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Contents

In each chapter, look for these opportunities forreview and assessment:• Reading Checks• Caption Questions• Section Review• Chapter Study Guide• Chapter Review• Standardized Test

Practice

In each chapter, look for these opportunities forreview and assessment:• Reading Checks• Caption Questions• Section Review• Chapter Study Guide• Chapter Review• Standardized Test

Practice• Online practice at

earth.msscience.com

Earth Materials—2

The Nature of Science—4Section 1 Science All Around . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Section 2 Scientific Enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Lab Understanding Science Articles . . . . . . . . . . .23

Lab Testing Variables of a Pendulum . . . . . . . . . .24

Matter—32Section 1 Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34

Section 2 Combinations of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Lab Scales of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Section 3 Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46

Lab: Design Your OwnDetermining Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52

Minerals—60Section 1 Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62

Lab Crystal Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67

Section 2 Mineral Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68

Section 3 Uses of Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73

Lab: Design Your OwnMineral Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80

Rocks—88Section 1 The Rock Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90

Section 2 Igneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .94

Lab Igneous Rock Clues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98

Section 3 Metamorphic Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99

Section 4 Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103

Lab Sedimentary Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110

Doug Martin

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Earth’s Energy and Mineral Resources—118

Section 1 Nonrenewable Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . .120

Section 2 Renewable Energy Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130

Lab Soaking up Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .136

Section 3 Mineral Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

Lab: Model and InventHome Sweet Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142

The Changing Surface of Earth—150

Views of Earth—152Section 1 Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .154

Section 2 Viewpoints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .160

Section 3 Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164

Lab Making a Topographic Map . . . . . . . . . . . . .171

Lab: Model and InventConstructing Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .172

David Muench/CORBIS

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Weathering and Soil—180Section 1 Weathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182

Section 2 The Nature of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .188

Lab Soil Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195

Section 3 Soil Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196

Lab: Design Your OwnWeathering Chalk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200

Erosional Forces—208Section 1 Erosion by Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210

Section 2 Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .215

Lab Glacial Grooving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221

Section 3 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222

Lab: Design Your OwnBlowing in the Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .228

Water Erosion and Deposition—236Section 1 Surface Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .238

Section 2 Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249

Section 3 Ocean Shoreline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .255

Lab Classifying Types of Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .259

Lab Water Speed and Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .260

Earth’s Internal Processes—268

Plate Tectonics—270Section 1 Continental Drift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272

Section 2 Seafloor Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276

Lab Seafloor Spreading Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .279

Section 3 Theory of Plate Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .280

Lab: Use the InternetPredicting Tectonic Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290

In each chapter, look for these opportunities forreview and assessment:• Reading Checks• Caption Questions• Section Review• Chapter Study Guide• Chapter Review• Standardized Test

Practice• Online practice at

earth.msscience.com

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Earthquakes—298Section 1 Forces Inside Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .300

Section 2 Features of Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .304

Lab Epicenter Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .312

Section 3 People and Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313

Lab Earthquake Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320

Volcanoes—328Section 1 Volcanoes and Earth’s Moving Plates . . . . . . . . .330

Section 2 Types of Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .336

Lab Identifying Types of Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . .344

Section 3 Igneous Rock Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .345

Lab: Design Your OwnHow do calderas form? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .350

Change and Earth’s History—358

Clues to Earth’s Past—360Section 1 Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .362

Section 2 Relative Ages of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .370

Lab Relative Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .376

Section 3 Absolute Ages of Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .377

Lab: Model and InventTrace Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .382

Geologic Time—390Section 1 Life and Geologic Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .392

Section 2 Early Earth History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .400

Lab Changing Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .407

Section 3 Middle and Recent Earth History . . . . . . . . . . . .408

Lab: Use the InternetDiscovering the Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .414

In each chapter, look for these opportunities forreview and assessment:• Reading Checks• Caption Questions• Section Review• Chapter Study Guide• Chapter Review• Standardized Test

Practice• Online practice at

earth.msscience.com

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Earth’s Air and Water—422

Atmosphere—424Section 1 Earth’s Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .426

