosion).

➢ Alongshore transport- A sediment pathway

Sediment is able to move along a coastline by alongshore transport.

Alongshore sediment transport (AST) refers to the movement of sediment parallel

to the shore due to the combined energy of waves, tides, and wind. The level of

AST that occurs if related to the angle in which the wave approaches a shoreline

and its subsequent refraction. All other factors being equal, AST reaches a

maximum when wave angles approach 45 degrees (Ashton 2001).

Other factors contributing to the extent of AST are grain size, wave energy

and beach profile (King 2005). On a yearly timescale, the net direction of AST is

contingent on the net wave climate of a given coastline. The accretion or erosion

tendencies of a beach are not only associated with wave climates, but also with

connectivity between of sediment sources and sinks. Thus, the net flux of sediment

into or out of a section of shoreline determines a beaches equilibrium state.

➢ Grains characteristics and coastal geomorphology

1. Grain size effects on AST and beach profile

Within coastal geomorphology, we devise coarse sediment beaches assume

steeper profile slopes and finer grain beaches tend exhibit a flatter beach profile

(King 2005). In terms of alongshore transport and the ability for sediment grains to

be transported along a shoreline, most conclude AST decreases as grain size

increases assuming similar grain densities. For grain sizes to be moved via

alongshore transport, vertical turbulence must be enough to counteract the grain’s

fall velocity (King 2005). A grain composed of more dense material will also exhibit

a greater fall velocity, requiring high turbulence to counteract fall velocity lessening

alongshore transport and increasing the bed slope angle (Styandito et al. 2012). A

larger and/ or sand grain will require more energy to be moved via alongshore

transport than a smaller or less dense sand grain.

A preliminary assessment of the available wave energy around Indonesia is

presented. The computations have been conducted by using the wave data

collected during 35 years period from 1980 to 2014 from European Centre for

Medium- Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF). Location situated in the South of

Java Sea has the most promising location for wave power potential with the

highest energy resource available in the month of January to December. The

yearly mean wave power is maximum at the Java sea can reach 22 KW/m.

Settling velocity relationship to grain size (Pidwirny 2006).

Northern Bali, a coastline with shallow nearby coastal coral reefs and

greater fetch, is suggestive for a higher energy coastline. Given the topographic

relief of the region, the nature of monsoonal rains experienced 5 months of the

year, coupled with the sediments exhibiting volcanic origins, high angularity

suggests the primary sediments source of Indonesian coastline to be the coastline

stream. The relative steep elevation gradient in Western Bali combined with

monsoonal rains supports the notion that the Indonesian streams are efficient

transporters of sediment under relatively short time spans. The high rates of

sediment loading are not only witnessed in Bali, but also in Indonesian as whole.

The climate, geologic history and systematic monsoonal rains of the

Indonesian archipelago provide Indonesian rivers with some of the heaviest

sediment loads worldwide (Syvitsky et al 2005). Thus, the inference that the

coastal stream in the primary sediment source fits well within the region as a

whole, emphasizing the importance of beach stability and its relation to river

sediment loads is not only within Bali, but also Indonesia.

The topography, geologic history and precipitations patterns reinforce

project observations suggesting the process occurs over a relatively short time

span, an important factor for coastal management.

➢ Effects of decreasing sediments load

If community environmental managers hope to ensure the longevity of the

shoreline and avoid erosion, the influx of sediments needs to be maintained.

Damming, increased water withdraws, diversions, changes in upstream land use,

or any activity that decreases the streams sediment load would result in the

erosion of the Indonesian coast under a short time period.

C. Design Procedure checklist

The most critical design elements are a secure foundation to minimize

settlement and toe protection to prevent undermining. Both of these are potential

causes of failure of such walls. The usual steps needed to develop an adequate

seawall design are the follow:

1. Determine the water level range for the site

2. Determine the wave heights

3. Determine the beach profile

4. Select suitable seawall configurations

5. Determine the potential run-up to set the crest elevation

6. Determine the amount of overtopping expected for low structures

7. Design under drainage and filter features

8. Provide for local surface runoff and overtopping and runoff

9. Consider end conditions to avoid failure due to flanking

10. Design the toe protection

11. Provide for firm compaction of all fill and backfill materials

12. Crest level and slope

13. Access ramp

14. Washout zone

15. Automated elevator system

16. Planning of construction programme

17. Develop cost estimate.

D. Materials and sources

This project is focused on building seawalls with the materials often used

for that purpose and are considered among the main sources of carbon dioxide

emissions according to the review above presented and the waste most

representative in pollution. In fact, our seawall prototype will be compounded of

concrete, steel, vinyl produced through recycling and other new materials,

stone and vegetation, which reduce the main concerns in Bali and Indonesia

and help to conserve the beach sediments.

Scarcity of resources and the need to reduce the environmental impacts

of winning and processing construction materials and products is placing a

greater emphasis on resources efficiency within the construction industry.

Major improvements in material resource efficiency are possible without

increasing cost by:

- Reducing the quantity of materials being sent to landfill during the

construction process by designing out waste and effective site waste

management

- Reusing, recycling and recovering waste material as appropriate

- Utilizing materials and products with a high recycling and reuse potential

These are also fundamental to achieving the coal of the circular

economy. The benefits of recycling are well understood and include:

- Reducing waste, i.e. diverting waste from landfill

- Saving primary resources, i.e. substituting primary production

- Saving energy and associated greenhouse gas emissions through less

energy intensive reprocessing.

➢ Concrete

The reuse and recycle of construction waste is concentrated in the

preparation of recycled aggregate for concrete. By adding a portion of recycled

aggregate instead of natural aggregate coarse into the mixture, producing the

recycled concrete, which can conserve energy for concrete production.

