STRUCTURED

PROBLEM SOLVING

By

Mr. Suneel Rahator

Version 2

Sterlite Industries(India) Limited, Tuticorin

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CONTENTS

Sr. No.

Title Page No.

Section 1 – Problem Solving

1.1 Problem Solving for Process Improvement 2

1.2 Problem and Project 6

1.3 Management Agreement and Mission Statement 9

1.4 Problem Solving Journey 12

1.5 Step by Step Problem Solving 14

1.6 Quality Improvement Tools Introduction 19

Section 2 – Quality Improvement Tools

2.1 Flow Diagrams 22

2.2 Classical Brainstorming 24

2.3 Cause Effect Diagram 25

2.4 Stratification 27

2.5 Pareto Analysis 30

2.6 Control Charts 33

2.7 Histograms 35

Section 3 – Reference Reading

3.1 Thought Processes 36

3.2 What Can Go Wrong 41

3.3 Problem Solving Team Roles 43

3.4 Effective Meetings 47

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1.1 PROBLEM SOLVING FOR PROCESS IMPROVEMENT

The relationship between Quality Planning, Quality Control and Quality

Improvement was explained by Dr. Juran, in his book ‘Managerial

Breakthrough’ with the help of the Juran Trilogy. This graphic depiction of

the three processes of Quality Management is as shown below.

Bad

Sporadic problem

Quality

Quality Control

X

Chronic Problems Quality Improvement

Good

0

Time

Figure 1.1.1: Juran Trilogy

All activities that happen before operations start are part of Quality

Planning, E.g. Identifying who are the customers, what are their needs,

how do these needs translate into product specifications, are the

specifications best in class, is the process capable; these are the typical

steps of Quality Planning. The output of the Quality Planning is a standard

set for quality. In most cases this standard also includes tolerance limits.

In Quality Control zone, the performance is continually checked and

compared against the standard. If there is any deviation, corrective action

is taken to bring the performance back within acceptable limits. A sudden

change towards bad quality is tackled by using fire fighting measures. This

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fire fighting of ‘sporadic problems’ usually requires managerial and

technical skills. The purpose of Quality Control is to maintain the standard.

There are times when one begins to challenge the standard. This is the

beginning of Quality Improvement. In most cases, Quality Improvement

starts by asking the question, “why not better than this?” Quality

Improvement uses the techniques of problem solving to tackle ‘chronic

problems’. The goal of problem solving in the Quality Improvement zone is

to reach a level of performance never before achieved. This requires a

radical departure in our approach to the historical performance of the

process; hence the Quality Improvement zone is referred to as the

‘Breakthrough Zone’.

The Breakthrough Sequence Experience has shown that such breakthroughs in performance require a

sequence of contributing breakthroughs.

Breakthrough in attitude. We must first accept that a problem exists.

This sometimes proves to be the biggest hurdle to problem solving. If the

acceptance that the problem exists does not happen, it will be very difficult

at a later time to accept the solutions and implement them. The non-

acceptance generally comes from the fact that most chronic problems are

not seen as problems at all. These problems become part of day-to-day

activities since everyone has made provisions for accommodating them. It

is thus necessary to challenge the historical standard of performance.

Many times preliminary data collection helps in establishing the problem.

This is sometimes called proof of the need. It has been found that a

breakthrough in attitude is as important at the higher levels of hierarchy as

at the operating levels. Calculation of 'Cost of Poor Quality’ (COPQ) is

usually presented as ‘proof of the need’,

Breakthrough in organization. Most chronic problems are at hand-overs

between functions, i.e. as the process passes from one person/function to

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another, the transfer is not seamless. To solve problems, which are inter-

departmental, it is necessary to have cross-functional teams. Thus there is

a departure from the normal way of working. Usually project teams are

formed to solve problems.

Breakthrough in knowledge. Problem solving for process improvement

is based on data. There comes a time in the problem solving journey when

the use of quality improvement tools on the data collected suddenly gives

an insight into what the cause of the problem is. This is the breakthrough

in knowledge. Care should be taken that this breakthrough is not based on

‘hunches’ or ‘creative solutions’ alone.

