Student Engagement and Student Engagement and School Community LinksSchool Community Links

Peter SullivanPeter SullivanMonash UniversityMonash University

OverviewOverview

Challenges facing educatorsChallenges facing educators

A theoretical perspectiveA theoretical perspective

Some implications generallySome implications generally

Implications for community partnershipsImplications for community partnerships

A disclaimerA disclaimer

I had originally intended to be more explicit I had originally intended to be more explicit about what I say means for School about what I say means for School Community links, but there is not much. I Community links, but there is not much. I am leaving to you the interpretation for am leaving to you the interpretation for your own context.your own context.

The challenges educators are The challenges educators are facingfacing

Especially in the middle years:Especially in the middle years:

A decline in school engagement of young A decline in school engagement of young adolescents as compared with their engagement adolescents as compared with their engagement in primary school.in primary school.Increased truancy. Increased truancy. Greater incidence of disruptive behaviour, Greater incidence of disruptive behaviour, alienation and isolation.alienation and isolation.The alienation appears to be most acute in the The alienation appears to be most acute in the case of disadvantaged students.case of disadvantaged students.Note the Prime Minister’s concerns about Note the Prime Minister’s concerns about bullyingbullying

PISA has some things to sayPISA has some things to say

In 2003, Australia was one of 41 countries that In 2003, Australia was one of 41 countries that participated in the participated in the Programme for International Student Programme for International Student AssessmentAssessment (PISA). (PISA). Over 12 500 15 year old students, from all schools Over 12 500 15 year old students, from all schools systems, and from each state and territory, completed a systems, and from each state and territory, completed a two-hour pen and paper tests in their schools, and two-hour pen and paper tests in their schools, and answered a 30 minute questionnaire. answered a 30 minute questionnaire. The focus of the assessment was on how well young The focus of the assessment was on how well young people had been prepared to meet challenges, how well people had been prepared to meet challenges, how well they could adapt their learning to the needs of their lives, they could adapt their learning to the needs of their lives, and to address aspects of school organisation, including and to address aspects of school organisation, including factors contributing to disadvantage.factors contributing to disadvantage.

In the Australian results:In the Australian results:

Australia is characterised as high in quality but Australia is characterised as high in quality but low in equity low in equity There was a strong relationship between There was a strong relationship between achievement and socioeconomic backgroundachievement and socioeconomic backgroundSome schools were more effective than others in Some schools were more effective than others in moderating this effect.moderating this effect.Students in metropolitan areas performed better Students in metropolitan areas performed better than regional students, who, in turn than regional students, who, in turn outperformed rural students. outperformed rural students. Indigenous students were over-represented in Indigenous students were over-represented in the lower categories of proficiency.the lower categories of proficiency.

Two complementary challengesTwo complementary challenges

We need to educate the next generation of We need to educate the next generation of inventors, creators, thinkers, advocates, and inventors, creators, thinkers, advocates, and explorers who will find ways to build a peaceful explorers who will find ways to build a peaceful caring society, tackle major problems (e.g., caring society, tackle major problems (e.g., energy), innovate, entertain, and find ways to energy), innovate, entertain, and find ways to build sustainable societies.build sustainable societies.Given demographic imbalances, the most Given demographic imbalances, the most effective way to ensure that there are working effective way to ensure that there are working people with the right skills, is to improve the people with the right skills, is to improve the effectiveness of the education of all students, effectiveness of the education of all students, especially those who are currently especially those who are currently underperformingunderperforming

In both cases we need to challenge In both cases we need to challenge students (appropriately)students (appropriately)

A different take on ZPDA different take on ZPD

Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development (ZPD) … “distance between the actual (ZPD) … “distance between the actual developmental level as determined by developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined by problem potential development as determined by problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers” (p. 86). with more capable peers” (p. 86). ZPD defines learning as going beyond tasks or ZPD defines learning as going beyond tasks or problems that students can solve independently, problems that students can solve independently, so that the students are working on challenges so that the students are working on challenges for which they need support. for which they need support.

