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Faculty of Arts, Law and Social Sciences Department of Music and Performing Arts

Writing Guide

(revised – 2014)

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Contents

Conventions for written work ............................................................................................. 3

Work submitted via GradeMark ......................................................................................... 3

Work submitted to the iCentre ........................................................................................... 7

Assessment criteria ........................................................................................................... 9

The essay writing process: behind the scenes ................................................................ 10

Planning, researching and writing your essay ................................................................. 13

Plagiarism ....................................................................................................................... 24

Oral presentations and exams ........................................................................................ 25

Referencing, quotations and bibliographies ..................................................................... 28

Format of your bibliography ............................................................................................. 29

Using quotations and references in your essay ............................................................... 33

Sample essay text and bibliography ................................................................................ 36

This Writing Guide is largely based on the Speak-Write series of books produced by Anglia Ruskin University. For more detailed discussion of the issues raised here, see the titles in this series: Stott, R. and Avery, S., 2001. Writing with Style. London: Longman Stott, R. and Chapman, P., 2001. Grammar and Writing. London: Longman Stott, R., Snaith, A. and Rylance, R., 2001. Making Your Case: A Practical Guide to Essay

Writing. London: Longman Stott, R., Young, T. and Bryan, C., 2001. Speaking Your Mind: Oral Presentation and

Seminar Skills. London: Longman For further guidance on Harvard referencing consult library web pages at:

http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/referencing/harvard.htm

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Conventions for written work

Like all disciplines, Music, Creative Music Technology, Popular Music, Performing Arts and

Drama have conventions for the presentation of written work that we want you to follow. The

most important skill you will learn during your degree is the ability to communicate your ideas

clearly to do so, you need to understand the ground rules. This booklet sets out these

conventions for you. We urge you to read it carefully and to keep it with you when preparing

your written work.

Work submitted via GradeMark

Online submission of assessed work via Turnitin Grademark is being introduced at ARU. In

the Department of Music and Performing Arts in 2014-15, Grademark submission is limited

to written work at Level 4, but will become the norm across all levels and for other modes of

assessment in the coming years. When GradeMark is used for submissions, the Module

Guide will make this clear and your module tutor will show you how to upload your work to

the system. Your written work will need to be produced according to the format guidelines

below to be accepted by Grademark.

Basic Format

Font

When formatting your assignment, please use a Sans Serif font (such as Arial), size 12.

Double Spacing

You also need to use double-spaced line spacing. Please do not use single or 1.5

spacing. Single-spaced lines can be difficult to read on the screen and will make your

marker’s job much harder. Non-double spaced text may also be affected when GradeMark

converts it to a PDF on upload.

To double-space your assignment, you first need to highlight the text you want to format.

You can set the line spacing of your assignment by using the Line Spacing drop-down button

on the Formatting toolbar in older versions of Word (e.g. 2003) and the Line and Paragraph

Spacing drop-down button on the Paragraph toolbar in newer versions of Word (e.g. 2010).

In iWork, there is a similar drop-down button to do this. In all these cases, you need to select

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2.0. In OpenOffice, you again need to highlight the text, but then right click on the document,

which creates a pop-up window; select Line Spacing, then Double.

Include your SID Number & Word Count

Please insert your SID Number on to each page of your assignment (your SID Number is on

your Ruskin ID Card). The easiest way to do this is to add your SID Number to the header or

footer of each page.

Please place your assignment word count at the end of your assignment (just before your

bibliography).

Paginate Pages

Please remember to paginate your assignment. You can do this manually or use the Insert /

Page Number function available in most word processing software.

This short video covers all these main formatting issues.

Make sure your assignment is in ONE document

Many students prepare their assignment in a number of different documents (e.g. the main

body is one, the bibliography a second and any appendices are in a third). If you do this,

when you upload your assignment to Turnitin GradeMark, you must put all of the different

documents together into one file. This is because you can only upload a single file when you

submit your assignment. The easiest way of doing this is just to copy and paste text from

one file to another, so that you have them all in one document to upload. Please remember

to ensure that you have included all of your references and any appendices before you

upload your final version to Grademark, as you will not be able to resubmit it again.

Grademark has the ability to accept a wide range of electronic file types, although your

module leader may limit acceptable submissions to certain formats. The system currently

only accepts files up to 20MB. Originality Reports from Turnitin are usually only available

from files submitted in the following formats:

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Microsoft Word (.doc /.docx) OpenOffice Text (.odt) Google Docs via Google Drive WordPerfect (.wpd) PostScript (. Adobe® PDF) Microsoft PowerPoint (.pptx, .ppt, .ppsx, and .pps) Microsoft Excel (.xls and .xlsx) HTML Rich text format (.rtf) Plain text (.txt) Hangul Word Processor file (.hwp)

File size

If your word-processed file exceeds 20MB in size, try saving it as a PDF, as this usually

reduces the file size to within the maximum limit. If your document contains any formatting or

formatted text (e.g. tables, italics or images), DO NOT save it as plain text to reduce its size,

or use the Cut & Paste Upload option, as you will lose all formatting elements. If your

document contains images you may need to compress these image files to reduce the

overall document size; a video showing you how to do this is available here.

Zip files

Some assessments may require you to ‘zip up’ your submission into a compressed or zip

file. If you are unsure how to do this, please look at the short video guide here.

What if you don’t use Microsoft Office to word process?

If you use software that saves your documents in formats other than those listed above, the

simplest solution is to use ‘save as’ to convert the final version of your assignment to a

Microsoft Word (.doc or .docx) file format before uploading it. As GradeMark will accept PDF

files, you can alternatively ‘save as’ (or depending on your software, ‘print to’) a .pdf file.

You have to submit a slide show presentation (e.g. PowerPoint)?

Occasionally, some assignments may require you to submit a ‘slide show’ (e.g., .ppt, .pptx,

.key, .odp). ‘PowerPoint’ files can be uploaded as they are, but they will ONLY show the

static slides, not any dynamic elements such as animations and presenter notes. We would

recommend submitting presentations in a PowerPoint format (rather than .key or .odp). If

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you do not have PowerPoint, or when you also need your presenter notes to be shown,

converting your presentation to a PDF file is the best thing do. Most software now has the

ability to ‘save as’ or ‘print to’ a PDF file. However, if yours does not, there are many free

PDF creators available to download online. See this short video demonstrating .ppt to .pdf

conversion.

What should you call your assignment when you save it?

You can save your assignment on your computer using any filename you wish. However,

when you upload your work, you must use your SID number as the submission title.

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Work submitted to the iCentre

N.B. These rules apply to all assignments that are NOT submitted via GradeMark.

Assessed work, except online assignments and examinations, is to be submitted by 2pm at

the iCentre on or before the deadline date. This deadline will vary from module to module

and it is your responsibility to ensure you know the relevant date (the module guide for each

module will clearly state the deadline date for the submission of work). You should never

attempt to hand-in work to individual lecturers, place it in staff pigeonholes or email it

directly to your tutor. Work submitted in this way will not be accepted and will

therefore fail. When handing-in work, you should obtain a receipt as proof of submission

from the iCentre. You also are strongly advised to keep a copy of all work submitted.

Under University regulations, you are permitted to post your assignments to the iCentre,

although this is entirely at your own risk. If you wish to submit written work by post, you

should first obtain a copy of the regulations governing the process from the iCentre or

Faculty Office (Hel 245) and, of course, make sure you meet the detailed requirements of

these regulations

Work will be returned to you with feedback through the Faculty Office (Helmore 245) within

20 working days of submission. However, please be aware that, until the Department

Assessment Panel process is concluded, marks may change. The Faculty Office does not

hold work to be returned indefinitely; uncollected work will be passed back to the iCentre

initially and, if it remains unclaimed, will eventually be destroyed. It is essential to collect your

work to see markers’ comments and their advice on improvements to your work. Please also

note that, under the Data Protection Act, Anglia Ruskin, like all other universities, is not

legally allowed to give out results on the telephone.

