struggles of identity in the age of globalisation.rtf

8/14/2019 Struggles of identity in the age of globalisation.rtf

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Struggles of identity in the age of globalisation:Searching for anchors that hold

Elirea BornmanDepartment of Communication Science

University of South Africa

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ABSTRACT

This article explores the intricate interrelationships between discourses on andstrules of identity and the multiple processes associated with increasinlobalisation in the modern ae! "lobalisation is often exclusively associated with

worldwide economic interation and the emerence of a borderless lobal mar#et!$owever% lobalisation also involves sweepin chanes on the social% cultural andpolitical terrains! "lobalisation furthermore entails apparently contradictoryprocesses of% amon others% homoenisation and universilisation on the one handand localisation and differensiation on the other! &arious analysts point out that theoften contradictory processes of lobalisation has led to wideranin chanes in theprocesses of identity formation that have% in turn% resulted not only in a flourishin ofdiscourses on identity% but also in strules of identity involvin various minority andmarinalised roups! Apart from explorin various definitions of identity% discoursesof and strules of identity are discussed on five levels% namely the individual%subnational% national% supranational and lobal levels! Attention is furthermore iven

to the role of the media and information and communication technoloies in thesestrules and the implications for policy'ma#in within the media andcommunications sector! The farreachin implications for Africa% and South Africa inparticular% are furthermore considered!

11 INTRODUCTION

The openin of a new century has always served as a symbolic turnin point inhuman history! The ()st century is no exception! A sinificant feature of the present*uncture is the sweepin economic% social% cultural and political chanes oftenreferred to as lobalisation +Tehranian ),,,-!

.n eneral% the term /lobalisation/ refers to the transformation of temporal andspatial limitations% that is the shrin#in of distance due to the dramatic reduction inthe time needed to bride spatial differences that has% in turn% resulted in the radualinteration of political% economic and social space across national borders! Althouhlobalisation is often exclusively associated with the economic sphere% that is withprocesses of production% distribution and consumption as well as with ever'increasin lobal trade and financial services +0e 1ere 2 0ambrechts ),,,-%economic lobalisation is intrically interwoven with chanes within the social% culturaland political spheres +3eatherstone ),,45 6aters ),,7-!

"lobalisation is furthermore an extremely complex and multifaceted phenomenon!8n the one hand there is the tendency towards homoeneity% synchronisation%interation% unity and universalism! 8n the other hand% there is the propensity forlocalisation% heteroeneity% differentiation% diversity and particularism! Theseprocesses are intricately interwoven and represent ' in reality ' two faces of the samecoin! Thus the term 9lobalisations is sometimes used to indicate that lobalisationis not an ubi;uitous or uniform process% but involves various terrains% manifestsdifferently in various contexts and has different effects for people in different contexts

1The idea for this article oriinated at a multidiscplinary wor#shop attended byvarious South African scholars involved in the study of lobalisation% identity anddemocratisation! This wor#shop formed part of a pro*ect funded by the


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+Braman 2 van Staden (4445 >los#ows#a ),,?5 Tehranian% = 2 Tehranian% >> ),,@5Servaes% 0ie 2 Teris (444-!

6ithin this fast lobalisin world with all its contradictions% strules for identity haveemered as one of the most stri#in characteristics of the social% cultural and political

scene! 8ne of the most important features of the identity discourse is the relativerecency of its emerence and proliferation! .n ),, the prominent British culturalscientist% Stuart $all% remar#ed:

There has been a veritable discursive explosion in recent years around theconcept of "identity"+$all ),,a:)-!

Accordin to the socioloist ymunt Bauman +(44)a:)4-% this /explosion/ hassince ),, triered an avalanche! 3ew other aspects of contemporary life havesucceeded in attractin the same amount of attention! .t is not only that /identitystudies/ have become a thrivin industry! The concept identity has also become the

prism throuh which most other aspects of contemporary life are studied! Evenestablished issues of social analysis are refurbished and reformulated to fit into theidentity discourse! Thus discussions on /*ustice/ and /e;uality/ are debated in termsof /reconition/ +of the riht to a separate identity-5 the concept /culture/ is studied interms of individual% roup andor cateorical differences and concepts such as/creolisation/ and /hybridity/5 and political discourses often centre around individualor roup rihts!

Discourses on identity is% however% not restricted to the ivory towers of academia!Strules of identity has also become an interal part of intra'individual processesas well as of the social and political scene! As such discourses and strules ofidentity have important and farreachin implications for policy'ma#in on all levels!Also% in an attempt to develop lobal% national and local people'centred policies withreard to the media and information and communication technoloies% coniancewill have to be ta#en of these discourses and strules!

"iven the prominence and importance of these discourses and strules and theirfarreachin implications% . will firstly explore some definitions of identity! . willfurthermore ive attention to the intricate relationship between processes associatedwith lobalisation on various levels and strules for identity! .n contemplatinidentity discourses on various levels% attention will also be iven to the role of

international communication ' and especially the role of the media and informationand communication technoloies ' in the processes associated with lobalisationand concomitant identity issues! 0astly% attention will be iven to the implications forSouth Africa and policy'ma#in with reard to the media and information andcommunication technololies in South Africa!

2 T!" DISCOURS" ON ID"NTIT#

The term /identity/ first ained salience throuh the wor# of the psycholoist Eri#son+),?-! 6hile Eri#son associates identity as a definition of personhood with

sameness or continuity of the self across time and space% other authors alsoemphasise uni;ueness% that is those characteristics that differentiate a person from

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other people or the whole of man#ind +Baumeister ),?5 Brewer ),,)% ),,F5 Gouse),,7-! Eri#son furthermore uses the term /identity crisis/ to refer to individuals whohave lost a sense of sameness or continuity! 6hile he reards an identity crisis as anormal and passin stae in adolescent development% he holds that it should berearded as patholoical in adults! $e typifies a healthy state of identity development

as an invioratin sub*ective awareness of sameness and continuity!

Althouh Eri#son +),?- theorises on identity from a psychoanalytic point of view% healso emphasises the role of the environment ' and particularly the social environment' in the development of identity! $e uses the term /psychosocial identity/ in thisreard! 1sychosocial identity refers to the awareness of who a person is% both asindividual and as a member of a family% various societal roups and a particularsociety! The prominent role of social roups in identity formation has furthermorebeen emphasised by the social psycholoist Ta*fel +),?)-! Ta*fel holds thatmembership of social roups is internalised as part of the self'concept and as suchforms an interal part of the identity of an individual!

Brewer +),,)% ),,F- typifies social identification as a compromise to solve theinternal conflict between two contradictory needs! These needs are% on the onehand% the need of an individual to be uni;ue +that is to be differentiated from otherpeople- and% on the other hand% the need for security and assimilation! .dentificationwith social roups fulfils the need for differentiation by emphasisin the uni;uecharacteristics of the own roup as well as the differences between the own roupand other roups! The need for assimilation% on the other hand% is fulfilled by thefeelin of solidarity between members of a particular roup!

6hereas the social process of roup identification is emphasised within the socialsciences% cultural studies focuses on the oriin% history and culture of roups orcommunities! The term /cultural identity/ has a twofold interpretation +$all ),,b-! .tis firstly associated with a shared culture% a collective /true self/% that is sharedamon people with a common history and ancestry! Thus cultural identity reflectscommon historical experiences and shared cultural codes that serves to unify and toprovide stable% continuous and unchanin frames of reference of meanin amidstsocial and political chanes! This conceptualisation of identity lies at the root ofstrules to reveal the true essence of a particular identity% for example the searchfor the essence of bein British or African! .t is furthermore associated with theexploration of history in order to reveal /hidden continuities/ and /hidden roots/!

