student workbook and study modules - 01-01-15708067

8/10/2019 Student Workbook and Study Modules - 01-01-15708067

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Student WorkbookComparative Animal Physiology

PCB4723

Dr. Wayne A. Bennett


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COMPARATIVE ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGYCLASS SYLLABUS

SPRING 2015

OVERVIEW

This course will provide you with a thorough overview of animal physiological processes. We

will be taking a comparative approach to understanding physiological similarities and differences

across multiple organizational levels. Animal physiology comprises a massive body of

information collected over nearly 3000 years of human study. So be prepared to cover large

amounts of material during each lecture session, and to review the material on your own carefully

and frequently.

The following suggestions will greatly enhance your in-class performance:

1) Attend class regularly

2) Ask questions

3) Read the book or other outside materials on the topics covered

4) STUDY, STUDY, and STUDY

DETAILS AND GENERAL STUFF

INSTRUCTOR:

Dr. Wayne A. Bennett, Professor of Vertebrate Physiology

Office hours: Tuesday and Thursday 08:00-10:00; or by appointment

UWF office: 58/62-H

Phone: 474-3362

E-mail: [email protected]

MEETINGTIME:

Tuesday and Thursday 2:30 to 3:45

TEXTBOOK:

Comparative Animal Physiology,by Philip C. Withers


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STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES (SLO)

UPON COMPLETION OF THIS COURSE,STUDENTS SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

1) Identify similarities and differences in the functional morphology and physiology betweenmajor animal groups.

2) Define the Fry Paradigm and explain how relationships between animals and their abioticenvironment alter physiology to determine behavior using specific references to: oxygenuptake, temperature regulation, ion balance, sensory physiology, and circulation.

3) Describe key morphological and physiological attributes that result in differing sensory,communication and cognitive abilities among/between vertebrate and invertebrate groups.

4) Describe the propriety, need and benefits of basic and applied comparative physiologyresearch.

5) Solve basic biophysical equations that define major physiological attributes of animalsincluding: oxygen uptake, temperature regulation, ion balance, sensory physiology, andcirculation.

Additional detailed SLOs are listed in the unit Module outlines

ATTENDANCE:

You should make every effort to attend class regularly. Students who have poor

attendance records fail this class spectacularly and without exception!

CLASSROOM MATERIALS AND HANDOUTS:

Handouts will come to you via group e-mail. The information can be opened by clicking

on the link, but in some cases you will need to copy the link and paste it into the address

line on your internet browser.

READING ASSIGNMENTS:

The text book compliments much of the lecture material but is not identical to it. I also

often include material that isnt in the book that I think you should know. Reading thebook or other outside material can aid you in grasping concepts that you did not clearly

understand during class or filling in areas that we will not have time to cover in depth.


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IN-CLASS OPPORTUNITIES

OPPORTUNITIES:

In-class assessments are an opportunity to show me what you have learned. Here's how it

works.

1) We will have threetest opportunities.

2) THERE WILL BE NO MAKE-UP TESTS!

3) Test will consist of 40 to 50 multiple choice and 10 fill in the blank

questions.

Exam questions will be taken from lecture topics and will be approximately 60% recall

(What is the typical transmembrane potential?), 30% application (If sodium concentration

inside the cell increases, what happens to the transmembrane charge?), and 10% analysis

(How might a decrease in transmembrane charge affect animal response times?)questions.

TEST SCHEDULE:

Thursday February 5that 2:30-3:45

Thursday March 19that 2:30-3:45

Thursday April 23that 2:30-3:45

SPECIAL ACCOMMODATIONS:

If you require special in-class accommodations or test-taking arrangements due to

physical or perceptual limitations, please contact the UWF Student Disabilities Resource

Center 474-2387.

GRADING SYSTEM:

Three in-class exams (33% each)

GRADING SCALE:Exams will be will be adjusted to the following scale:

90 - 100: A

80 - 89: B

70 - 79: C

60 - 69: D

< 60: F


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GRADES OF INCOMPLETE (I)OR WITHDRAW (W)

If you have a question regarding UWF policies for assignment of grades of 'W' or 'I', please visit:

UWF Withdrawal Policyhttp://uwf.edu/registrar/withdrawal.cfm

UWF Incomplete Grade Policyhttp://uwf.edu/registrar/Incomplete%20Grade%20--%20Assignment%20Report.pdf
http://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/withdrawal.cfmhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/withdrawal.cfmhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/Incomplete%20Grade%20--%20Assignment%20Report.pdfhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/Incomplete%20Grade%20--%20Assignment%20Report.pdfhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/Incomplete%20Grade%20--%20Assignment%20Report.pdfhttp://x-excid//FA770000/jmp:x-excid:/FA750000/jmp:http:/uwf.edu/registrar/withdrawal.cfm


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CLASS TOPICS CHAPTER

SYLLABUS &INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 1&2

CELL &MEMBRANE PHYSIOLOGY 6

NEURONS AND THEIR FUNCTION 6

NERVOUS SYSTEMS 8

GENERAL SENSES 7

CHEMORECEPTION 7

VISION 7

INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM 4

BODY SIZE &METABOLISM 4

TEMPERATURE &METABOLISM 4&5

SKELETONS &SUPPORT 10

MOVEMENT WITHOUT MUSCLE 10

MOVEMENT WITH MUSCLE 10

DIRECT WATER BALANCE 16

ORGANS OF EXCRETION 16

DIFFUSION &RESPIRATION 12

RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS 12&13

VENTILATION SYSTEMS 12&13

INVERTEBRATECIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 14

VERTEBRATE CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS 14


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STUDY MODULE I

UNDERSTANDING ANIMAL NERVES AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS

STUDY GUIDES

Comparative Animal Physiology

Dr. Wayne A. Bennett, Professor of Animal Physiology


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ON THE IMPORTANCE OF STUDY SKILLS AND HOW TO BEA STUDENT OF

BIOLOGY,INSTEAD OF JUST PLAYING AT IT

OR

THE BEST 36MINUTES OF YOUR LIFE

Since the days when crowds gathered to listen to open-air oratories by Aristotle on thediversity and function of animal life, students of biology have been bound by one

immutable rule:

Every Hour Spent in Instruction, Requires Two Hours of Outside Study

Ten Facts You Should Know:

1. Historically 2 of 5 Comparative Animal Physiology students drop or fail to attain a passing grade

2. In 1970, the average college student studied 25 to 35 hours per week. Today the average college

student studies 8 hours per week, but spends 28 hours on social media (CPTI)

3. 32% of college seniors agreed with the statement that Google has made studying obsolete

4. The average college student doesnt start studying until 2 days before a major exam

5. 50% of college graduates had difficulty or could not interpret information on a graph

6. Almost 85% of college students said cheating was necessary to get ahead (U.S. News and World

Report).