You should ensure that you collect your end-of-semester work by week two of the

subsequent semester at the latest. Return of your work by post can only be arranged in

exceptional circumstances (for instance, in the case of chronic illness).

Basic Format

If you are submitting work via Grademark, please also see the format guidelines

above on pp.3-6.

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We expect you to abide by the following basic format rules when preparing all written work:

1. Specify your title: Your piece should clearly identify the essay title or set topic on which

you have chosen to write. We cannot assess the relevance of an answer if we do not know

which question you have chosen.

2. Pagination: Make sure you number your pages consecutively, including your

bibliography. Check that you submit every page and have stapled them together in the right

order (missing pages are a common cause of puzzlement for markers).

3. Assignment coversheets: If not submitted through Grademark, all written work should

be submitted with a standard Anglia Ruskin University assignment coversheet, printable

from your e-vision account for each module on which you are enrolled. Most assignments

are marked anonymously (the exception being performance and video work), so your

student number is the only means of identifying your work. Please check this number is

correct before submitting your work and that you have the correct coversheet for the module

and the assignment you are submitting. Never use someone else’s coversheet as this will

specify their student number, not yours.

4. Word-processing: We strongly recommend that you acquire word-processing skills

during your degree, if you don’t already have them. Anyone unable to word-process is at a

severe disadvantage in applying for work, and keyboard skills are essential for making the

best use of today’s information technology. Word-processing offers you obvious benefits

when writing essays: you can revise your drafts more efficiently, make use of spell-check

and word count software and keep backup copies easily. You will be depriving yourself of a

basic competence if you do not learn word-processing.

5. Font size, line spacing and margins: Word-processed work should use a 12-point font

size, double line spacing and leave a margin of at least 3cms on either side of your text so

that there is plenty of room for the marker’s comments. If you keep to the default settings of,

for example, Microsoft Word, these margins will be automatically set for you.

6. Quotation, References and Bibliographies: The correct ways of presenting quotations,

references and bibliographies are set out at the end of this booklet. If you do not follow these

instructions in your written work you will lose marks.

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7. Word-limits: All pieces of written work have a specified word limit to indicate the length of

essay required. Your work should not be substantially over or under this limit; aim for a word

count that is within approximately 100-words either side of the word limit. Do not confuse

quantity with quality and believe that the more you write the more marks you should receive.

This is not the case; a tightly edited and precisely expressed essay will always score more

highly than a rambling, repetitious and diffuse piece of work. In under-length work, you will

lose marks if you fail to address important issues when you have words to spare. It is usually

possible to write much more on set essay topics than the word-limit allows; under-length

work therefore often fails to explore fully what the question implies and is marked down

accordingly.

Assessment criteria

Each piece of written work will be returned to you with a coversheet completed by the

marker. This provides an efficient way of indicating to you how you have performed in a

number of specified tasks. The Department also uses a number of general criteria to assess

the quality of your work, as follows:

is the answer written in correct English with few, if any, errors in grammar, syntax,

spelling and punctuation?

is the answer written with clarity and precision, avoiding cliché and unsupported

generalisation?

does the answer respond properly, fully and directly to the question set?

does the answer display a good, detailed knowledge of the text(s), performances(s) or

composition(s) analysed, including commentary on textual, dramatic or musical detail

where appropriate?

does the answer offer a cogent, structured and persuasive argument backed up by

relevant evidence?

is secondary or critical reading used sensibly and thoughtfully, and is it referenced

correctly?

is the answer correctly presented?

You may start to feel confident about some of these factors only after more experience of

writing university essays (which is one reason why the first year is a foundation year), but

each of them is important and gives you an indication of what your tutors are looking for

when they read your work.

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The essay writing process: behind the scenes

The production of a good piece of academic work is a creative process that requires the

development of some specialised writing skills, as well as a sound knowledge of your

subject. Good essays are always carefully researched, planned and edited.

Students do not usually see each other’s essays and may never read a first-class essay

unless they are able to produce one themselves. The following section is an interview with a

tutor who sees hundreds of essays a year and who has become skilled in making decisions

about the quality of essays and adjudicating between borderline marks.

How would you define the essential features of an academic essay?

What I have to keep reminding my students, particularly in the first year when they have

been used to writing 'A' level essays, is that an academic essay is essentially an argument.

The problem with so many essays is that there is little or no argument. Essays generally

require you to demonstrate two things: (1) that you are familiar with the relevant raw material

and (2) that you can manipulate that basic, raw material in order to make a convincing

argument. Very often I find myself reading essays that demonstrate that the student knows

the material, even that they've undertaken days of research, but these essays do not

demonstrate an ability to mount and sustain an argument. The student instead regurgitates

either lecture materials or critical interpretations gleaned from secondary texts. The essay is

therefore descriptive but not analytical. It is more like a summary or paraphrase.

What are you looking for as you begin reading?

The first thing I look for is evidence that the student has engaged with the question right from

the start and is beginning to formulate an argument. The introduction is very important here;

I'm looking to see that a dialogue with the question has begun. I'm also looking for a context.

I want the student to tell me why his or her approach to the question is interesting and

important. Sometimes the context will be analytical, historical, sociological or philosophical or

sometimes the student will need to tell me that there's been a lot of debate in this area and

explain why. I'm looking for focus, for a voice that I feel confident with. I’m looking for

someone who knows the area and is going to take me round the issues in an objective,

informed and interesting way.

What are the things that make you critical in reading essays?

I have a great aversion to unsubstantiated generalisations. When someone opens a

paragraph with a sentence like 'In the nineteenth century composers thought ...’, I always

want to write in the margin ‘Which composers? – all of them?’ It is simply inaccurate and

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uninformed to imply that they all thought the same thing. We are trying to encourage

students to be precise, subtle and careful in their thinking, but generalisations of this kind

betray exactly the opposite faults.

I also find that in some essays the student is offering up lots of good, technically accurate

material but without an argument and without answering the question. These are descriptive

essays and I want to say 'don't just tell me what happens, analyse it, give me an argument, a

point of view'.

Punctuation and spelling errors also preoccupy me as I read. When there are many errors I

feel the student has not checked their work through and then you know they don't really care

about it or they've rushed through it. I want to see evidence that the student has given the

essay as much care and attention as I am giving it. I want to see that they have taken the

business seriously.

How would you describe the best essays you see?

A First Class essay will surprise me or make me think differently about the subject or present

the material in a new way. First Class work is always well written and has an originality that

makes it a pleasure to mark. There will always be an argument that is carefully controlled

and that answers the question, with good or even compelling evidence to back up all the

main points. There are many ways of getting a First. There isn't a formula to follow because

everyone has different strengths and ways of writing.

How would you describe the essays that you fail or which get very low pass marks?

The essays I fail have usually gone very wrong, often in more than one way. They will

usually make very little sense, be poorly expressed, lack coherence, and will be full of errors

in grammar, punctuation and spelling. They are unlikely to engage with the question in any

way and will probably be made up of superficial and general descriptions with undirected

waffle as padding. The essays that pass, but only just, will probably consider the question in

some way but lack much argument and make little detailed or telling reference to the actual

topic. They are also likely to contain unsubstantiated generalisations and will be

inadequately edited and proof-read.

How important is presentation?

