English SyntaxSummer 2012

Sentences/Phrases (I love dogs.)

Words (dogs)

Morphemes (dog-s)

Discrete Combination of Language (Pinker, 2007)

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This week, we will:◦ Differentiate between descriptive and prescriptive

grammar◦ Explore a theory of syntax (SS & DS)◦ Distinguish between syntactic structures

and their functions. ◦ Explore the impact of syntax on language teaching◦ Discuss syntactic challenges associated with

academic English

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Key Concepts

Descriptive & prescriptive grammar

Phrase structure

Lexico-syntax Cloze procedures GTM & ALM Passive voice Modals Comparatives Logical connectors Verb phrases Relative clauses

Greek origin— “putting together” or “arrangement”

Earlier Approach: attempt to produce accurate description of the sequence in the linear structure

Recent Approach: greater focus on the underlying rule system that we use to generate sentences (Chomsky)

Syntax: the component of grammar that arranges words into phrases and sentences

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Grammar: the analysis of the syntactic structure of phrases and sentences

Two Sociohistorical Perspectives

◦ Descriptive Grammar

◦ Prescriptive Grammar

Descriptive Grammar: A system, which describes how a language is actually spoken.

Prescriptive Grammar: prescribes how one “ought” to talk reflecting the grammarian’s views of what is acceptable.e.g., Never begin a sentence with “because”.

Descriptive Grammar vs. Prescriptive Grammar

Rather than stating that one sentence structure is “correct” and another is “incorrect,” linguists describe how people compose and use sentences in real life.

For example, ending a sentence with a preposition, when writing, is not considered incorrect from a descriptive viewpoint (i.e., “Who do you want to eat with?”)

Grammar from a Descriptive Viewpoint

Linguists rely on native speakers’ use of language in order to determine what sentence structures are grammatically acceptable or not as opposed to the rules set forth in grammar books.

For example: He was tall, dark, and handsome. He was handsome, dark, and tall.

Grammatical Acceptability

Premise: if students are able to memorize grammar rules, then they’ll be able to apply them when writing

How useful is it to teach grammar in a prescriptive manner?

Grammar workbooks, dictionaries “Correct” vs. “incorrect”

Grammar from a Prescriptive Viewpoint

“Rather than trying to develop a set of rules for students to learn, linguistics attempt to make explicit the subconscious rules people use to produce and understand language” (Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p. 219).

Descriptive, not prescriptive

Theory of Syntax

◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NfN_gcjGoJo&NR=1

◦“I shot an elephant in my pajamas.”

Who is in the speaker’s pajamas? The speaker or the elephant?

The words do not have a double meaning, but the sentence does. (p. 219)

Sentences with Double Meanings

Some sentences are ambiguous, not because of words having multiple meanings, but because the sentence has 2 different structures.

Chomsky’s Theory of Generative Grammar

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Sentences can look different but have the same meaning.

◦ The man read the book.◦ The book was read by the man.(insert be, reverse subj. and obj., and add by

phrase)

The sentence expresses the same meaning even though the words appear in a different structure order.

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Phrase Structure: Hierarchical components, constituent analysis A simple sentence: “You will help Mary.”

SNP—AUX—VP A sentence (S) consists of a noun phrase

(NP), an auxiliary verb (AUX), and a verb phrase (VP). The arrow is translated as “can be expanded into.”

Let’s take each section and review!

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The term noun phrase refers to a group of words which act like a noun.Words can go before the noun

e.g., The flower girl

e.g., The Maid of honor

and/or after the noun.

They modify the meaning of the noun.

Noun Phrase (NP)

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Auxiliaries (AUX)

SNP—AUX—VPEnglish has a complex system for auxiliary verbs (can, could, should, will, would, might etc.).

e.g., She might drive.

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Verb Phrases (VP)

SNP—AUX—VPThe rule states that a VP must have a verb and can have one or more adverb phrases.

Skunks can spray badly.

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Tree Diagrams

1. One of the common ways to create a visual representation of syntactic structure.

2. When we diagram a sentence, we are organizing the underlying structure of phrases and sentences.

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“Syntax is the study of the principles and

processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis.”

-Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1971

N = Noun (boy, balloon) NP = Noun Phrase ( A red balloon)

V = Verb (see, know) VP = Verb Phrase (“saw it”)

Adj = Adjective (small, helpful)

Adv = Adverb (recently,

Prep = Preposition (on, with) PP = Prepositional Phrase ( on the bus)

Det/Art = Determiner/Article (my, the, a/an)

Pro = Pronoun (it, you)

PN = Proper Noun (Mary, Kansas)

Aux = Auxiliary verb (can, will)

Conj = Conjunction (and, but)

Symbols used in syntactic description:

Exercise 1: Let’s label each branch of the tree with appropriate symbol

Exercise 2: Let’s create a sentence that fits in the structure shown below

S

Det

Adj

NP

NP

VP

N

V Adv

Using Syntactic CluesColorless green ideas sleep furiously. What can we determine about this

sentence?◦ From a decoding perspective?◦ From a comprehension perspective?

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Decoding Perspective

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

“Known” words (can be defined by a dictionary and are recognizable).

◦ Can be pronounced using phonemic awareness and phonics skills.

◦ Using this view, I would assume that if I encountered this sentence, I should be able to know what it means.

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Comprehension Perspective

Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.

◦Graphophonics: I have encountered these words previously and have an idea of their meaning.

◦Syntax: The use of the words follows a familiar syntactic pattern and I can understand the morphological structure.

◦Semantics: Using this third cueing system, I can see that this sentence has no meaning.

