Sufi Mysticism forms an important part of all religious

traditions in the world. With the natural religion such

as Hinduism and Paganism, it began with the beginning

but with Abrahamic religions, it emerged as a

counterweight against the dogmatism and

institutionalized creeds. In Islam, mysticism is known as

Sufism and Tasawwuf.

The 10th century marked a new phrase in the history

of Islam. The Abbasid State collapsed and with it

collapsed the rationalist or Mutaliza philosophy. The

Mutalizas were favoured by the Abbasids because they

could be used to suppress the orthodox Ulama and the

systemization of theology by applying reason (aqal) to

it.

The Mutalizas believed that the man was the maker of

his own destiny and the Quran was created. They

disagreed with the traditional view that it was the

word of God. Soon after the collapse of Abbasid and

Mutalizas, the situation of the traditionalists was

strengthened. This led to the formation of the four

schools of Islamic laws. Of these, the Hanafi school

which was the most liberal was adopted by the Turks

and which later came to India.

The first important early Sufi was Hassan Bari and his

follower, the woman mystic Rabia who laid great

emphasis on fasting and prayer.

Zunnu Misri of Egypt believed in the concept of mystic

union with God by the process of contemplation. This

concept of the spiritual merger with God led to the

conflict with the orthodox Ulama. Thus, Bayazid Bayat

shocked the Ulana by stating:

“Glory to me! How great is my Majesty! I saw Kaba

walking around me.”

His successor Mansur was executed on the charge of

heresy and the proclamation of the doctrine of Anal-

Haq (I am the truth/God).

It is believed that Sufism assumed the form of a

movement in Persian during the 9th century. It was a

reaction against the rigid formalism of Islam. It

received a philosophical basis during the reign of

Abbasid Khalifa. They were influenced by the tenents

of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Judaism. The

credit for bringing about reconciliation between

traditional Islam and Sufism went to Al-Ghizali.

The term Sufi was derived from Safa (Pure) because of

the purity of their hearts. Others derive the term from

Saff (line, queue). They were called so because they

were in the forefront of the line of the queue before

God. According to a third definition, the word Sufi is

derived from the word Suf (bench) because the

qualities of these saints were similar to those of Ahsab

al Suf who were attached to the Prophet (PBUH). They

were called his companions (Sahba).

The word Sufi bears close resemblance to the word Suf

which means wool. They might have been called so

because of their habit or wearing a woolen blanket.

Sufism in India came with the advent of Islam. It is

wrong to assume that Islam invaded India. Islam did

not invade India. It came to India well before the

arrival of Mughals and Turks. There was an Afghan

invasion or a Mughal or Mongol invasion. It is believed

that the Indians were held in good spirits in the Arab

countries. The 11th century Geographer-author Idrisi

has written about the honesty of the Indians.

Thus, the Sufis came to India with the advent of Arabs

and roamed its villages and cities in the robes and style

of the Indian mendicants (Sadhus) and established

their hermitage at a number of places.

The mystics who preached to their disciples came in

the highest category. In the second category came

their disciples. The rulers and the scholars came next.

The common people who had neither the desire for

learning nor the desire for spiritual elevation came in

the fourth position.

Sufism was based on the monistic philosophy which is

the fundamental principle of Islam. However, their

belief in Wahadat-al Wajud (God and his creation are

one) make them distinct from the fundamental

Islamists.

This idea is in conformity with the Vedantic theory of

absolute monotheism. The Sufi saints, in their capacity

as pirs, the living teacher or the spiritual guide showed

the path to their followers called Murid for the

attainment of that eternal bliss which was called

Ma’rifat (gnosis) and wasl (union).

They also compared the relationship between the God

and his devotee as the one existed between the Lover

and his beloved. A sufi has to pass through ten stages

of dedication to God before he could attain

communion with him. These were: Tauba

(Repentence), Wara (Abstinence), Zuhd (piety), Faqr

(poverty), Sabr (patience), Shurk (Gratitude), Khauf

(Fear), Raja (Hope), Tawwakul (Contentment) and Riza

(Submission to the Divine Will).