The increase demand of construction aggregate reaches to 48.3 billion

metric tons by the year 2015 with the highest consumption being in Asia and

Pacific. The highly demand of concrete means more new building or public

constructions will be constructed after the demolition of old buildings. This showed

the large amount of construction waste and demolition waste (C&D) waste

generated due to the economy growth of the world. The most common way to

disposal those waste is landfill that will cause many environmental problems, such

as air pollution and water pollution, main concerns in Bali and Indonesia, without

proper sorting and handling of it.

The constantly mining and use of resources such as raw materials for

concrete making caused the shortage of resources. The resource scarcity and

environmental problems caused by C&D waste landfill made each country start

thinking about develop a sustainable path to achieve both the economic and social

win situation, and also achieve the coordinate development of civil engineering with

the environmental protection and resource conservation. At present more countries

realized the importance of C&D recycling.

Based on the research and experiment test, the maximum replacement of

recycled coarse aggregate that can be used in concrete is 35% and we can

improve the durability of recycled aggregate by mixing with special material such

as flying ash to produce high strength and durable concrete. Also, concrete with

lead based paint would be able to be used as clean fill without impervious cover

but with some types of soil cover.

➢ Benefits

There are a variety of benefits in recycling concrete rather than dumping it

burying it in a landfill:

- Keeping concrete debris out of landfills saves landfill space.

- Using recycled concrete can conserve natural resources by reducing the

need for gravel mining, cement, water, coal, oil and gas.

- Using recycled concrete as the base material for roadway and seawalls

reduces the pollution involved in trucking material

- Recycling concrete can create more employment opportunities

- Recycling concrete drag down the cost for buying raw materials and

transporting the waste to landfill sites

- Recycling one ton of cement could save 1,360 gallons water, 900 kg of

CO2.

➢ Grade of concrete

Grade of concrete construction is selected based on structural design

requirements. There are two types of concrete mixes, nominal mix and design mix.

1. Nominal mix concretes are those which are generally used for small residential

buildings where concrete consumption is not high. Nominal mix takes care of factor

of safety against various quality control problems generally occurring during

concrete construction.

2. Design mix concretes are those for which mix proportions are obtained from

various lab tests. Use of design mix concrete requires good quality control during

material selection, mixing, transportation, and placement of concrete. This concrete

offers mix proportions based on locally available material and offers economy in

construction if large scale concrete construction is carried out. Thus large concrete

construction projects use design mix concrete.

So, suitable grade of concrete can be selected based on structural

requirements. Nominal mixes for grades of concrete such as M15, M20, M25 are

generally used for small scale construction.

Large structures have high strength requirements, thus they go for higher

grades of concrete such as M30 and above. The mix proportions are based on mix

design.

Regular grades of concrete are M15, M20, M25, etc. For plain cement

concrete works, generally M15 is used. For reinforced concrete construction

minimum M20 grade of concrete is used.

Concrete Grade Mix Ratio

Compressive Strength

MPa (N/mm2) psi

Normal Grade of Concrete

M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa 725 psi

M7.5 1 : 4 : 8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi

M10 1 : 3 : 6 10 MPa 1450 psi

M15 1 : 2 : 4 15 MPa 2175 psi

M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi

Standard Grade of Concrete

M25 1 : 1 : 2 25 MPa 3625 psi

M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi

M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi

M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi

M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi

High Strength Concrete Grades

M50 Design Mix 50 MPa 7250 psi

M55 Design Mix 55 MPa 7975 psi

M60 Design Mix 60 MPa 8700 psi

M65 Design Mix 65 MPa 9425 psi

M70 Design Mix 70 MPa 10150 psi

Deterioration rates for materials in coastal environments (years)

Materials maintenance grade 1 grade 2 grade 3 grade 4 grade 5

Concrete No 0 10 30 60 75

Walls Yes 0 10 30 65 80

Sheet piles No 0 8 30 43 50

Yes 0 8 30 53 60

Source: Environment Agency (2009).

➢ Steel

Steel is the most common material used in seawall construction, but with

initial coasts. However, steel is considered the strongest of all the seawall material

choices. Steel is easily installed into almost any substrate and doesn’t have height

limitations.

Metals are infinitely recyclable, i.e. they can be recycled again and again

into functionally equivalent products. This is the most environmentally form of

recycling. Steel is 100% recyclable and is highly recycled. It is available in

thousands of different compositions, each tailored to specific applications in

sectors as diverse as packaging, engineering, white goods, vehicles and

construction. It is the most recycled material on the planet, more than other

materials. The amazing metallurgical properties of steel allow it to be recycled with

no degradation in performance and from product to another.

Recycling or reuse rate is defined as the proportion of material arising from

demolition, refurbishment, etc. Waste occurs during the construction and

refurbishment of buildings and when they are ultimately demolished and therefore

material becomes available for recycling at each of the stages. As prefabricated

products and systems, waste from the manufacture of steal construction product is

easily collected and segregated for recycling and, in the construction steel products

generate very low or zero waste.

To establish recycling and reuse rates for steel construction products, a

survey was done with demolition contractors in 2000. This survey was repeated in

2012. The table is the estimates for UK steel construction products resulting from

the second of these surveys.

Product % Reused % Recycled % Lost

Heavy structural sections/tubes1 7 93 0

Rebar (in concrete superstructures) 0 98 2

Rebar (in concrete sub-structure or foundations) 2 95 2

Steel piles (sheet and bearing) 15 71 14

Light structural steel 5 93 2

Profile steel cladding (roof/facade) 10 89 1

Internal light steel (e.g. plaster profiles, door frames) 0 94 6

Other (e.g. stainless steel) 4 95 1

Average (across all products) 5 91 4

Summary of reuse and recycling rates from the 2012 Eurofer survey

For practical purposes a 99% recycling/reuse rate is generally assumed to account for small losses of material during the

lifecycle of the product.