It is occasionally possible to get high marks with a poorly presented essay, although to do so

the content must be of an exceptionally high quality. An essay with wide margins, clear

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paragraphs, indented quotes and full references makes such a good impression right from

the start and shows that the student has taken the work seriously.

Can you judge an essay just by looking at it?

In many ways, yes. Some problems with essays are very visible. When students have a

problem with structuring you can usually see it before you read it. Paragraphs will be very

short, sometimes only one sentence, and the look on the page is one of fragmentation, a

series of little pieces. These essays are usually rushed, with ideas expressed randomly and

disconnected from each other. In essays with less acute structuring problems, you can still

find that paragraphs start in peculiar places because the writer doesn't really what know the

main point of this particular paragraph should be. This is usually because the student is

finding their way as they go rather than starting with a plan. It's a fault in the planning stage.

Where do you feel students throw most marks away?

Proof-reading and editing. Most students don’t spend enough time on this. Sometimes when

there are a lot of mistakes, you suspect that the student has not bothered to read the essay

through at all. Submitting a piece of work straight from the printer without reading it back

carefully will guarantee that it is marred by writing errors. When I correct mistakes in

punctuation and spelling or suggest paragraph breaks here and the deletion of a repetitive

sentence or two there, I feel that the student should have done this at the final draft stage,

not me. If only the student had taken an hour or two to read the essay aloud to him or herself

they would be able to find more direct and fluent ways of saying what they mean. Editing and

proof-reading is vital.

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Planning, researching and writing your essay

The creative processes behind essay writing are complex and often invisible. The following

sections offer a way of thinking about these processes, but are not a set of rules or a

guaranteed route to gaining high marks. Each of the stages listed below may be done well or

badly, so it is not sufficient merely to complete each step to produce a high quality essay.

Some stages may also be more important for one piece of work than for another. However,

for the majority of essays, the crucial stages of the writing process are as follows:

1. Give yourself enough time: At the beginning of each semester, look up the submission

dates for all of your assignments on the modules you are taking. You will find this information

in each module guide in the Assessment section. You will often have more than one

assignment to complete for each module and you are likely to find that assessments

deadlines are clustered together in weeks 11 and 12. You will need to decide how to stagger

this work in advance. It is difficult to write two or more substantial essays in a week to a high

standard, so plan your time to allow you to complete each of the steps below for all your

written work.

2. Think about the question carefully: What does the question ask you to do? Think over

its wording, pull it apart, analyse it, use a dictionary or specialist glossary to check the

precise meaning of any terms that you are not completely confident about. Identify the key

words – these help you focus on exactly what the requirements are. The time you spend

clarifying the meaning of the question is time well spent, as it will stop you researching the

wrong information and help you to focus on the main topic areas that the marker will expect

to be covered.

Also consider the type of essay you are being asked to write. Many essay titles will contain

one or more of the words in the table below and you should ensure that you are clear about

their meaning so that you provide the required response to the question.

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Analyse Discover the meaning or essential features of something. Break down into its essential component parts. Take apart an idea, concept or statement in order to consider all the factors involved.

Compare Look for similarities and differences. It may be possible to make a reasoned decision about which element you prefer, although balanced argument is expected.

Criticise Requires an examination of mistakes or weaknesses and an indication of strengths.

Contrast Make a distinction by comparing opposite or dissimilar things or qualities.

Define Explain the precise meaning of something taking into consideration its context.

Discuss Examine or consider a matter. Debate it; provide argument for and against. Try to reach conclusions.

Evaluate Judge or assess the worth of something. Make sure that you justify, through reasoned and supported argument, your conclusions as to its value. Similar to ‘discuss’ although firmer conclusions are expected here.

Examine Inspect or scrutinise carefully and in detail.

Explain Make comprehensible / give a clear and detailed account of.

Justify Show to be reasonable. Justifications will invariably need discussion, argument and means of support – usually in the form of references.

Reflection Careful thought, especially the process of reconsidering previous actions, events, or decisions.

Summarise Express concisely, giving the main points.

Synthesise Combine ideas, from a variety of sources, into a complex whole. Draw upon the generalisable and make particular to the area under discussion.

3. Marshalling ideas: Jot down all the ideas you can think of in relation to the question

topic. Some people like to use a ‘spider’ diagram with lines joining up ideas to help them

map out connections at this stage. Try to consider counter-arguments too, showing that you

are able to think around a subject and see it from as many different sides as possible. This

exercise should enable you to identify the areas that you will need to research. List what you

need to know or find out so that you can provide evidence to back up your ideas.

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4. Gathering material: Your material is likely to be drawn from a number of different

sources: lecture notes, seminar notes, primary texts or scores, secondary critical texts and

information from articles in journals and other textbooks. You should certainly re-read the

primary text or re-consider the score with the terms of the question at the front of your mind,

underlining or highlighting crucial passages or sequences. You are likely to find many

important details directly relevant to the question now that did not strike you when reading

more disinterestedly.

Secondary reading comprises critical, historical, biographical or other studies that establish

the interpretative context for Music, CMT, Popular Music, Performing Arts or Drama. Select

your secondary materials carefully, as you are unlikely to have time to read everything

available on a particular playwright, technique, movement or composer. Use contents and

index pages to find relevant material in secondary texts, reading whole chapters if they seem

likely to be directly relevant to the question you are tackling. Be sure to keep full

bibliographical details (always at least name of author, title, sub-title, date and place of

publication and publisher) of all the secondary texts you consult. Note the page numbers of

any sections that you mean to refer to or quotations that you might use (you will not want to

waste time tracing these sources again later in the writing process).

It is impossible to give a definitive indication as to how much secondary reading you need to

undertake. A critical commentary on a set passage, for example, may require no background

reading at all. Other modules may ask for knowledge of historical context, for example, and

you will need to undertake research for this. Each VLE site will provide you with a link to an

online bibliography relevant to the material studied, and you can also consult your lecturers

or seminar leaders about your choice of reading. No module will require you to plough along

the library shelves to gain an exhaustive knowledge of a particular topic. But secondary

reading is often useful as a stimulus to your own ideas or to provide background knowledge.

Nevertheless, your main attention should always be directed to the primary compositions or

texts that you are asked to study in your modules. It is your detailed knowledge of, and

thinking about, these works that will form the core of your written work and provide your best

opportunity of gaining good marks. No secondary reading can replace this detailed first-hand

analysis.

5. Organising, selecting and planning: When you are satisfied that your research from

primary and secondary sources has given you adequate material to deal with the essay

question, it is time to construct a plan for how you will order this material. You need to

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organise your ideas and evidence into a sequential and logical argument, where one idea

or piece of evidence leads on to the next. The essay plan will be your map you are going

to take your reader on a journey and you need to have a route and to be able to rationalise

why you have taken this route rather than another. This is where counter-arguments come

in; these are very useful as a way of showing the other routes that might have been taken

and will help to define your particular point of view against alternatives.

An essay plan might simply consist of a sequence of your main ideas written in logical order

on a side of A4 paper. Another planning method is to write your main ideas on a series of

cards and shuffle their order until you find the best sequence in which to present your points.

In either case, you must ensure that your points follow one another logically and that you

avoid abrupt and confusing transitions in the essay itself.

6. Writing an ‘abstract’ or thesis statement: At this stage, you should have a clear idea

about the main argument that you intend to put forward in the essay. To test how clear your

argument is, try to write a ‘thesis’ statement that sets out what the essay will be about, and

the argument that you, the author, will be making. Sometimes you might choose to

incorporate this thesis statement into the introduction; sometimes you will incorporate it into

the conclusion, depending on when you want the reader to know your argument fully. (Note

that when writing a substantial piece of work, like a dissertation, the thesis statement

becomes an Abstract, a separate item on its own page.) Writing a thesis statement at an

early stage will help you stay focused on the question and your answer to it.