The second view not only emphasises similarity% but also reconises points ofdifference in the course of history in /what we are/ and /what we have become/!Thus the second conceptualisation emphasises cultural identity as an interactiveprocess that involves /becomin/ as well as /bein/ and belons to the future as wellas the past! Althouh rooted in history% cultural identity underoes constanttransformation and is rooted in the present where it provides a framewor# for thedifferent ways in which people are positioned by and position themselves in relationto present realities and narratives of the past +$all ),,b-!

The chanin nature of identity ' and cultural identity specifically ' is alsoemphasised by Barth +),,- who defines identity in terms of boundaries! Boundaries

can be psycholoically% culturally% socially or politically defined and include somepeople as members of a roup% while others are simultaneously excluded! Accordin

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to this perspective% social or cultural identity cannot be understood in terms of fixedcateories or unchanin phenotypical or other characteristics andor culturalpractices! Barth perceives identity as a dynamic process in which the characteristics%cultural practices% symbols and traditions of a roup miht chane due to interactionwith the physical% social% cultural% economic and political environment! 6hat is

important is not the content of a particular identity +characteristics and practices-% butrather the existence of boundaries between the own roup and other roups!

$owever% as already mentioned% the discourse on identity is not restricted toacademia! 3rom academic circles it has spread to the centre of social and politicalevents where it is increasinly associated with the social strules of variousdominated or repressed roups such as people of colour% racial% ethnic and reliiousminorities andor feminist roups +Gouse ),,7-! These pursuits often labelled as/identity politics/ are collective% not merely individual5 and public% not only private!They are strules% not merely roupins! The outcomes are partially determined bypower% but power relationships are also chaned by these strules! The strules

involve not only the pursuit of expression and reconition% but also of leitimacy andalso power! They furthermore call for a response from other people% roups andoraniations +includin states- +Calhoun% ),,-!

The discourse of identity has thus become the primary medium for not onlyunderstandin and explainin the relationship between the personal +sub*ective- andthe social% but also for discourses on the relationship between the individual and theroup% the cultural and the political% as well as the roup and the state +Gouse ),,7-!

$ %&OBA&ISATION AND STRU%%&"S 'OR ID"NTIT#

Accordin to Bauman +(44)a-% the spectacular rise of the discourse on identity sincethe last part of the (4th century should be perceived as a reflection of humanexperience in the ae of lobalisation! $e holds that the obsession with the /identitydiscourse/ per se reflects more of the current state of human society than all thetheorisin and analytical results of /identity studies/ do!

3ran#ly% Bauman +(44)a- states% somethin has one wron with the formation ofidentity in the +post-modern ae! 6hereas past enerations seeminly handledidentity formation and related problems and issues in a matter'of'fact way% newdimensions have been added to old problems! Circumstances in the current world

have not only chaned the processes of identity formation% but have added newdimensions to both personal and collective identity! 3urthermore% whereas the term/identity/ implies continuity% that is a solid basis in which people anchor themselves%the rapid chanes that characterises the ae of lobalisation% eroded most of thebases on which people used to anchor their identity! The ae old /problem ofidentity/ has thus chaned its shape and content!

.n a similar way that thins often o unnoticed until they disappear or stop behavinas monotonously as they did before% Bauman +(44)a- aruments that the newcentrality of the identity discourse is a reflection of the fact that identity issues arenot as simple and straihtforward as they used to be! .ndeed% the ac;uirin of

identity has become problematic: a tas#% a strule% a ;uest! These strules arewaed on various levels ' from the individual to the local to the lobal! $owever% the

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strules on various levels are closely interconnected and often represents differentfacets of the various homoenisin and diversifyin processes associated withlobalisation!

Some aspects of the interplay between strules for identity and the processes

associated with lobalisation are discussed in the followin sections!

$1 The indi(idual le(elHotwithstandin the fact that lobalisation as well strules for identity is mostlyassociated with the economic% political and social spheres% these processes alsohave far'reachin effects in the lives of individuals! Accordin to Bauman +(44)a-%disruptions in identity formation on the individual level can be ascribed to thecombined effects of lobalisation% on the one hand% as well as to the new andextreme forms that liberal ideas on individualism has ac;uired in the modern ae!

.n traditional societies individualsI identity was larely based on their position within

the social hierarchy that% in turn% have mostly been determined by birth! $owever%due to the widespread acceptance of the principle of the e;uality of all people%traditional hierarchies associated with% for example% estate or caste have melteddown and lost their sinificance! The individual has thus been emancipated from theascribed% inherited andor inborn nature of his or her identity +Bauman (44)a5 Taylor),,)-!

3urthermore% whereas the emphasis on the individual and individual rihts can berearded as one of the most important achievements of modernity% the postmodernae has iven rise to more extreme forms of individualism +Taylor ),,)-! .n this moreself centred form of individualism the emphasis falls almost exclusively on thefulfilment and authenticity of the individual! =oreover% the notion of individualfreedom emphasises that all humans are free to self'create% to realise their ownauthenticity! $owever% individuals not only have the freedom to become whateverthey want to5 they also have the responsibility and obliation to realise their ownauthenticity and to fulfil their potential% that is to becomewhat they alreadyis! Self'constitution% self'assertion and self'transformation have thus become the sloans ofthe time!

Thus% accordin to Bauman +(44)a-% the determination of social standin has beenreplaced by compulsive and obliatory self'determination! .dentity formation can

therefore no loner be rearded as a iven! .t has become a product of self'construction% open to free choice5 a tas#5 an obliation which the individual has nochoice but to fulfil to the best of his or her ability!

$owever% modernity has not only melted down the placements in society! The forcesof lobalisation have also lead to the meltin down of the places to which individualsmay ain access to or where they may wish to settle so that they could hardly serveas so'called /life pro*ects/:

It is not just the individuals who are on the move but also the finishing lines ofthe tracks they run and the running tracks themselves+Bauman (44)a:)-!

.n the ae of lobalisation few localities for embeddin or anchorin identity are solid

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enouh to stand the run of an individualIs life! Disembeddedness has conse;uentlybecome a fre;uent life experience as people are forced to be continuously on the runwith little hope of ever reachin their destiny!

$owever% as identity theorists such as Eri#son +),?- and Ta*fel +),?)- points out%

identity achievement is not solely an individual venture! .dentification with socialroups are% however% also complicated and eroded by the increasin prevalence ofideas that individual identity is seen as a product of self'construction% open to freechoice and not simply iven by birth or divine will! $ence roup identification havealso become larely a matter of individual choice +Calhoun ),,-!

3urthermore% in an era characterised by what =ax 6eber calls /instrumentalrationality/% human relations are perceived to be merely functional to the individualIsstrive towards self'actualisation and personal happiness! As freedom of movement isrearded to be a primary or meta'value that stands above all other values% itdemands that options should always be #ept open! "ainin or obtainin an identity

that offers /sameness/ or /continuity/% usually implies the forfeitin or closin of otheroptions! .dentities are conse;uently souht that can be adopted and discarded li#e acostume! Althouh they are freely chosen% these choices seldom imply commitmentand the acceptance of responsibility of the conse;uences of an endurinrelationship!