7. Only 27% of college graduates work in a field related to their major. Employers report new-hire

graduates lack core knowledge to do the jobs for which they were hired, exhibit poor or no

writing skills, and are unable to work effectively as a team

8. In 1969, US students ranked first in the world in Science, Math and Technologywe now rank

29th

among developing countries


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IMPORTANT WEBSITES

How to Get the Most Out of Studying:

Video 1: Beliefs That Make You Fail...Or Succeed[7 min] Video 2: What Students Should Know About How People Learn[7 min] Video 3: Cognitive Principles for Optimizing Learning[6 min] Video 4: Putting Principles for Learning into Practice[9 min] Video 5: I Blew the Exam, Now What?[7 min]

You will get the most out of the material if you view the 5 videos in order. I
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RH95h36NChIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RH95h36NChIhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9O7y7XEC66Mhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9O7y7XEC66Mhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xeHh5DnCIwhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xeHh5DnCIwhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9GrOxhYZdQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9GrOxhYZdQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QVRiMkdRsUhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QVRiMkdRsUhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-QVRiMkdRsUhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E9GrOxhYZdQhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xeHh5DnCIwhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9O7y7XEC66Mhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RH95h36NChI


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COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY

THE QUEEN OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

THE OBJECTIVES:

Understand the philosophy of comparative physiology, its goals, approaches anddomain

Understand strengths and weaknesses of the two major paradigms used to studyanimal physiology

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Interdependence of form-function, and animal-environment as units of study The relationship of comparative physiology to other biological sub-disciplines The resource-condition concept The Fry paradigm an Frys five famous environmental entities

THE DETAILS:

1. A brief summary of the study of Comparative Animal Physiology

a. Definition-study of animalb. Domain-c. Queen of the biological sciences-d. What does the quote Structure without function is a corpse; function without

structure is a ghostmean to you?

(1)Studying anatomy can give insight to physiology vise versa

2. Why is the comparative approach used?

a. Almost everything we know with ecology, genetics and biology. Quantify therange of variation between given traits among organisms. Limits of life. Helps usunderstand structure and pattern. Mechanism of the physiological features.

3. The domain of the comparative physiology: One world, two views

a. The resource-condition concept

i. Assumptions of the Resource/Condition concept

ii. Definitions-

(1)Conditions; pH, Temp(2)Resources: water ,food, space,

b. Advantages of the Resource-Condition Concept-very easily organized

c. Disadvantages- overly simplistic reductionist


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4. The Fry Paradigm-animal response

a. Advantages/disadvantages-allows to ask and answer questions that A?C cannot

b. Assumes you have a large understanding of physiology

c. Frys Famous Environmental Entities

i. Lethal Factors- animal can dieii. Controlling Factors-changes rate and pace of developmentiii. Limiting Factors-reduce active metabolismiv. Regulatory [Webb 1978] Factors (=Masking Factors)-ineractions between

factors that influence the other ie temp and oxygenv. Directing Factors- taxis attraction or avoidance factor.


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CELL MEMBRANES:APRE-ADAPTATION TO INTEGRATED CONTROL

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Know the major factors & conditions effecting solute movement across cell

membranes Understand the physical bases for these movements Relate the import of these characteristics & conditions to cell homeostasis and

electrotonus

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

The Steady Ionic State The General Diffusion Equation (GDE) Ficks Law of Diffusion The Nernst Equation

Electrochemical potentials Donnan equilibrium Molecular Pumps

THE DETAILS:

Understanding Steady Ionic State & How it is Preadaptative for Electrical

Integration

1. List 5 important cell membrane functions that make electrical events possible

a. Excellent barriers to free diffusion (semi permeable) concentration gradient-source of potential energy

b. actively picking things up and spitting things out-exo/endocytosis

c. receptive to certain types of compounds that changes the feature/state of themembrane receptors

d. transmembrane potential/charge-voltage is a potential source of energy

e. conduct bioelectric charges-nervous systems

2. What is the steady ionic state?

a. Ionic steady state- Although cells are in osmotic equilibrium with theirenvironment, ion concentrations differ greatly between the cytosol and interstitialfluid.

b. This definition leads to three important questions you should be able to answer.

i. How is this dif ference establ ished?


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ii. How is the dif ference maintained?iii.How can this conditi on lead to in tegrated nervous control?

3. Four important characteristics that establish the ionic steady state

a. Membrane Permeability

i. Permeability (P)- the rate at which a substance passively penetrates themembrane under a given set of conditions - is the key factor determining

physiological exchange rates between the internal and external cell

environment.

ii. Know the five physical & chemical factors affecting permeability

b. Solute concentration gradients

i. Chemical potential

ii. Diffusion

c. Electricalconcentration gradientseffects ofcharged molecules

i. Attributesii. Donnan Equilibrium - ion distribution in the face of undiffusible or fixed

ions

d. Active transported via molecular pumps

i. Membrane or molecular pumpshave three basic featuresii. The sodium-potassium pump: A classic example.

Predicting Solute Exchange Rates

The General Diffusion EquationA biophysics lesson

1. Rateof net solute flow (Jnet) = conductanceof the solute driving force

dx

dc

RT

z

dx

dcADJnet

where A = area (cm2)

D = diffusion coefficient (cm2/s)

c= solute concentration (mol/cm3)

z= charge on the solute

= the Faraday (96,500 coulombs/mol)R = gas constant (8.314 V coulomb/K mol)T = absolute temperature (K)


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= electrical potential (V)x= distance (cm)

2. Can we determine the rate of solute movement across a cell membrane using GDE?

Assume z= 0

What is the effect on the GED?

dxdcADJ /

This form is known as Fick's Law of Diffusion

(1)A is the surface area for diffusion(2)D = permeability (diffusion constant) of the membrane tissue or substance(3)dc/dxis the chemical potential (concentration or partial pressure gradient)

3. Can the GDE be used to determine movement of ions?

Assume

z 0Let Vm= electrical potential across the membrane

Flux occurs in both directions from compartments 1 & 2

Net flux = 0

Solve for Vmthe GDE reduces to:

2

1ln c

c

z

RT

Vm

This form is the famous Nernst Equation!

i. Shows how a diffusing ion is distributed across a membrane at equilibriumii. A most useful equation - accounts for both concentration & electrical gradient


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NERVES AND THE EXCITING CONCEPT OF EXCITABLE MEMBRANESHOW EXCITING!


