Stylistic Classification Stylistic Classification ofof

English Vocabulary English Vocabulary

Word Study Word Study • A word is a linguistic unit that

• can be moved around relatively freely in a sentence;

• can be stressed;

• has only one primary stress;

• can be pronounced naturally on its own;

• can usually be inserted between two other words, but in the middle of a word.

Classification of WordsClassification of Words• By level of usage

– Common words– Literary / poetic words– Colloquial words– Special colloquial words /Slang, jargonisms,

dialectal words, vulgarisms/– Technical words – Archaic,obsolent and obsolete words– Barbarisms, foreignisms– Neologisms

Classification of WordsClassification of Words

• Common words

– Common words are connected with the ordinary things or activities necessary to everyday life. The core of the common words is the basic word stock.

– They are stylistically neutral, hence they are appropriate in both formal and informal writing and speech.

Classification of WordsClassification of Words• Literary words

– Literary words are chiefly used in writing, especially in books written in a more elevated style, in official documents, in formal speeches or poetry.

– They are comparatively seldom used in ordinary conversation.

– In English, most of the literary words are of French, Latin or Greek origin. Many of them have their everyday synonyms.

– For example, cast (throw), edifice (building), endeavor (try), purchase (buy), etc.

– …

• Poetic words:

• are called upon to sustain the special elevated atmosphere of poetry.

• As fair art thou, my bonnie lass,• So deep in Luve am I;

• And I will luve thee still my dear,• Till a’ the seas gang dry.. / R.Burns/

Classification of WordsClassification of Words• Colloquial words

– colloquial words or expressions are used mainly in spoken English, as in conversation among friends and colleagues. They can also be used in informal writings, but are inappropriate in formal speeches or writings.

– They are marked colloq. or informal in dictionaries. Such as: kid, guy, fellow, gay…

Classification of WordsClassification of WordsCompare:

– Feeling fatigued, Tom retired early. (literary)– Tom felt so dog-tired he hit the sack early.

(colloquial)– John was dismissed for petty thieving. (common)– John was fired for petty thieving. (colloquial)– Penalties for overdue books will be strictly

enforced (literary)– You have got to pay fines for overdue books.

(colloquial)– They approved of the plan. (literary)– They agreed to the plan.(common)

Levels of WordsLevels of Words

From a stylistic point of view, words are often divided into three types:

• formal• common • colloquial

Formal wordsFormal words

• In formal writing: formal words, learned words, or literary words, or big words (e.g. scholarly or theoretical words, political and legal documents, and formal lectures and addresses. )

• 1) Many formal words contain three or more than three syllables; most of them of Greek or Latin origin.

• 2) Formal words are seldom used in informal writing.

Common wordsCommon words

• being used by common people every day, and appear in all kinds of writing

• Common words are good for all kinds of writing

Colloquial wordsColloquial words

• Colloquial words are mainly used in informal or familiar conversation.

• 1) being short words of one or two syllables and most of them are of Saxon origin

• 2) seldom used in formal writing, unless for some special purpose or effect

Special Colloquial wordsSpecial Colloquial words: : Slang Slang

• are often used by uneducated speakers, with dialectal words

• are highly informal, vivid and

interesting

Slang wordsSlang words Slang is a language, words or phrases of a

colorful, facetious (playfully jocular; humorous), or taboo nature, invented for specific occasions, or uses, or derived from the unconventional use of the standard vocabulary.

The chief reason for the formation and use of slang expressions is to secure freshness and novelty.

A slang usage is not generally used in formal conversation unless the speakers are on intimate terms; slang embraces those daring and new expressions that have not been accepted by the majority of people as Standard English.

Slang wordsSlang words

– Beaver (girl)

– Smoky, bear (police)

– Nut, dome, upper, bean, block (head)

– Elevated, merry, jolly, comfortable, boiled, tight, blue-eyed, stiff (drunk)

JargonismsJargonisms• Jargon is recognized term for a group of words that

exists in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group.

• Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them.

• Most of the jargonisms are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them.

• They may be defined as a code within a code, that is special meanings of words that are imposed on the recognized code—the dictionary meaning of the words:

• **** grease – money• loaf - head

• The following jargons are well known in the English language:

• the jargon of thieves and vagabonds, generally known as cant;

• the jargon of jazz people;

• the jargon of the army, known as military slang;

• the jargon of sportsmen, and many others.

• There is a common jargon and there are also special professional jargons. Common jargonisms have gradually lost their special quality, which is to promote secrecy and keep outsiders in the dark. It belongs to all social groups and is therefore easily understood by everybody:

• Piou-Piou—’a French soldier, a private in the infantry’. According to Eric Partridge this word has already passed from military jargon to ordinary colloquial speech.

• Hummen—’ a false arrest’ (AE)• Dar—(from damned average raiser)—’a persevering and

assiduous student’. (University jargon)• Man and wife—’a knife’ (rhyming slang)• soap and flannel - ‘bread’ and ‘cheese’ (naval),

Archaic, obsolescent and obsolete Archaic, obsolescent and obsolete wordswords

• 3 stages in the aging process of words:• 1) The beginning of the aging process when the

word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent, i. e. they are in the stage of gradually passing out of general use.