Thus in many instances lobalisation and modernity has brouht about the collapseof a sense of community +Bauman (44)a5 Taylor ),,)-! The loss of the safe shelteroffered by communal relationships has% in turn% reinforced the fear and anxietyassociated with identity achievement! .t has also left the hihly privatised andisolated individual powerless and defenseless aainst the powers of the state!3eelins of powerlessness are furthermore enhanced by the fact that the powers thatshape the conditions under which people have to live and solve their problems% arebecomin increasinly lobal in nature and therefore almost completely beyond thereach of the individual! Social atomism bears little hope of *oinin forces with othersaainst national and lobal powers to chane the rules of the ame! As individualscannot chane what really matters% they turn to thins that they can chane% even ifthese are trivial in nature! Activities such as compulsive shoppin and thoseassociated with self'improvement and the health industry are some examples ofsubstitutes for social and political involvement! This so'called /consumer culture/has also become more than the consumption of consumer oods! .n the ae of

lobalisation consumption and commodities have become important ways in whichindividuals ac;uire and express their identity! Accordin to $attori +),,@- the spreadof the consumer culture have also supplanted human relationships with materialrelationships!

3urthermore% while lobalisation has increased the options for identification on apersonal and collective level% it has also contributed towards the framentation ofidentity +Servaes% 0ie 2 Teris (444-! The forces associated with identity formationare thus no loner restricted to the local space% but have their oriin on differentlevels varyin from the local to the lobal! .ndividualsI identities has conse;uentlybecome a complex mixture of both local and lobal elements! Some of these forces

are discussed in the followin sections!

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These chanes to identity formation on the individual level has important implicationsfor the media! The role of the national media and public broadcasters has lon beenperceived to promote nation'buildin and identification with the state and state nation+Baoill JsaK-! $owever% not only has the processes of individualisation andlobalisation alienated the individual from the state and society at lare% but the

individual re;uires from the media to cater for his or her individual needs andpreferences! The public sphere is furthermore increasinly supplanted by privatelyproduced% privately owned and privately administered spheres +Bauman ),,?-! Dueto technoloical development and diitalisation% national media now also have tocompete with local and lobal media framewor#s for the attention of the individualconsumer!

Bauman +(44)a- comes to the conclusion that the experience of an identity crisiscan no loner be rearded as a passin phase in adolescent development or a raremental condition! .t has become a common condition in modern man as man haslarely lost the rip on the present and the self'confidence to control his or her own

destiny! An invioratin sense of sameness and continuity +Eri#son ),?- has indeedbecome a rare experience for modern man!

$2 The sub)national le(el

Despite the emphasis on individualism% self'construction and self'assertion as wellas the many offers of disposable communities in the modern and fast lobalisinworld% secure identity development re;uires a sense of belonin and communitythat will stand the test of time5 that cannot easily be called redundant and shed5 thatinvolves life'lon commitment and solidarity! =en and women are thus still loo#infor roups they can belon to% certainly and forever% in a world where almosteverythin is shiftin and nothin is certain +Bauman (44)a-!

The term /community/ conveys warmth% comfort and cosiness +Bauman (44)b-! .toffers a place of relaxation and safety sheltered from a world rife with conflict% danerand uncertainty! .t implies an understandin shared by all its members ' anunderstandin that precedes all areements and disareements! Suchunderstandin is not a finishin line% but the startin point of all forms oftoetherness5 a reciprocal and bindin sentiment! .t is due to this understandin% andthis understandin only% that the members of a community remain united in spite ofall separatin factors! The Swedish analyst% "Lran Gosenber +in Bauman (44)b-%

uses the term /warm circle/ to depict a sense of community! $uman loyalties offeredwithin this warm circle% are not derived from social loic or cold cost'benefitanalyses! =embership do not need to be /owned/ and within this circle% themembers do not need to proof anythin5 and whatever they do% they can alwaysrec#on on sympathy and help!

$owever% in order to offer security as well as distinctiveness% true communitiesmeans clear boundaries that sinify a division into insiders and outsiders5 /us/ and/them/ +Barth ),,-! .t is furthermore crystal clear who are members and who areoutsiders5 no conitive ambiuity or behavioural ambivalence exists! 3urthermore%protectin the unity of a community often implies bloc#in the channels of

communication with the rest of the world! $owever% the lobalisin world ischaracterised by the shrin#in of spatial and temporal limitations and an increase in

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international communication due to the development of transport technoloy% theelectronic media and information and communication technoloies! The balancebetween /inside/ and /outside/ communication ' once heavily s#ewed towards the/inside/ ' has thus been s#ewed% thereby blurrin the distinctions between insidersand outsiders! 3or many communities it has become increasinly difficult to draw

and sustain the boundaries between /insiders/ and /outsiders/! Thus the lobalisinword have seen the /meltin down/ of many traditional communities and society asa whole!

=oreover% the emphasis on individualism% self'choice and self'achievement in themodern world% has resulted in the rise of /handpic#ed/ and artificially /produced/communities where membership is usually based on individual achievement! .nterestroups% professional roups% virtual roups ' these are but a few examples ofsurroate communities that characterise our ae! $owever% due to the fact thatmembership of these communities mostly have to be earned andor the temporalnature of the roups% the identities they offer remain insecure% fraile and vulnerable

' forever in need of viilation% fortification and defence!

.n contrast% ethnic communities ' and ethnic minorities in particular ' represents animportant and perhaps the sole exemption to the disinteration of endurincommunities in the lobalisin world +Bauman ),,?-! The strane thin is that theascriptive nature of ethnic identities is not a matter of choice and% in fact% oesaainst the rain of the principle of free decision'ma#in imprinted in the liberal%modern society! $owever% accordin to =aralit and Ga +),,4- the lure of ethniccommunities lies exactly in the fact that the ascriptive nature of their membershipdoes not rest on individual achievement:

Identification is more secure, less liable to be threatened, if it does notdepend on accomplishment. Although accomplishments play their rolein peoples sense of their own identity, it would seem that at the mostfundamental level our sense of our own identity depends on criteria ofbelonging rather than on those of accomplishment. !ecureidentification at that level is particularly important to ones wellbeing+=aralit 2 Ga ),,4:,-!

8ther authors li#e >ymlic#a +),,7- and >los#ows#a +),,?- emphasise the role of theethnic culture that ' despite the universalisation of cultures and an emerent world

culture +see section F!7- ' still provides the framewor# for ma*or% and particularlyearly human experiences! Althouh lobal and supra'national identities may play animportant role% they do not provide a secure basis for the development of identity in asimilar way that ethnic roups do! .n the lobal insecurity and constant flux% theblood brother% ethnic cohort% communal #inswoman or tribal clansman has becomefor many the only remainin source of community% security and stability +0e 1ere 20ambrechts ),,,-! The more so as ethnic communities offer lifelon membershipthat allows no termination'on'demand +Bauman ),,?-!

3urthermore% the erosion of the leitimacy and authority of the nation state hasresulted in a wea#enin of the association between the state and ethnicity +see

section F!F ' Bauman ),,?5 3eatherstone ),,7-! Ethnic and cultural minorities thathave been sub*uated or absorbed by the state% have thus been /freed/ resultin in

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the worldwide revitalisation of ethnic and cultural loyalties and the mobilisation ofethnic roups both within and across the borders of nation states! .n contrast to thehomoenisin effect of lobal identities and the spread of a 6estern consumerculture +see section F!7-% ethnic movements as a form of localisation focuses on thedifferences between cultures rather than on similarities! $owever% these movements

are /lobal/ in the way that they use modern information and communicationtechnoloies to communicate with fellow ethnics that have mirated all over theworld +Servaes% 0ie 2 Teris (444-! .t is% however% not only cultural and reliiousidentities that have become sites of localised identities! Geional and reliiousidentities have also become ways in which roups and communities resist theheemony of lobal processes +Tehranian ),,,-!