Breakthrough in cultural patterns. We should be able to look at our

processes in a different way to identify what needs to be done for

improvement. But this knowledge alone is often not sufficient to guarantee

that a new level of performance will be achieved. People working in the

process are so used to the earlier level of performance that there is

resistance to change. Hence we must achieve a breakthrough in cultural

patterns. It is important to remember that every change involves people.

Hence acceptance of change by the people concerned is a must for

successful implementation of the solution.

Breakthrough in results. The team’s responsibility does not end with

finding a solution. The team must help in implementing the remedy by

hand holding. It is only when there is perceptible improvement seen and

controls are in place to ensure that the change for the better is permanent,

the team can say that the mission has been achieved. Showing

performance at the improved level is called breakthrough in results.

Quality improvement and substantial breakthrough in performance will not

occur unless all of these contributing breakthroughs are achieved.

Effective problem solving in the Quality Improvement zone is, therefore,

much more complex than problem solving in the Quality Control zone.

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Elements of Effective Problem Solving

There are three necessary elements for effective problem solving:

Data: We cannot solve a problem until we have the hard facts and data

associated with it. Without data we are merely guessing the causes of the

problem, and our efforts to solve the problem are hampered by our lack of

knowledge.

Tools: When we address complex problems, we are often faced with a

great deal of data and a number of facts. Tools that help us organize and

understand data and facts are invaluable aids to good problem solving.

Structure: A logical and structured approach is needed to achieve the

series of breakthroughs. At a minimum, this structure consists of a team of

people from all departments involved, chartered and empowered to work

on specified problems, following a logical sequence of problem solving

steps.

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1.2. PROBLEM AND PROJECT The Quality Council Most organizations establish a Quality Council at the top of the

organization to guide the quality effort. Quality Council consists of senior

managers of the organization representing the various functions. Their job

is to identify areas of concern, which can be addressed through problem

solving. The Quality Council also selects the teams to work on different

problems. Some other responsibilities of the Quality Council are to give

guidance and support to the problem solving teams and review progress

at regular intervals.

Definition of “Problem” and “Project” A problem is a visible performance deficiency in an important

manufacturing, service, or business process or product.

(Here ‘visible’ means factual / data based and ‘performance deficiency’

means a gap between actual and desired performance)

A project is a problem scheduled for solution

Defining the problems and writing a clear problem statement for each

problem is very important to effective problem solving. Many teams make

a false start and waste a lot of time because the problem statement is not

worded and understood properly.

The problem statement should

• Describe how the problem relates to the performance of the

organization. (State the effect)

• State the problem in terms that are visible, specific, and usually,

measurable

• Specify a size and complexity of the problem that is manageable

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The needed breakthroughs in attitude and cultural patterns come most

readily when there is clear evidence that proposed changes are directly

related to specific, identifiable deficiencies in organizational performance.

If the problem is not stated in specific and observable terms, it is difficult to

remedy the situation, because we cannot be certain exactly what the

problem is, much less what causes it. If the problem is vague and

unobservable, the same will be true for the solution.

Very large problems are, of course, very important. But some problems

are so large that it is difficult for a team to address them effectively in a

single project. However, all large problems can be broken down into “bite

sized” pieces that can be addressed individually.

Because breakthroughs in knowledge and cultural patterns are needed,

there are certain things that a problem statement should never do:

• Never give any pre-conceived indication of what the root cause might

be

• Never state or imply a particular type of solution

• Never affix blame for a problem

Problem Statement Exercises

For each of the following problem statements, ask: Is it a good problem

statement? If so, indicate how it satisfies the requirements of a good

problem statement. If not, indicate what is wrong with it, and write a good

problem statement addressing the same general topic. You may make any

assumptions.

1. About 20% of the leave cards that the admin department receives are

returned to the employees for filling in missing details. This increases

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the workload and also increases the time required for processing the

leave cards.

2. Improve the quality of copper produced.

3. The production per day is low because the shop floor staff is not

properly trained.