The complexity of challengeThe complexity of challenge

Unless the students are challenged they Unless the students are challenged they are not learning and growingare not learning and growing

But what if students resist challenge by But what if students resist challenge by giving up, thereby prompting the teacher giving up, thereby prompting the teacher to reduce the challenge by feeding in to reduce the challenge by feeding in informationinformation

This resistance has been widely This resistance has been widely notednoted

Pupils misbehave during tasks involving higher Pupils misbehave during tasks involving higher order processesorder processes

Pupils work effectively on tasks requiring only Pupils work effectively on tasks requiring only recall of information (Doyle, 1986)recall of information (Doyle, 1986)

Pupils are not interested in each other’s Pupils are not interested in each other’s opinionsopinions

The more unfamiliar the task, the more difficult The more unfamiliar the task, the more difficult it is to teach (Desforges & Cockburn, 1987)it is to teach (Desforges & Cockburn, 1987)

A particular theory - DweckA particular theory - Dweck

Perspectives on intelligencePerspectives on intelligence

entityentity– people who believe that their intelligence is people who believe that their intelligence is

genetically predetermined and remains fixed through genetically predetermined and remains fixed through life. life.

– Dweck suggested that students who believe in the Dweck suggested that students who believe in the entity view require easy successes to maintain entity view require easy successes to maintain motivation, and see challenges as threats. motivation, and see challenges as threats.

incrementalincremental – can change their intelligence and/or achievement by can change their intelligence and/or achievement by

manipulating factors over which they have some manipulating factors over which they have some control. control.

– Students with such incremental beliefs often choose Students with such incremental beliefs often choose to sacrifice opportunities to look smart in favour of to sacrifice opportunities to look smart in favour of learning something new. learning something new.

The theory – DweckThe theory – Dweck

Seekers of affirmation (performers),Seekers of affirmation (performers), when when experiencing difficultiesexperiencing difficulties– lose confidence in themselves, lose confidence in themselves, – tend to denigrate their own intelligence, tend to denigrate their own intelligence, – exhibit plunging expectations, exhibit plunging expectations, – develop negative approaches, develop negative approaches, – have lower persistence. have lower persistence. – seek positive judgements from others and seek positive judgements from others and

avoid negative onesavoid negative ones. .

Achievers for its own sake (mastery)Achievers for its own sake (mastery)– do not blame others for threatsdo not blame others for threats– do not see failure as an indictment on do not see failure as an indictment on

themselvesthemselves– hold hold learning goals which are to increase their learning goals which are to increase their

competence when confronted with difficulty competence when confronted with difficulty – do not see do not see success success asas essentialessential

Aspirations and ExpectationsAspirations and Expectations

Potentially positive influences include the Potentially positive influences include the extent to which students’ connect current extent to which students’ connect current schooling with future opportunities or their schooling with future opportunities or their possible selves, possible selves, which is “the future-which is “the future-oriented component of self-concept” oriented component of self-concept” (Oyserman, Terry, & Bybee, 2002, p. 313)(Oyserman, Terry, & Bybee, 2002, p. 313)

A research studyA research study

With year 8 students, in a regional cityWith year 8 students, in a regional cityAsked students, in one on one interviews, to do a Asked students, in one on one interviews, to do a series of graduated questions until they could not series of graduated questions until they could not continue, then we asked them about the continue, then we asked them about the experienceexperience

Data Collection Data Collection

Included:Included:

Student surveys Student surveys

Individual interviews Individual interviews with studentswith students

Observation of Observation of students’ performance students’ performance on a range of taskson a range of tasks

Recording of students’ Recording of students’ responses to protocol responses to protocol questionsquestions

Matching students’ Matching students’ performance and performance and response against response against background data background data including teacher including teacher achievement and achievement and effort rating and effort rating and gendergender

The key findings wereThe key findings were

The students were surprisingly confident in their The students were surprisingly confident in their own ability, they perceived themselves as trying own ability, they perceived themselves as trying hard, and they saw these as linked. hard, and they saw these as linked.

The students seemed aware of the importance of The students seemed aware of the importance of effort. effort.

Even though we anticipated that students would Even though we anticipated that students would give up when posed difficult tasks and this would give up when posed difficult tasks and this would provide the prompt for our discussions, in both the provide the prompt for our discussions, in both the English and mathematics tasks all students English and mathematics tasks all students persevered for the whole time. persevered for the whole time.