➢ Reusing structural steel

Many steel construction products and components are highly reusable

including:

- Piles (sheets and bearing piles)

- Structural members including such as purling and rails

- Steel buildings and steel construction products are highly and intrinsically

demountable.

➢ Benefits

Recycling steel saves energy and reduces pollution. Recycling one ton of

solid waste can save:

- 1.5 tons of iron

- 0.5 ton of coke

- 1.28 tons of solid waste

- Reduces air emissions by 86%

- Reduces water pollution by 76%.

➢ Vinyl

Plastics are polymers that are both ubiquitous and integral in our society,

being indispensable in food packaging, disposable medical equipment and

electronics. Each year, plastics account for approximately 30 million tons of

municipal solid waste in the United States, of which less than 10% is recycled and

in Indonesia, specifically in Bali, are one of the main pollution causes.

Recycled polymers are significantly cheaper than virgin materials, with the

monetary savings. Monetary savings associated with recycling plastics can be

substantial and depend on the grade and type of the recycled material, and on the

coast of the virgin material.

Polymerization of vinyl chloride, PVC (vinyl) is an expensive, high

performance, durable polymer that is used in many products, including construction

and architectural materials. It is one of the oldest synthetic materials. Researchers

accidentally discovered PVC on at least two occasions in the 19th century. The first,

in 1838, was the French physicist and chemist Henri Victor Regnault and the

second in 1872 by the German Eugen Baumann. PVC has some solubility in

organics, leading to solvent, based PVC recovery with properties, such as density,

that are undiminished relative to virgin materials.

Recycling plastics can be made more sustainable by reducing carbon

dioxide emissions, solid waste generation and pollution. Recycling can lower the

carbon footprint of plastic packaging. Typically, production of 1 ton PET from

natural gas or petroleum emits 3.4 tons of CO2, whereas production of a ton of

PET bottle emits to 1.8 tons of carbon dioxide. Typically, the carbon footprint of a

plastic product can be reduced 30 to 50% by using recycled plastics. Also, waste

can be reduced by 50 to 75% by using recycled plastics since waste plastic is

recycled and not sent to landfill.

The recycled plastic is able to withstand marine environments and is also

resistant to UV degradation. The integrated grip pattern adds to it safety and

functionality. Recycled plastic has proven to be a versatile, durable and cost

effective option in a wide variety of conditions and uses.

➢ Natural- Using science to reduce methane levels

Mechanism of chloro- pyrolisys of methane: Vinyl chloride is today

manufactured from petroleum via ethylene, but the natural gas could be an

alternative feedstock by the new methane to vinyl chloride (MTVC) process. It is a

two step process in which the first step involves the chlorination of methane. The

second step converts the methyl chloride to vinyl chloride by chloro- pyrolisys

reaction that is CH3Cl/ Cl2 gas phase reaction at high temperature (10000C), under

no flame condition.

So, we can also use this mechanism to convert circulated methane in the

atmosphere in chloride vinyl, once we realize the methane capture and the overall

contribution to climate change would be less than if the methane is not used. Its

potency as a greenhouse gas makes it a serious player in influencing the way

Earth’s systems are responding to anthropogenic greenhouse emissions. Finding

ways of reducing or reusing the methane produced by human activity is an

important step in managing climate change.

Vinyl chloride is an organochloride with the formula H2C= CHCl that is also

called vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) or chloromethane. This colorless compound

is an important industrial chemical chiefly used to produce the polyvinyl chloride

(PVC).

➢ Polymer impregnated concrete

Under water and Marine applications: The ability of polymer impregnation

helps in improving the structural properties, resistance to water absorption and

impermeability properties of the concrete structure. This makes them be widely

used underwater construction and for marine structures.

The partial impregnation of the concrete piles in the sea water reduces the

corrosion of steel reinforcement by 24 times.

In polymer concrete, the aggregates will be bound with the polymer instead

of cement. The production of polymer concrete will help in the reduction of volume

of voids in the aggregate. This will hence reduce the amount of polymer that is

necessary to bind the aggregates used.

➢ Electricity

Methane capture and use: Because methane can be captured from landfills,

it can be burned to produce electricity, heat building or power garbage trucks.

Capture methane before it gets into the atmosphere also helps reduce the effects

of climate change.

E. Concrete seawalls

These structures are often pile-supported with sheet pile cutoff walls at the

toe to prevent undermining. Additional rock toe protection may also be used. The

seawall face may be stepped, vertical and curved.

➢ Curved face seawall

Curved face seawall is designed to withstand high wave action effects.

Foundation materials loss, which might be caused by scouring waves and/ or

beaching from overtopping water or storm drainage underneath the wall, is avoided

by employing sheet pile cut off wall. Moreover, the toe of the curved face seawall is

built from large stones to decrease scouring.

➢ Sheet pile walls

They are constructed by driving prefabricated sections. Soil conditions may

allow for the sections to be vibrated into ground instead of it being hammer driven.

The full wall is formed by connecting the joints of adjacent sheet pile sections in

sequential installation. Sheet pile walls provide structural resistance by utilizing the

full section.

Steel sheet piles are most commonly used in deep excavations and

reinforced concrete sheet piles have being use successfully in shallow

excavations.

➢ Corrosion

The corrosion process in sheet piling is highly dependent on the

environment in which it is placed. In marine environments, the rate of corrosion is

related to the type of water to which the sheet pile is exposed. Typically, fresh

water is the least corrosive and salt water the most, with contaminants and

pollutants playing a major role in magnifying its corrosiveness. The critical zone for

sheet piles exposed to water is the splash zone, the area between the still water

elevation and the upper limit of wave action. This area corrodes at a much greater

rate than if it remained completely submerged.