Lab Evaluating Sunscreens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .434

Section 2 Energy Transfer in the Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . .435

Section 3 Air Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .439

Lab: Design Your OwnThe Heat is On . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .444

Weather—452Section 1 What is weather? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454

Section 2 Weather Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .462

Section 3 Weather Forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470

Lab Reading a Weather Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .473

Lab: Model and InventMeasuring Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474

Larry Lee/CORBIS

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Climate—482Section 1 What is climate? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .484

Section 2 Climate Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .488

Section 3 Climatic Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .492

Lab The Greenhouse Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .503

Lab Microclimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .504

Ocean Motion—512Section 1 Ocean Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .514

Section 2 Ocean Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .518

Section 3 Ocean Waves and Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .524

Lab Wave Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .531

Lab: Design Your OwnSink or Float? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .532

Oceanography—540Section 1 The Seafloor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .542

Lab Mapping the Ocean Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .548

Section 2 Life in the Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .549

Section 3 Ocean Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .557

Lab: Use the InternetResources from the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .562

(t)Darryl Torckler/Stone/Getty Images, (b)Herb Segars/Animals Animals

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You and the Environment—570

Our Impact on Land—572Section 1 Population Impact on the Environment . . . . . .574

Section 2 Using Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .578

Lab What to wear? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .585

Section 3 Conserving Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .586

Lab A World Full of People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .590

Our Impact on Water and Air—598

Section 1 Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .600

Lab Elements in Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .608

Section 2 Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .609

Lab: Design Your OwnWhat’s in the air? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .616

Astronomy—624

Exploring Space—626Section 1 Radiation from Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628

Lab Building a Reflecting Telescope . . . . . . . . . .634

Section 2 Early Space Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .635

Section 3 Current and Future Space Missions . . . . . . . . . .643

Lab: Use the InternetStar Sightings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .650

In each chapter, look for these opportunities forreview and assessment:• Reading Checks• Caption Questions• Section Review• Chapter Study Guide• Chapter Review• Standardized Test

Practice• Online practice at

earth.msscience.com

Chuck Place/Stock Boston

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The Sun-Earth-Moon System—658

Section 1 Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .660

Section 2 The Moon—Earth’s Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .666

Lab Moon Phases and Eclipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .675

Section 3 Exploring Earth’s Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .676

Lab Tilt and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .680

The Solar System—688Section 1 The Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .690

Lab Planetary Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .695

Section 2 The Inner Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .696

Section 3 The Outer Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .702

Section 4 Other Objects in the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . .710

Lab: Model and InventSolar System Distance Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .714

Stars and Galaxies—722Section 1 Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .724

Section 2 The Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .729

Lab Sunspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .733

Section 3 Evolution of Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .734

Section 4 Galaxies and the Universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .740

Lab: Design Your OwnMeasuring Parallax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .746

Student Resources—754Science Skill Handbook—756

Scientific Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .756

Safety Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .765

Safety in the Science Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . .766

(t)USGS/TSADO/Tom Stack & Assoc., (c)NASA/Photo Researchers, (b)USGS/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers

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In each chapter, look for these opportunities forreview and assessment:• Reading Checks• Caption Questions• Section Review• Chapter Study Guide• Chapter Review• Standardized Test

Practice• Online practice at

earth.msscience.com

Extra Try at Home Labs—768

Technology Skill Handbook—781Computer Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .781

Presentation Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .784

Math Skill Handbook—785Math Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .785

Science Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .795

Reference Handbooks—800Weather Map Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .800

Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .801

Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .802

Periodic Table of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .804

Topographic Map Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .806

English/Spanish Glossary—807

Index—831

Credits—851

Sci

ence

Pho

to L

ibra

ry/P

hoto

Res

earc

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Unit Openers

Unit 1 How are Rocks and Fluorescent Lights Connected? . . . . . . . . 2Unit 2 How are Rivers and Writing Connected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Unit 3 How are Volcanoes and Fish Connected?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268Unit 4 How are Canals and the Paleozoic Era Connected? . . . . . . 358Unit 5 How are Bats and Tornadoes Connected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422Unit 6 How are Cotton and Cookies Connected? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570Unit 7 How are Thunderstorms and Neutron Stars Connected? . . . 624