4. It takes us four days longer than it did a year ago to send out month-

end reports. Consequently, the various functions, which depend on

these reports, keep on complaining and asking queries, and our staff

spends a lot of time on the telephone handling these queries.

Exercise (Group)

Write down problem statements for two problems in your organization.

You may make assumption about the data.

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1.3 MANAGEMENT AGREEMENT AND MISSION STATEMENT

Once the project team is formed, it is given all the responsibility and

authority to execute the steps for problem solving. However it is necessary

to clarify some issues like

• the time to be spent in project team meetings and outside meetings

• the total time in which the project is expected to be completed

• who should the team go to in case of difficulties

• which areas are to be covered by the team

• what information the team can have access to and so on.

All these issues are agreed to between the Quality Council and the team,

and are documented in an agreement called a ‘charter’. Sometimes the

charter may not be a formal document. It is however preferred that in the

initial stages of problem solving journey, the charter be a written

document.

The mission statement

The mission statement is a formal statement of 1) the problem and 2) what

the team is to do about the problem.

For example, a problem might be:

Errors in the client billing process are causing 20% of our invoices to be

modified after they are issued. This rework is costing the company Rs.

200,000 per year. The invoices in dispute at any given time account for

about Rs. 1 million in accounts receivable outstanding.

This is a good problem statement. It is clearly related to the company’s

performance; it is specific and observable, and it appears to be of

manageable proportions. But what is the team going to do about it?

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Obviously, the team is supposed to reduce errors in invoices. Thus the

mission is likely to be, “The mission of our team is to reduce the errors in

invoices.” But is that the principal mission? How about reducing the costs

of rework? Or the cost of excess accounts receivable? While these three

factors – the error rates, the cost of rework, and the cost of excess

accounts receivable – are all related, which is the most important and

which is the best indicator of the quality of the process? Some types of

billing errors may cost more to correct than others. Still other billing errors

may result in larger disputed accounts receivable. One of the things we

will learn about problem solving is that you will want to fix the most

important part of the problem first. In this case the priority of what to fix

may change depending on whether the error rates, or the rework costs, or

excess accounts receivable are the most important quality indicators for

the management. The mission statement documents the management’s

decision.

Generally the mission statement also includes other objectives for the

team, such as the minimum improvements desired and the target date for

completion of the project.

Exercise: Write mission statements for the modified problem statements of

the previous chapter. You may make any assumptions.

Refining the Mission Statement

In a perfect world, every project team would receive a mission statement

that has an ideal problem statement – one which demonstrates how the

problem relates to the performance of the organization, which is focused,

specific, and measurable, and which is of manageable proportions. The

ideal mission statement would give clear guidance on what quality

characteristics are to be improved and give reasonable targets for the

amount of improvement sought and the time needed to do it.

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In the real world, the quality council will often not have the information

necessary to provide a perfect mission statement on the first try. It is

usually expected that the project team would initiate a mission statement,

or offer revisions to the mission statement for the quality council’s

approval. These revisions will be based on the initial analysis of the

symptoms, which will allow the team to come up with a more focused

statement. Sometimes, further revisions are required as the journey

progresses and more data is available.

As the mission statement is refined, it may also become apparent that the

composition of the team should change so that the major participants in

the process are represented on the team.

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1.4 PROBLEM SOLVING JOURNEY

The figure shown below (figure 1.4.1) illustrates the four major phases of

effective problem solving.

Control at

New Level

Implemented Mission

Solutions Statement

Identified Root Causes

Figure 1.4.1: Four Major Phases of Problem Solving

Project definition and organization. Breakthroughs in attitude and

organization occur during the Project Definition And Organization phase.

The Quality Council normally conducts this phase of the effort.

Diagnostic Journey. The formulation of a good problem statement and

the chartering of a specific team signals the beginning of the Diagnostic

Journey phase. The quality improvement project team directs the

Diagnostic Journey. Breakthroughs in knowledge lead to the diagnosis

Holding The Project Gains Definition and Organization Remedial Diagnostic Journey Journey

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and identification of the root causes of the chronic level of poor

performance.

