summarize intelligence math achievement self gender and gender boundaries peer relationships...

Summarize Intelligence Math Achievement Self Gender and Gender boundaries Peer Relationships Friendships Developing group Norms Sherif & Sherif Robber’s Cave Experiment Moral Development Family Parenting Styles Violence, Conflict, Divorce Sibling Relationships Schools Achievement and Adjustment

Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.


What IQ Scores Can Predict In general, IQ tests are fairly good

predictors of success in school. Childhood IQ may predict long-term

success in occupations that require abstract thought.

Adult IQ scores are good predictors of success in job-training programs but not of actual job performance.


In most parts of the world, children start formal education between ages 5-7.

The transition to formal education is not always easy.

Many have difficulty applying their informal knowledge to more formal classroom tasks.

Decontextualized thought:A cognitive skill needed to solve problems that are abstract, self-contained, and removed from any immediate context.


Cultural MismatchThe format of social interaction expected at school

may be unfamiliar to children from different backgrounds.

White middle-class preschoolers are accustomed to being asked questions at home, test questions to which the adult knows the answers (“What color is that?” “What do cows say?”).

A study found that black lower-class preschoolers heard more functional questions at home:

analogy questions (“What’s that like?”) story-starter questions (“What happened to him

yesterday?”) accusation questions (“What’s that all over your face?)


Cultural Differences in Math Achievement

United States children do worse than children in many other countries on math & science measures.

No one suggests American children have learning deficiencies compared to children in other countries.

Researchers and teachers assume cultural differences in values & classroom practices must be the cause.


Latency period:Freud’s term for

middle childhood, the period in which sexual urges lie relatively dormant.

Industry vs. inferiority:

Erikson’s term for the crisis of middle childhood, when the major challenge is to start mastering adult skills & feelings fostered by success & failure.


Sense of industry:In Erikson’s theory, the basic belief in one’s

own competence, coupled with a tendency to initiate activities, seek out learning experiences, and work hard to accomplish goals.

Middle childhood is marked by: forming a coherent self-concept major developments in peer

relations growing understanding of emotions


The Emergence of the Psychological Self

Psychological self:A concept of the self that is made up of

psychological characteristics, such as mental abilities and customary ways of feeling.

Psychological self:A concept of the self that is made up of

psychological characteristics, such as mental abilities and customary ways of feeling.

Metatheory of the self:Children understanding of the nature of

selves in general.

Metatheory of the self:Children understanding of the nature of

selves in general.


The Development of the Social Self

Social self:An awareness that the self is

intimately tied to other people.

Social self:An awareness that the self is

intimately tied to other people.

Social comparison:The tendency to use others as a source

of information in evaluating the self.

Social comparison:The tendency to use others as a source

of information in evaluating the self.


The Development of the Social Self

Use of social comparison in evaluating the self depends on several things: decline in centration normative understanding of ability cultural context

Source of photo: Microsoft Design Gallery.

9-year-old: My name is Bruce. I have brown eyes. I have brown hair. I love sports. I have seven people in my family. I have great eye sight. I have lots of friends. I have an uncle who is almost 7 feet tall. My teacher is Mrs. V. I play hockey. I’m almost the smartest boy in the class. I love food. I love school.

11½-year-old: My name is Anne. I’m a human being…a girl… a truthful person. I’m not pretty. I do so-so in my studies. I’m a very good cellist. I’m a little tall for my age. I like several boys. I am a good swimmer. I try to be helpful. Mostly I’m good, but I lose my temper. I’m not well liked by some girls and boys. I don’t know if boys like me.


Piaget’s Theory ofMoral Development

Young children judge on consequence

Older children judge on intent In middle childhood standards can

be very rigid



The Developing Sense of Gender Knowledge of gender stereotypes

influences perceptions & memories. Elementary school children apply

gender stereotypes to themselves more than preschoolers do.

In general, boys are more strongly sex-typed than girls.

Socialization factors (mother’s SES, etc.) influence the flexibility of gender-related thinking.


Personal Effectiveness andSelf-Management

Also developing in middle childhood is children’s belief that:

they can master and prevail in challenging circumstances, and

their successes come from resources within.

As children develop a sense of personal effectiveness, they also develop capacities to cope with stress and emotional challenges.


Peer groups are important for several reasons:

sheer amount of time spent with peers

unique learning experiences challenging youngsters to develop

interaction skills


Advances That Enable More Complex Peer Relations:

greater ability to understanding others’ perspectives, needs, & feelings

ability to grasp more complex rules regarding interpersonal behavior

growing ability to communicate feelings & wishes


Elementary school children can now communicate displeasure verbally.

They (especially girls) are more likely to hurl verbal insults.