Different types of coating used for under water piles to protect from

corrosion are:

- Inorganic Zinc Silicates Primers

The steel structure which is below the plash zone is always immersed in

water are commonly not coated with any catholic protective layers.

There are numerous types of anti- corrosive pigmented primers in which

inorganic zinc silicate is the best. The best part of this is that it arrests rusts creeps

or undercutting of the coating surrounding the damages area and confines the

corrosion to the point of damage.

- High Build Epoxy Coatings

These epoxy coating are more abrasion and chemical resistant than that of

primers and coats. It is because they not only protect the metal but the zinc primers

also from detrimental factors.

It also has a drawback that is poor resistant to sunlight and chalk. When it

comes in contact with these factors, they fade quickly which leads to erosion of

coating which in turn reduces the barrier protection of the system.

- Zinc Rich Epoxy Primers

In this, there is the mixture of both Inorganic Zinc Silicates Primer and High

Build Epoxy Coating. It provides a high level of service and more tolerant ambient

weather conditions. It is also most effective in maintaining the damaged area and

breakdown of coating system.

- Catholic Protection of Underwater Piles

Catholic protection is the commonly used technique for the overcoming the

corrosion on piles. Catholic protection is the process of using electrochemical

reactions to prevent steel from corrosion. It is commonly used and accepted

because it prevents the corrosion on steel which is in water.

➢ Measuring sea level

1. Tide Gauges:

Sea level is often measured by tide gauges (and averaged over tidal cycles)

that detect high and low points in a given period of time. Local tide gauges are

especially useful for people who work or recreate in coastal areas and need to

know what the water level ranges will be. These data points are also important for

detecting water levels during storms and other events as well as in the long- term

investigation of relative water level change (rise or fall). Tidal levels are also

measured by floating buoys, which are being used to detect Tsunami waves.

2. Satellite

Sea level can also be measured by satellite. These measurements utilize

multi- beam methods that are very precise and can measure changes in elevations

of the Earth’s surface. These methods have shown that water bodies are not flat,

but are incredibly dynamic and have high and low spots due to geography, and

other factors.

NODC (National Oceanographic Data Center) Jason-2 Satellite is one of

several missions designed to investigate the surface of the ocean including wave

heights, sea level rive and other phenomena.

➢ Wave height

In fluid dynamics, the wave height of a surface wave is the difference

between the elevations of a crest and a neighboring trough. Wave height is a term

used by mariners in coastal, ocean and naval engineering.

At sea, the term significant wave height is used as a means to introduce a

well- defined and standardized statistic to denote the characteristics height of the

random waves in a sea state. It is defined in such a way that it more or less

corresponds to what a mariner observes when estimating visually the average

wave height.

In physical oceanography, the significant wave height (SWH or HS) is

defined as the mean wave height (through the crest) of the highest third of the

waves (H1/3).

-Measurements: Although most measuring devices estimate the significant wave

height from a wave spectrum, satellite radar altimeters are unique in measuring

directly the significant wave height thanks to the different time of return from wave

crests and troughs within the area illuminated by the radar. The maximum ever

measured wave height from a satellite is 20.1m during a North Atlantic storm in

2011.

➢ Toe protection

Toe protection at the seawall base is recommended as a means of

preventing the scouring and undermining of the structures and increasing its

expected life. Factors that affect the severity of toe scour include wave breaking

near the toe, wave run-up backwash, wave reflection and grain size distribution of

the beach or bottom material. Toe stability is essential because failure of the toe

will generally lead to failure throughout the entire structure.

Toe is generally governed by hydraulic criteria. Scour can be caused by

waves, wave induced currents or tidal currents. Design of toe protection for

seawalls must consider geotechnical and hydraulic factors. Using hydraulic

considerations, the toe should be at least twice the incident wave height for sheet-

pile walls and equal to the incident wave for gravity walls. It is built from large

stones or rock.

➢ Filter and drainage

It is necessary to provide a proper filter. A lack of erosion control that causes

sinkholes is a vital issue with a concrete seawall design. One common problem is

wall movement in addition to tieback/ whaler tension, toe failure, horizontal

cracking, panel separation and stress.

Other considerations are wave forces, toe scour, wave overtopping and

storm surges.

Positive drainage behind the seawall would be necessary to reduce sliding

and overturning forces from the groundwater and potential wave overtopping, and

reduce the scale of the seawall. The current drainage concept would include

perforated upper and lower collector pipes behind the seawall, with connections

between them approximately every 10 m. It is intended that the drains would feed,

under gravity, into the main outfalls for discharge to the front of the seawall.

The JET Filter System uses the highly rate Mirafi Geotextile Filter- weave to

prevent soil loss while draining excess water.

The JET Filter maintains long- term flow rates in high gradient and dynamic

conditions and relieves the hydrostatic pressures created by rain water as well as

tidal surges trapped behind erosion control structure.

The JET Filter System will facilitate drainage and reduce water pressure

while still preventing the loss of soil materials through the structure thus preventing

erosion and wall failure.

The JET Filter System is a weep hole component available in 3 different

diameters: 21/2”in, 4”in & 6in”.

Type: Open End and Close- End Solutions.

The flush- mount wick dewatering filter units can be permanently installed on

the front side of any earth retaining walls structures for drainage such as Bridge

Abutment, Wing Wall. Steel Sheet Piling, Vinyl Sheet Piling, Seawalls, MSE

Retaining Walls, and Flood control channels.