Understand excitable membranes physiology and how they differs from typical cellmembranes

Explain the bio-physical & morphological events of the resting & active excitablemembrane

Link the bio-physical & morphological characteristics of excitable membranes totheir functional attributes

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

The Resting Potential The Action Potential

The Nernst Equation the Goldman Adjustment Gated Channels Action Potentials Properties

THE DETAILS:

1. Four important attributes about cell membrane permeability and molecular pumps

2. Overview - The Resting Potential

a. Resting potential and its magnitude for a typical excitable membraneb. Do you remember the four factors that establish the resting potential?c. List the resulting ionic characteristicswe have seen these befored. The electrical consequenceseach ions contribution to the resting potentiale. OneKEY FACTORleads to a negative trans-membrane potential in an excitable

membrane


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3. What is the trans-membrane potential of a typical excitable membrane?

a. Defined by the Nernst equation:

i

om

K

K

z

RTV

][

][ln

Where:

Vm= trans-membrane potential (mV)

R = universal gas constant

T = Absolute Temperature (K)

z= charge carried by 1 gram equivalent of ions[K

+]o& [K

+]i= outside and inside potassium concentration

b. What is the resting potential when inside and outside [K+] is equal?

4. Why doesnt the Nernst equation return a precisely accurate value?

a. The Goldman Adjustment

][ClP+][NaP+][KP

][ClP+][NaP+][KP

z

RT=E

oCliNaiK

iCloNaoK

ln

Where:

Pxis the membrane permeability for ionx[X]o& [X]I ionX,concentration outside and inside the membrane

5. Sodium permeability and the action potential

a. The permeability of Na+is so low that it has a minor affect on resting potential.

b. What happens if there is a momentary increase in membrane permeability to Na+?

i. Depolarization & Action Potential: things every biologist should know!ii. Key Concept - membrane potential can be changed 125 mV, merely by

altering the relative permeability of sodium and potassium!

6. How is sodium permeability controlled?

a. TheNa+

/K+

pump& Gated Channelsb. Types of gates:

i. Ligand-gated channelsii. Voltage-gated channelsare self-closingiii. Mechanical-gated channels

7. The Hodgkins Cycle and its key attributes


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a. Stimulusb. Local responsec. Threshold valued. Hodgkin cycle

i.Sodium channels activated

ii. Overshootiii. Sodiumchannels deactivateiv. Rectified potassium channels activatev. Hyperpolarization

8. Important properties of action potentials.

a. Regenerativeor local responsethat is the question.b. All or none. Conduction without decrement.

i. Absolute refractory period

ii. Relative refractory periodiii. Rectification.iv. Accommodation.v. Adaptation: Is habituationa better term?vi. Hyperpolarization


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NERVES:THE BASIS OF ANIMAL INTEGRATION


Understand functional & morphological differences & similarities between the twonervous tissue types Explain the basic ultra-structure the typical neuronal cell Identify explain morphological and functional attributes used to classify neuronal

cells

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Excitable and non-excitable nerve tissue Synaptic action potential transfer

Importance of neurotransmitters Cable properties, ephaptic transmission, and saltatory conduction

THE DETAILS:

1. Two basic types of nervous cellsWhat are they?

1. Neuroglial cells

1. Distribution among the phyla

2. Neuralgia cell typesform and function

(1)Ependymal cells(2)Astrocytes(3)Oligodendricytes(4)Schwann cells(5)Microglia cells

2. Neurons

1. Basic structure

(1)Cell body or soma(2)Cell processes and their function

1 Dendrites2 Axon

1 Collateral axons2 Unmyelinated and myelinated


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1) Schwann cells2) Nodes of Ranvier

2. Connecting neurons together - Axon terminals and synaptic batons

(1)Presynaptic membrane or terminal

1 AP reaches baton2 Synaptic vessels

(2)Synaptic clefts or nexus(3)Postsynaptic membrane and receptor (ligand) channels

3. Transmitter substances

(1)norepinephrine (noradrenaline)(2)epinephrine (adrenaline)(3)acetylcholine

(4)-aminobuteric acid (GABA)

2. Classification of neurons

1. Morphological

1. Multipolar neurons2. Bipolar neuron

Node of Ranvier

Dendrite

Schwan cell(myelin sheath)

Axon

Motor nerve

ending

Soma

Synapticterminals


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3. Unipolar neuron

2. Conduction ratesFunctional classification of nerves

1. Low resistance electrical pathways septal synapses or ephaptictransmission2. Diameter - invertebrate solution (still found in anamniote vertebrates).

(1)Rate of conduction is defined by the neurons cable properties

(2)u=kd1 Where:

u= transmission velocity

k= animal-specific fiber properties constant

d= diameter of the nerve fiber

3. Invertebrate use of giant neurons (Always large muscle groups for quick

Some examples of unipolar neurons

Some examples of multipolar and bi-polar neurons

Can you tell the difference?


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escape)

4. Vertebrates - Lateral line nerves & Mauthner fibersin fish & amphibians

3. Insulation

1. Myelinated neurons- vertebrate solution

(1)Myelinated neurons(2)Nodes of Ranvier(3)Saltatory conduction(from the Latin to dance or jump). The question is

how?

Axon

Cell body

Lateral dendrite

Ventral dendrite

Batons

Mauthner neron


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2. Invertebrate solution to meylinated nerves Do they differ fromvertebrates?

Membrane under myelin

remains negative

Current flows back

outside myelin

Outward current depolarizes

next node of Ranvier

Direction of impulse

Reverse potential

At active node

Axon

Node

Myelin sheath

Saltatory Conduction

+ + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + +- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -+

_

_

+

+

+


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FROM NERVES TO NERVOUS SYSTEMS

THE OBJECTIVES:

Understand functional integration & emergent properties of nervous systems

Be able to track nervous system evolution within the animal kingdom & relateimportant contributions of major animal groups

Identify key strategies of nervous integration and recognize advantages and limits ofeach

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Typical structure of nervous systems Independent Effectors The radiate approach to nervous systems Similarities & differences in nervous systems of the bilateria

Evolution of nervous systems in the vertebrates Measures of intelligence

THE DETAILS:

1. Nervous systems - Excitable nerve cell groups providing an interface betweensensory & motor responses.

a. Functionsb. Organization - Sensory-motor circuit:

i. Three parts (usually)

(1)Neuron receptor(2)Motor neuron(3)Effector cell

ii. Interneurons may allow complex interpretation & integration.