Remedial Journey. Having identified the root causes, the team must now

work with the appropriate departments to develop remedies for those

causes and achieve breakthroughs in cultural patterns. A remedy is a

process change that eliminates, drastically reduces, or neutralizes the

cause of chronic poor performance. As indicated in Figure 2, the

Remedial Journey phase of problem solving takes the organization from

the causes to the solutions.

Holding the gains. The final phase of effective problem solving involves

confirming the breakthrough in results and establishing the zone of quality

control at the new level. This Holding the Gains phase is typically the

responsibility of the departments that operate the process (although the

design of the control system is done by the team during the Remedial

Journey).

These major phases of effective problem solving are depicted on a circle

to indicate the continuous and cyclic nature of project-by-project quality

improvement. Control at the new level of performance is achieved for the

specific performance characteristic or process under investigation; then

management, team members, and operating department members can go

on to address the next improvement project. This new project might

involve further improvements in the characteristic just examined or

improvements in another important process.

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1.5 STEP-BY-STEP PROBLEM SOLVING

The entire problem solving journey is about going from the symptom to

cause, and then from the cause to the remedy.

Figure 1.5.1 outlines 12 steps of problem solving for quality improvement

and relates them to the 4 major phases.

PROJECT DEFINITION

AND ORGANISATION

1. List and prioritize problems

2. Define project and team

DIAGNOSTIC JOURNEY 3. Analyze symptoms

4. Formulate theories of causes

5. Test theories

6. Identify root causes

REMEDIAL JOURNEY 7. Consider alternative solutions

8. Design solutions and controls

9. Address resistance to change

10. Implement solutions and controls

HOLDING THE GAINS

11. Check performance

12. Monitor control system

Figure 1.5.1: Steps of Problem Solving

Many good models have been proposed for problem-solving processes.

All of the good ones share a common conceptual basis. The particular

words and the exact number of steps may vary. There is no unique magic

to the words we have listed here, many quality improvement project teams

have used them effectively, but there are other ways of saying the same

thing.

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This outline of the problem-solving process will help us place some of the

tools we may use in the proper perspective and context.

1. List and Prioritize Problems. Problem solving begins with a long list of

problems. Brainstorming can be used to come up with this initial list by

considering customer feedback, costs and waste in company

processes. But in order to prioritize the list we must gather and

analyze data on the relative magnitudes of the problems. The data is

critically important – it establishes proof of the need for improvement

and stimulates breakthroughs in attitude. Pareto analysis, which

separates the most important problems from the rest, is a key tool that

helps the quality council focus the organization’s quality improvement

efforts.

2. Define Project and Team. The quality council must now achieve

further breakthroughs in attitude and organization by establishing a

quality improvement project and chartering a team to investigate the

problem. A project is simply a problem that has been scheduled for

solution. The project concept makes problem solving a legitimate

effort in the organization. Furthermore, years of experience have

confirmed that breakthroughs in performance are achieved project-by-

project. To get the project started correctly, the council must strive to

be clear, specific, and complete in describing the project to the team.

3. Analyze symptoms. The first step for the quality improvement project

team is to collect and analyze data on the symptoms of the problem.

Symptoms are any observable phenomena arising from and

accompanying the problem. Sometimes, the same words are used to

describe both the problem and the symptoms. There are two important

reasons for analyzing the symptoms. First, Pareto analysis of the

symptoms may lead to a further clarification of the problem and a

better focus fore the team’s subsequent diagnostic efforts. Second,

analyzing the symptoms with a flow diagram of the process and by

collecting data firmly establishes the practice of working from reality

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and facts, rather than opinions. The key conceptual point here is that

before the team can theorize constructively about the causes of the

problem, all team members must share a common understanding of

the process and facts of the case.