Girls display less physical aggression than boys, but more relational aggression.Relational aggression:Aggression that includes attempts to

exclude peers from activities damage their reputations gossip about their negative

characteristics or behavior


5 Major Developments in Peer Relations

1. Children start to expect more from friends, including loyalty & understanding.

2. They start forming networks of friends.3. They learn to coordinate allegiance to

individual friends with their functioning in a group.

4. Adhering to peer group norms becomes increasingly important.

5. Clear boundaries for interaction with opposite sex develop.


Forming Loyal Friendships

In middle childhood: relationships involve more reciprocal

support & loyalty deepening of peer relations relates to

advances in children’s thinking they come to understand conflict is part

of friendship and may even strengthen it they behave differently with friends than

with mere acquaintances


Forming Peer Groups Friendship networks are the hallmark

of middle childhood. They tend to play with relatively

stable clusters of friends. Boys often engage in joint building

activities & competitions. Boys vie to be the leader or winner. Girls’ groups are more cohesive. Girls orient more toward accord &

intimacy.


Coordinating Friendship andGroup Interaction

Typically, friendship and group interaction supplement each other:

Friendships promote integration into a group.

Functioning in the group is a rich context for sharing between friends.

Some pairs of friends steer away from groups.


Adhering to Peer Group Norms

Peer group norms:Informal rules governing the conduct

of children within a peer group.

Peer group norms:Informal rules governing the conduct

of children within a peer group.

Strict adherence to peer group norms is common at this age.

Peer group norms help maintain group harmony & cohesiveness.

They are important for promoting moral development.


Maintaining Gender Boundaries Elementary school children are diligent in their

efforts to ensure children do not stray too far across gender lines.

Some cultures impose gender boundaries, like having the boys live in a separate village.

A great deal of contact occurs, but within the limits of peer group rules.

Children who routinely fail to maintain gender boundaries are less popular and are rated as less socially competent.Border work:Rituals of teasing & ostracism with which

elementary school children maintain the boundary between gender-segregated peer groups.

Border work:Rituals of teasing & ostracism with which

elementary school children maintain the boundary between gender-segregated peer groups.


Status & Acceptance in the Peer Group

Sociometric techniques involve asking children to name others they especially like or don’t like to play with.

Accepted children are frequently named as liked.

Those consistently named as disliked are characterized by researchers as rejected.

Others who are rarely named as either liked or disliked are characterized as neglected.

Sociometrics:A research technique used to measure peer status.Sociometrics:A research technique used to measure peer status.

Sociogram



Unpopular children’s feelings about their low peer status depend on multiple factors.

Intense loneliness depends on a combination of:

isolation from the group

friendlessness low peer acceptance not any one of these

factors aloneClip art copyright © 2003 www.arttoday.com. Used with permission.


Aggressive children are more likely to be rejected.

Combined aggression and rejection is strongly associated with maladjustment.

Aggressive children who are not rejected are better adjusted.

Rejected children spent the most time isolated from others or engage in negative behavior like aggression.


During elementary school, a child’s popularity with peers becomes quite stable.

It has implications for current and future mental health.

Researchers have explored ways to improve a child’s status, but how long the effects of such interventions last is not yet known.

What was the purpose?

Muzafer and his wife, Carolyn, conducted a study on the origin of prejudice.

The experiment focused heavily on the concept of a ‘group’ and what a perception of belonging to a group can actually do to the relationships of members within it and their relationships with people outside their group.

Who was involved? Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Sherif-

psychologists that came up with the experiment.

22 boys between the ages of 11 and 12. Researchers were disguised as camp

leaders.

What happened in this experiment?

There were 3 phases of this experiment.

1. In-Group Formation 2. Friction Phase 3. Integration Phase.

Phase 1. (In-group Formation)

Twenty-two eleven year-old boys of middle-class socioeconomic standing, and who are not school or social failures and who have similar educational level.

These boys were taken into a summer camp in Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma where they were divided into two groups of eleven.

The two groups created national flags creating a sense of belonging. They also bonded with each other and created group names.

The groups must not be aware of the existence of the other group If the groups had met before, it would alter the results because they would likely be less hostile towards the other group later on in the experiment.

Phase 2. Friction Phase During this phase, the two groups were allowed to find out about the

existence of the other group. Teams were forced to compete against each other in a number of

camp activities. Such as, canoeing, camp fire building, and wood chopping, etc.

The winning team, scoring the highest overall number of points, won a trophy.

Greatly increased the antagonism between the two groups. Later on, name calling and fighting started and the singing of

offending songs were also observed. After refusal of being in the same room, the researchers decided to

end the second phase before further outbursts occurred.