(1)Divergence -(2)Convergence -(3)Feedback loops -

2. Are nervous systems necessary to support highly integrated and coordinated life?

a. Independent effector cellsb. Major advantagesc. Major disadvantage

3. Three important examples:


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a. Complex movement patterns of ciliatesb. Poriferiansc. Cniderian cnidocytes

4. Radiates: Evolution of true effector/motor nervous systems

a. Radial symmetryb. Sophisticated nerve nets

i. Motor reflex responseii. Semi- independent nerve nets

(1)Fast specific nerve net(2)Slow diffuse nerve net

5. Bilateral animals: trends in nervous system evolution

a. Reduction in reflex motor unitsb. Cephalizationc. Centralization of nervous controld. Neuronal aggregation

i. Gangliaii. Nuclei

e. Fusion/reduction of nerve cords

6. Flatworms - show a wide diversity of nervous development

a. Primitive forms


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b. Moderately advancedcommissures or nerve laddersc. Advanced forms - Brain or endom

Primitive flatworm nerve net

7. Mollusks - highly cephalized (not bivalves) with ganglia fused into few large centralmasses

a. Circumesophageal gangliab. Ventral pedal nerve cordsc. Visceral nerve cordsd. Cephalopod circumesophageal ganglion

8. Annelids - distinctly more organized nervous systems

a. Bilobate brainsb. Ganglionic swellings


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9. Arthropodsrefine basic annelid nervous plan to its highest integration level

a. Low sodium diet - perineuriumb. Brainsensory organs produce highly modified brain - 3 distinct regions:

i. Protocerebrumii. Deuterocerebrumiii. Tritocerebrum

c. Segmental ganglia

i. metathroacic gangliaii. CO2& hypoxia

d. Central pattern generators

10.Vertebrates differ from invertebrates-

a. CNS housed in bony chamber cushioned in cerebral spinal fluid to protect from


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STUDY MODULE II

SENSORY SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTION

STUDY GUIDE


Dr. Wayne A. Bennett, Associate Professor of Physiology


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MECHANORECEPTORS

A most versatile sensory system


Recognize importance, distribution and use of the mechanical receptor/sensorysystems

Identify and classify various mechanical sensory receptor types Understand the structural functional components of general and special sensory

systems

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Type and classification of senses Sensory encoding

General mechanoreceptor types and structure Equilibrium sensory adaptations of various animal groups Audition in air & water Magnetoreception

THE DETAILS:

1. Important definitions:

a. Receptorsnerve/epithelial tissue responding to stimuli by developing actionpotentials

i. Primary receptor cellsspecialized neurons (ancestral)ii. Secondary receptor cellsepithelial cells synapsing with neurons

(vertebrates only)

b. Stimulus- any environmental parameter causing a response in a nerve muscle orgland

c. Sensation- perception or awareness of a stimulus received by sensory receptorsd. Generaland specialsenses

i. Generalii. Special senses

2. Sensory coding

a. Receptor specificity and morphological encoding


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b. Additional attributes of morphological encoding

i. Filteringii. Amplification

c. Innate receptor encoding

i. Pulse-code messagestwo types

Olfactory Auditory Muscle

stretchCutaneous

Examples of different receptor


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(1)Tonic receptors

Horseshoe crab optic nerve tonic discharge rates

relative to intensity. Broken white line gives the

1-sec period during which the eye was illuminated.


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(2)Phasic receptors

ii. Signal filtering

(1)Low-pass(2)High-pass(3)Band-pass filter

3. General mechanoreceptors- response to sheer or torque forces

a. Structureb. Functionc. Types

Stimulation of a Pacinian corpuscle and

the resulting action potential spike.

Time in (msec)

0 3 5 7

Stimulu

Myeli

Node of Ranvier

Nerve


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i. Light touch/pressure receptors- Merkels disks, Hair folliclesii. Discriminative touch receptors - Meissners corpusclesiii. Barrow receptors- Ruffinis end-organsiv. Nociceptors un-myelinated neurons two types:

(1)Fast response nociceptors(2)Slow propagation nociceptors

v. Proprioreceptors- Pacinian corpusclesvi. Thermoreceptors- un-myelinated neuronsvii.Infraredreceptors

Free nerve

endingsMerkels

disks

Hair

Follicle

Ruffinis

endorgans

Meissners

corpuscles

Pacinian

corpuscle

Diagrammatic representation of mechnoreceptors

found in mammalian skin. Thick lines are

myelinated nerves, thin are unmyelinated


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SPECIAL MECHANORECEPTORS WITH ACCESSORY STRUCTURES

1. Morphology of secondary sense cells

i. Hair cells

ii. kinocilium& stereocilia

Pit Or an

Palmate sensoryneurons on pit

membrane

Single sensoryneuron showing

palmate design

KinociliumSterocilia

Efferentnerve

Afferentnerve

Typical vertebratehair cell orsecondary

mechanoreceptor


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iii. Accessorystructures

2. Types of Special Mechanoreceptors

a. Organs of equilibrium and orientationi. statocyst & statolith

ii. semicircular canals& vestibule(ampullae)

Receptor

potential

Nerveimpulse

Resting

discharge

Increase impulsefrequency

Decrease impulsefrequency

Depolarization

Hyperpolarization

+

Excitation Inhibition

Statolith

Nerve

Rece tor

Typical invertebrate statocyst


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(1)Static equilibrium - otoliths.(2)Kinetic equilibrium

3. Lateral line (Octaveolateralis) systems

4. Audition

a. Hearing in water

i. Near-field sound

Ampullae

Otoliths

Ampullae

Cupulae

Hair cells

Hair tufts

Nerves

Cupula

Hair tuftsHair cells

Naked neuromast offish and amphibians


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ii. Far-field sound

(1)Osterophysan fishes

(2)Hearing specialists

(3)Cetaceans

b. Hearing in air:

i. Insects

Sonorificmuscle

Swimbladder

Swimbladderextensions to

endorgans

Swimbladder of the spotted sea trout(Cynoscion nebulosus) a hearing specialist

that used sound for communication

Tympanum

Attachment cell

Sensory dendrite

Scolopidiumsensory cell

Schwann cell

Sensory axon

Scolopidium

Chordotonal organ ofinsects are comprised of

many scolopidia

Scolopale cell


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(1)chordotonal organ(2)scolopidium

ii. The vertebrate ear

(1)External ear(auricle or pinna)(2)Middle earair- auditory ossicle: malleus, incus& stapes(3)Inner ear- bony & membranous labyrinth, tactorial membrane,

basalar membrane, andspiral organof Corti

iii. Hearing

Nerves

Cochlea

Semicircular canals

Ossicular chain

Tympanicmembrane

Auditory meatus

Pinna

External ear

Middle ear

Internal ear


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Oval window

Round window

Basilar Membrane

Simplified view of mammalian cochlearstructure in the extended position


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c. Specialized hearing adaptations in vertebrates

i. Echolocation

(1)Bats microchiroptrans& macrochirptran

(2)Shrews and some other insectivores(3)Whales, dolphins and seals(4)Cave swiftlets

d. Use of infrasound

i. Baleen whalesii. Elephantsiii. Pigeons

5. Magnetoreception

i. Electrically sensitive marine fishii. Birdsiii. Some bacteria & insectsiv. Magnetite

Tactorialmembrane

Haircells

Basilarmembrane

Vestibular canal

(round window)

Tympanic canal

(round window)

Nerves

Cross section of the cochlearapparatus showing the organ of

corti (basilar and tactorialmembrane, and hair cells)


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CHEMOSENSORY AND VISUAL ADAPTATIONSGustation, Olfaction, and Visionthree very important sensory modalities!