More resultsMore results

A key finding was that, to an open response item, nearly A key finding was that, to an open response item, nearly half of the responses related to the negative influence of half of the responses related to the negative influence of classmates. The responses explain a lack of observable classmates. The responses explain a lack of observable effort as being, on one hand, a result of a desire to be effort as being, on one hand, a result of a desire to be popular, and on the other hand, from fear of retribution popular, and on the other hand, from fear of retribution from peers. from peers. Interestingly, many students indicated that they feel that Interestingly, many students indicated that they feel that the lack of effort by some students is an issue that the lack of effort by some students is an issue that should be addressed. These suggestions about how this should be addressed. These suggestions about how this could be done were extraordinarily insightful, mature, could be done were extraordinarily insightful, mature, and empathetic. and empathetic.

Recommendations for actionRecommendations for action

There are five specific implications for There are five specific implications for educataors. In particular it is recommended that educataors. In particular it is recommended that we:we:– work on building an understanding of the nature of work on building an understanding of the nature of

community, the world of work, the nature of study community, the world of work, the nature of study pathways and options, and strategies to optimise pathways and options, and strategies to optimise options so that students can be aware of the options so that students can be aware of the relationship between their opportunities at school and relationship between their opportunities at school and the future life choices;the future life choices;

address the relevance of the curriculum address the relevance of the curriculum and the type of tasks used. If the students and the type of tasks used. If the students do not connect schooling to their future do not connect schooling to their future then tasks that are only relevant for then tasks that are only relevant for students whose goals include higher study students whose goals include higher study may not be attractive to the others. Note may not be attractive to the others. Note that this does not mean basing curriculum that this does not mean basing curriculum on limited student goals, but engaging on limited student goals, but engaging students in learning activities that are students in learning activities that are intrinsically engaging;intrinsically engaging;

make students more aware of their actual make students more aware of their actual achievement and effort. This includes usual achievement and effort. This includes usual assessment modes, and also the processes for assessment modes, and also the processes for affirming effort. It is possible that primary and affirming effort. It is possible that primary and junior secondary teachers give students junior secondary teachers give students unrealistically positive evaluations of their unrealistically positive evaluations of their achievement and effort. This has dual negative achievement and effort. This has dual negative effects of endorsing inadequate effort and effects of endorsing inadequate effort and achievement, and fostering inappropriate goals achievement, and fostering inappropriate goals of seeking teacher endorsement;of seeking teacher endorsement;

teach self-regulatory behaviours such as teach self-regulatory behaviours such as cognitive, meta-cognitive, social, and cognitive, meta-cognitive, social, and affective awareness. As with other aspects affective awareness. As with other aspects of schooling, these behaviours are able to of schooling, these behaviours are able to be learned, and it is lower achieving be learned, and it is lower achieving students that most need specific support in students that most need specific support in developing such behaviours; developing such behaviours;

identify interventions that address identify interventions that address mismatches between teacher and student mismatches between teacher and student expectations for classroom and school-expectations for classroom and school-based activities. Schooling processes are based activities. Schooling processes are compatible with conventional middle class compatible with conventional middle class aspirations, but are less obvious for aspirations, but are less obvious for students from families who do not have students from families who do not have such familiarity with the ways schools such familiarity with the ways schools operate. operate.

The tension with learning the The tension with learning the disciplinesdisciplines

Should we talk about intellectual development? Should we talk about intellectual development? Is it possible that some approaches develop Is it possible that some approaches develop people intellectually and others don’tpeople intellectually and others don’t

What are the skills that will allow students to What are the skills that will allow students to grow to their potential?grow to their potential?

What do the “disciplines” have to offer?What do the “disciplines” have to offer?

Learning music, especially where reading and interpreting notes is Learning music, especially where reading and interpreting notes is involved, seems connected with IDinvolved, seems connected with IDPoetry gives insights into language that are not possible through report Poetry gives insights into language that are not possible through report writing and reading newspapers (also the experience of remembering)writing and reading newspapers (also the experience of remembering)Learning the skills of drawing seems to have transfer across domains Learning the skills of drawing seems to have transfer across domains and are associated with high level performance in many fieldsand are associated with high level performance in many fieldsLearning to speak a second language (even if this is English) is Learning to speak a second language (even if this is English) is liberating, builds tolerance and connections, postpones senility, liberating, builds tolerance and connections, postpones senility, broadens communication genres, …broadens communication genres, …Intense physical activity seems to enhance performance in all fields, Intense physical activity seems to enhance performance in all fields, and physical skill development augments thisand physical skill development augments thisThere are abstract principles in understanding food preparation that go There are abstract principles in understanding food preparation that go beyond learning to cookbeyond learning to cookDitto ITDitto ITIt is not possible to appreciate the environment unless you have words It is not possible to appreciate the environment unless you have words to describe what you see, hear, feel, smell, to describe what you see, hear, feel, smell,