Impact of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism on Sufi:

It is now universally believed that Bhakti movement

had a profound impact on the ideology of the Sufis.

The Khanqas were built in the fashion of the Buddhist

monasteries and Hindu mathas. Just like the Hindu

saints, they freely followed the Hath Yoga ascetic

practices of physical torture and showmanship. Some

of the Pirs shaved the heads of the new entrants to

their sect and observed the rituals which were

unknown to Islamic countries.

The Sufis owned some of their beliefs to the Nath

Panthis who had their headquarters at Peshawar. The

Sufis learned the practice of Hath Yoga from them.

Amrit Kund, the Sanskrit book on Hath Yoga was

translated into Persian and Arabic by the Sufis.

The famous poets of the time such as Sanai, Attar, Iraqi

and Rumi also helped to spread the message of Sufism.

Khwaja Muinuddin Chisti

He was born in Seistan in 1141 and turned into an

ascetic soon after his father’s death. He was initiated

into the Chisti order by Khwaja Usman at Nishapur. He

later migrated to Lahore and then shifted to Ajmer.

It is believed that the Khwaja had two wives one of

which was a Hindu converted to Islam. He believed in

Divine monotheism and Wahadat-al-Wajud. His

mausoleum at Ajmer has become a place of pilgrimage

for both Hindus and Muslims Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

visited his grave and a dome on this tomb and a

mosque was built by Mahmud Khilji of Malwa. His

disciple Hamiduddin settled at Nagaur. He was so

careful of the Hindu sentiments that he became a

vegetarian and wrote Sufi poetry which promoted

Hindu Muslim unity.

The Qubrawiya on the other hand encouraged their

supporters to demolish temples in Kashmir.

Sheikh Hamiduddin Chisti and Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar

Kaki:

He was one of the disciples of Khwaja Muinuddin

Chisti. Sheikh set up his abode in a mud-house near

Nagpur in Rajputana and carried on the peaceful

propagation of Islam. Sheikh Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar

Kaki was an immigrant from Farghana. He settled in

Delhi during the reign of Iltutmish on the directives of

Muinuddin Chisti. The Chisti influence at Delhi was set

up by Khawala Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki. Sheikh

Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi was the last of the great

Chistis. He was with Muhammad Tughlaq’s army in

Sind when the Sultan died and helped in the elevation

of Firoz to the throne.

Sheikh Fariduddin Ajodhan:

He was a disciple of Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki and

was an Afghan by caste. Though a householder, he

lived in the state of utmost poverty. A large number of

his shabads (Sayings) are incorporated in Guru Granth

Sahib. One of his most important disciples was Sheikh

Nizamuddin Auliya. He set up his headquarter at

Ghiyasup near Delhi and gave the capital true Islamic

touch. He was popularly called Mahbub-i-Illahi by his

followers. His famous disciples were Nasiruddin Chirag-

e-Delhi and Sheikh Salim Chisti. The latter was the

patron saint of Emperor Akbar.

Two forms of Sufi Silsilsas remained popular in pre-15th

century India-the Chisti and the Suhrawardi. Three

more came into prominence after the 15th century.

They were Shartari, Qadiri and Naqshbandi.

During the last days of Delhi Sultanate, each Sufi Silsila

had a distinctive character. Each Silsila had distinctive

belief and each Pir (head of a Silsila) was labeled as

Khalifa.

Sufi movement had a love-hate relationship with the

traditional Islam. Some Sufi Pirs claimed that they had

received enlightenment from God. This created severe

rift between the two. Al-Ghizali (1111 AD) tried to

make a compromise between the two but soon after

his death, ideological conflict renewed.

The main cause of this rift was the principle of

Wahadat-al-Wajud (the Unity of Being) propagated by

Ibn-al-Arabi (died 1240 AD). Wahadat-al-Wajud was in

direct opposition to the Shariat (traditional Muslim

Laws). The early Sufi ideology was also opposed by the

Ulama because it initiated the practice of the worship

of the saints and their graves.