Understand the physiological processes leading to chemosensory and visualperception

Identify key integrative steps in each process Know the range of variability among animal groups and how system variation affects

what is perceived for each modality

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Type and classification of chemical senses Sensory encoding of chemical and visual stimuli

General receptor types and structure Evolution of visual adaptations

THE DETAILS:

1. Chemoreception - gustatoryand olfactoryreceptors

1. Most universal sensory modality2. Evolved independently in many groups

2. Olfaction

1. Bipolar neurons but secondary sense cells often involved2. Exact physiological mechanisms not well known

Dendrites

Cuticle

Axon

Pore

Receptor cell

Diagram of an insect olfactory


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3. Steps in the initial process4. But what is the exact mechanism involved?

1. Primary odor hypothesis

(1)musky(2)floral

(3)pepperminty(4)camphoraceous(5)ethereal(6)pungent(7)putrid

5. Uses

1. Foraging/feeding2. Location or navigation3. Reproduction and development

4. Protection

3. Gustatory (taste) responses

1. Found in all major phyla2. Vertebrate taste buds

Receptor cells(differentiated dendrites)

Sustentacular cells(non-neuronal)

Cilia

Primary receptor cells fromhuman olfactory mucosa.


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1. Structure

(1)Taste hair and taste pores(2)Process of gustation

2. Distribution3. Four classic taste sensationsplus two non-traditional

(1)sour(2)salty(3)bitter(4)sweet(5)water(6)umami

Taste hair(microvilli)

Receptor cell

Neurons

Taste pore

Vertebrate taste bud with supporting cells

Capsule


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3. Vomoronasal organ(Jacobsons organ) an olfactory system augmentation

(1)Reptiles, amphibians & mammals(2)Role of the forked tongue

Mushroom body

Upper palate

Jacobson organ duct

Lachrymal duct

Jacobsons Organ of a monitor lizard.Dark arrows represent movement of

odiferous molecules


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ALL ABOUT VISION

4. Photoreceptors- more detailed information about near & distant environment thanother sense

1. Types of information

1. Intensity2. Wavelength3. Plane of polarization

2. Major advantage?

5. Photoreception in the animal kingdom

1. Dermal light sense or diffuse photosensitivity - nearly all phyla.

1. Exact mechanism not clear2. Perhaps photosensitive nerve endings?3. Type of information

2. Eye spots - flatworms, annelids & arthropods- not image forming

1. Forms:

(1)Flat sheets(2)Convex(3)Cup-shaped

Flat sheet Concave Convex


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7. Important anatomical features of image forming, single lens eyes

1. Cornea

1. Accommodation and light refraction

2. Underwater vision

2. Irisand lens- anterior eye

1. Iris2. Lens

(1)Shape - terrestrial vs. aquatic(2)Color

(1)Affect on ultra-violet sensitivity(2)Yellow lenses and countershading

(3) Using the lens to focuses light3 ways to change focal length

(1)Move retina(2)Move lens(3)Change lens shape

3. The retina

Cornea

Lens

Iris

Aqueoushumor

Vitreoushumor

Fovea

Neurons

Sclera(outer tunic)

Choroid(middle tunic)

Retnia(inner tunic)

Opticdisk

Ciliarymuscles

Basic structure of the vertebrate


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1. Outer pigmented retina2. Inner sensory retina

(1)Rods

(1)Rhodobsin

(2)Cones(wavelength)

(1)Iodopsins

(3)Trichromatic vision theory

Outersegments

Innersegment

Mitochondria

Cilium

Photosensitive region(generation of AP)

Metabolic region(synthesis & energy production)

Plexiform region

(synapse with nuerons)


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8. Multifaceted/ Convex eyediffer radically from vesicular eye

1. Ommatidia - photoreceptor units

1. Fixed angle of resolution2. Light guide, light shade & photoreceptors

9. Pineal or median eye of vertebrates

1. Best developed in lamprey and some lizards

Cross-section of the multifacetedor compound eye

Corneal lens

Crystalline cone

Secondary iris cells

Rhabdom

Retinula cells

Axon

Primary iris cells

Example of insect ommatidia


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2. Pineal organ complex3. Photo-sensitive4. Endocrine function

10.Eyes of the eyeless shrimp,Rimicaris exoculata

1. Hydrothermal vents - black smokers2. Lack image-forming optics3. Location of rhodopsin4. Black-body radiation5. Sulphide bacteria


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STUDY MODULE III

METABOLISM AND MOVEMENT

STUDY GUIDE


Dr. Wayne A. Bennett, Associate Professor of Physiology


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ENERGY METABOLISMMEASURING THE COST OF LIVING

THE OBJECTIVES:

Understand, define, and explain what is meant by metabolism

Enumerate ways metabolism can be measured; recognize advantages & disadvantagesof each Understand the metabolic components and interrelationships of each method

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Relationship between metabolism and oxygen consumption Four related but different metabolic measurement techniques Various measures of metabolism Food types and the concept of isocaloric weight

THE DETAILS:

1. What is metabolism?2. Types of metabolic reactions

a. Anabolic reactionsb. Catabolic reactions

3. Why are metabolic measurements useful to physiologists?4. Factors influencing metabolic rates

To be meaningful, metabolism must be measured carefully!

5. Some basic principles in the measurement of metabolic rates:

a. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)- metabolic rate of resting, fasting mammals andbirds under minimal physiological and environmental stress.

i. Endothermic animalsii. Constant body temperature

b. Standard Metabolic Rate (SMR)resting and fasting metabolism ofpoikilotherms under minimal physiological and environmental stress, at any given

temperature.

i. Poikilothermic animalsii. Variable body temperature


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c. Why fasting? Because of Specific Dynamic Action

6. * Key PointBMR and SMR are measured under unnaturally controlled and quiteconditions that vary greatly from an animals normal state & say nothing about

activity.

7. Other common metabolic measures

a. Routine Active Metabolic Rate- average metabolic rate of normally activeanimal.

b. Maximum Sustained Metabolic Ratemetabolic rate at sustained, vigorousactivity.

c. Metabolic Factorial Scope or Index of Metabolic Expansibility- ratio ofMSMR to BMR or SMR.

8. Metabolic rates can be determined in four different ways.

a. Mass balance equations

i. Ballistic bomb calorimetry - anabolic heat energyii. Also require moment-to-moment (catabolic) measuresiii. Advantages & disadvantages

b. Direct calorimetryDetermine total heat production

i. Hesss lawheat released through breakdown of a fuel to a given set of endproducts is constant irrespective of the intermediate chemical steps or

pathways used.

ii. Advantages & disadvantages

c. Indirect calorimetry- Determine the rate of oxygen consumption (most oftenused).

i. Respirometry(1)Manometric respirometry


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WaterBath

RespirometerFlask

ReferenceFlask

ManometerTube

Gas-tightSyringe


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(2)Flow-through respirometry

(3)Sealed-jar respirometery

ii. Advantages and disadvantages

d. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

i. Seldom usedii. Advantages/disadvantages

Water outflow

Water inflow

Sample tube

Water level

Example of a flow-throughrespirometer. From Cech 1990

Measurement

Flask

WaterBath


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9. Conversion of oxygen consumption to heatIsocaloric values (Table 1)

TABLE 1.Energetics of common foods.