7. Clarity – grammar and punctuation: It is essential that you express yourself clearly

when you write. It might be obvious to you what you are saying, but is it obvious to everyone

else? You need to be able to express exactly what you mean and not leave it up to the

marker to work this out. Poor grammar will often make what you are saying confusing or

even incomprehensible. Consider, for example, the length of your sentences and their

construction. Short sentences requiring little punctuation work better than long, badly

punctuated ones.

A sentence that you cannot say aloud, without drawing a breath, is almost certainly too long.

Split it into two or even three shorter sentences. Not only will your style be less clumsy, this

change should also convey the points you want to make more effectively. However, it may

be that a long sentence is not making too many points, but is taking too long to make one

point, perhaps with irrelevant diversions. If so, be ruthless and remove the excess. Note,

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however, that a sequence of very short sentences is not stylistically effective either this

often implies simplistic thought processes. Use semi-colons and commas to vary sentence

length.

Punctuation: the semi-colon

Look at these two sentences from a passage about football:

a) The rich young men at these schools (which were in fact private rather

than public) had nowhere to hunt, fish, ride or otherwise use up their

energies; all they could do outside school hours was kick a ball in the

school’s open spaces.

b) Whole teams would rush back and forward on the field with the ball kept

close at their feet; there were no passes or long kicks, and some of the

rules used in those days were nearer to rugby than soccer.

The semi-colon (;) serves as a kind of halfway mark between a period (.) and a comma (,).

Each of the long sentences shown above could be written as two sentences, with a period

instead of a semi-colon, but writers sometimes prefer semi-colons in order to show a

particularly close connection.

Sometimes several options are possible, as shown in the following table:

Examples Usage

1 The ship sank. Eighteen lives were lost. It

was a great tragedy.

2 The ship sank; eighteen lives were lost. It was

a great tragedy.

clear, separate, short sentences, but

reads rather simplistically.

the first two sentences are closely

related as cause and effect, while the

third sentence is a separate comment.

The semi-colon is often used to show causes and effects, as well as a variety of other

logical relationships:

a) The work was inadequate; the project failed.

b) The work was inadequate; consequently, the project failed.

c) The work was inadequate; however, the project could still be saved.

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Punctuation: Using Commas

The table below shows some common sentences structures where commas should be

used:

Examples Usage

There was a bus twice a week, but it was

necessary to walk three kilometres to where the

bus waited. It was never a big place, but to me it

had more houses than there were stars in the

sky.

… down the steep, rocky path …

… I saw wide, flat fields …

In those days, the journey . . .

Nowadays, the villagers . . .

The comma separates parts of

compound sentences.

The comma separates items in a list of

descriptions.

The comma separates a special word or

phrase from the rest of a sentence.

These are three typical uses of commas. Absolute recommendations about comma use are

difficult to give, but the following points are important:

periods (or full-stops) are essential, but commas are often optional.

commas are used to separate pieces of information inside a sentence. If, however,

one piece of information is intended to flow smoothly into another then it may not be

a good idea to put a comma between them.

the separation of one piece of information inside a sentence from another is often (in

English at least) a matter of personal choice. The separation may depend on what a

writer wants to emphasise.

when shorter sentences are combined into longer ones (usually, simple into

compound and complex), periods tend to be replaced by commas.

Too many commas on a page are no better than too few.

At this stage of planning your essay, it is more important that you get your ideas written

down in a rough draft than to produce a beautifully polished piece of prose. Once you have

made a start, you can begin the process of polishing and improving your work stylistically,

ensuring that it is grammatically correct, deciding on sentence length and punctuating

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effectively. Aim to improve the clarity and fluency of your essay as you work through the

stages below.

8. Writing the main body of your essay: Begin writing according to your essay plan,

revising it if new evidence and ideas arise, but restricting yourself at this stage to evidence

gathered from primary and secondary sources that substantiate your main argument. As you

go on, note down any new angles that are tempting to follow; these may come in useful

when you are reviewing the essay later. Keep the argument close to the surface, concisely

summarise one point before you move on to the next (but avoid unnecessary repetition) and

pay careful attention to transitions from one part of your argument to the next. Make sure

that you start a new paragraph for each distinct idea. The main body of your essay will be a

series of related paragraphs, as examined in the section below.

9. Paragraphs The Building Blocks of Essays: Essays are made from groups of

statements placed in a logical order. These are grouped in paragraphs to form coherent,

relatively self-contained units. A sequence of these units makes up an essay, but it also

composes an argument that responds to a question or develops a topic. Before we start

thinking about how ideas are organised into an argument in an essay, we need to look at the

composition of paragraphs. How many elements are there in a paragraph? How flexible or

rigid should a paragraph length be? Should the one-sentence paragraph, regularly used in

tabloid newspaper comment sections, be avoided, and if so, why?

In academic essays, there is a distinction between the parts and the paragraphs of an essay.

By ‘parts’ we mean the main divisions of the structure of an essay: the introduction, the main

body and the conclusion. The main body of the essay will be divided into a number of

paragraphs. The introduction and conclusion of the essay may comprise more than one

paragraph as well. Each point in the essay may be discussed in one paragraph, or you may

need two, or even three, linked paragraphs to discuss it fully.

Paragraphs are not all the same length in academic essays; instead, the length of a

paragraph is determined by how much there is to say about a particular point. However,

paragraphs that are very short or very long should, usually, be avoided. If you find yourself

writing many very short or very long paragraphs then there may be something wrong with

your arrangement of points in your essay plan. Also remember that paragraphs need to be

related to each other using linking devices and that, within paragraphs, you need to sustain a

logical progression of thought.

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Consider the following points when structuring your paragraphs:

Is there one main idea in the paragraph?

That main idea should be set out in a ‘topic sentence’ (or sentences if further

elucidation is needed) either near the beginning of the paragraph or as its concluding

sentence.

The topic sentence(s) must contribute to your argument; it should make a claim or

offer a particular interpretation of aspects of the work. If you find yourself simply

paraphrasing a primary text or describing a musical score, you are not offering an

argument about it or an interpretation of it. Rethink the topic of the paragraph if this

happens.

The evidence that will support your topic sentence(s) comes next. Evidence can take the

form of specific details in the score or text and quotations from relevant critical works.

Remember that examples or quotations may need further comment or interpretation from

you too. Do not just string quotations together; if you include them, you need to show which

points they are supporting and why they are relevant. Often you will receive most credit for

detailed, close reading and interpretation of scores or texts that you undertake yourself,

rather than for readings borrowed (even when properly acknowledged) from secondary

sources. Giving concise quotations from primary sources to back up your interpretation is

one of the most effective ways to substantiate your own arguments about the work.

Finally, the paragraph needs to conclude. This may be through a summary sentence or a

sentence that prepares the reader for the next paragraph.

So, to summarise, in a paragraph we are looking for:

a topic sentence,

evidence to support the topic sentence,

further comment on that evidence,

a concluding sentence that prepares the reader for the next paragraph.

10. Writing the introduction: The introduction should be designed to attract the reader's

attention and give him or her an idea of the essay's main argument. There is no fixed

formula for introductions but you are likely to do some or all of the following:

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Focus on the objective of the essay. What is your 'driving' or dominant argument,

what do you intend to show? Tell the reader about your argument before you begin it.

Establish the question you are addressing. This might be analytical, historical, or

theoretical depending upon the question being asked.

Engage with working definitions of any key terms in the question (for example, how

do we define Modernism? Are there conflicting definitions? What problems do such

definitions throw up?).