➢ Overtopping

Wave overtopping refers to the volumetric rate at which runup flows over the

top or crest of a slope, be it a beach, dune, structure.

Underestimation of design wave or the maximum water level leads to

excessive overtopping of seawalls and eventually failure particularly when the free

board is inadequate. This calls for a proper estimation of wave run- up and the

crest level of the seawall, and also providing proper filter between the backfill and

the seawall. It is also necessary to provide facilities for drainage of overtopped

water, which otherwise will find its way through seawall itself causing further

damage. In situation where it is not possible to raise the level of seawall crest to

avoid overtopping, it is advisable to provide a deflector to throw a part of the

overtopping water back to seaward slope of the seawall.

➢ Run up

Wave run up refers to the height above Stillwater elevation (tide and sturge)

reached by the swash. Run up is a very complex phenomenon, that is known to

depend on the local water level (including surf beat or infragravity wave effects),

the incident wave conditions (height, period, steepness, direction), and the nature

of the beach or structure being run up (e.g., slope, reflectivity, height, permeability,

roughness)

Run up guidance is largely empirical, and typically is based either on field

measurements on beaches or on laboratory measurements ob structures. Most

guidance relates run up to the surf similarity parameter (ratio of the barrier slope to

the square root of the wave steepness) as a means of reducing the number of

variables and generalizing the applicability of specific measurements or tests.

The general formula for calculating the wave run up can be written as:

R2= 1.1(0.53β [H0L0]1/2 + [H0L0(0.56β2+ 0.04)]1/2

2

When the beach slope β< 0.1, the run up is independent of β, and it is

proportional to (H0L0)1/2

When ξ= 0.043 (H0L0)1/2

R2 = is the extreme wave run up

<n> is the wave set up and S is the significant swash.

➢ Runoff

Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water that occurs

when excess storm water, melt water, or other sources flows over the Earth’s

Surface. This might occur because soil is saturated to full capacity, because rain

arrives more quickly than soil can absorb it, or because impervious areas (roofs

and pavements) send their runoff to surrounding soil that can’t absorb all of it.

Surface runoff is a major component of the water cycle. It is the primary agent in

soil erosion by water.

In addition to causing water erosion and pollution surface runoff in urban

areas is a primary cause of urban flooding which can result in property damage,

damp and mold in basements and sheet flooding.

Surface runoff can be generated either by rainfall, snowfall or by the melting

of snow, or glaciers. Surface runoff can cause erosion of the Earth’s surface;

eroded material may be deposited a considerable distance away.

Runoff is analyzed by using mathematical models in combination with

various quality sampling methods. Measurements can be made using continuous

automated water quality analysis instruments targeted on pollutants such as

specific organic or inorganic chemicals, pH, turbidity, etc, or targeted or secondary

indicators such as dissolved oxygen.

Mitigation and treatment:

- Land use development controls aimed at minimizing impervious surface

in urban areas.

- Erosion controls for farms and construction sites.

- Flood control and retrofit programs, such as green infrastructure

- Chemical use handling controls in agriculture, landscape maintenance,

industrial use, etc.

Green infrastructure

Green infrastructure or blue- green infrastructure is a network providing the

ingredients for solving urban and climatic challenges by building with nature. The

main components of this approach include storm water management, climate

adaptation, less heat stress, more biodiversity, food production, better air quality,

sustainable energy production, clean water and healthy soils, and the more

anthropocentric functions such as increased quality of life through recreation and

providing shade and shelter in and around towns and cities. Green infrastructure

also serves to provide an ecological framework for social economic and

environmental health of the surroundings.

➢ End effects/ Flanking

The design should avoid abrupt shore-perpendicular ends at property

boundaries. In general seawalls should be rounded off at the ends and/ or meet the

existing bluff or bank slope contours. This will reduce the potential for erosion at

the adjacent properties; the proposed design should be transition to these as

smoothly as possible.

➢ Fill material for seawalls

The different types of fill material for seawalls shall either be Type1, type 2,

or rock. The fill material shall have the particle size distributions of an appropriate

type of fill material within the ranges stated in the follow table.

1. Underwater fill material (Type 1) shall consist of natural material

2. Underwater fill material (Type 2) shall consist of material that has a coefficient of

uniformity exceeding 5 and a plasticity index not exceeding 12.

3. Rock fill material shall consist of pieces of hard, durable rock, which are free

from crack, veins, discoloration, and other evidence of decomposition.

4. Rock fill material (Grade 700) shall consist of pieces of rock which are free from

cracks, veins and similar defects and of which in the opinion of the Engineer not

more than 30% by mass shall be discolored or show other evidence of

decomposition.

Percentage by mass passing

Type of fill material Size

700mm/ 200mm

BS test sieve size

75mm/ 20mm/ 63

Underwater fill

Material Type 1

- / - 100% / - / 0-30%

Underwater fill - /- 100%/ - / 0-25%

Material Type 2

Rock fill material

Grade 75

- / - 100%/ 0-25%/ -

Rock fill material

Grade 700

100% / 0-10% 0-5%/ -

Particular size distribution of fill material for seawalls.

➢ Backfill material

Backfill is placed between the shoreline and the wall section such that

the earth reinforcing strips and wall pieces are made to stabilize and

maintain position.

➢ Deviations in design and construction position

The highest level already determined helps in deciding the exact crest level

while the lowest water level guides the location of the toe. The bed slope in front of

a coastal structure also has an important bearing on the extent of damage to the

structure and wave run up over the structure.

The seawall should be located in such a position that the maximum wave

Attack is taken by the slope and the toe.

➢ Access ramp

A new 5m wide ramp will be provided for maintenance access to the

foreshore. It would have a half- wary hair- pin bend. The public footpath would

pass behind the ramp.