• pronouns thou and its forms thee, thy and thine; • the corresponding verbal ending -est and the verb-

forms art, wilt (thou makest, thou wilt); • French borrowings: a pallet (=a straw mattress);

garniture (= furniture);

• 2) The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English-speaking community:

• e. g. methinks ( it seems to me);

• nag ( = no). These words are called obsolete.

3) The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, words that were in use in Old English and which have either dropped out of the language entirely or have changed in their appearance so much that they have become unrecognizable,

e. g. troth ( = faith);

a losel ( = a worthless, lazy fellow).

BARBARISMS AND BARBARISMS AND FOREIGNISMSFOREIGNISMS

• Barbarisms - are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language.

• Most of them have corresponding English synonyms;

• e. g. chic (= stylish); • bon mot (= a clever witty saying); • en passant (= in passing); • ad infinitum (= to infinity) .

• Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries, except in a kind of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words most frequently used in literary English.

• foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value.

• There are foreign words in the English vocabulary which fulfil a terminological function.

• Such words as ukase, udarnik, soviet, kolkhoz and the like denote certain concepts which reflect an objective reality not familiar to English- speaking communities.

• There are no names for them in English and so they have to be explained

Dialectal wordsDialectal words• Dialectal words are those which in the

process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is gene ally confined to a definite locality.

• *** lass- ‘a girl or a beloved girl’ / Scottish/

• ****lad- ‘a boy or a young man’,

• ****fash - ‘trouble, cares’.

VulgarismsVulgarisms• The term vulgarism, as used to single out

a definite group of words of non-standard English, is rather misleading.

• 1) expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like ‘damn’, ‘bloody’, ‘to hell’, ‘goddam’ and, as some dictionaries state, used now as general exclamations;

• 2) obscene words.

NeologismsNeologisms• The coining of new words generally arises

first of all with the need to designate new concepts resulting from the development of science and also with the need to express nuances of meaning called forth by a deeper understanding of the nature of the phenomenon in question.

3 types of neologisms3 types of neologisms

• terminological coinages- . those which designate new born concepts

• stylistic coinages - words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance

• Nonce-word - word coined to suit one particular occasion

• Among new coinages of a literary-bookish type must be mentioned a considerable layer of words appearing in the publicistic style, mainly in newspaper articles and magazines and also in the newspaper style— mostly in newspaper headlines.

• To these belongs the word Blimp — a name coined by Low, the well-known English cartoonist. The name was coined to designate an English colonel famous for his conceit, brutality, ultra-conservatism. This word gave birth to a derivative, viz. Blimpisli.

• Other examples are ‘backlash’ (in ‘backlash policy’) and its opposite ‘front lash’.

Aspects that connect with the introduction of new words

Socio-economic, political and cultural changes: e.g. New social habits and new living conditions: hire purchase, credit card, fringe benefit; chores, house sitter, house sitting, pressure cooker, microwave oven, instant noodle, supermarket etc.

Drug addiction: upper (a stimulant drug), downer (a depressant drug)

Some subculture: hippie, yuppie, gay, lesbian etc.

Women’s Liberation Movement: Ms, chairperson, spokeswomen, saleswoman, feminism, malechauvinism, and sexism.

Changes in education: open classroom “an informal flexible system of elementary education in which open discussions and individualized activities replace the traditional subject-centered studies”, Open University etc.

2. The influence of other cultures and languages

Nonce-word: exampleNonce-word: example

• -“Let me say in the beginning that even if I wanted to avoid Texas I could not, for I am wived in Texas, and mother-in-lawed, and uncled, and aunted, and cousined within an inch of my life.” (J. Steinbeck)

Technical wordsTechnical words Most of these technical terms are Latin or Greek in

origin. In fact, they are part of literary words. Most of the technical words remain essentially foreign to

outsiders, even to educated native speakers. However, under the influence of radio, television, newspaper and the Internet, we are witnessing a remarkable breaking down of the barrier between technical and common words.

Many technical neologisms created yesterday by specialists are today heard in ordinary conversation, e.g. moonwalk, space shutter, gene, transgenic, clone, etc.

Types of wordsTypes of words

• Content word

• 1) mainly used for its lexical content

• 2) has separate entry in the mental lexicon

• e.g. charming, fish, fly

Types of wordsTypes of words

• Function word• mainly used for its grammatical function

• has separate entry in the mental lexicon

• e.g. and, then, under

Types of wordsTypes of words

• Word form• shape of word

• doesn't have separate entry, but is included in entry information

• e.g. fly, flying, flies, flew

Types of wordsTypes of words wordword, e.g. , e.g. breakbreak

word formword form (inflection)(inflection)

breakbreak

breaksbreaks

breakingbreaking

brokebroke

function wordfunction word content wordcontent word

andand, , thenthen, , there car, happy, stealthere car, happy, steal

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