Engage with the terms of the question and relate these to the line of argument you

are going to offer in your essay.

It is often sensible to write your introductory paragraphs last, when you know precisely what

you are introducing. When the main body of your essay is drafted, you will have a much

clearer idea of where your argument has taken you and how to summarise it in an

introduction.

11. Writing the conclusion: The conclusion brings closure to the reader, sums up your

points or provides a final perspective on your topic. You have been making a case, so use

your final words to make sure you have made it. Be careful not to weakly fizzle out, end

abruptly or merely repeat points already made. Make the conclusion strong and

authoritative. Perhaps keep a telling point in favour of your argument up your sleeve to

deploy in the conclusion. You might want to refocus the reader's attention on where they

started and the point they have reached through your guidance. Some conclusions will

summarise the argument, others will look forward to anticipate further questions or issues

that arise from the material in the essay. An essay must end in a controlled way, rather than

simply stop.

12. Editing: You should now have drafted all of the paragraphs of your essay. Before you

can consider this a finished product, however, you must give more thought to order, format

and presentation:

Check the unfolding of your argument and order of your paragraphs: Does

each paragraph lead on logically from the previous one or does the argument get lost

in places? Where is the argument strongest, where is it weaker? Can you find

additional evidence or ideas to improve weak sections? Should you re-order some

paragraphs to improve the clarity of the argument? Have you provided evidence for

each point as you progress in adequate detail?

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Check your writing: Read and reread your essay – annotate it with a red pen. Try to

anticipate the marker's comments. Does it make logical sense? Leave it for a few

hours and then read it again. Does it still make logical sense? Do the sentences flow

smoothly from one another? If not, try to add some words and phrases to help

connect them (transition words, such as ‘therefore’ or ‘however’, sometimes help,

although use these sparingly). Also, you might refer in one sentence to a thought in

the previous sentence. This is especially useful when you move from one paragraph

to another. Have you run a spell checker or a grammar checker? These aids cannot

catch every error, but they might highlight some slips that you have missed. Get your

dictionary and check any words of which you are unsure.

Check your style: Pay attention to the style of your essay by reading it aloud to

yourself slowly. Is every sentence clear, interesting and fluent? Use a thesaurus to

extend your vocabulary; avoid jargon if you can. Unpack sentences that have

become too long or convoluted. Is there a single word that will say what you mean

more exactly and economically than any rather verbose phrases? Try to develop a

direct, clear style. Vary sentence length and format so that the writing does not

become monotonous in its rhythms. Revise every word, phrase or sentence that jars

on your ear when you read it aloud. This kind of redrafting is at the heart of all

effective writing.

Check your tone and register: You should cut out any colloquialisms or slang terms

from an academic essay. Consider instead how to cultivate the following qualities:

seriousness of approach: markers will expect seriousness in the way the

writer addresses the issue and seriousness in the voice. Flippancy will be out

of place; wit, if it makes a good point, will not.

formal register: this should reflect the considered and measured thought

processes that will be going on. It treats the reader as if they were an

interested and informed acquaintance, but not a ‘best-mate’.

consistency of register: register ‘slippage’ can be very effective in comic

writing (for instance, the writer suddenly becomes intimate or very pompous)

but is inappropriate in academic writing.

objectivity of tone: as you will be engaged in persuasion, argument and

assessment, you should also try to be objective and neutral. We would be

surprised, for instance, to read: ‘Raymond Monelle reveals his own stupidity

in his tendency to apply the principles of semiology to the analysis of music’.

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The register here is formal enough, but the gibe of stupidity does not sound

neutral and objective. Academic essays should argue, not abuse or accuse.

cautiousness about the way claims are made: objectivity will be conveyed

in this cautiousness; its flavour can be caught in phrases such as ‘it could be

said that’ or ‘critics have claimed that’ or ‘this might lead us to the

interpretation that …’.

reasoned, analytical and logical thought processes: if we are going to be

persuaded by the writer and accept the case that is being made, we will

expect the writer to be analytical and to take us through the issues in a

sequential and logical way, explaining the decisions they are making as they

go. Make sure that the body of your essay does this to the best of your ability.

Check the instructions for the assignment: When you prepare a final draft, you

must be sure to follow all of the instructions you have been given. Have you

answered every part of the question set? Are there any implications that you might

have missed? Is your essay in the proper format? Is it well presented? Are the lines

double-spaced? Are your margins correct? Have you titled it as directed? What other

information (student number, page numbers, date, word count, name of marker) must

you include?

13. Proof-Reading: Read your essay again. Check that:

there are no errors of punctuation, spelling, and grammar.

you have included a properly formatted bibliography.

you have given appropriate references for all the quotations and sources you have

used.

Print out your copy for submission when you have checked and corrected all these points.

Read your essay one last time to check that all necessary corrections have been made and

that the essay is finally completed.

14. Coversheet and submission: Unless your essay is to be uploaded to Grademark (see

above, pp.3-6), print out the coversheet for the assignment from your e-vision account. Do

not be tempted to borrow a coversheet from someone else; their coversheet will specify their

student identity number, not yours. If you hand-in an essay without your own coversheet, it

will appear that you have not submitted an essay at all and therefore will be given a mark of

zero. On your coversheet, you must also provide an accurate word count and give the name

24

of your module tutor in the ‘To be marked by’ box. Simply staple the essay and coversheet

together; unless you are also submitting a CD, DVD or other extra material, there is no need

to put the essay in file or plastic wallet (these are typically a nuisance for markers). Be aware

that your work will be refused by iCentre staff after 2pm even if you are in a queue to submit

it. Make sure that you allow plenty of time to reach the head of the queue in the iCentre –

remember, many students share the same deadline and the iCentre will be especially busy.

Plagiarism

Plagiarism is the use of others’ work so as to pass it off as your own and perhaps the worst

sin in the academic book. Fundamentally, it combines theft (taking others’ intellectual

property) and fraud (claiming it as your own). Plagiarism should be avoided at all costs.

Penalties for plagiarism range from failure in the module in which the plagiarism is

committed to (in extreme or repeated cases) expulsion from your course of study. These

penalties indicate the seriousness of the offence; Music, Popular Music, CMT, Performing

Arts and Drama, like all other subjects, take the issue of plagiarism very seriously indeed.

1. How to avoid it. The first rule is always to give clear, accurate and thorough references to

all the materials that you have used in the preparation of your work. This includes both

primary and secondary sources. This is one reason why we insist that the guidelines on

quotations, references and bibliographies are followed so scrupulously. If you clearly indicate

that you are quoting, citing or otherwise acknowledging that an idea, a phrase or piece of

information (or most likely all three) comes from elsewhere then you cannot be accused of

plagiarism. On the other hand, of course, you will not receive high marks for an essay that is

merely a patchwork of citations from other people.

Secondly, you should always ensure that the notes that you make in preparation for your

essays are clear about which ideas are your own and which come from other sources. This

should prevent you from claiming something borrowed as your own inadvertently. Get

quickly into the habit of using quotation marks and clear references when you are taking

notes from secondary sources. Use additional methods (such as using differently coloured

pens or keeping different notebooks, for example) to make clear the boundaries between

your thinking and that of somebody else.

Remember, too, that plagiarism is more likely to happen when you are rushed or under

stress, so you need to be just as careful during the busy times when you have more than

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one piece of work to complete. Although stress may be a mitigating factor, it will not excuse

plagiarism.

2. What will happen if you plagiarise? It is very likely that you will be caught if you

plagiarise. Experienced markers are familiar with the telltale characteristics of plagiarised

work (we will not spell out here what these are) and need only run a sample of suspect work

through ‘Turnitin’ software to find any unacknowledged sources used.