Despite all these developments, some of the Sufi saints

such as Sheikh Nasiruddin Mahmud Chirag-i-Delhi

tried to bring a compromise between the traditional

Islam and Sufis. Their Sufi poetry deals with this

subject. Other saints such as Sheikh Alauddin Simnani

criticized the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-Wajud and

propagated Wahadat-al-Shadud (Oneness of

Appearance). This doctrine states that there is a clear

distinction between God and his creation. It was in

direct opposition to Wahadat-ul-Wajud which states

that God and his creation are one.

The Sufi movement in the Mughal period can be

divided into three distinct classes:

1. Wahadat-al-Wajud (God and his creation are one)

2. Wahdat-al Shadud (God and his creation are

distinct)

3. Wahad-us-Shadud (the anti-Hindu and pro-Shariat

Ideas)

UN-TRADITIONAL SUFIS:

In all the ages of the Muslim history, we come across a

distinct class of Sufi traditions which were known for

their complete disregard of Shariya. They were called

the Ecstatic Ones (Majzub). One of the most famous

among them was Sheikh Saadullah Bani Israel who

started his career as an orthodox Muslim but turned

into a moderate Sufi during his last years.

He fell in love with a prostitute and spent all his wealth

on her. But he spent his later years in the study of

Islamic mythology and religion.

Another important Saint was Sheikh Jalal Kannauji who

used to blacken his face with dirt and roamed the

streets of cities shouting and beating his chest.

But the most famous among the ecstatic ones was

Sarmad who was famous for his unusual and strange

way of life. He was executed during the reign of

Aurangzeb in 1661.

Naqshbandi Movement

Naqshbandi movement was born in the early years of

the 13th century in Transoxiana. It is believed that

Babur was a devotee of Sheikh Ubaidullah Arhar and

his successors.

The founder of the movement in India was Baq-i-Billah.

Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was one of his most trusted

Devotees. He was an orthodox Muslim and a firm

propagator of Wahadat-al-Shadud.

Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was influenced by the two

important developments of his age. The first was

liberal policy of Akbar and the second was the popular

notion that a new prophet will descend the earth as

soon as Islam completes its 1000 years of existence.

Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was convinced that he was the

second prophet of Islam and assumed the title

Mujadid-i-Alaf-i-Sahni. He criticized Ulama-i-Su

(worldly Ulamas) because they were ignoring the true

Islam.

Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi considered Shias heretics and

criticized their religious believes in a series of his

letters entitled Radd-i-Rawafiz. He also criticized the

Hindus and called Ram and Krishan lowly and immoral

individuals.

Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi also criticized Wahadat-al-

Wajud of Ibn-al-Arabi. He supported Wahadat-ul-

Shadud of Alaudullah Simnani in Mabd-wa-Maad.

Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi was also against Akbar’s

policies. He was arrested in 1619 on the orders of

Jahangir. Though Aurangzeb was sympathetic to his

cause, he too had to ban his publications in 1679 in

Aurangabad.

Shah Waliullah of Naqshbandi Silsila

Another branch of Naqshbandi Silsila did not oppose

Akbar’s liberal policies. Thus, Naqshbandi Silsila was

divided into two branches. The first branch supported

Wahadat-al-wajud and the second branch supported

Wahadat-al-Shadud. The most important propagator of

Wahadat-al Wajud was Shah Waliullah (the proponent

of Wajuid Branch of Naqshbandi sect).

It was an era of the decline of Mughals. The Marathas

had overran the whole of India and the Jats and the

Sikhs were rising to prominence in North India. The

foreign invasions convinced him that Islam was in

decline in India. He wrote letters to the Mughal rulers,

nobles and important commanders advising them to

reform the administration and strengthen the Mughal

state by strengthening Islam in India. He invited Ahmed

Shah Abdali and prompted Rohilla chief Najib-ud-

Daulla to fight against the Jats.

But his influence on the state policies was negligible.