➢ Washout zone adaptation

Washout zones are promenade areas behind the crest of the seawall such

that in large storm events, wave overtopping escaping introduced wave deflectors

is contained and prevented from reaching restaurants, cafes or residential housing

elevated behind.

Washout zone widths of up to 9m and back land heights up to 1.8m were

physically modeled against a 1m sea level; all proposed washout zones reduced

successfully wave overtopping rates landward of the washout zone well beneath

that of limits for safe pedestrian activity.

➢ Automated elevator system

It is a system that elevates automatically using the power of the ocean, with

the ability to bear the impact of the largest tsunamis and without the need for

infrastructure that despoils the landscape. Placed on conventional sea walls, the

structure when in use provides additional height to the wall and can withstand the

impact of large waves. When it is not in use, it folds away so as to not impede the

view.

Made buoyant, the structure opens out as the sea level rises, creating a wall

to block the waves.

Experimental walls have withstood waves of up to 10 meters (33 feet) in

height.

➢ Planning of construction programme

From the bathymetry in the vicinity of the coastal structure and the data

regarding littoral drift, the pattern of erosion/ accretion can be anticipated. The

construction of beach protection structures in such regions should be undertaken

at the appropriate time. Construction of a seawall along the coast where

considerable erosion has been taking place should be started immediately after the

monsoon wave action, when the eroded levels are the lowest and wave action is

comparatively reduced.

In an eroding coastline, if a long length of the coast, say about 500m, is to

be protected with a seawall in one season (of about 4 months), which is generally

the case due to various procedural constraints, it is best to start construction of the

seawall from both ends and proceed towards the center rather than constructing

the seawall from one end only. With such planning, the extent of erosion along the

beach and penetration of erosion into the beach in the coastline is reduced as

compared to the extent and penetration of erosion when the construction of

seawall is started from one end only.

➢ Seawall construction

The construction of the seawall will take place commencing with excavation

works from the cliff top and excavation works from the foreshore. Following

excavation, concrete pouring in situ will take place from the foreshore and cliff top

to create the seawall’s lower and upper mass concrete walls.

Rock backfilling works will take place from the cliff to the backfill behind the

seawall and rock placement will take place from the foreshore to form scour

protection to the seawall’s toe.

- Excavation of the cliff

Cliff excavation will be carried out by excavators from the foreshore.

Hydraulic cutting and/ or hammers equipment will be used for rock excavation.

Excavated material will be placed and stored at dedicated locations on the fields

behind the cliff. This material will be reused for grading and as backfill material

behind the seawall.

- The next step will be to construct the seawall’s footing and base.

- Following this, material will be excavated from the ground in front of the

line of the sea wall to create the space for the toe and scour protection.

Excavation will require the use of excavators. In order to protect the

seawall from scour effects a geotextile layer will be placed at the

seawall’s toe. Construction plant will include the use of hydraulic lifting

plant positioned on the foreshore and the haul road.

- Construction will take place from the cliff top and foreshore.

- Under the current design, concrete will be poured in situ from the

adjacent haul road initially (i.e. for the foundation and base) and then

from the cliff top or foreshore as the seawall becomes higher.

- Following the concrete pour, backfill material will be placed behind the

new concrete seawall using excavators positioned on the cliff top.

Backfill material will comprise the material excavated from the foreshore

and cliff, which may have to be broken down to suitable size prior to

placement. Permanent access steps and a ramp will be also constructed.

- Once the construction of the seawall has been completed, the coastal

footpath and boundary fence will be reinstated.

➢ Accommodation campus

- Accommodation for construction workers and facilities for a mix of other

uses including catering facilities, a medical facility, indoor sports and gym

facilities, a retail shop, launderette and other uses.

- Recreation and sport facilities

- Landscaping

The accommodation building will be designed to provide accommodation

rooms to include a bed and a small private lounge

The other campus building is proposed to accommodate facilities to

support the workers while they are living at the site. These will be

provided as flexible spaces to include a range of facilities such as café,

small shop and medical facility

➢ Lighting strategy

The primary objectives of the lighting strategy shall be to achieve the

following:

- Use of captured methane like electricity source or renewable energy

- Provide a safe working environment

- Target lighting at where it is required

- Avoid over illumination

- Minimize upwards lighting

- Minimize light spill to neighboring areas and

- Minimize energy consumption.

FINANCIAL FEASIBILITY

➢ Estimation of the cost of implementation

Typical elements of the cost of beach control work __________________________________________________________________ Subject Costs to be included

Preliminaries -Project coordination, management and administration Planning and design -Survey data connection -Model studies -Design and contract preparation -Statutory procedures and licenses -Economic appraisal -Environmental impact assessment and licenses -Safety planning supervision

Construction -Contracts payments (adjustments, claims, etc.) -Supervision (including safety) and administration costs -Ancillary works for environmental improvements, Amenity of services. Land or property -Purchase or lease of land either as part of the works Or for construction. -Compensation payments to affected owners Operation and maintenance -Operational activities -Monitoring and maintenance including replacement of Elements having a shorter life than the overall scheme. -Repairs. Indicative costs associated with the cost of coastal protection

Option significance Indicative cost

Enabling Capital Maintenance Environment Agency Costs costs costs Seawalls medium high low 700- 5,400

Operation and maintenance costs All structures must be maintained. This is particularly true of coastal erosion

management and flood risk structures operating in ‘harsh environments’. Therefore

maintenance should be addressed at both the design stage and throughout the

operational life of the structure.

Frequent and intermittent maintenance and inspection works will need a

defined maintenance and replacement programme as part of a scheme appraisal.

Post-storm, seasonal or annual inspections will be required, followed by

appropriate maintenance and repair work. This commitment must be financed and

programmed from the outset if maintenance is to be managed effectively.