In the Anglia Ruskin Undergraduate Student Handbook, you will find the academic

regulations concerning plagiarism under the heading ‘Conduct in Assessment’. Here, you’ll

find a detailed account of the formal procedures conducted at institutional level when a

programme decides to pursue an allegation of plagiarism. We dislike invoking these

procedures; because of the seriousness of the penalties involved, plagiarism cases are

always upsetting. However, in fairness to all the students who have produced honest work,

these procedures will be followed whenever we are convinced that plagiarism has occurred.

All this may sound intimidating, especially as we are dealing with a very small number of

cases relative to the total number of assessments undertaken each term. You should not

become over-alarmed by this issue, but you do need to take the matter seriously and be

aware of the dismal consequences that may follow from the unacknowledged use of other

people’s work.

Oral presentations and exams

Some modules have an oral component in place of a written assessment. The most common

form of this is the seminar presentation, usually 15-20 minutes long, on a topic agreed with

the seminar leader. Some Performing Arts and Drama modules include 5-10 minute oral

exams where students explain the aims and objectives of their practical work.

In oral exams, students are usually questioned by their module tutors and so are not

expected to give a pre-prepared structured presentation. Instead, you should reflect on the

success, or otherwise, of your practical work and review your original aims and objectives for

that project. You should be ready to defend the decisions you made in performance whether

as an actor, director or in technical production.

In assessing more formal oral presentations, we look for a number of qualities:

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1. Preparation:

is there evidence of careful reading and analysis of the primary material?

has relevant contextual or background reading been done?

is the topic addressed in a well-focused and detailed way?

has thought been given to the way the talk has been shaped in relation to the time

available?

2. Context and Organisation:

is the presentation effectively structured so that it is clear to listeners?

is the context and range of material properly defined?

is the material organised in such a way as to enable listeners to have a clear sense

of both detail and general issues?

what is the analytical quality of the material presented? Is it, for example, relevant,

informed, well developed, fresh in approach and specific in terms of evidence?

3. Delivery:

is the presentation delivered with a good sense of pace, articulation and structure?

to what degree does it engage listeners and offer them opportunities for questions

and discussion?

how successful is the speaker in encouraging and responding to questions?

what is the quality of any aids used? – for example, handouts, music or video clips,

projections, use of the white board or OHP. This does not mean that these aids must

be used; the success of a presentation does not depend on them, but they can be

used helpfully and imaginatively.

These are the general criteria we use, but this is not necessarily a checklist of things you

must do. For example, detailed background reading is sometimes not appropriate and

handouts are by no means always necessary (unless you are specifically asked to produce

one). In addition, staff are very conscious that the quality of questions and discussion is

sometimes out of your control.

Seminar Presentations: Seminars are an opportunity for informed discussion and debate;

they are not intended to be further lectures. When preparing a presentation for a seminar, do

not prepare your thoughts in the form of an essay that you read out; this will inevitably result

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in little or no discussion and is likely to be uninteresting. There is no substitute for knowing

what you are talking about, so prepare your chosen topic well and give yourself prompts in

the form of short notes to remind you of the point which you wish to make next. Remember,

at any point another member of the group is likely to interrupt and ask for clarification of a

point you have made or, more interestingly, to contest it. You will need to be able to think on

your feet.

Throughout your presentation you will need to refer to specific examples to support your

observations. Do not photocopy large passages from a score or play-text; it is much better

to prepare a more focused handout that contains the information you require. If you quote

directly from a score or play-text, it may be necessary to annotate the passage; do not

assume that the features you want to highlight will be immediately apparent to anyone who

sees the quotation.

In Music, Popular Music or CMT, you may also need to prepare recordings that contain

relevant extracts that you will use as examples. Organise these carefully to avoid wasting

time searching CDs or MP3 players trying to find the eight bars of music which corresponds

to the information on your handout.

As well as recorded examples and handouts, you may use the white board, OHP or

PowerPoint to illustrate how you have reached your conclusions. Video and slide projection

facilities are usually made available to you. Try to be imaginative in your presentation and

make it both interesting and informative. Practice presenting beforehand so that you can

time your delivery and be sure that you can make all your essential points in the time

allowed. As a rough guide, 400 words will take about 5 minutes to say. A visual aid can ‘say’

more quickly, so use one where appropriate.

Avoid bland generalisation and needless biographical details. The rest of the group should

already have good general background knowledge of the topic by the time you come to

present your seminar. Depth is always better than breadth on these occasions, so try not to

tackle whole works but instead select sequences to examine in detail. The group can apply

the insights you have provided to the rest of the work in their own time.

At the beginning of your presentation, say what you are going to say, say it, and then say what

you have said in your conclusion. Most people can only remember three or four main points

from a talk, so emphasise key points and repeat them in summary.

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Wait until you have the attention of the audience before starting to talk. Be confident and

enthusiastic, never apologetic. Be sure everyone can hear you. Try to sound confident, even if

you actually feel very nervous. Speak slowly, but vary the tone and the pitch of your voice.

Presentations can be daunting, and staff recognise that students have often not been trained

in doing them. However, they do develop useful communication skills that are increasingly

sought-after by employers. A successful presentation should give you extra confidence to

contribute your opinions to future seminar discussions too.

Referencing, quotations and bibliographies

Accurate quotation (making reference to, or citing) is a very important part of essay writing.

So is making a list of works cited at the end of your essay the bibliography. When you cite

sources, you need to provide enough information for your reader to be able to trace the

originals and thus see that you are making responsible and accurate use of them. If you are

summarising or paraphrasing someone else’s ideas in your own words, you must attribute

them properly, otherwise you run the risk of plagiarism. You will also lose marks if references

and bibliographies are not presented correctly. This does not mean that the odd slip-up on a

fine point carries an automatic penalty, but it does mean that you must observe the main

rules consistently.

You must provide references and a bibliography for most types of coursework (essays,

critical reflections, reports or reviews), but you are not required to provide either in any

examinations.

Music, Popular Music, CMT, Performing Arts and Drama all require you to use the Harvard,

or author-date, referencing system. Look at the following examples closely, noting the

punctuation used for each type of entry. Note that bibliography entries in Harvard format do

not end with a full stop.

If you encounter a case not covered here, further advice is available from the ARU Library’s

guide to Harvard referencing at:

http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk/referencing/harvard.htm

Ask your module leader for further advice if anything remains unclear to you.

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Format of your bibliography

The bibliography is a list at the end of your essay of all the sources from which you have

quoted or to which you have referred. You will find all the information you need to compile a

bibliography on the title, edition and contents pages of the books and journals that you use.

For a book:

Last name of author, initial(s)., date of publication. The Title of the Book: With Any Subtitle. Edition (if not the first edition). Place of publication: Publisher

The elements in the bibliography entry are usually separated by full stops. There are two

exceptions to this, the comma after the author’s initials, which separates these from the date

of the edition used, and the colon between place of publication (always a city, not a country)

and publisher. Note that the principal words in the title and subtitle take capital letters, as do

place of publication and publisher. As shown above, each entry in the bibliography should

have a ‘hanging indent’, that is, the first line is not indented, but the second and any

subsequent lines are. The title and subtitle of the book should be typed in italics. Your entry

in the bibliography for a single-authored book will look like this:

A book that contains chapters by a number of different authors can be cited in a similar

format. For example:

The abbreviation ‘ed.’ is used if there is one editor; more than one editor is denoted by ‘eds.’

This comes before you give the date of the edition and is again separated from it by a

comma. As an abbreviation ‘ed.’ or ‘eds.’ also always takes a full stop.