Tariqa-i-Muhammadiya

The most important leader of Tariqa-i-Muhammadiya

was Khwaja Muhammad Nasir Andlib and his son

Khwaja Mir Dard. Khwaja Nasir wrote a few books

entitled Nala-e-Andleeb and Ilm-ul-Kitab.

Mir Dard tried to bring a compromise between

Wahadat-al-Wajud and Wahadat-al-Shadud. He was

the representative of the Sufi tradition of universal

unity and equality. He stated that there is no basic

difference between the two ideologies for a true Sufi.

He was tolerant to the Hindus and believed that the

Vedas were Ahl-i-Kitab.

Chisti Sect

Akbar was a loyal devotee of Sheikh Salim Chisti. From

1562 to 1579, he made 10 pilgrimages to the shrine of

Muinuddin Chisti. He built a new capital Fatehpur Sikri

in the vicinity of the Chisti Shrine.

The Sufi tradition believed in the division of the areas.

Thus, when a singer requested Baba Farid to pray for

his well being, Baba Farid replied that he should rather

go to Bahauddin Zakariya because his influence ends at

the water tank.

The Chisti saints believed in Shariyat but they were not

opposed to the Hindus. The contradiction in Sufi ideas

is clearly visible in Sheikh Abdun Quddus Gangohi who

belonged to the Chisti Saviri tradition. He advised

Babur and Sikander Lodhi to establish Sharia in India

but he also believed that Shariya is not necessary for

those who are spiritually mature. He believed that

there is no difference between a Kafir and a Muslim

because all are created equal by God. He wrote Rushad

Nama in which he accepted Pantheistic doctrine of the

Yogis and he also composed verses under the pen

name of Alakh. He believed in the worship of Shiv and

Shakti.

Another important Sufi saint who was well versed in

Chisti, Naqshbandi, Sohrawardi and Qadri Silsilah was

Shah Qalimullah Jahanabadi. He was a strong

supporter of Sama (Sufi musical gatherings). His

teachings are compiled in Maqtubat-i-Kalimi. He was

succeeded by Sheikh Nizamuddin Aurangabadi in

Deccan.

Shartari Silsila

Shartari Silsila was known as Ishqiiya in Persia

Bistamiya in Turkey and Turan. They were tolerant to

the Hindus and believed in Wahadat-al-Wajud. The

founder of this Silsila was Sheikh Abdullah Shartari and

it was popularized by Sheikh Muhammad Ghauss of

Gwalior.

Sheikh Muhammad Ghauss wrote Jawahar-i-Khamsa

which discusses the mystic and magical aspects of

Sufism. He studied Sanskrit and compiled Qaleed-i-

Makhazin. He translated Amrit Kund under the title of

Bahr-ul-Hayat. This sect became popular in Gwlior,

Mandu and Burhanpur during the reign of Shahjahan

and Auranzgeb.

Sohravardi Silsila:

The foundations of this Silsila in India were laid by

Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya. He had spent a

considerable time of his life in Central Asia. He was

initiated into mysticism by Sheikh Shahabuddin of

Baghdad. Unlike the Chistis, the Suhravardis were

politically influential and did not believe in austerity

and self mortification. The visitors in their Khanqas

were treated like guests. Bahauddin Zakaria is reported

to have said that he had nothing to do with the

common people because no reliance could be placed

upon them. His blessings were for a specific few. The

doors of their Khanaqas were closed for qalandars and

fakirs.

The Sohravarids accepted unsolicited gifts from the

Sultans or uncultivated land where they could labour

themselves. They laid emphasis on the observance of

all of the external form of religion.

The Suhravardi saint Sheikh Jamaluddin did not

hesitate to make forcible conversion. Bahauddin

Zakariya openly sided with Iltutmish.

It is also true that most of these changes were taking

place at the top, among the ruling class, the nobility

and the upper class and did not affect the common

people. These developments occurred in the rural

circles and spread in urban areas and cities. It was a

process that was to remain in action for centuries to

come.