Raided one another’s cabins Stole and burned one another’s flags Came to view one another as “stinkers” “smart-

alecks” and “sneaks” Verbal prejudice became apparent, spiraling

downward towards aggressive territorial violence

The groups eventually had to be separated

How to create prosocial attitudes Propaganda: No

Positive propaganda about one group directed to the other by the experimenters did not help

Contact: No Doing non-competitive activities together (e.g., watching

movies) did not help Cooperative action: Yes

Experimenters arranged for camp truck to break down Both groups needed to pull it uphill Intergroup friendships began to

Phase 3- Integration Phase. This stage constitutes the most crucial and significant aspect

of the study. The researchers forced groups together to cooperate and

achieve a common goal. Both groups were taken to a new location and were told to fix

their drinking water supply which had been damaged by “vandals”.

The two teams worked together because a water supply shortage affected both groups immensely.

The second activity the boys were told to watch a movie together. They successfully agreed upon one, and later ate dinner together without dispute.

What was discovered? During the first phase, the researchers discovered that when you

place a group of strangers together, they take on specific roles within the group. Such as leaders, followers, etc. They bond together and become close friends (like a family).

Second Phase- because of the bonding in group one, they had a sense of pride towards that team. When forced to fight against each other they found themselves in a battle. Each group believed their group was superior in all aspects.

Third Phase- When two conflicting groups are brought together to achieve a goal that can only be accomplished by both groups working together. They work together flawlessly.

EmotionalDevelopment in

Middle Childhood


The Changing Understanding of Emotion

During middle childhood, children: become increasingly able to understand

the complexity of emotion-arousing situations

take particular situations into account when determining an appropriate emotional response

know a great deal about display rules for emotions

These changes seem related to increases in true empathy for others.


Emotional, Social, & CognitiveBases of Moral Development

Advances in children’s thinking support deepening of moral concerns and greater understanding of moral issues.

Consideration for other people’s feelings is a major factor in moral growth.

The particular moral principles children adopt are largely a product of their culture.

Contexts ofDevelopment in

Middle Childhood


The Family

Parent-child relationships change markedly during this time.

Parents give children more responsibilities.

Parents no longer explicitly, continuously direct children.

The hallmark of effective parenting is keeping track of children’s whereabouts and providing supervision & direction when needed.

Parents influence by how they supervise.

Parenting Styles

Baumrind Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive

Maccoby and Martin Frequency of conflict over goals Balance of resolution



Parenting Styles & Child Development

Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning.

Their children score higher on agency.

Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers.

Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys.

Authoritative parents rely on discipline techniques based on reasoning.

Their children score higher on agency.

Girls high on agency tend to have argumentative interactions with parents, especially fathers.

Argumentative interactions are not associated with increased agency for boys.

Agency:The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events.

Agency:The tendency to take initiative, rise to challenges, and try to influence events.


Several factors encourage harmonious parent-child relationships:

understanding legitimacy of parents’ authority

grasping that parents have more experience grasping parents’ decisions are usually

intended for children’s own good empathy shown by caring, responsive

parents


Family Violence, Conflict, & Divorce

Harsh physical abuse relates to later negative behavior in children.

Other violence in the family is associated with child problems including aggression and withdrawal.

Ending parental conflict moderates negative consequences of divorce.

Negative impact of divorce on girls may be more delayed.


Family Violence, Conflict, & Divorce

Factors that promote good outcomes for children after divorce:

ongoing contact with both parents an end to parental conflict cooperation between parents

regarding child care custodial parent’s emotional well-

being good relationships in any

stepfamilies


Sibling Relationships

Sibling and peer relationships differ in important ways: There is usually a greater age

disparity between friends. One of the siblings tends to get

more power and privileges. In middle childhood, friendships

rarely cross gender boundaries.



Emotional Qualities of Sibling Relationships

Competition for parents’ attention and approval is common.

Sibling strife based on social comparison intensifies after about age 8.

Rate of conflict is higher with siblings than with peers.

Younger siblings see older ones as controllers and facilitators.



Factors influencing quality of sibling relationships: closeness in age gender composition stress personalities preferential treatment by parents



Emotional ambivalence common among siblings offers important learning: When siblings fight, they cannot

simply end their relationship. They can provide mutual support. Older siblings may be assigned the

role of caring for younger siblings. Adopting role of boss may help older

siblings practice leadership skills.


The School

School provides important context for socialization in cultural values.

Family & school factors affect school achievement & adjustment.

School achievement & adjustment predict later mental health.

After-care arrangements are important, with impact depending to some extent on socioeconomic status.


The Coherence of Developmentin Middle School

Development in middle childhood is coherent for three reasons:

1. coherent sets of influences2. coherence of individual

adaptations3. coherence of development over

time

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