For chapters in books:

Last name of author, initials., date of publication of chapter. ‘Title of Chapter between Single

Quotation Marks’. In: initial(s). last name of editor(s), ed(s)., date of book. Title of

Book: Subtitle. Place of publication: Publisher, Chapter number or pp. first to last

page numbers

Phelan, P., 1993. Unmarked: The Politics of Performance. London: Routledge

Counsell, C. and Wolf, L. eds., 2001. Performance Analysis: An Introductory Coursebook. London: Routledge

30

Note here that the chapter title is between quotation marks while the book title and any

subtitle are typed in italics. For example:

For articles in journals:

Last name of author, initials., date of publication. ‘Title of Article between Single Quotation

Marks’. Journal Name in Italics, Volume number (Issue or part number), pp. first to last

page numbers

Note that the article title is between quotation marks while the journal title is typed in italics.

For example:

For two or more publications by the same author in the same year:

Works by the same author are usually listed in the bibliography in chronological order

according to date, with the earliest first. When an author has brought out two or more

publications in the same year, whether books, chapters in books or journal articles, you

should add a lower case letter to distinguish between the same year dates. Sort titles with

the same date into alphabetical order; the first will have the letter a added to the date, the

second b, and so on. Without this addition, it would not be clear to which text your reference

by author and date refers. Order works with the same publication date according to this a or

b addition in your bibliography. When you are citing more than one work by the same author,

you need not repeat the author’s name for subsequent entries; use dashes instead, as

below:

Beckett, S.,1970a. Le Dépeupleur. Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit

1970b. More Pricks Than Kicks. 1934. London: Calder and Boyars

In this example, the date when the second work was first published is included after the title.

When this information is significant, you should include it – in Music, Popular Music, CMT,

Performing Arts and Drama the original date of a work is often important. Nevertheless, the

date used as the second element in your reference (e.g. 1970b above) should be the date

when the edition that you are using was published. Page numbers often vary between

editions, so the publication date is necessary to identify the edition to which you refer. If

Tuan, Y-F., 1990. ‘Space and Context’. In: C. Counsell and L. Wolf, eds., 2001. Performance Analysis: An Introductory Coursebook. London: Routledge, pp.94-108

Buckland, F., 2001. ‘Towards a Language of the Stage: The Work of DV8 Physical Theatre’. New Theatre Quarterly, 11 (44), pp. 371-380

31

‘Second’ or ‘Third’ edition is stated in a textbook, then include that information rather than

giving the original date of the First Edition.

For a web page:

Be aware that while many electronic journals and websites developed by institutions or

associations are extremely valuable, other information posted on the web comes with no quality

assurance. Unlike traditionally published material, essays or articles on the web are often not

subjected to any peer review or editorial control. Your research for essays therefore should not

be over-dependent on Internet sources. List any web pages you use in a separate section in

your bibliography headed ‘Online Resources’. Format for web entries is as follows:

Author or institutional source, Year date of web page. ‘Title of Web Page Between Single

Quotation Marks’ [online]. (date of any update). Available at: <website address>

[Accessed dd/mm/yy]

The bibliographical information given on web pages is also very various; supply information

for the elements required as far as it is available. For example:

For a music score:

Last name of originator, Initial(s)., year. The Title of the Score: With Any Subtitle. If editor(s)

then ed(s). Initial(s) and last name of editor(s). Place of publication: Publisher

As for a book, the title and subtitle of the score should be typed in italics. For example:

Dagless, J., 2004. ‘Dead Body Wanted to Star in Show’ [online]. Available at: <http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/entertainment/3557121.stm> [Accessed 25.02.04]

Britten, B., 1980. Eight Folk Songs Arrangements for High Voice and Harp. ed. O. Ellis. London: Faber Music

32

For a sound recording:

Name of originator, Initial(s)., year. The Title of the Recording: With Any Subtitle. [Sound type medium] Name of Record Label. Ref Number. (Other relevant details)

For example:

The Coasters, 1958. Sorry But I'm Gonna Have to Pass. [Stereo Audiocassette] WEA International Inc. A4591C

For a DVD or video:

Full title of DVD or video in Italics. (Year of release). [type of medium] Directed by Initial(s)., Last Name of Director (if relevant). Country or origin: Film studio or maker. (Other relevant details)

Note that this is the first instance where reference is principally by title, rather than author,

editor or originator. For example:

Great Films from the 80s: A Selection of Clips from Warner Brothers’ Top Films from the 1980s. 2005. [DVD] New York: Warner Brothers

For a film:

The required elements are:

Title of Film in Italics. Year of release. [type of medium] Directed by Initial(s). Last Name of Director (if relevant). Country of origin: Film studio or maker

For example: Macbeth. 1948. [Film] Directed by O. Wells. USA: Republic Pictures You should list DVD, video or films in a separate section in your bibliography headed

‘Filmography’ with titles listed in alphabetical order.

Example of a Bibliography: Note that entries are listed in alphabetical order according to

author or editor’s surname. The list below shows where you should include details of any

translator too. If the title or edition page lists multiple places of publication, you should use

the first place name given for your entry. For example, Routledge publish most of their titles

in both London and New York, but British editions will list London first and you should follow

this usage.

Adams, P., 1996. The Emptiness of the Image: Psychoanalysis and Sexual Difference.

London: Routledge

33

Agamben, G., 1994. ‘The Cabinet of Wonder’. In: The Man Without Content. Translated by

G. Albert. California: Stanford University Press

Alberti, L. B., 1956. On Painting. Translated by J. R. Spencer. New Haven: Yale University

Press

Alexander, P., ed., 1951. ‘Introduction’. In: The Complete Works of Shakespeare. London:

Collins

Anzieu, D., 1989. The Skin Ego: A Psychoanalytical Approach to Self. Translated by C.

Turner. New Haven: Yale University Press

Using quotations and references in your essay

You will frequently need concise quotations to back up your arguments or to illustrate your

points in an essay. Lengthy quotation should be used more sparingly as a particular point is

unlikely to be clearly and crisply illustrated by quoting long passages. Badly chosen

quotations, sometimes inaccurately copied, drawn from unreliable web pages or randomly

inserted into a text, are common faults in student essays. Remember that you will lose

marks if quotations are presented incorrectly; nor will you gain marks if you use quotations

ineffectively. Always introduce quotations in your own words (use a formula such as ‘As

Jones argues,’ or ‘According to Smith’s analysis,’) and make sure that your punctuation and

syntax around quotations is correct.

Consider the following points:

Can I change the original quotation?

Generally speaking, no you should make your own text fit the quotation rather than the

other way round. There are some exceptions to this rule:

You may change double inverted commas to single and vice-versa if otherwise they

would be inconsistent with the rest of your essay.

You may use an ellipsis (written as three dots …) to leave out irrelevant parts of a

continuous quotation to shorten it, provided that this does not distort the meaning of

the original.

You may insert a brief explanation in square brackets (square brackets ‘[ ]’ signal an

addition to the original text) where your reader might otherwise be puzzled. If there is

an error or oddity in the original quotation, you can insert ‘[sic]’ to show that the

34

mistake is not yours. But be sparing with ‘[sic]’ as readers can quickly get tired of it

and it is unlikely that you find many mistakes or oddities in published texts. If you

need to insert ‘[sic]’ when quoting from a website, you should consider whether the

site is reliable on other matters if its language is odd or incorrect.

You may make minor alterations to quotations in the interests of grammatical

coherence and brevity (for example, changing the tense of a verb). Enclose any

editorial intervention in square brackets. Be sure not to distort the sense of the

original.