VISUALIZING

1 The History of Earth Science Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 States of Matter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Crystal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 The Rock Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925 Methane Hydrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1266 Topographic Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1677 Soil Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1898 How Dunes Form and Migrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2269 Stream Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

10 Plate Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28311 Seismic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30612 Lava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33813 Unconformities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37314 Unusual Life-Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40315 Global Winds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44116 Tornadoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46717 El Niño and La Niña . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49418 Wave Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52619 The Rocky Shore Habitat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55520 Trash Disposal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58821 Sewage Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60322 Space Probes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63923 The Moon’s Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67224 The Solar System’s Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69325 The Big Bang Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744

CORBIS/PictureQuest

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4 Australia’s Controversial Rock Star. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1129 Sands in Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

16 Rainmakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47620 Hazardous Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59222 Cities in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652

3 Dr. Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826 Location, Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

17 The Year There Was No Summer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50621 Meet Rachel Carson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61823 The Mayan Calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682

5 Black Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14412 Buried in Ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35213 The World’s Oldest Fish Story. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38419 Strange Creatures from the Ocean Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56424 It Came from Outer Space! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716

1 “The Microscope”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Landscape, History, and the Pueblo Imagination . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

10 Listening In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29215 Song of the Sky Loom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44618 “The Jungle of Ceylon” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

2 Amazing Atoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 Losing Against Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

11 Moving Earth! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32214 Extinct! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41625 Stars and Galaxies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748

Accidentsin SCIENCE

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1 Measure in SI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 Change the State of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Distinguish Rocks from Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614 Observe and Describe Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895 Finding Energy Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196 Describe Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1537 Stalactites and Stalagmites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1818 Demonstrate Sediment Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2099 Model How Erosion Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

10 Reassemble an Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27111 Why do earthquakes occur?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29912 Map a Volcano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32913 Clues to Life’s Past . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36114 Survival Through Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39115 Observe Air Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42516 What causes rain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45317 Tracking World Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48318 What causes ocean currents? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51319 How deep is the ocean? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54120 What happens as the human population grows?. . . . . . . . 57321 Is pollution always obvious? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59922 An Astronomer’s View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62723 Model Rotation and Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65924 Model Crater Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68925 Why do clusters of galaxies move apart? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723

1 Observing a Scientific Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Classifying Forms of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Observing Mineral Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724 Classifying Sediments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045 Observing the Effects of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1396 Interpreting Latitude and Longitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1617 Comparing Components of Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1908 Modeling Slump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2119 Observing Runoff Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

10 Modeling Convection Currents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285

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11 Interpreting Seismic Wave Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30912 Modeling Volcanic Cones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34013 Modeling Carbon-14 Dating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37814 Dating Rock Layers with Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40215 Determining If Air Has Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43116 Determining Dew Point. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45617 Observing Solar Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48518 Modeling Water Particle Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52519 Observing Plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55320 Modeling Earth’s Farmland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57921 Identifying Acid Rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61122 Modeling a Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64123 Making Your Own Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66224 Inferring Effects of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69925 Measuring Distance in Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

1 Designing an Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Searching for Elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Inferring Salt’s Crystal System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634 Modeling Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915 Practicing Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1276 Profiling the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1567 Observing the Formation of Rust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1868 Observing How Soil is Held in Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2249 Measuring Pore Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

10 Interpreting Fossil Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27411 Modeling Seismic-Safe Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31812 Modeling Magma Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

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13 Predicting Fossil Preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36314 Calculating the Age of the Atlantic Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41215 Modeling Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43716 Measuring Rain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47117 Modeling El Niño . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49318 Modeling A Density Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52119 Modeling the Mid-Atlantic Ridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54520 Classifying Your Trash for One Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58721 Examining the Content of Air. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61322 Observing Effects of Light Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63223 Modeling a Shaded Impact Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67724 Modeling Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70425 Observing Star Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