Another factor that plays a role in ethnic identification and the revitalisation ofethnicity in the modern world is the lobe wide miration associated withlobalisation! Appadurai +),,F- spea#s in this reard of /ethnoscapes/% that is theworldwide spread of mobile human roups such as tourists% overnment officials%

uest wor#ers% exiles% mirants% refuees and asylum see#ers! The conse;uence isthat the /local space/ of many ethnic or cultural roups are becomin more andmore heteroeneous% while more people than ever before have contact with a cultureor cultures different from their own! Accordin to 3eatherstone +),,4- the term9multicultural should conse;uently be used instead of 9intercultural when referrinto the new cultural sphere! 8ne of the conse;uences of multicultural interactionwithin local spaces is that the enhanced need for sustainin boundaries between theown roup and other roups furthermore fosters ethnic identification and ethnicmobilisation!

A further conse;uence is that many cultures are not restricted to the borders of asinle state anymore +3eatherstone ),,7-! The ethnic diasporas of lobalisationhave to deal with identity strules of their own! They have to incorporate thetransnational experience of displacement% disembeddedness% adaptation to andhybridisation with the culture of their host societies in their identities! 3or manymirants this process of identity formation and reformation is aided to some dereeby the availability of the electronic media and information and communicationtechnoloies that provide a lin# to their /home/ communities! $owever% theircommunities of oriin can offer little help in the lived experience of hybridity ' themirantIs so'called /double vision/ ' that often leads to feelins of not belonin toany community or culture and the lonin for the recoverin of the cultural purity that

has been lost +Corcoran ),,?-!

Bauman +(44)b% ),,?- comes to the conclusion that the contradictory forces oflobalisation and localisation are% in fact% resultin in the pulverisation of society that%in turn% reinforces the processes associated with lobalisation! .t has conse;uentlybecome almost impossible to halt or reverse these processes: lobalisation hasbecome the intractable fate of the world!

$$ The national le(el

"lobalisation furthermore has far'reachin implications for the position of the nation

state% that is the medium'sied% territorial% centralised% soverein type of polity thathas become the dominant% if not sole form of political oranisation in the post )@?,

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era! Durin the period of the dominance of the nation state the /lobal scene/ was atheatre of inter'state politics where states ' thouh actions such as armed conflict%barainin and neotiation ' drew and defended the boundaries that set apart theenclosed territory of each stateIs executive and leislative territory! "lobal politicswere therefore almost exclusively concerned with sustainin the principle of full and

uncontested sovereinty of each state over its territory +Bauman ),,?5 0acarrieu 2Gaio ),,@5 0e 1ere 2 0ambrechts ),,,5 6aters ),,7-!

The executive and leislative sovereinty of the modern state was based on a tripodof military% economic and cultural sovereinties +Bauman ),,?-! The ability tofunction as an effective order'ma#in entity% rested in the first place on its ability todefend its territory effectively from external as well as internal challenes! .tfurthermore had to have the ability to balance the boo#s of the national economy aswell as the cultural resources to sustain the stateIs identity and distinctiveness fromthose of its subsidiaries!

The fact that the nation state held territorial sovereinty over a particular area% alsoimplied that pride of place was primarily vested in the state +Bauman ),,?% (44)b-! Ashared nationhood% that is a common national identity% played a crucial leitimisinrole in the political unification of the state! The invocation of common roots and acommon character was furthermore one of the ma*or tools for producin patrioticloyalty and obedience% the main principles for ideoloical mobilisation! The /statenation/ conse;uently become one of the ma*or sources ' if not the most importantsource ' in which the citiens of the state found a sense of community and collectiveor roup identity!

$owever% in the term /nation state/ lies a contradiction! The term /nation/ is derivedfrom the "ree# /natio/ that is associated with ethnicity and a common culture!Accordin to $abermas +),,?- nations were oriinally communities with a shareddescent and culture! .n contrast% Ghoodie and 0iebenber +),,- write that only )4Mof the member states of the United Hations in ),, could be described ashomoeneous on the basis of ethnicity! .n most other states there is a lac# ofconverence between the political +the state- and the cultural +the nation-! .n orderto comply with the characteristics of a true nation state and to successfullyimplement their executive and leislative sovereinty% overnance of homoeneousstates often also involves the suppression of the ambitions of lesser population +eminority roups- towards cultural and political autonomy! 1radip Thomas writes in

this reard in Baoill +JsaK:-:

The health of a national identity can be measured by the extent to which thevarious #nations comprising the nationstate willingly subsume their parochialidentities to that of a supranational identity.In real life, however, aconsensual example is hard to come by.

As the above ;uotation suests% ethnic andor cultural roups are often reluctant tosuccumb their uni;ueness and distinctive identities to become part of an overarchinstate nation! A stratey of nation'buildin conse;uently became one of the ma*ortools in the pursuit of the /one state% one nation/ ideal in heteroeneous states

+Bauman ),,?-! Thus it is now commonly reconised that national identities areseldom natural or prepolitical! They are socioculturally constructed identities ' the

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term 9imained communities or 9imained communalities are often used in thisreard +=cCarthy ),,,-! Hation'buildin often implies the denial of the diversity ofthe citiens of a state! 3rom the nation'buildin perspective the differences inlanuae% culture andor reliion found under the stateIs *urisdiction are rearded asundesirable not'yet'fully'extinct relics of the past often also associated with

bac#wardness and a lac# of proress! /Enlihtment/ and /proress/ usually meansforsa#in diversity and ethnic% cultural and reliious distinctiveness in favour of acommon to all level of citienship% community or nationhood!

Accordin to Bauman +(44)b-% the practice of nation'buildin can have two faces!The nationalist perspective usually implies that the various means available to thestate +e political institutions% national symbols% the educational system as well asthe media- are employed to fore an overarchin national identity! .n doin so% thevariety of lanuaes are usually replaced by one standard national lanuae and thetraditions and habits of diverse roups by one standard historical narrative andcalendar of memory rituals! $owever% when education% persuasion and indoctrination

do not wor# or their fruits are slow to come% states often resort to measures ofcoercion such as the criminilisation of strules to defend the diversity or autonomyof minority roups! The nationalist plan is therefore to assimilate the variety ofcultural forms under the stateIs *urisdiction and to dissolve them in one standardnational form by ma#in use of the powers vested in the state!

The liberal stratey appears to be the complete opposite to the nationalistic face! .t isprimarily based on the liberal ideas that reards the freedom and autonomy of theindividual as the primary political values +>ymlic#a ),,7-! The ideal state isperceived to be a collection of free and unbound individual citiens! Ethnic and otherlocal communities are rearded as primary sources of intolerance and parochialismand% most importantly% as conservative coercive forces that hold the individual bac#from self'assertion and self'determination! As liberalism believes that true freedomwill emere only if freedom is refused to the enemies of freedom and the enemies oftolerance are no loner tolerated% ethnic and other sub'national forms of communitybecomes the tarets of state action! .t is believed that the annihilation of theseenemies to freedom and tolerance will% in the end% result in all citiens of the statefreely choosin the sinular loyalty and state identity offered to all +Bauman (44)b-!$owever% as the cultural forms and practices of the state often reflect those of thema*ority of dominant roup% Gex +),,- warns that the modern state is notnecessarily the product of an abstract process of modernisation% but could become

the way in which a dominant or ma*ority roup asserts its rule over roups orcommunities!