Other more substantial schemes, which are likely to have much higher initial

construction costs, may require a much lower level of long-term maintenance

commitment. However, they will have to be monitored to ensure ongoing

effectiveness as at many sites foreshore erosion will be an ongoing process and

may cause local scour or general beach level reduction, resulting in structural

instability.

Typical maintenance activities are:

• Beach management/recycling

• Concrete defense element repairs (abraded, and corroded sections)

• joint/crack repairs/sealant replacement to concrete structures

• Repairs or extension to toe protection (concrete, rock and so on)

• Replacement of fixings and/or damaged/rotten piles/planks or to timber elements

• re-coating protection to pile structures

• Replacement/ • painting of fences or railings

• Drainage and flap valve maintenance/replacement

The maintenance activities listed above generally intermittent maintenance

activities. Annual maintenance activities are less likely other than for beach

recycling operations, but larger scale maintenance may be required at a lesser

frequency. Costs of maintenance activities will therefore depend on the frequency

of replacement or repair works required. These are highly correlated with exposure

conditions at the site and typical fluvial maintenance frequencies are unlikely to be

relevant for coastal environments.

Environment Agency suggested maintenance frequencies

Maintenance activity Frequency

Embankment grass control 1-3 times per year

Embankment tree work once a year to every two years

Embankment vermin control once a year to every two years

Seawall vegetation clearance once every 2- 5 years

Seawall repair works once every 2- 20 years.

Coastal monitoring

Coastal monitoring provides a sound scientific base to inform all levels of

strategic coastal management, including high level Shoreline Management Plans,

Coastal Strategies and local beach management activities, as well as providing a

basis to inform future decision-making.

This growing data resource is helping the Environment Agency and other

organizations to understand how the coast changes over time, after storm events,

and how human intervention affects the surrounding coast.

Long-term repetitive monitoring and data collection underpins all flood and

coastal erosion risk management activities. It highlights where beaches are eroding

and accreting, and therefore how they should be managed for best effect and for

best value for money.

Costs associated with coastal monitoring are likely to be low compared with

the acquisition and capital costs associated with new schemes, and may not need

to be included within an appraisal type study. However, different spatial and

temporal scales of beach management works require different amounts of

information from monitoring programs to inform them.

Following structure completion, there should be regular monitoring to ensure the

structure continues to perform satisfactorily. Environmental monitoring should take

place such as:

• Beach/ seabed levels adjacent to the structure

• Wave, wind and tidal climate at the site

Regular monitoring is important to plan for maintenance. Generally the

frequency should be immediately after construction, after extreme storm events,

annually and every five years for submerged elements. Monitoring methods for

modified seawalls include:

• Visual inspection at low tide

• General, fixed aspect and aerial photography

• Profile surveys of structure and foreshore

• Inspection of voids

Erosion of the toe is a common problem and is the mechanism most likely to cause

structural failure. Monitoring of the toe is therefore vital.

➢ Fill out the checklist:

1. Determine the water level range for the site: with satellite

2. Determine the wave heights: with satellite radar altimeters

3. Determine the beach profile

4. Select suitable seawall configurations: curved face (from inside to

outside or like base, shaft, capital in a tripartite division): concrete, steel,

vinyl.

5. Design pile foundations: Steel sheet pile for deep excavation and

reinforced concrete sheet pile for shallow excavation, Zinc rich epoxy for

steel sheet piles protection under water.

6. Determine the potential run-up to set the crest elevation general formula

7. Determine the amount of overtopping expected for low structures

8. Design under drainage and filter features : Jet Filter System

9. Provide for local surface runoff and overtopping and runoff: laboratory

tests for measurement

10. Consider end conditions to avoid failure due to flanking

11. Design the toe protection: large stones or rock

12. Provide for firm compaction of all fill and backfill materials: Type 1 from

the cliff excavation

13. Crest level and slope: deviations in design

14. Access ramp

15. Washout zone

16. Automated elevator system

17. Planning of construction programme

18. Develop cost estimate

➢ Protection

Forests and trees provide some coastal protection and that the cleaning of

coastal forests and trees has increased the vulnerability of coasts to erosion. Like

in Indonesia, specifically in Bali, Aceh where in September 1815 and in December

2004 respectively, Tsunamis caused serious damage, and due to the vegetation

property to protect against those phenomena, it is important to complete the

structure with restoration and conservation of known natural resources able to

provide such protection.

Based on studies and scientific results, the presence of vegetation in coastal

areas improves slope stability, consolidates sediments and reduces wave energy

moving onshore; therefore, it protects the shoreline from erosion. However, it is

site- specificity, what means it may be successful in estuarine conditions (low

energy environment), but not on the open coast (high energy environment). The

most obvious indicator of site suitability is the presence of vegetation already

growing. This can be extended by other factors such as the slope, elevation, tidal

range, salinity, substrate and hydrology (Clark 1995; French 2001).

Indonesia, although its coastal area is of high energy, is a favorite place for

vegetations and in some islands like Java, the erosion begins with the substitution

of mangrove forests by aquaculture activity and in Bali, the Turtle Island is rich in

coral reefs.

The average of sand loss in 16 months since the Bali Beach Conservation

Project completed on December 2003 to September 2006 shows a loss

percentage of 12.02%.

Vegetation is an effective and inexpensive way to stabilize coastal area. Like

mentioned previously, the photocapping is an excellent method to take up the

water and reduces the methane Emissions and forest vegetation is also a natural

way to reduce dioxide carbon emissions. In 2002, area of mangrove forests in

Indonesia was 9.2 ha with 57.6% or 5.3 million ha in damaged condition. In recent

years, it has been realized that mangroves may have a special role in supporting

fisheries and in the stabilizing zone.