4. Formulate Theories of Causes. Having established a common

understanding of the problem and its visible symptoms, the team must

now focus its attention on the causes of the problem. Lasting

breakthroughs in results will occur only if the causes of the chromic

level of poor performance are identified and addressed. Different

people may have different views about the causes. Brainstorming

allows all team members to express their theories. Cause-effect

diagrams organize those theories and help identify relationships

among them. Flow diagrams and stratification may help stimulate

further thought about the causes

5. Test Theories. A theory is merely an unproven assertion as to reasons

for the existence of the problem and symptoms. The team must now

gather data to test these various theories. Flow diagrams can be used

to identify appropriate points to collect data, and a variety of tools can

be used to analyze it. The specific choice of tool depends on the type

of information the team needs from the analysis

6. Identify Root Causes. The goal of all this data collection, analysis, and

theory testing is to identify the vital few root causes- those few causes

from the long list of possible causes that, in fact, account for the

majority of occurrences of the problem. Typically the team delivers a

presentation to the quality council at this point describing its diagnostic

journey and corresponding breakthroughs in knowledge about what is

causing the chronically poor level of performance

7. Consider alternative solutions. The proof and documentation of the

root causes of the problem signal the end of the diagnostic journey and

the beginning of the remedial journey. In this context, a remedy, or

solution, is a set of changes in the process that will prevent future

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occurrences of the problem by eliminating or drastically reducing the

causes. The first step in developing an effective solution involves

considering a variety of alternative solutions. There are two important

reasons for taking time to do this. First, one of the goals of the team is

to achieve a breakthrough in the cultural patterns in the functions and

organizations in the process. Each team member has a unique

understanding of the cultural patterns in their function or organization,

and so each team member may have in mind a different solution to the

problem. Second, experience has shown that often the most effective

solutions to a problem are a synergistic combination of elements of

independently proposed solutions. For these reasons, brainstorming

sessions, which generate a number of potential solutions, is a good

investment of the team’s time at this point in problem solving. Since the

solutions will involve changes in the current process, a flow diagram is

also valuable at this step. Finally, the team may also want to review

stratification and the grouping of causes on the cause effect diagram at

this point to see if a single solution can address a group of causes, or if

multiple solutions are needed.

8. Design solutions and controls. The final selection of a solution will

depend on an analysis of a variety of criteria such as cost, time

required to implement, potential resistance, impact on other processes,

etc. The team should develop a list of appropriate criteria and then

evaluate each alternative solution related to those criteria. Before it is

implemented, any proposed solution should be tested thoroughly. Such

tests are also helpful in uncovering potential resistance to the change,

which must be addressed before final implementation.

The tests will involve collecting data and analyzing them to verify that

the solution will work. The detailed design of the final solutions and

controls will typically involve the use of a flow diagram to describe

process changes and the use of data analysis tools to set up

monitoring and control systems.

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9. Address resistance to change. In dealing with chronic problems, we

must keep in mind that the problem process has been around for some

time. The people associated with the process may resist attempts at

change – they are quite comfortable with the current ways.

Breakthrough in cultural patterns will not occur unless this resistance to

change is addressed. The team should brainstorm a list of potential

barriers to change, and develop action plans to address them.

10. Implement solutions and controls. Implementation is a joint effort

between the quality improvement team and the members of the

operating departments. In many cases, it is advisable to implement the

remedy on a small-scale basis first. Adjustments or fine-tuning can be

made before full-scale implementation. The team can use a variety of

data analysis tools to communicate the breakthrough in knowledge that

has occurred. Flow diagrams are an excellent way to describe the old

and new processes and provide training to the members of the

operating departments.

11. Check performance. Implementation of the solutions and controls

signal the end of the remedial journey. But the problem solving effort is

not over yet. Implementation of a solution, no matter how painstaking

the design and testing, does not guarantee breakthrough in results.

The operating department and the quality improvement team must

collect and analyze data on the performance of the new process. The

quality improvement project is not closed until the breakthrough in

results has been confirmed with data.

12. Monitor control system. Finally the problem has been solved and a

new zone of quality control has been established. In order to maintain

a breakthrough in performance, the operating departments must

continually monitor the new control system. Simple data collection

techniques, graphs and charts are needed to accomplish this.

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1.6 QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TOOLS INTRODUCTION Quality Improvement Tools Application Map The application map given below (figure 1.6.1), gives a cross reference of

the quality improvement tools and the steps of problem solving.