Bauman +(44)b- holds the opinion that% althouh nationalism and liberalism mihtfollow different strateies% they share the same purpose! They leave little or no roomfor forms of community beyond the levels of the state and loyalty to the state!6hereas nationalism aims to annihilate difference5 the purpose of liberalism is toannihilate the different! .n both cases the /others/ have to be stripped from their/otherness/ in order to become indistinuishable from the rest of the nation! Ethnicand other forms of local identities have thus to be melted down to become part of thesinular mold of the national identity!

$owever% the winds of chane represented by the forces of lobalisation have '

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probably irreversibly ' chaned the position and role of the nation state +Bauman),,?-! The sovereinty% leitimacy and authority of the nation'state have comeunder constant siee! The erodin forces are both lobal and local5 transnational aswell as subnational5 centrifual as well as centripetal! Accordin to Bauman +),,?-all three les of the tripod on which the executive and leislative powers of the state

rest% have in the process been bro#en beyond repair!

8n a transnational level% states are no loner able to control the flow of capital andinformation via the media and information and communication technoloies acrosstheir borders! Due to the un;ualified and unstoppable spread of free trade rules andthe free movement of capital and finances% the economy ' and thus the ability tobalance the boo#s of the national economy ' is proressively exempt from the nationstate! Hot only have the borders of states become porous% but lobal forces beyondthe reach and control of the nation'state are also imposin their laws and preceptson the planet! .n order to function more effectively in the lobal economy and toretain some deree of its law'and'order policin ability% the overnments of nation

states are increasinly forced to see# alliances with other states! Thus at least partof the stateIs leitimacy% sovereinty and authority have to be surrendered to larerpower bloc#s! .n doin so% nation states have also iven these power bloc#s to ma#ea claim ' at least partly ' on the collective identity of its citiens +see section F!-! Thepredicament of the nation state is furthermore enhanced by the fact that many of thetransnational forces that shape its destiny% are blurred in a mist of mystery! They arelarely anonymous and therefore difficult to identify% manipulate or control!

The loss of the economic and leislative les of the tripod% ma#es it furthermoreextremely difficult for states to control the cultural and ideoloical mobilisation of itscitiens +Bauman ),,?-! The nation state is no loner the only or principle viablepolitical context within citienship and collective identity are /housed/! Thewea#enin of the authority and leitimacy of the state% undermines the emotive andnormative commitment to membership of a nation state! The stateIs monopoly overthe emotive commitments of its citiens ' at least on a collective level ' is challenedby lobal% supranational as well as subnational and localised forces!

As discussed in section F!(% the wea#enin of the nation state has 9freed ethnicandor cultural roups from the bonds with a national identity! The conse;uence isrevitilisation of even those ethnicities that have been believed to have withered awayor died lon ao! Thus the sovereinty% leitimacy and authority of the nation state is

not only challened by lobal forces% but also by localised forces from within! Thepresence of ethnic diasporas ' due to their permeable% overlappin and shiftinnature ' presents a further challene to the heemony of the claim of the nation stateover the citienship% collective identity and loyalty of its inhabitants +S#inner ),,,-!=irates are larely impervious to the nation'buildin strateies of their hostovernments! Enhanced cultural differentiation and hybridisation ' in the /host/ aswell as diasporic communities ' have thus become a common feature of society inmost nation states +Corcoran (44F-!

3urthermore% the presence of ethnic straners in the form of mirants also havecomplex cultural effects in their host countries! 6hat is often experienced as /cultural

invasion/% triers ethnic instincts also in local ma*orities that leads to the re'evaluation of the value of so'called /national/ identities ' a process furthermore

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stimulated by membership of supra'national power bloc#s! Thus an inflow ofmirants and the issue of membership of the European Union have led to a re'investiation and re'evaluation of what it means% for example% to be /British/% /.rish/%/3rench/ or /Horweian/! The strateies that follow these instincts are often similarto those of ethnic minorities: separation% self'closure% xenophobic attitudes and

strateies to strenthen boundaries and separate and hettoise forein elements!The confusion related to former certainties and un;uestionable assumptions canfurthermore be observed in the riht'win political movements in various Europeancountries +Bauman ),,?5 Corcoran ),,?5 Eri#sen ),,-!

The predicament of the nation state has% on the hand% problematised the role of themedia ' and especially the national press and public service broadcastin! Thespecial relationship of the press and public service broadcastin to the nationalidentity and nation'buildin has always been one of its #ey tenets! Accordin to$abermas +(44)-% national consciousness as a modern form of social solidarity ' asopposed to loyalties to communities shaped by descent% lanuae and history '

could indeed be rearded as a product of the development of new forms ofcommunication and especially mass communication! 6ithin the new internationalenvironment% overnments of nation states usually expect the media to continue itsrole in the protection and continuance of a sense of national identity amidst lobal%supranational and subnational threats! $owever% the heteroeneous nature of theirpopulations as well as the renewed importance attached to ethnicity and other localidentities demand not only tolerance for diversity% but also diversication in thecontents% control and ownership of the media! 3ailure in caterin for the culturaland identity needs of various roups and communities within the boundaries of thestate% could not only alienate certain roups and individuals% but could also results inthe national media to become increasinly irrelevant!

The media and information and communication technoloies in particular are% on theother hand% important role'players in the processes that are contributin to thedecline of the nation state +Baoill JsaK-! The borders of nation states have not onlybecome porous due to their inability to control the flow of information via the mediaand information and communication technoloies across their borders! .nformationand communication technoloies have furthermore led to a devolution of powerdownwards to the people and the liberation of ethnic and other roups from theconstraints of the power of the state and the sinular voice of the national press andpublic broadcastin media! The development of technoloy has furthermore

promoted the development of local media that% in turn% play a vital role in thestrenthenin of these identities and maintainin the lin#s between diasporas andtheir communities of oriin!

The conclusion can be drawn that% due to the contradictory forces of lobalisationand localisation% the two'proned stratey of nation'buildin has become larelyunrealistic5 less eaerly souht5 rearded as undesirable by sinificant sections ofthe populations of heteroeneous states5 and unli#ely to succeed! As the existentialsecurity offered by the state has been shattered5 the old identity stories that havereplenished a sense of beloninness in the state have larely lost their credibility!As the old certainties and loyalties are swept away% people increasinly see# for

new or alternative communities in which they can vest their sense of identity! 8n theother hand% the normative void left open by the state and state reulation% offers

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more freedom ' freedom that has been seied by both supra'national and lobalpower bloc#s as well as by ethnic minorities to claim and reclaim the collectiveidentities of the citiens of nation states +Bauman ),,?-!

$* The su+ra)national le(el

As discussed in section F!F% the emerence of a lobal mar#et and the reduction oftrade tariffs and other factors in the way of a free flow of capital% are increasinlyforcin nation states to become members of larer reional power bloc#s in order tobe able to be more competitive in the new world economy +Bauman (44)b50acarrieu 2 Gaio ),,@-! The most well'#nown of these power bloc#s are withoutdoubt the European Union! 8ther examples of reional power bloc#s are =ercosur+the unity formed by a number of countries in South America-% the Southern AfricanDevelopment Community +SADC- and the newly formed African Union +AU-!