Štech (2006) argued that school mathematics Štech (2006) argued that school mathematics has a role in prompting reflection, abstraction has a role in prompting reflection, abstraction and generalisation that is not possible in and generalisation that is not possible in responding to everyday tasks. Štech was critical responding to everyday tasks. Štech was critical of approaches that: of approaches that: – localise the dynamic of learning almost exclusively localise the dynamic of learning almost exclusively

into the world of everyday experience and neglect the into the world of everyday experience and neglect the importance of activities … directed at reflection and importance of activities … directed at reflection and abstraction. Thus they hinder investigations into the abstraction. Thus they hinder investigations into the differences and tensions between an item of differences and tensions between an item of knowledge in its everyday form and one which is knowledge in its everyday form and one which is formalised – and therefore bypass the decisive formalised – and therefore bypass the decisive moment of cognitive and personal development of the moment of cognitive and personal development of the individual. (p. I-39)individual. (p. I-39)

Basically the argument is:Basically the argument is:

Activities in which students engage are the Activities in which students engage are the medium through teachers (broadly medium through teachers (broadly defined) and students communicatedefined) and students communicateThe type of activity determines the type of The type of activity determines the type of learninglearningIt is better for the student to be engaged It is better for the student to be engaged by, in, or through the activity rather than by, in, or through the activity rather than through the personality of the teachers, through the personality of the teachers, the fear of parent, …the fear of parent, …

Some of the characteristics of Some of the characteristics of appropriate activities areappropriate activities are

a need for variety and diversity, a need for variety and diversity, for activities to include meaningful reasons for activities to include meaningful reasons for students to engage in the tasks, for students to engage in the tasks, ideally for the activities to be personally ideally for the activities to be personally relevantrelevantfor there to be challenge, interest and for there to be challenge, interest and control (see Middleton, 1995)control (see Middleton, 1995)to include a social component (probably to include a social component (probably not with friends)not with friends)

In the case of numeracyIn the case of numeracy

There were over 600 specific projects in There were over 600 specific projects in Australia (in 2004) involving parents in Australia (in 2004) involving parents in numeracy education of their children in numeracy education of their children in some waysome way

The workplace demands for numeracy The workplace demands for numeracy including accuracy, transfer, and including accuracy, transfer, and adaptable knowledge (data, networks)adaptable knowledge (data, networks)

Implications for Community School Implications for Community School PartnershipsPartnerships

SPP up to youSPP up to you

parentsparents

Some comments offered starting points Some comments offered starting points for some subsequent interventionfor some subsequent intervention

““It’s good to be smart because then you It’s good to be smart because then you know stuff, and if you’re dumb just so your know stuff, and if you’re dumb just so your friends like you then it’s really bad. friends like you then it’s really bad. Obviously they’re not your friends if they Obviously they’re not your friends if they make you be dumb to be their friend.”make you be dumb to be their friend.”

Next steps?Next steps?

Arrange these cards in order to make a storyArrange these cards in order to make a storyWrite a story about when you have Write a story about when you have underperformed to be liked by your friendsunderperformed to be liked by your friendsRole playRole playvideovideoWhat would you say to a friend you said that What would you say to a friend you said that they didn’t try their best because they they didn’t try their best because they wanted to be your friendwanted to be your friend……

Another oneAnother one

“…“…if you’re playing (sport) and you mess if you’re playing (sport) and you mess up or something and you have a kick and up or something and you have a kick and it falls short or it goes out of bounds on the it falls short or it goes out of bounds on the full where it shouldn’t, if you have full where it shouldn’t, if you have someone on your team that says, ‘You’ll someone on your team that says, ‘You’ll get the next one,’ you’re more confident to get the next one,’ you’re more confident to keep playing, but if someone is like, ‘What keep playing, but if someone is like, ‘What are you doing?’ …”are you doing?’ …”