Quality Improvement Tools

Steps of Problem

Solving

Flow

Dia

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Brai

nsto

rmin

g C

ause

Effe

ct

Dat

a C

olle

ctio

n

Gra

phs,

Cha

rts

Stra

tific

atio

n

Par

eto

Ana

His

togr

ams

Sca

tter D

iag

Box

Plo

ts

1 List and prioritize problems

2 Define project and team

3 Analyze symptoms

4 Formulate theories of causes

5 Test theories

6 Identify root causes

7 Consider alternative solutions

8 Design solutions and controls

9 Address resistance to change

10 Implement solutions and controls

11 Check performance

12 Monitor control system

KEY

Primary or frequent application

Secondary or infrequent application

None or very rare application

Figure 1.6.1: Tools Application Map

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1. Flow Diagrams: A flow diagram is a graphic representation of the

sequence of steps that we perform to produce some output. The output

may be a physical product, a service, information, or a combination of

the three.

2. Brainstorming: This is a group technique for generating new, useful

ideas. It uses a few simple rules for discussion that increases the

chances for originality and innovation.

3. Cause Effect Diagrams: Basic to quality improvement is the need to

identify the root causes of a problem. The cause effect diagram is an

effective way to organize and display the various theories about what

the root causes might be.

4. Data Collection: Data and facts are fundamental to every quality

improvement effort. Without the facts, our problem solving efforts are

reduced to a “guessing game” with relatively low odds for success.

There is a technique of collecting data, which gives maximum returns

on the time invested and leads to maximum useful information.

5. Graphs and Charts: These are pictorial representations of quantitative

data. They can summarize large amounts of information in a small

area and communicate complex situations concisely and clearly

6. Stratification: Stratification is separation of data into categories. Its

most frequent use is during the diagnostic journey to identify which

categories contribute to the problem being solved.

7. Pareto Analysis: Pareto analysis is a ranked comparison of factors

related to a quality problem. It helps a project team to identify and

focus on the vital few factors.

8. Histograms: A histogram is a graphic summary of variation in a set of

data. The pictorial nature of the histogram enables us to see patterns

that are difficult to see in a simple table of numbers.

9. Scatter Diagram: A scatter diagram is a graphic representation of the

relationship between two variables. In quality improvement, scatter

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diagrams are usually used to explore cause effect relationships in the

diagnostic journey.

10. Box Plots: Box plots, like histograms, provide a graphic summary of

the pattern of variation in a set of data. The box plot is especially useful

when working with small sets of data or when comparing many

different distributions.

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SECTION 2 – QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TOOLS 2.1 FLOW DIAGRAMS A flow diagram is a graphic representation of the sequence of steps that

we perform to produce some output. The output may be a physical

product, a service, information, or a combination of the three.

Symbols

ACTIVITY DECISION / BRANCHING IN PROCESS TERMINAL (START / END) DOCUMENT DATA BASE CONNECTOR FLOW LINES

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High Level Flow Diagram In the high level flow diagram, the total process is broken down into a few (usually 4 to 6) major groups of activities. The process is depicted by these few activity blocks. Generally rework loops are not shown in the high level flow diagram. High level flow diagram is usually drawn as the first step towards getting a common understanding of the process. Detailed Flow Diagram Each block of the high level flow diagram is expanded into detailed activities in the detailed flow diagram. The depth of detail should be enough to get a sufficient understanding of the process. Sometimes, after getting focused on a particular part of the process for problem solving, a more detailed flow diagram may be required. Pitfalls 1. The most common pitfall is that the flow diagram is drawn as the

process was designed to be, and not as the process is. This gives a wrong understanding of the process and will most likely not bring out the areas of potential problems.

2. Another pitfall is to avoid showing ‘insignificant’ or ‘silly’ activities. 3. Sometimes rework is considered normal, and hence, not shown. To avoid falling into these pitfalls, it is necessary to ‘walk’ the process to see that every significant happening is captured in the flow diagram. Exercise 1. Using these symbols draw a high level and detailed flow diagram for

the process of making a train ticket reservation. Select a situation where more than one route and class of travel is available.