Mangrove is used as an erosion control measure because roots and stems

tend to trap fine sand and soil particles. Moreover, the mangrove’s massive system

is efficient at dissipating wave energy, slowing down potentially erosive currents.

During these extreme events mangroves play multiple roles. They may

reduce the height of the storm surge, they reduce wind speed across the water

surface, which can prevent waves- reforming, and they can even provide some

mechanisms for trapping debris, which is a major cause of death and injury during

storms. Studies following an extreme cyclone in Orisa, India showed that villages

that had maintained mangroves as a barrier between themselves and the sea had

a lower death- toll from the storm.

The Mapping Ocean Wealth team undertook detailed reviews of all the

existing research into the role of mangroves in coastal protection. The resulting

publication describes how a 100- meter- wide belt of mangroves can reduce wave

heights between 13 and 66%, and up to 100% where mangroves reach 500 meters

or more in width. If mangrove forests are sufficiently large, they can reduce storm

surge peak water levels between 4 and 48 centimeters per kilometer of mangrove.

In low- lying areas, even such relatively small reductions in peak water levels can

reduce flooding, and prevent property damage. Another kind of natural protection

are Oyster Reefs, salt marshes.

➢ Coral reefs

Coral reefs protect coasts from erosion and flooding by reducing wave

energy and supplying and trapping sediment found on adjacent beaches. Coral

reefs reduce wave energy by up to 97%. Healthy reefs protect coasts even during

cyclones with strong wave conditions. They also keep pace with sea level rise, and

unlike man- made coastal defenses, they require little or no direct maintenance

costs, for which in this seawall project construction in the Turtle Island it is

important to remember the conservation of those natural resources is invaluable for

the coastal protection in addition to the hard structure.

The countries with the most to gain in annual benefits from reef conservation

and restoration include Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia and Mexico.

➢ Other coastal forests include Casuarina equisetifolia, Herb and shrub

vegetation, Kuda-Kuda, warn-laut.

➢ Planting coconut trees

➢ Palmyra palms

➢ Those activities would be completed with legislation against forest fires

and non- well located construction and this way forest vegetation can

stop the rain to penetrate into the ground.

➢ Use of wastewater treatment plant like described in source material

Backfill

Toe protectionToe protection

Found ation Piles

Beach

sheet Piles

Original Ground

Surface

..........................................

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............................ ............................................................... ...................................

.......

..............

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curved

Seawall

seawall With Curved Face Configu ration

+ automated elevator system.

Elevated Cafes/

Restau rants

Beach Water

curved

Seawall

Promenade (Washout Zone)

seawall With Curved Face Configu ration

+ automated elevator system.

CONCLUSION

Our vision for a new seawall design and construction is focused on the

coastal defense and the main erosion causes, the waves and the sediment

sources. It is a complex design, but feasible due to the sources material

consideration like recycling very common in the region and through the global

world to reduce carbon dioxide emissions and natural material found in Bali and in

the entire Indonesia and also the Balinese architecture like tripartite divisions and

Tri- Hita Concept. It is also based on high technology used in the region like

satellite for water level range and wave height determination and laboratory tests

for water composition study, runoff determination, used in Bali and other

technology used in the world like photocapping to reduce methane levels, natural

scientific reaction like chloro- pyrolisys to convert methane to vinyl chloride, the

main component used in industry to produce polyvinyl chloride, and methane like

electricity source. Moreover, Asia is the most technological developed continent

actually.

Our vision also includes the best materials and the most resistant seawall

type to ensure the largest duration and biggest resistance against the waves in the

High energy climate in Turtle Island and the entire Indonesia, without forget the

aesthetic aspect in a perfect combination to conserve the Balinese architecture of

tripartite divisions: mix concretes with higher grade, steel and vinyl with a filtration

and drainage system of high quality. It takes also in consideration the transport,

second cause of carbon dioxide emission by using materials found mainly in the

region and from cliff excavation like fill and backfill material and Indonesia rock or

stones to reduce mining materials and decreasing the sediment influx to the area,

and the electricity source is captured methane to reduce the coal use to produce it,

a major source of carbon dioxide emissions and reduce too the environmental

circulated methane.

It includes too the vegetation protections like mangrove restoration and

conservation, that is very important against tsunami, the conservation and

restoration of trees forest that can reduce the CO2 and methane emissions and

absorb the rainfall to decrease the sea level, also the conservation and restoration

of coral reefs, that are abundant in the Turtle Island and very effective to protect

coasts from erosion and flooding by reducing wave energy by up to 97% and an

automated elevator system against largest tsunamis.

Finally in this design, it includes too the need for legislation against some

activities like forest fires, main cause for which Indonesia is one of the biggest

carbon dioxide emission in the world, education activity to reduce the pollution in

addition to plastic recycling and wastewater treatment plant and legislation of well

designed construction projects.

It is important to recognize in Indonesia, there are all the conditions that

constitute the greenhouse gas production, for which its INDC has to be most

adapted to the actual reality, the climate change and global warming. It is with this

purpose, our seawall design and construction is substantied on those series of

actions described previously with also the recommendation to use the reservoir’s

residence time estimation and consultation when evaluating how quickly a pollutant

will spread through the reservoir and reinforce the green infrastructure like

mitigation and treatment for runoff, an effective early warning system and

remember the scientific recommendation to find better technology for sea level rise

measurement according the last study published on December 27, 2017 where

they concluded since 1993, measurements and predictions of sea level rise have

been incorrect, underestimating the growing volume of water in the oceans due to

the receding bottom. Those activities contribute to mitigate the climate change and

all its consequences.