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What are some strategies that you can employ to call students’ attention to the syntactic structure of English?

In what ways can you effectively teach the following set of structures? In your small group, come up with a mini lesson. Be creative.

(1)Mr. Phat expects Mr. Thin to paint himself.(2)Mr. Thin believes Mr. Phat will paint himself.

Syntax and the Two Views on Reading

(3) Visiting linguists can be boring (linguists who is visiting = boring).

(4) Visiting linguists can be boring (to visit linguists = boring).

(5) Kyle paid the bill. (active)(6) The bill was paid by Kyle. (passive)

Strategies to teach syntactic structures continued

Lexico-Syntax

Part of knowing a word means knowing how it functions within a sentence.

This term, lexico-syntax, is a way to show the link between words and syntactic patterns. (F&F, p. 242)

e.g.. “The linguist went to the lecture”.

Strategy for syntactic cues—cloze procedures.

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Example Cloze ActivityOnce upon a time, there was a _________princess and a __________ queen. They were both very _______ and ________.One day, they decided to find a ____________ castle that they both could live in together. They _______ to a distant land and found a _________ castle. They both lived happily ever after. The End.

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Example Cloze ActivityOnce upon a time, there was a _tall_ princess and a _huge_ queen. They were very _loud_ and _boisterous_. They decided to find a _smaller_ castle that they both could live in together. They traveled to a distant land and found a _gargantuan_ castle. They both lived happily ever after.

The End.

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Grammar Translation Method(GTM)

Method Emphases:◦ Explicit teaching of target language, grammar rules

◦ Vocabulary as lists of isolated, decontextualized words

◦ Translation of literary texts

◦ Text analyses for grammar, without context

◦ Little attention to pronunciation

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Problems with the Grammar Translation Method

An unnatural method◦ Violates natural progress of students from listening,

to speaking, to reading and writing R/W emphases neglect speech

◦ Raises anxieties about oral communication Exact translations are not always possible

◦ Not all messages in L1 precisely translate to L2 Learned rules preempt language acquisition

◦ and language use in natural/realistic context.

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Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) Syntax-driven and widely used method

of behavioral psychology and structural linguistics.

Method Emphases:◦ Dialogues and drills of English sentence

patterns (syntax).◦ Utilized only basic syntax patterns of English.◦ No explicit teaching of English

syntax patterns.

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Problems with the Audiolingual Method

Assumed that language could be learned vs. acquired◦ Students could successfully navigate the syntax

exercises But never acquired the meaning of the sentences

Focus of method limited to surface structures ◦ Students learned the surface structures in repetition

But, did not acquire the skills to construct their own deep structures of the target language..

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Content-Based Language Teaching Methods

Emphases:

◦ The targeting of language acquisition vs.

learning.

◦ Focus on comprehensible input.

◦ Teach language through content.

◦ Capacity-building among students for Cognitive

Academic Language Proficiency [CALP].

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Academic Language: Issues of Vocabulary and Syntax

Five Syntactic Challenges:◦ Passive Voice◦ Comparatives and logical connectors◦ Modals◦ Verb phrases containing prepositional

phrases◦ Relative clauses

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Passive Voice

Active Voice:◦ “The doctor diagnosed the problem”.

The subject, the doctor, is conducting the action. Passive Voice:

◦ “The problem was diagnosed by the doctor”. Subject of the sentence, the problem, is not

conducting the action. Challenge: Passive voice occurs infrequently

in conversational English but frequently in academic texts.

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Comparatives and Logical Connectors Comparatives:

◦ There are fewer planets than asteroids in the solar system. Challenge: Comparative words (e.g., fewer,

than) are essential to comprehension but are often very separated in academic syntax.

Logical Connectors:◦ The meteorologist encountered not only high

winds but also hail in approaching the wall cloud. Challenge: Multiple sentence clauses and

connecting words (e.g., not only and but) essential to comprehension are often widely separated in the syntax of academic English.

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Modals

Should, would, could, might E.g., “The botanist should have selected a

different species for study”.

◦Challenge: Such words indicate subtle

shades of meaning that are not always

familiar to CLD students.

E.g., obligation, necessity, and possibility

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Verb Phrases Containing Prepositional Phrases (PP) E.g., “Contaminated water percolates into the soil

after each efflux of a septic tank”. ◦ Challenge:

The first PP indicates where the water percolates. The second PP indicates when the water

percolates. Processing of such a sentence requires that

the CLD reader assimilate many related ideas from a single sentence.

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Relative Clauses

E.g., “The student located a problem with the equation that had not been noticed by others in the class”. ◦ Relative Clause

that had not been noticed by others in the class

◦ Challenge: Such clauses pack additional information

into sentences of academic English that are often already difficult for CLD and other students to comprehend and synthesize.

Relative clause constructions can overload learners’ working memory

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Academic English: Target & ChallengeRECAP

Five Syntactical Challenges for CLD Students:◦ Passive Voice◦ Comparatives and logical connectors◦ Modals◦ Verb phrases containing prepositional

phrases◦ Relative clauses

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Strategies for Success with Syntax

Focus your language interactions in the classroom on:◦ Academic English acquisition through content learning◦ Students’ Development of CALP skills

Monitor the syntactic capacities of CLD and other students. Know what syntactical structures tend to challenge

them. Scaffold and adapt instruction to address problem

challenges in syntax, especially among CLD students whose first language is not English.

Evaluate and reflect upon of the effectiveness of instructional adaptations in promoting syntactic knowledge and academic language acquisition.