You may underline or italicise a word or phrase to draw attention to it, but you must

add a formula like ‘my italics’ or ‘emphasis added’ in brackets. Again, use this device

sparingly.

Short Quotations:

Quotations of one sentence or less should be incorporated into your text, as follows:

As the author is named in the text, you need not also name the author in the reference.

However, always take care that it is clear who you are quoting when omitting the author’s

name from the reference in this way. While it is often best practice to place your reference at

the end of a sentence, it is also correct to insert the reference immediately after the author’s

name. In the example above, this would give ‘Phelan (1997: 27) describes …’. Changing the

position of the reference in this way can help to clarify who you are quoting if you are dealing

with more than one author in the same group of sentences. Note also that short quotations

take quotation marks; use single quotation marks (‘…’) except for a quotation within

quotation, where double quotation marks should be used (‘…“…”…’).

Punctuation immediately before a quotation depends on its syntactical relationship to what

precedes it. No punctuation, or at most a comma, is required if the quotation makes your

own sentence grammatically complete. For example:

apprehension of form does not seem to be a cognitive process, since it neither formulates nor connects concepts but seems to be ‘merely contemplative ... and a disinterested and free satisfaction’ (Kant, 1914, pp.53-54).

Phelan describes perspective as a ‘theatrical technology and a technology of theatre’ because it ‘supports the economy of substitution that drives Western theatre itself’ (1997: 27).

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Note also that as the author is not named in the text here, their name is included within the

reference. Note also that a quotation that crosses two pages is expressed as ‘pp.53-54’.

In the example below, the punctuation required to introduce the quote is a colon; this is the

case if your introductory statement is grammatically complete in itself (as this sentence is

also):

Susanne Langer was aware of the difficulties which faced the analyst in specifying

the nature of form: 'the meaning of form needs to be understood, since it involves

the very nature of art' (1962, p.85).

In all cases, you should be clear about who you are quoting, give the date of the publication

from which you are quoting and provide the page number where the quotation can be found.

Internet sources without page numbers should be specified as such by using the formula

‘(Author, date: online)’. These three pieces of information constitute your reference. Every

reference in your essay must then be matched by entries in your bibliography where

full details of each publication can be found. For the three examples used above, the

bibliography must contain entries for ‘Phelan’ and a work she published in ‘1997’, ‘Kant’ in

‘1914’ and ‘Langer’ in ‘1962’. The format of the reference can vary; ‘(Kant, 1914: 27)’, ‘(Kant

1914, 27)’, ‘(Kant, 1914, p.27)’ or, if a quotation is across two pages, (Kant, 1914, pp.27-28)’

and (Kant 1914: 27-8) are all acceptable forms. Note, however, that references must be

given in the same format in the same essay; if you follow the date with a colon, for

example, then keep to that form in all subsequent references. The exception to this rule is

whether to include the author’s name within the reference; here, the form may vary. If the

sentence which includes the reference already clearly specifies the name of the author, you

need not include it again. If you have any doubt about whether the author of a quote is clear,

then include the author’s name as the first element in your reference.

Quotations longer than one sentence:

Prose quotation of more than a single sentence should be separated from your commentary,

set off by a colon, indented and set on single-spaced lines. Verse quotation of more than

one line should also be indented, following the published format of the original work exactly.

When longer quotations are indented, there is no need for quotation marks around the

extract. If you use long quotations, you must make sure that commentary you provide on the

quotation justifies the length. The layout of a long quotation will look like this:

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The quotation is again followed by referencing details that should match up with an entry in

your bibliography, this time for ‘Merleau-Ponty’ in ‘2002’. The quote-within-a-quote here does

not take double quotation marks, as the indentation has removed the need to add single

quotation marks around the main quote. Note that long indented quotations are excluded

when calculating the word length of your essay.

Summary and paraphrase:

If you are using someone else's ideas, descriptions or interpretations, but summarising or

paraphrasing them in your own words rather than quoting directing, you must acknowledge

your debt to the source used. Unacknowledged use of someone else’s material,

remember, is plagiarism (see previous section). Like other references, the details should be

given between brackets in your text, for example, ‘(Phelan, 1997, pp.10-16)’ to cover all

borrowings over the pages listed.

Sample essay text and bibliography

Below you will find a sample of what your final essay text should look like, including double

line spacing, an indented quotation, Harvard referencing and the use of footnotes, as well as

the likely format of the bibliography, which must be at the end of the essay.

If you have additional information which is interesting and relevant but which would break up

the flow of your argument, you could number the place in the text (with a superscript

number) and put this information into a footnote. However, it is not necessary to have any

notes of this kind in any case, they should be used sparingly.

Note that the date for the Internet reference refers to the date that the work cited was first

published. This is correct practice when a website provides access to, for example, a

facsimile of the original work (this does not imply the existence of the Internet in 1605).

Merleau-Ponty is concerned with the phenomenological experience of being a living and perceiving ‘being-in-the-world’:

In so far as it sees or touches the world, my body can ... be neither seen nor touched. What prevents its ever being an object, ever being ‘completely constituted’, is that it is that by which there are objects. It is neither tangible nor visible in so far as it is that which sees and touches. (2002: 105)

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Sample text

In The Anxiety of Influence, Harold Bloom outlines an analytical technique that attempts

to account for the nature of influence in poetry. Bloom notes that, whilst influence in any

artistic endeavour is inevitable, rather than merely imitating the work of a master, ‘strong’

poets achieve a kind of antithetical completion of a precursor. In so doing, an author retains

the terms of a parent poem, but ‘means’ them in another sense. According to Bloom:

Insofar as a poet authentically is and remains a poet, he must exclude and negate other poets. Yet he must begin by including and affirming a precursor poet or poets, for there is no other way to become a poet. We can say then that a poet is known as a poet only by a wholly contradictory including/excluding, negating/affirming. (1975: 121).

In keeping with Bloom’s assertion, it is possible to discern in Benjamin Britten’s early

compositional style a reflection of the limitations and conservatism apparent in the

environment and times in which he worked.

A student at the Royal College of Music under the instruction of John Ireland and

Vaughan Williams, Britten was inevitably a product of the English Musical Renaissance,

including others such as Parry, Holst and Elgar. That said, apart from the occasional Lydian-

dominant inflections to be found in the premeditated, pseudo-exoticism of Holst,1 there is

little in Britten’s early music which overtly echoes the oppressive stylistic conservatism of the

English Musical Renaissance. Rather, Britten allowed the modal ambiguity prevalent in the

music of Fauré and Mahler to permeate his early work. Nevertheless, despite this tendency

towards Europe, Britten could never fully circumnavigate the rather congenial tone of his

contemporaries, and the diatonic dissonance at the heart of the musical style of, for

example, Vaughan Williams and Finzi.

1 See, for example, Holst’s Choral Hymns from the Rig Veda (1911).

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Sample bibliography

Bacon, F., 1605. The Advancement of Learning [online]. Available at:

<http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~rbear/advl.htm> [Accessed 04.01.05]

Bloom, H., 1975. The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry. Second Edition. Oxford:

Oxford University Press

Holst, G.T. von, 1911. Choral Hymns from the Rig Veda. Op.26. London: Staines and Bull

Schmalfeldt, J., 1983. Berg's Wozzeck: Harmonic Language and Dramatic Design.

New Haven: Yale University Press

Schnadelbach, H., 1984. Philosophy in Germany 1831-1933. Translated by E. Mathews.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Snyder, J.L., 1990. ‘Entropy as a Measure of Musical Style: The Influences of A Priori

Assumptions’. In: Music Theory Spectrum 12(1), 121-160