2. Draw a high level flow diagram for any one process in your

organization. For one of the blocks of the high level flow diagram, draw a detailed flow diagram.

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2.2 CLASSICAL BRAINSTORMING

This is a group technique for generating new, useful ideas. It uses a few

simple rules for discussion that increases the chances for originality and

innovation.

Key creative elements for generating new ideas: a. Fluency b. Flexibility c. Originality d. Awareness e. Drive Guidelines for Brainstorming: 1. Do not criticize any idea, even if it seems silly or irrational. Similarly, do

not praise good ideas. 2. Think in an unconventional, imaginative, or even outrageous manner. 3. Aim for large number of ideas in the shortest possible time. 4. Hitchhike on other ideas. Practical rules: 1. Make contributions in turn 2. Only one idea per turn allowed 3. You may pass if you don’t have any idea to contribute at your turn. 4. Do not explain ideas 5. One person should write down all the ideas. • Clarify ideas after brainstorming is complete. • Strike out duplicate ideas. • Club similar ideas under a common heading. Exercise 1 To what all uses can you put the object given to you? Exercise 2 Brainstorm on all possible causes of the problem identified by your team while doing the exercise on the problem statement.

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2.3 CAUSE EFFECT DIAGRAM / FISH BONE DIAGRAM / ISHIKAWA DIAGRAM

Basic to quality improvement is the need to identify the root causes of a

problem. The cause effect diagram is an effective way to organize and

display the various theories about what the root causes might be.

Nail Rock Oil Ice Worn out Glass Rain Snow Poor Training Broken Tie Rod Stuck Chemically Impaired Accelerator Poor Reflexes

Brake Failure Reckless Sleepy

Typical headings for grouping ideas: The 5 M’s • Manpower • Materials • Methods • Machines • Measurements The 5 P’s • People (employees) • Provisions (supplies) • Procedures • Place (environment) • Patrons (customers)

FLAT TYRE

DRIVER ERROR

MECH FAILURE

SLIPPERY ROAD

CAR ACCIDENT

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How to construct cause-effect diagrams 1. Define clearly the effect or symptom for which the causes must be

identified. 2. Place the effect or symptom being explained at the right, enclosed in a

box. Draw the central spine as a thick line pointing to it. 3. Use brainstorming or a rational step-by-step approach to identify the

possible causes. 4. Place each of the major areas of causes (not less than two and

normally not more than six) in boxes, connected to the central spine by a line at an angle of about 70 degrees.

5. Add causes for each main area. If there are sub-causes, they should be shown as sub-branches.

6. Check the logical validity of each causal chain. Exercise Group the brainstormed ideas, for the problem identified by your team, in the form of a cause effect diagram.

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2.4 STRATIFICATION Stratification is separation of data into categories. The most frequent use

of stratification during the diagnostic journey is to identify which categories

contribute to the problem being solved.

The characteristic used to separate the data is called ‘stratification variable’. Each stratification variable will have two or more ‘values’. • A bank has collected data, which indicates that the errors occurring during deposits average 8% a week. A process improvement team stratifies the data by type of deposit: mail, night depository, window tellers, and direct transfers. That is, they count the number of errors in each type of deposits. The stratification variables are the type of deposits and the values are: mail, night depository, window tellers, and direct transfers. Stratification revealed that deposits by window tellers accounted for 70% errors • A team wants to gain additional insight into the causes of the finished goods being reworked. There are three workers in that group. The team stratified the reworked goods by workers. The stratification variable is the worker and the values are: Arun, Satish, and Harry. (Names of the workers) Stratification revealed that 5% each of the goods produced by Arun and Harry were reworked while 20% of those produced by Satish were reworked. This information was more useful than the data of 10% total rework. How to stratify 1. Select the stratification variables. If new data is to be collected, be

certain that data on all potential stratification variables is collected. 2. Establish categories that are to be used for each stratification variable.

The categories may be either discrete values, or ranges of values. 3. Sort observations into the categories of one of the stratification

variables. 4. Repeat sorting of observations for other stratification variables. 5. Calculate the phenomenon being measured for each category. 6. Display the results in the form of a bar chart for each variable. 7. Identify the anomalous category. 8. Study the identified category for possible causes.