Food kcal g-1 liter O2g-1 kcal per liter O2

Carbohydrate 4.20 0.84 5.0

Fat 9.40 2.00 4.7

Protein (urea)1 4.30 0.96 4.5

Protein (uric acid)1

4.25 0.97 4.4

1Protein energy values are higher than listed; however, proteins are incompletely burned

in vertebrates.

a. Fats, carbohydrates and proteins have different energy values by weight.b. Amount of energy released per liter of oxygen consumed remains relatively

constant.c. Important Shortcut- 4.8 kcal per liter of O2 (avg. kcal / L) 6% largest error

possible


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3. Adaptations of water-breathers to survive hypoxic events

a. Behavioral

i. Vertical migration

(1)Top-ward migrationASR(2)Bottom migration

ii. Horizontal migration

b. Physiological adaptations

i. INCREASE OXYGEN UPTAKEii. ANAEROBIC PATHWAYS

(1)oxygen debt

(2)aerobic coupling

PRESSURE

Pressures at various points in the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

RELATIVE POSITION IN THEATMOSPHERE OR HYDROSPHERE

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE INATMOSPHERES

PRESSURE IN PSIG

*

Mt. Everest 0.25 3.5

Sea level 1.0 14.1

10 m below sea level 2 28.2

Average abyssal pressures

(3 to 5 km below sea level) 300 to 500 4,200 to 7,050

Deepest ocean trenches

(> 10 km below sea level) > 1,000 141,000+

* Pounds per square inch exerted at ground (sea) level

1. Four ways high pressure affects metabolism:


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i. Disrupt pH systemsii. Shift velocity constantsiii. Collapse weak chemical bondsiv. Alter liquid to solid phase transitions

b. How do deep-sea animals withstand pressures of up 1000 atmospheres?

i. Colloidal biophysics adapted to different dissociation and velocity constants.ii. Enzymes show significant increases in strong disulfide bonds & salt bridges.

BODY SIZE

1. Total oxygen consumptionvs. Specific oxygen consumption

TABLE OF Oxygen Consumption in Mammals of Various Body Size

Animal

Body Mass

(g)

Total O2

consumption

(ml/h)

Specific O2

consumption

(ml/g h)

Mouse 25 41.0 1.65

Ground squirrel 96 98.8 1.03

Dog 11,700 3,870 0.33

Human 70,000 14,760 0.21

Horse 650,000 71,100 0.11

Elephant 3,833,000 268,000 0.07

2. Take-home Message


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3. The famous mouse-to-elephant curveIllustrated graphically

The famous mouse to elephant curve of metabolic rate on body size

a. linear relationship is represented by the equation:

VO/Mb(l/kg h) = 0.676 x Mb-0.25

b. If mass (Mb) is removed from the equation the equation becomes:

VO2= 0.676 x Mb0.75

c. Kleibers law.

0.01 0.10.01

1

0.1

10 1000100

10

1

Body Mass (kg)

Oxygen

consumption

(literO2h-1 Slo e = 0.75


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d. MaxRubner surface area hypothesis

i. Should this hypothesis be rejected completely?ii. Two examples: One hypothetical and one observed.

e. McMahonand Bonners (1983) cross-sectional area hypothesisf. Swansadditive scaling hypothesisg. Blumsfour-dimensional scaling hypothesis (1977)

h. Sernetzs fractal scaling hypothesis(1985)i. Can be defined by fractal dimensional analysis equationVo2= aM

b-f

Where: b= scaling exponent

a= constant for that group

f= fractal exponent (which changes with mass)


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TEMPERATURE AND METABOLIC RATE:Response of animals to minimize temperature effects

THE OBJECTIVES:

Understand the importance of temperature to animal life Enumerate the thermal physiological strategies and tactics used by ectotherms

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Thermal Primacy The Arrhenius Principal Temperature Quotient Homeothermy Precht Type Curves

THE DETAILS:

1. Heat and Temperaturea. Thermal Primacy Paradigmb. Effects of heat on chemical reactions

i. The Arrhenius principal.ii. Consequences

c. Effects on enzyme systemsi. Jacobus van't Hoff - and the temperature quotient or Q10.

(1)vant Hoffs rule

(a)Temperature quotient(i) Q10= Rate (at T1+ 10C) Rate at T1(ii)Q10= (Rate at T2 Rate at T1)

10 (T2 - T1)

2. Terminologya. Warm-blooded & Cold-bloodedb. Homeothermic & heretothermic or poikilothermicc. Endothermic & ectothermic - Terms of origin

3. Metabolism and ambient temperaturesa. Endotherms.

(1)thermal neutral zone(2)upper and lower critical temperatures

b. ectothermsi. Relationship to vant Hoffs rule?c. The concept of compensation in ectotherms

i. Precht type compensation curvesd. Effects of extreme temperature on animal systems

i. Cell damageii. Equilibrium imbalancesiii. Loss of enzymatic control


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4. Endotherms - homeothermya. Thermogenesis in endothermsb. General physiological control- The futile cyclec. Specific physiological control

i. The hypothalamus

ii. Conclusions?d. Shivering thermogenesisi. Female Indian pythonsii. Honeybee swarms

5. Non-shivering Thermogenesisa. Brown adipose tissue or BAT.

i. termogeninb. Mechanisms to conserve metabolic energy

i. Dual set-point regulators(1)Hibernation(2)Diel torpor

(3)Carnivorus lethargyii. Brumationiii. Estivation

c. Regional homeothermy/heterothermyi. rete mirabile

(1)Warm bodied fishes - rete mirabileii. Regional endothermy - Swordfish


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SKELETAL SYSTEMS

THE OBJECTIVES:

Evaluate stress/strain curves and give their meaning.

Describe the types of skeletons found in the animal kingdom.