The Purdah tradition was popular among the

aristocracy in the old civilizations especially among

Greeks, Persia and the Western Asia. The tradition

started in Byzantine court circles where the women

were kept in secluded corners and the eunuchs were

employed to guard their quarters. It travelled to Russia

where there was a strict seclusion of women right upto

the time of Peter the Great.

It had nothing to do with the Mongols who did not

segregate their women folk. The Arabic and Persian

civilization was influenced by the Byzantine elements.

Still, there was no seclusion of women in Central Asia

and Arabia. The Afghans did not segregate their

women folks. Purdah became popular in India during

the Mughal period when it became a mark of prestige

among the upper classes.

Thus, the Sufis were not instrumental in bringing about

a cultural revolution. The Sufis did not have the means

to initiate such a change.

Qadri Silsila

Another important development in the Mughal era was

the effort to bring together Wahadat-ul-Wajud and the

Hindu Vedanta. Qadri Silsila was the result of this

effort.

The movement was founded by Sheikh Abdul Qadir

Jilani. The headquarter of the movement was in Uchch.

Another important Sufi of Qadri Silsila was Abul Haq

Dehlvi. His ideas about Islam were very close to Sheikh

Ahmed Sirhindi. He propagated Shariya but he did not

condemn the principles of Wahadat-al-Wajud.

He wrote Akbhar-ul-Akhyar(life stories of important

saints), Madariz-ul-Nububwa (the Supremacy of the

Prophet) and Nuriya-i-Sultania. He was very close to

Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan).

However, Mian Mir and his disciple Mullah Shah were

more inclined to Pantheistic doctrines. Mulla Shah was

the ideological teacher of Dara Shikoh and his sister

Jahan Ara. Jahan Ara later wrote a tract entitled

Sahibiya (biography of Mulla Shah).

Dara Shikoh was sympathetic to Qadri sect. Dara

Shikoh’s books deals with the different aspect of Sufi

mysticism. He also held a series of discussion with Yogi

Baba Lal.

Safinat-ul-Auliya (biographies of the Sufis of different

Silsilas),

Saqinat-ul-Auliya (Biography of Qadri Saints)

, Hasnat-ul-Arifin (poetry of the saints),

Tariqat-ul-Haqiqat (different spiritual ways)

Risila-i-Haq-Numa (Sufi prayers)

Majma-ul-Bahrain (Comparative Studies of Hindus and

Muslim Sufi Sects)

Translation of Yoga Vashishta and Bhagwad Gita

Sirra-i-Akbar (Translation of 52 Upnishads)

Some modern historians have tried to describe the War

of Succession as the battle between two ideologies of

traditional Islam and Sulh-i-Kul. But this view is

criticized by Muhammad Athar Ali. Even Aurangzeb

had read and respected Sufi saints such as Sheikh

Sharfuddin Shahiya Maneri’s Maqtubat. This text deals

with the middle way between traditional Islam and the

mystic Sufism.

Sufism and the Regional Literature

The Sufi ideology had a direct influence on the

development of regional language and literature. The

development of Pashto language began with the Sufi

poetry of Sheikh Bayazid Ansari and Sufi Abur Rehman

of Raushniya sect. Sheikh Bayazid Ansari was the

founder of Raushniya Sect.

The development of Punjabi literature began with

Sheikh Ibrahim Farid, Sheikh Sultan Bahu, Waris Shah

and Bulle Shah. Their Sufi poetry laid the foundation of

Punjabi literature.

The Sindhi literature commenced with Shahju Risalo of

Shah Abdul Latif.

Hindi had found its founder leaders in Malik

Muhammad Jayasi and saint Kabir.

Decline of Sufi Movement

The Sufi movement began to decline in the early years

of 18th century and it is in decline even today. The early

Sufi saints were the considered as the spiritual

teachers. But in the later Mughal period, they became

to indulge in superstitions.

The decline of the Mughals and the Sufism occurred

simultaneously. Even Sheikh Waliullah, the great Sufi

saint of the later Mughal period could not revive the

Sufi movement and returned to the ways of Shariya.

Islam experienced modernization under Syed Ahmed

Khan but Sufism remained in decline.