$owever% the influence of these power bloc#s are not restricted to the economy

+Schopflin ),,@-! They also create new power relationships% new forms andhierarchies of power% new forms of social #nowlede and information! Apart from thefact that nation states succumb part of their authority and leitimacy to these powerbloc#s% they are also in a position to side'step the overnments of nation states andto establish direct connection with sub'national communities and other roups!These power bloc#s are also increasinly fillin the void left by the witherin away ofthe authority and leitimacy of the nation state!

The identity strules emerin from these reional power bloc#s furthermore havethe potential to restructure and recast reional% national and local power structuresand identities! .t is almost self'evident that nation states have to share thecommitment and loyalty% that is the collective identity% of their citiens with theseunits! 3urthermore% many of these power bloc#s actively strive towards the forin ofsupra'national identities! As the European Union was one of the first supra'nationalpower bloc#s to be formed outside the United States of America% it has always setthe tone for supra'national interation and its concomitant processes% problems andchallenes +Gex ),,-! The discourses on and strules for identity associated withEuropean interation% are thus most probably exemplary of what is alreadyhappenin or could happen in other unions!

European interation have moved throuh various staes +Delanty ),,?5 $abermas

(44)-! The pro*ect of European interation started after the end of the Second 6orld6ar and was viewed as an attempt to ensure peace on the continent% to solve the"erman problem and to contain the former USSG! At this stae it was believed thatinteration would enhance the sovereinty of nation states! As the memory of theSecond 6orld 6ar faded and the Cold 6ar ended% economic imperatives becameparamount within the context of increasin economic lobalisation! .n eneral% theidea was then to rescue the nation state throuh co'operation! A second vision ofEuropean identification was the federal vision of unification! Accordin to this viewEurope is perceived as a cultural and political unity with common historical roots!This vision of Europe can be perceived as the reproduction on a transnationalEuropean level of the pro*ect of nation state buildin where the existin nation states

are rearded as subordinate to the larer unity! Althouh the federalist idea has notbeen very popular% it has been the first to introduce the debate on culture% cultural

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and symbolic interation and the nature of an European identity in an otherwiseculturally deficit pro*ect!

A third vision of European interation has evolved since the ),?4s! This visionrepresents% accordin to $abermas +(44)-% a new political form that lies somewhere

between the federalist model and the model of co'operation! This model ' theproduct of the increasinly lobal world order ' sees a united Europe not merely asthe co'operation of nation states% but more as a reulatory order! The Union isperceived as a functional entity that ta#es over the dysfunctional aspects of nationalovernance and compensates for the wea#nesses of the nation state within the newlobal environment! $owever% the uncertainty of the reulatory model has brouhtthe need for a deree of social interation and cultural cohesion ' that is of a supra'national European identity ' aain to the fore! The failure of European interation oncertain fronts is furthermore ascribed to issues of social interation and identity! Theprocess of institution'buildin has furthermore transformed the transnational polityinto a social% political and cultural framewor# that have led to the re'emerence of

old ;uestions traditionally associated with the nation state and nation'buildin: $owis social order possibleN 6hat is the collective representation of EuropeN 6ho areEuropeans and who are notN 6hat is the basis of social interationN 6hatconstitutes a European identity andor a European nationN $ow can socialinteration and a supra'national identity be constitutedN

Althouh the need for a cultural dimension for the pro*ect of unitin Europe has beenvoiced% Delanty +),,?- voices the opinion that Europe lac#s the #ey elements thatusually support national identities: a common lanuae% a shared history andreliion% an educational system and a press or media! .n his view the only substantialsense of an emerin European identity is emerin around boundaries for theinclusion of Europeans and the exclusion of non'Europeans! The uncertaintyreardin internal commonalities% the political vacuum in the institutions of theemerin polity and the lac# of a true sense of community are resultin in Europeansinventin an identity based almost exclusively on exclusion!

$owever% an European identity based on contrast with non'Europeans faces thedaner of resistance from the complex nationalisms and ethnicities that form thepopulation of Europe +Gex ),,-! The position of minority roups ' and especiallyimmirant minorities ' are becomin particularly precarious! An identity of exclusionusually implies differentiation in terms of race and reliion! Europeans are defined as

6hite Christian nations! Hon'white and non'Christian minorities have been roupedas gastarbeitersin an oranisation called the =irant 3orum! =ost of theseminorities en*oy full political citienship in the nation states in which they are livinand miht use the forum to neotiate more effectively with their nation states!$owever% if there were a European identity and citienship% they will not be part of it!Accordin to Gex +),,- the problems with reard to these minorities are far frombein resolved and will probably haunt the European Union for years to come!&arious alternatives have been suested to overcome these dilemmas! 8ne of themost prominent is the vision of $abermas +(44)- that a European identity should befored in a similar way that national consciousness and solidarity has been createdin the traditional nation state! Such an identity should be based on democratic

citienship rather than on features associated with ethnic communities such ascommon descent or a common culture! Communication plays a central role in this

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theory of European interation! Accordin to $abermas% a European'wide publicsphere has to be created that is embedded in the context of a freedom'valuinpolitical culture supported by the liberal associational structure of a civil society! Thisview involves public communication that transcends the boundaries of the variousnation states! $owever% $abermas does not foresee the creation of a European

public broadcaster! $e holds the opinion that a European public sphere should ratheremere from existin national universes openin to one another% yieldin to theinterpenetration of mutually translated national communications! A first step wouldbe for national media to cover the substance of relevant controversies in the othercountries so that the various national public opinions convere on the same set ofissues! Such a communicative democracy or identity% or 9discursive democracy as$abermas prefers% is not located in the state or an ethnic or cultural community% butin the discursive spaces of civil society!

Another suestion by Castells +),,?- is based on the idea of the networ# society!The networ# society does not have a centre% but consists of nodes that may be of

different sies and can be lin#ed by asymmetrical relationships in the networ#! Anetwor# is furthermore an open structure that expands in different directions! .t is nota functionally interated body with a central principle of oranisation! The distinctivefeature is that it is formin throuh the lobal diffusion of information! The networ#society is thus an information society! Unfortunately Castells does not explain howEuropean interation miht be conceived as a networ# society apart from visualisinEuropean polity as multi'levels of power! $owever% Delanty +),,?- holds the opinionthat the nttion of the 9#nowlede society miht be a more appropriate model forsocial interation in Europe as #nowlede has also become a medium for social andcultural experience! $e uses the concept 9#nowlede to refer to the wider conitivecapacity of a society to interpret itself and to imaine alternatives! The ;uestion thatarises is whether there is an imainary dimension to European interation! Delantyfurthermore as#s the ;uestion% seein that Europe lac#s the characteristics of apolitical or cultural community% whether it should not become a virtual society! Avirtual society is not constituted as a system of values but as a discursive framewor#!Similar to the position of mirates% the position of ethnic roups is also a point ofcontention within views of European interation! Accordin to Schopflin +),,@- thereare already sins that ethnic actors enae directly with supranational overnments!.n this way they are side'steppin the overnments of nation states and obtain directaccess to the resources held by the reional powers! The emerence of powerbloc#s therefore brins a new fluidity to reional and local societies that will% in the

end% not only reshape the nature of political oranisation in these reions% but havethe potential of recastin the nature of collective identities! The notion of Europe asa union of ethnicities or so'called /ethno'states/ ' rather than a union of nation states' is also mentioned in this reard +EuropeN 6hich EuropeN 6hich future EuropeN !!!JsaK-!