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Material properties Elastic modulus Hydraulic skeletons Ridged skeleton types

THE DETAILS:

1. Functions of a skeletal systema. Major functionsb. Other functions

2. Material properties of skeletonsa. Density (g/cm3)

i. Some important ratios(1)Body fluids(2) Flexible biological materials(3)Rigid skeletal materials

b. Elastic modulusi. Elasticity

ii. Complianceiii. elastic modulus(1)Stress(2)Strain(3)Stress on Strain

c. Plasticityi. yield point

d. Ultimate strengthi. fracture point

3. Materialsa. Elastic organic compounds

b. Inorganic compounds that resist compressionTYPES OF SKELETONS1. Hydraulic skeletons - three elements

i. Fiber angle2. Hydrostat types

a. Fluid & soft wallsb. Fluid & muscle cells

i. Muscular hydrostats


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c. Fluid & rigid elements3. Rigid skeletons

a. Exoskeletoni. Advantagesii. Disadvantages

(1)Compressive bucklingiii. Arthropods exoskeleton(a)epicuticle(b)procuticle

(i) Exocuticle(ii)Endocuticle

iv. Mollusksb. Endoskeleton

i. Advantagesii. Disadvantages

(a)cancellous bone/pneumatized bone

6. Examples of endoskeletons1. Poriferiansi. sponginii. spicules

2. Echinodermsi. Ossicles - test

3. Vertebrate endoskeletona. Notochordb. Cartilage

i. Chondrocytesc. Bone

i. Osteocytes - hydroxyapatite(1)Lacunae

d. Bone typesi. Long bonesii. Short bonesiii. Flat bonesiv. Irregular bones

e. Bone structurei. Compact bone - osteon central Haversian canalii. Cancellous (spongy) bonetrabeculae


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MOVEMENT WITHOUT MUSCLE

THE OBJECTIVES:

Understand basic principles of non-muscular movement

Be able to describe and give the function of various molecules of motion Identify key physiological processes of ciliary, amoeboid, & flagellar movement

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Basic movement types Molecules associated with motion Cytoplasmic streaming Cilia & flagella structure and function

THE DETAILS:

1. Basic types of movementi. Amoeboidii. Ciliary or flagellar bendingiii. Direct cell movementiv. Muscle contraction

2. Molecules of Motiona. Contractileproteins

i. Actin(1)G-actin & F-actin

ii. Intermediatefibersiii. Tubulin

(1)heterodimers(2)microtubules.

b. Molecularmotorsi. Myosin

(1)spontaneous cross-bridgesii. Dyneiniii. Kinesin

c. Regulatoryproteinsi. Tropomyosinii. Troponiniii. Calmodulin

iv. Alpha-actinin3. Amoeboid Movement

a. cytoplasmic streamingb. sol and gel state

i. actin regulatedii. myosin regulated.iii. How it works

(1)endoplasm


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(2)fountain zone.(3)gel-likeectoplasm.

4. Cilia and Flagellaa. Disadvantages?b. Differences between cilia and flagella

(a)Neuroidhypothesis(b)Coupledoscillator hypothesisc. Mechanism of movement

i. The doublet microtubulin structure


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MUSCLE MOVEMENT

1. Muscle types2. Muscle fibers or myofibers or muscle cell

a. sarcolemma

i. transverse tubule systemii. T tubulesb. Sarcoplasmic reticulum

i. Terminal cisternae(1)Primary functions

3. Myofibrilsa. sarcomeres - functional unit of muscle contraction.b. myofilaments or muscle filaments.

i. Thick filaments(1)myosin

ii. Thin filaments

(1)actin(2) Z-lineiii. Tropomyosiniv. Troponin

c. zonation and linesi. Z line (Zwischenscheibe or between disk)ii. I band (isotropic)iii. A band (anisotropic)iv. H (helleor bright) zone

MUSCLE MOVEMENT- the sliding filament theory

4. motor unit concept5. The neuromuscular junction

a. acetylcholine & neuromuscular junctionb. motor end plate

6. Excitation-contraction couplinga. inositol triphosphate

7. Muscle Contractiona. Resting stageb. Cross-bridge formationc. Power stroked. Release stage

8. Regulation of muscle contractionVARIATION AMONG MUSCLE TYPES

9. Two basic typesi. Tonic muscle fibersii. Slow phasic fibersiii. Fast phasic glycolytic fibersiv. Fast phasic oxidative fibers

b. Cardiac musclec. Smooth muscle


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(1) (varicosities)(2)calmodulin


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WATER WATER EVERYWHERE

THE OBJECTIVES:

Gain a general understanding of water balance budgets

Explain mechanisms used in direct and indirect water conservation and loss Evaluate water balance adaptations and explain how they complement animal lifehistory and environment

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

The Water Budget Concept Direct control vs. indirect control of water Resistance to evaporative water loss Water absorption from sub-saturated air

THE DETAILS:

1. Major water balance problems in different habitat types

a. The water budget concept

i. Potential avenues of water lossii. Potential avenues of water gain

2. Two major strategies of maintaining a water budget

a. Direct control of water balance

b. Indirect control of water balance by controlling osmotic flux (osmoregulation)

3. The Biophysics of Water Balance

a. In terrestrial animals EWL = -D xWV/ d

i. D = diffusion coeficieny

ii. xWV= difference in water vapor densityiii.d = diffusion path length

b. Not usually measured in this way but rather as resistance

i. Resistance r is substituted for D & xWVii. EWL xWV / r

Some Adaptations for Direct control of water

4. Contractile vacuoles


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a. spongiomelayer.b. Arginine vasopressin

5. Adaptations for retarding water loss across body surfaces

a. Mollusksb. Arthropodsepicuticlec. Fishd. Amphibians

i. Waterproof frogs wipingbehavior cutaneous lipid glandsii. Casque-headed frogs (Trachycephalus) - co-ossifiedskulliii. Estivating amphibians

e. Aminote vertebrates - Keratinized epidermal cells, stratum corneumf. Reptilesg. Mammals

i. Three possible adaptations for preventing water loss from mammalianrespiratory surfaces in the absence of heat stress.

ii. Do not fully saturate expired air.iii. Higher oxygen extraction. (Greater than 5%)iv. Exhale air at lower than body temperature.v. Temporal counter-current heat exchanger

h. Female mammals have an additional water burden during lactation.

6. Direct water vapor absorption from sub-saturated air via hygroscopic organs.

a. agranular cellsb. eversible bladderc. rectal sacs containing hygroscopic fluid

7. Storage of water

a. Chiroleptes,

OSMOREGULATION AND EXCRETION

Secretory Organs of Excretion

THE OBJECTIVES:

Describe the relationship between osmoregulation and excretion Explain the two basic types of excretory organs List and describe the basic function of various cells/organs present in various animal

groups


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THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Ultrafiltration, reabsorption and secretion Chloride cells Salt glands

Malpigian tubules

THE DETAILS:

1. Basic Processes of Excretion

a. Ultrafiltrationb. Active transport

i. Active secretionii. Active reabsorption

2. The following are secretion (not filtration) organs and thus are specific to certaincompounds.

3. The teleost gill - Chloride cells

a. Gill filament - Secondary lamellae

(1)Lamella epithelium(2)Chloride cells

b. Keys and Willmer

(1) (trans-cellular transport)(2) (para-cellular transport)

4. Salt glands

a. Control

i. Hypothalamus and osmoreceptorsii. Hormonesiii. Major advantage

b. Location

(1)Birds and reptiles.(2)sea turtles and marine iguanas.(3)Chocadillians(4)sea snakes

c. Structure


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i. Knut Schmidt-Nielsenii. Secretory tubular system, tubular capillaries and a central duct.iii. counter current system