1 Understanding Science Articles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 Scales of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Crystal Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 Igneous Rock Clues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985 Soaking Up Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1366 Making a Topographic Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717 Soil Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1958 Glacial Grooving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2219 Classifying Types of Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

10 Seafloor Spreading Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27911 Epicenter Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31212 Identifying Types of Volcanoes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34413 Relative Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37614 Changing Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40715 Evaluating Sunscreens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43416 Reading a Weather Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47317 The Greenhouse Effect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50318 Making Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53119 Mapping the Ocean Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54820 What to wear? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58521 Elements in Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60822 Building a Reflecting Telescope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63423 Moon Phases and Eclipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67524 Planetary Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69525 Sunspots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733

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Matt Meadows

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1 Testing Variables of a Pendulum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24–254 Sedimentary Rocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110–1119 Water Speed and Erosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260–261

11 Earthquake Depths. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320–32117 Microclimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504–50520 A World Full of People. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590–59123 Tilt and Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680–681

2 Determining Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52–533 Mineral Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80–817 Weathering Chalk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200–2018 Blowing in the Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228–229

12 How do calderas form? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350–35115 The Heat Is On . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444–44518 Sink or Float . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532–53321 What’s in the air? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616–61725 Measuring Parallax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746–747

5 Home Sweet Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142–1436 Constructing Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172–173

13 Trace Fossils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382–38316 Measuring Wind Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474–47524 Solar System Distance Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714–715

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10 Predicting Tectonic Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290–29114 Discovering the Past. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414–41519 Resources from the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562–56322 Star Sightings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650–651

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2 Calculating Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Coal Formation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1087 Soil Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1929 Groundwater Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

11 Earthquake Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31712 Classifying Igneous Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34614 Calculating Extinction by Using Percentages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41116 Dew Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45718 Density of Saltwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52219 Calculating a Feature’s Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54421 Surface Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60222 Drawing by Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63624 Diameter of Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700

1 How can bias affect your observations? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 How can you identify minerals? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705 Why should you recycle? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1406 How can you create a cross section from a geologic map? . . . . 1698 What factors affect wind erosion?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

10 How well do the continents fit together? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28213 When did the Iceman die? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38015 How does altitude affect air pressure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43017 How do cities influence temperature? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48620 How does land use affect stream discharge? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58123 What will you use to survive on the Moon? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67325 Are distance and brightness related? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726

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Activities

Career: 20, 106, 131, 197, 239, 287, 315, 332, 497, 522, 550, 576, 604,638, 671

Chemistry: 44, 77, 97, 138, 185, 191, 253, 277, 401, 522, 552, 583,611, 638

Earth Science: 26, 202, 292, 331, 446 Environment: 331, 468Health: 37, 339, 433, 497, 606, 629History: 223Language Arts: 706Life Science: 10, 121, 162, 222, 368, 394, 432, 455, 489, 516, 521, 549,

640, 661Physics: 19, 65, 93, 131, 166, 197, 213, 239, 277, 288, 302, 305, 315,

377, 436, 463, 486, 582, 662, 692, 694, 738Social Studies: 77, 162, 365

9,17, 40, 48, 76, 96, 100, 125, 133, 144, 157, 168, 185, 197, 220, 224, 242,246, 273, 282, 307, 316, 337, 347, 371, 374, 380, 404, 409, 428, 440, 463,466, 499, 501, 519, 527, 543, 554, 575, 606, 612, 640, 645, 647, 663, 665,669, 691, 700, 729, 736

30–31, 58–59, 86–87, 116–117, 148–149, 178–179, 206–207,234–235, 266–267, 296–297, 326–327, 356–357, 388–389,420–421, 450–451, 480–481, 510–511, 538–539, 568–569,596–597, 622–623, 656–657, 686–687, 720–721, 752–753

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1(t)NASA/Science Source/Photo Researchers, (bl)Arthur R. Hill/Visuals Unlimited, (br)Mark Schneider/Visuals Unlimited

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