The scope and intensity of the discourses on a European identity serves as a clearindication that supranational unions are fast becomin much more than economic%political andor reulatory superstructures! They have indeed become sites of identitystrules! The emerin issues such as inclusion andor exclusion% the position ofmirants and ethnic minorities% transnational public spheres% the role of the media

and informational and communication technoloies are not only relevant for theEuropean Union% but also for the populations of other unions such as the African

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Union!

$, The global le(el

&arious analysts point out that the lobalisation of capital and labour mar#ets%production and consumption% communication% information% technoloical and culturalflows are posin problems that cannot be resolved within the borders of individualnation states or by means of interstate treaties ! 6hereas partisans of lobalisationadvocate unconditional subordination of the state and other power bloc#s to theimperatives of the lobal mar#et% the socioloist Gichard =Onch +in $abermas ),,,-points out that there are ood reasons to fear that the world can be faced by thedepletion of non'renewable resources% cultural alienation on a mass scale% andsocial explosions unless we succeed in implementin some form of political controlover lobal mar#et forces!

These problems are furthermore aravated by the decline in the powers of thenation state and the strule of supranational units li#e the European Union infindin appropriate forms for political and cultural interation! The possibility of oneor other form of lobal political unit andor cosmopolitan overnment areconse;uently suested more and more as a possible solutions for the problemsassociated with lobalisation +Bauman ),,?5 $abermas ),,,5 =cCarthy ),,,-!$owever% $abermas +),,,- voices the opinion that ' similar to supranational units 'a lobal political interation re;uires a political culture shared by all world citiens inorder to act effectively in the new lobal environment! An important ;uestion isconse;uently whether lobal nationhood or a world identity is at all possible+=cCarthy ),,,-!

There are many reasons to predict that the notions of a common world identity andlobe wide cultural interation are not at all farfetched! The forces associated withlobalisation ' amon others the lobal production and mar#etin of consumptionoods5 international information flows disseminated throuh liberalised media andtelecommunication networ#s5 the spread of /lobal Enlish/ ' have already resultedin far'reachin lobal chanes within the social% cultural and political spheres!

The social sphere is characterised by the emerence of a lobal society ' the so'called /lobal villae/ +=c0uhan ),- ' characterised by place'less% distance'less

and border'less interactions that unfold in the world as a sinle space! Theconse;uence is that both individuals and societies conceptualise themselves to alare extent as part of a world system or a world community! "lobalisation isconse;uently more than mere cosmopolitanism as it implies a capacity for lobalself'reflection and thus for identification with world citienship andor total man#ind+3rederic# ),,F5 6aters ),,7-!

The cultural terrain% on the other hand% is characterised by homoenisation% that iscultural converence! The rowth of consumer capitalism has brouht about aconverence in cultural habits and the spread of heemonic ideas% lifestyles% popularsymbols and other mass cultural products which are mar#eted by means of superior

technoloy% thus creatin a demand for them across the lobe! Terms such as9cultural imperialism% 9Americanisation andor 9Coca'Colanisation are used to refer

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to the spread of a heemonic American'6estern consumer culture that is believedby many to radually supplant and even obliterate local cultures +Tehranian ),,,-!

$owever% 3u#uyama +in Economic lobaliation and culture !!!!JsaK- challenes theview that the cultural flows of lobalisation are leadin to cultural homoeneity! $e

holds that the cultural chanes associated with lobalisation is mostly superfluous!Conclusions about increasin cultural homoenisation is often made on theworldwide appeal of particular consumer oods that 3u#uyama reards as asuperficial aspect of culture! The deeper cultural levels of cultural and ethnicidentities such as lanuae% reliion and race are much more important and chaneat a much slower rate! .n fact% these elements of culture are not easily abandoned!

8ther analysts point out that lobal influences do not follow the /hypodermic needle/model! Gather than supressin local cultures from the top down% they ive rise to acomplex and onoin interaction between forein and local cultural elements inwhich forein oods miht be ta#en over in toto% but miht also be translated into the

local idiom +a process typified as localisation-% mutate% or mix with local elements+also called hybridisation or creolisation- +Tehranian ),,,-! "iddens +),,)- spea#s inthis reard of a lobal'local dialectic% while the term /interpenetrated lobalisation/ isused by Braman +),,-!

8n the other hand% 3u#uyama +in Economic lobaliation and culture !!!!JsaK- areesthat people are becomin more homoeneous in terms of lare economic andpolitical institutions and value systems! Tehranian +),,,- also mentions thatlobalisation has led to world'scale converence of leal and ethical principles% theuniversalisation of the discourse on human rihts and the spread of democracy as adominant form of political oranisation! The emerence of a lobal civil society inthe form of various roups that mobilise on the basis of so'called /lobal issues/such as nature conservation +e the "reenpeace movement-% human rihts%feminism and consumer issues! "lobal mobilisation with the aid of technoloy arebased on the belief that these issues concern all inhabitants of the world and shouldthus be addressed on a lobal level! Urry +(444- furthermore mentions that% similarto the role that national media and public broadcasters have played in the forin ofthe /imained/ communities of nations states% the lobal media flow ' and especiallylobal television ' are also propaatin lobalism! The sins are conse;uentlyeverywhere that the principles of a world society and a lobal identity could alreadyhave ta#en root!

.n contrast to these lobalisin trends% the worldwide spread of information andcommunication technoloies appears to strenthen ethnic% cultural and other localidentities! .t has already been mentioned that these technoloies are empowerinlocal communities and ethnic roups in mobilisin aainst the constraints of theovernments of nation states! The revitilisation of ethnic and other local identities isillustrated by emerin tendencies in the contents of the very symbol of lobalmedia% the .nternet! Aainst eneral expectations% the contents of the .nternet isbecomin more and more diverse! Althouh Enlish lanuae contents stilldominates the web% this is rapidly chanin! $unter +(444- ;uotes predictions that by(44F non'Enlish material will account for more that half of the contents of the web!

.t is furthermore believed that users based in the USA will account for less than onethird of the wordwide population of internet users in (44F! .n fact% the web is on its

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way to become the most linually diverse medium in history!

Technoloy% and particularly the .nternet% has furthermore opened various otheralternatives for identity formation +Suler ),,,% (444-! 8n the individual level%cyberspace becomes for many individuals a type of a lobal extension of their intra

psychic world and a transitional space between themselves and others! This spaceopens the door for all #inds of fantasies! 1eople can use this space for theexploration of their own identities! They can furthermore assume a variety ofidentities by chanin their ae% history% personality% physical appearance and eventheir ender!

The .nternet also offers individuals the opportunity to *oin virtual communities thattranscend time and spatial constraints and enables both individuals and roups tointeract and mobilise worldwide on the basis of common interests and lifeexperiences +Suler (444-! =ost virtual collectivities furthermore fulfil there;uirements for personal freedom of liberal individualism +Bauman (44)a-!