5. Maligian tubules

a. Structure/Function

i. midhindgut junctionii. passive movement chloride

WATER BALANCEORGANS OF EXCRETION

THE OBJECTIVES:

Gain a general understanding of excretory organs

Explain distribution and basic function of ultrafiltration organs in various animalgroups

Explain how various adaptations differ for animals in different environments

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Protonephredia and metanephredia The vertebrate kidney Counter-current magnification systems

THE DETAILS:

1. Protonephridia and metanephridia.

a. Protonephridia

i. "flame calls"

(1)Found mainly in acoelomate or psuedocoelomate animals.

b. Metanephridia

i. Found ONLY in eucoelomate animals, but the reverse is not true i.e., someanimals with a coelome have protonephridia.

c. Function

2. Vertebrate Kidneys

a. Functionb. Structure


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i. The Renal Tubular system

(1)Renal Corpusle

(a)Glomerulus(b)Bowmans capsule

(2)Nephron (all of the above plus the following)

(a)Proximal convoluted tubule(b)Loop of Henle

(i) Counter-current magnification

(c)Distal convoluted tubule

(3)Collecting ducts

(4)Renal blood flow

(a)Afferent arterioles(b)Glomerulus(c)Efferent arterioles(d)Peritubular capillaries

c. Variability of kidney morphology among marine vertebrates.

i. Excretion in fish

(1)Aglomerular kidneys

(2)Examples(3)Elasmobranchs have a reabsorption mechanism for urea.

ii. Excretion in the crab-eating frog

(1)Crab-eating frogs

iii. Excretion in reptilesiv. Excretion in marine birdsv. Excretion in mammals

The Oxygen Environment, Diffusion, & Respiration

Behavior of Gases in Aerial and Aquatic Environments

THE OBJECTIVES:

Understand the physical laws that affect excretory organ form and function Explain how each law dictates basic function of respiratory organs in various animal


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groups

Explain how diffusion and gas absorption differ between aerial and terrestrialenvironments

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Daltons Law Henerys Law Ficks Law Ficks famous silo problem

THE DETAILS:

1. Importance of Oxygen2. Gases in air - the aerial environment

a. What is the fate of oxygen in aerobic organisms?

i. Energy Production by Cellular Respiration.ii. Electron Transport Chain

O2+ 4H++ 4e

-= 2H2O

b. Composition of Gases in the Atmosphere

i. Nitrogen 78.09%ii. Oxygen 20.95%iii. Argon 0.93%

iv. Carbon Dioxide 0.03%

c. Dalton's Laws of Partial Pressure (Three parts but only two are important to us)

i. Effects of altitude on gas concentration and partial pressure

3. Gases in Water

a. Gas tensionb. Defined by Henry's Law which states - Tension of a gas in water is precisely

equal to the partial pressure of that gas in the gas phase with which it is in

equilibrium

c. Solubility - solution dissolves a specific amount of any gas it comes intoequilibrium with

i. Solubility coefficient ()

ii. Bgasg PPLmlsV )(/

d. Factors determining the Vgin water


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i. Nature of the gasii. Pressure of the gas in the gas phaseiii. Temperatureiv. Other dissolved solutes

4. Diffusion of gases

a. Diffusion of gas between two gases or between two liquids.b. Diffusion occurs in response to partial pressure (tension) gradients onlyc. Diffusion is the only mechanism of gas exchange between environment and living

cells

5. Animal Systems and the Movement of Gases Respiratory Membranes

a. Important definitions of respiration

i. Ventilation(Breathing) - Bulk air or water movement across a respiratory

surfaceii. Respiration- exchange of O2and CO2in all living organisms.iii. Cellular respirationCellular O2& CO2exchange resulting in ATP

production

iv. External Respiration- O2and CO2exchange across a respiratory membranev. Internal Respiration- Exchange of O2and CO2at the tissue level

FICK'S FIRST LAW OF DIFFUSION

11. J = -D A (C2-C1) xvi. Where:

(a)J = Total O2or CO2flux per unit time (moles per sec)(b)D or K = Diffusion coefficient or Kroghs diffusion constant; a

physical constant.

(c)A = respiratory surface area (cm2).(d)C2-C1= Difference in the concentration (or partial pressure whichever

is appropriate) between the medium and the organism.

(e)x = distance over which diffusion occurs (cm)

6. Fick's famous silo problem

Think like an ecological physiologist!!

7. Based on these limitations, how would you design a respiratory gas exchanger?

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMSAll I need is the air that I breathe

THE OBJECTIVES:


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Describe how temperature, pressure and diffusing gas attributes affect diffusion Explain how V/Q relationships are useful in maximizing oxygen uptake List and describe major respiratory structures in the major animal phyla

THE MAJOR CONCEPTS:

Utilization coefficient V/Q properties Diversity of respiratory systems Adaptations that enhance animal respiratory systems

THE DETAILS:

12.1. Factors affecting diffusion of oxygen and their consequences

a. Temperatureb. Nature of the biological material

i. Nature of the mediumii. Utilization coefficient

1.

iii. 1002

22

O

OO

WCi

CoCi

E

2. Engineering a respiratory structuresome general physiological considerations

a. Convection - ventilation/perfusion considerations

i. Thin membranesii. V/Q match

(1)V/Q ratios are highly variable(2)Properties of respiratory medium(3)Temperature(4)Type & concentration of respiratory pigment

iii. V/Q flow patterns

iv. Ventilated pool

v. Parallel or con-current flow arrangement

vi. Cross-current arrangement

vii.Counter current arrangement

3. Diversity of respiratory structures


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a. Integumentb. Gillc. Water lungd. Tracheae. Tracheal gill

f. Compressible gillg. Incompressible gillh. Air lung

4. Respiratory systems in the animal kingdom

a. Cutaneous respiration

i. Limiting thickness

(1)2

][8 2OM

KO

(2)Boundary layers

b. Gills & branchial gas exchange - Expansion of the body wall to form gills

i. Invertebrate gills

(1)Polychaetes(2)Echinoderms

(a)Retractile dermal papillaeskin gills

(i) Perivisceral system

(b)Tube feetpodia(c)Holothuroidianswater lung or respiratory tree

(3)Molluscs

(a)Ctenidiagills of broad flattened filaments with ciliated margins

(4)Gilled arthropods

(a)Crustaceans

(i) Ventilated by scaphognathitederived from the 2ndmaxilliaped

(b)Horseshoe crabsbook gills(c)Aquatic insects

(i) Gills pass oxygen into branched trachea(ii)Diffusion gill(iii)Plastron gill


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(a)Air sacs

(b)parallel cylindrical tubes called parabronchi

(c)air capillaries

student workbook and study modules - 01-01-15708067

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