Studying Groups Chapter 2

How do researchers test their theories and hypotheses about groups and their dynamics?

What Are the Three Critical Requirements of a Scientific Study of Groups? Theories that organize knowledge of groups Research procedures to test hypotheses

about groups Reliable and valid measurement

What Methods Do Researchers Use to Measure Individual and Group Processes? Observational measures: observing and

recording events Example: Whyte’s participant observation

of corner gangs Overt vs. covert observation Hawthorne effect

What Methods Do Researchers Use?

Qualitative and Quantitative (structured) measures

Bales's Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) classifies behaviors into two categories: task and relationship behaviors

Bale’s SYMLOG (Systematic Multiple Level Observation of Groups) identifies 3 key dimensions:

1. Dominance/Submissiveness 2. Friendliness/Unfriendliness 3. Acceptance of Authority/Nonacceptance of Authority.

Self-Report Methods

Self-report measures: group members describe their perceptions and experiences

Example: Personality

Emotional Intelligence

Organizational Climate

Personality : Mackinnon (1959) Personality refers to “factors” inside people

that explain their behavior

The sum total of typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that makes a person unique.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

Myers-Briggs: based on Jungian theory of personality

Classifies individuals along 4 theoretically independent dimensions.

MBTI Scales Extroversion-

Introversion Scale

E: Oriented primarily toward the outer world; focus on people and objects

I: Oriented primarily toward the inner world; focus on concepts and ideas

Sensing-Intuition Scale

S: Individual reports observable facts through one or more of the five senses

N: Reports meanings, relationships and/or possibilities that have been worked out beyond the reach of the conscious mind

MBTI Scales

Thinking-Feeling Scale

T: Judgment is impersonally based on logical consequences

F: Judgment is primarily based on personal or social values

Perception-Judging Scale

P: Preference for using a perceptive process for dealing with the outer world

J: Preference for using a judgment process for dealing with the outer world

Emotional intelligence involves the “abilities to perceive, appraise, and express emotion; to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth”

What Is Emotional Intelligence?

BarOn EQ-i Factors Intra-Personal

Emotional Self-Awareness Assertiveness Self-Regard Self-Actualization Independence

Inter-Personal Interpersonal Relationship Empathy Social Responsibility

Adaptability Problem Solving Flexibility Reality Testing

Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse Control

General Mood Optimism Happiness

Sample Test Items:

I have good relations with others

I’m fun to be with

I like helping people

Rating Scale:

1 = Very Seldom or Not True of me

5 = Very Often True of Me or True of Me

BarOn EQ-iBarOn EQ-i

Disadvantage of Self-Report Tests Social Desirability Faking “Good” Faking “Bad” Random Responding

Sociometry

A research technique that graphically summarizes patterns of intermember relations.

Sociometric structures: - stars- unpopulars- isolates- positives- negatives- pairs- clusters- fringers

Any measure, to be scientifically useful, must have reliability and validity.

Assessment Methods

ReliabilityReliability Reliability is synonymous with consistency. It is the degree to which test

scores for a an individual test taker or group of test takers are consistent over repeated applications.

No psychological test is completely consistent, however, a measurement that is unreliable is worthless.

For Example A student receives a score of 100 on one intelligence tests and 114 in another or imagine that every time you stepped on a scale it showed a different weight.

Would you keep using these measurement tools?

The consistency of test scores is critically important in determining whether a test can provide good measurement.

Test-retest ReliabilityTest-retest Reliability

Test-retest reliability is usually measured by computing the correlation coefficient between scores of two administrations.

ValidityValidity Refers to measuring what we intend to measure.

If math and vocabulary truly represent intelligence then a math and vocabulary test might be said to have high validity when used as a measure of intelligence.

Predictive ValidityPredictive Validity

The extent to which scores on the scale are related to, and predictive of, some future outcome that is of practical utility.

e.g., If higher scores on the SAT are positively correlated with

higher G.P.A.’s and visa versa, then the SAT is said to have predictive validity.

The Predictive Validity of the SAT is mildly supported by the relation of that scale with performance in graduate school.

What Are the Key Characteristics & Differences Between Case, Experimental, & Correlational Studies of Group Processes? Case Study

Example: Groupthink groups (Janis) Bona fide groups

Experiments Key features

manipulate independent variable measure dependent variable control other variables

Example: Lewin, Lippitt, & White’s study of leadership Strength: Test cause-effect relationships

Characteristics and Differences (cont’d)

Case studies: atypical of most groups, subjective, stimulate theory

Experiments: too artificial, not “real” groups, but clearest test of cause and effect.

Correlational studies: limited information about causality but precise estimates of the strength of relationships, less artificial, fewer ethical concerns

Multi-level approaches are uniquely informative

What Theoretical Perspectives Guide Researchers’ Studies of Groups? Motivational models: Lewin's level-of-aspiration

theory Behavioral approaches: Thibaut and Kelley's

social exchange theory Systems theory: Input-process-output models

of performance Cognitive theories: Berger's expectation-states

theory Biological perspectives: Evolutionary

psychology (or sociobiology)