.ndividuals can #eep their options open! They have a choice about how much% if any%personal information they want to reveal! Sometimes roups encourae or evenre;uire that members assume an imainary persona! There are normally no strinsattached to these roups! 1eople can *oin and leave at will! =embership is mostlycompletely subordinate to the whims and needs of the individual! $owever% theinstrumental nature of virtual communities does not allow for continuity and secureidentity development! &irtual identities could% in the end% heihten the fear andanxiety of individuals in an ever'chanin world!The lobalisin world has also iven rise to a new type of individual identity% namelythat of the 9cosmopolitan +Bauman (44)b-! Cosmopolitans are usually members ofthe business and professional elite that travel extensively all over the world in thecourse of their wor#! They are truely world citiens% often with no permanentaddress except for the e'mail and the mobile telephone number! They are notdefined by any locality5 they are fully exterritorial! Hational boundaries and societalties are increasinly becomin irrelevant to them! 6herever their travels lead them%they prefer to interact with other lobalisers! They live in a socio'cultural bubblewhich insulates them from the harsher realities of the communities in the countrieswhere they reside! Their lifestyle celebrates one of the distinuishin features oflobalisation% namely the irrelevance of place!

The conclusion can be drawn that identity strules on the lobal level is larely a

reflection of and complexly interrelated with those on the other levels! Aslobalisation chane the power relationships on various levels% it also hasfarreachin conse;uences for identity formation on both individual and collectivelevels!

* %&OBA&ISATION- ISSU"S O' ID"NTIT# AND SOUT! A'RICA

6ith the advent of a new political dispensation in ),, ' the most important politicaldevelopment of the ),,4s ' South Africa was once aain accepted into world societyand thus became part of the lobalisin world mar#ed by the paradoxical tendenciesand impulses discussed in the previous sections!

8n the one hand% the country stands before the challene to deal with the demands

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of increasin lobalisation and to compete within the lobal capitalistic system +0e1ere 2 0ambrects ),,,-! The new overnment is conse;uently forced to form newmodes of alleiance to and identification with the abstracted international communityand to neotiate its national identity in the liht of its international relations! .n orderto be able to compete effectively in the lobal economy and with other international

power bloc#s% Southern African and African countries are also forced to form powerbloc#s such as the Southern African Development Community +SADC- and theAfrican Union +AU-! .n doin so% the South African overnment is also succumbin atleast part of its authority and leitimacy ' as well as the commitment of its citiens 'to these power bloc#s! The fact that a Blac# overnment came into power and theformation of the SADC and African Union has furthermore reaffirmed political% socialand psycholoical ties with Africa! Thus many South Africans are increasinlyperceivin themselves as an interal part of the African continent and hence seeAfricanism andor 1an'Africanism as an important component of their identity!.dentification with Africa has also iven rise to the notion of an African Genaissancethat envisions the social% political and economic reformation of Africa on the basis of

African values and culture +=be#i ),,@-! .niatives of the South African overnmentand the South African Broadcastin Company +SABC- with radio stations such asChannel Africa and Africa'('Africa and the television channel SABC Africa thatbroadcast to Africa can also be rearded as attempts to create an African'wide publicandor discursive sphere! $owever% as in the case of the European Union the thenature of an African identity is still a contested terrain and many ;uestions remain:6ho are Africans and who are notN 6hat are the #ey elements of an African cultureNCan 6hites of European descent also be rearded as AfricansN And what aboutroups such as .ndians% Coloureds and mirants from other parts of the worldN

6itnin the borders of the newly constituted nation state% new imaes are beinadvanced that emphasise the mar#et% democracy% individual rihts and liberties%technocratic rationality in public policy and universal values! $owever% South Africa isalso a deeply divided and heteroeneous society characterised by wideraninracial% linuistic% cultural% reliious and socio'economic differences +De la Gey ),,)5$orowit ),,)5 &an den Berhe ),,4-! Colonialisation and apartheid hasfurthermore left South Africa even more divided than inherent differences as itaccentuated racial% ethnic and class differences and set roups aainst other roups5not only Blac# aainst 6hite% but also Blac# aainst Blac#% Coloured aainst .ndian%and so forth +Coetee 2 6ood ),,F-! The introduction of a new political dispensationhas brouht the neotiation and reconciliation of heteroeneity and citienship ' that

is loyalty to the state versus loyalty to ethnic% cultural and reliious roups ' to a headresultin in the invention of the /new South Africa/ +0e 1ere 2 0ambrects ),,,-!3urthermore% nation'buildin has become a overnmental preoccupation! Hot onlyare a common South Africanness propaated in new national symbols and thenotion of the /rainbow nation/! Hation'buildin has also become a #ey principle inpolicy'ma#in on all levels and thus also in policies concernin the media andinformation and communication technoloies!

$owever% in becomin part of the international world% South Africa is also exposed tothe world'wide centripetal tendencies associated with the revival of ethnic and otherlocal identities! =oreover% on a rass'roots level these roups probably continue in

fulfillin in important emotional and social needs of their members! .n the new non'hierarchical society% people may even experience a reater need to identify

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themselves by contrast% to emphasise social borders and to confirm their ethnicandor racial identity +$orowit ),,)-! .ndeed% the results of research since the early),,4s indicates that ' despite the overnmentIs emphasis on unity ' ethnic% cultural%lanuae% reliious roups have remained important components of the identitystructures of most South Africans +Bornman),,75 Bornman 2 8livier (44)5 =attes%

),,% ),,@-! .t appears that lanuae in particular remains one of the most importantdenominators of sub'national identities in South Africa! .dentity formation isfurthermore complicated by the establishment of new forms of provincial and localovernment that create new opportunities for sub'national identification! Class orwor#er identities as those represented by Cosatu and Solidariteit are also ma#in aclaim on the identities of South Africans! 6hat is of particular sinificance is the waythat these subnational roups ma#e use of the .nternet to foster identification and tomobilise roups!

Thus% similarly to other nation states in the current ae% the new South African statehave also become the site of strules of identity on various levels! These strules

will without ;uestion also have a wide'ranin influence on all media and informationand communication technoloies! Hation'buildin is already a priority in policieswithin the communication sector! $owever% if conisance is not also iven to impactof the multiple processes of lobalisation and the concomitant identity strules andthe identity needs of all sectors of the South African public% the South African mediaand communication sector run the ris# of failin the communication needs of theirclientele!

, CONC&USION

The contemplation of strules for identity within the ae of lobalisation brinsBauman +(44)a- to the conclusion that the term /identity/ should be replaced by/identification/! .dentification implies a never'endin% open'ended activity that arealways incomplete and never finished! =anIs frantic search for identity in the currentae cannot be rearded as a residue of pre'modern and prelobalisation times! .t isa side'effect and by'product of the combination of lobalisin% localisin andindividualisin forces themselves and their concomitant tensions! They are leitimateoffsprins and natural companions of the multiple and often contradictory processesassociated with lobalisation! They are in reality the oil that lubricates the wheels oflobalisation!

South Africa and the South African media and communications sector cannot escapeeither the effects of lobalisation or the strules of identity associated with theseeffects! .n the years to come the identity needs of South Africans will have to beseriously considered if the South African the institutions associated with the mediaand communications are serious about developin people'centred policies thataddress the needs of the people in addition to those of the ovenrment of the day!

BIB&IO%RA.!#

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http:www!wacc!or!u#publicationsmdmd),,?'Fcorcoran!htmlAccessed on (44F4)@

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$attori% =! +),,@-! Identity and desire in consumption$ Interaction betweenconsumers and industry by the use of commodities! J8K! Available:http:www!eocities!comAthens@4mathesis!htmAccessed on (44F4F47

$orowit% D0! ),,)!A democratic !outh Africa/$ )onstitutional enigineering in adivided society! Ber#eley: University of California 1ress!

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