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Note: If the anomalous category cannot be identified, find other ways of stratifying data. Sometimes a second level stratification, that is, stratification within one variable by another variable may be warranted. Exercise (Partner) In the examples given above, which are the other variables, which can be used for stratification. Exercise (Team) The new Director of Sales and Marketing of SureGoods, a major consumer durables distribution company, had a tough job. The distribution industry was becoming more and more competitive, with customers becoming more demanding. During a one-week visit to some major customers, he had received very clear feedback on what needed to be improved. The top problem on his list was errors in invoices sent to customers. Although most customers did not have exact data to quantify the problem, they provided him with examples where his company had to be contacted to straighten out mistakes in invoices. Some examples were, • Not all supplies/services received during the month were included in the invoices. • At times, invoices included items not ordered or received. • Calculations contained errors • Invoices belonging to other customers were received. A process improvement team was chartered to look into the problem. The preliminary data collected by the team is as shown below on the next page What can you conclude from the data by using stratification? What would be the next steps to be taken by the team?

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Data of Invoice Errors Invoice Number 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 Day of Week M Th T M T W T Th F F M W Th F T Week of Month 1 4 3 4 4 4 1 2 4 3 4 1 4 3 4 Accountant A B A C B B A C B A C A B C A Invoice Number 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 Day of Week Th F F Th M T T T W T W Th F M M Week of Month 4 2 4 4 4 4 1 3 4 4 4 4 3 4 1 Accountant A B A C C D D D D A B C A D A Invoice Number 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 Day of Week M W W T F Th Th M W F Th T T W F Week of Month 4 3 2 4 2 3 4 3 2 4 4 2 4 3 2 Accountant A C D B A C C D A C D B A B C Invoice Number 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Day of Week F F Th W W W Th M T Th W F M F W Week of Month 4 4 3 4 4 4 2 1 4 4 2 4 2 1 4 Accountant D D D C A D C D A C C C A D C

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2.5 PARETO ANALYSIS Pareto analysis is a ranked comparison of factors related to a quality

problem. It helps a project team to identify and focus on the vital few

factors.

The Pareto principle is a “universal” principle that applies in an astounding variety of situations and appears to hold without exception in problems of quality. Pareto principle: In any group of factors contributing to a common effect, a relative few account for the bulk of the effect. The few contributors, which account for the bulk of the effect, are called “the vital few”. (The remaining contributors are called “the useful many”.) We might observe that: • The top 15% of our customers account for 70% of our total revenue. • A few employees account for majority of absences. • In a typical meeting, a few people tend to make the majority of

comments, while most people are relatively quiet. Exercise Record other examples of the Pareto principle as it applies to everyday situations in business and personal life. The Pareto analysis helps us to prioritize the causes, which need to be

eliminated for maximum gains.

Steps for construction: 1. Total the data on effect of each contributor, and sum these to

determine the grand total. 2. Re-order the contributors from the largest to the smallest in terms of

their effects. 3. Determine individual percentages of the total. 4. Determine the cumulative percentage, i.e. sum of the percentages upto

that contributor. For the second contributor, the cumulative percentage would be the sum of the percentage of the first and the second contributor. For the third, it would be the sum of the first, the second, and the third, and so on.

5. Label the y axis from zero to the grand total. 6. Divide the x axis into as many divisions as there are contributors. 7. Label the right y axis from 0 to 100%, aligning 100% with the grand

total on the left y axis.

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8. Draw bars to represent the magnitude of each contributor’s effect. 9. Draw a line graph (curve) joining points corresponding to right hand

corners of the bars and their cumulative percentage, starting from the leftmost bar.

10. Look for a break point on the line graph. The contributors on the left of the break point are the vital few, and the remaining are the useful many. Label them accordingly.

Exercise The BuyAll company identified errors in purchase requisitions (PR) as a major problem. It was identified that the error may occur in any of the 18 items appearing on the PR. The items were identified as A to R, and the errors occurring were counted for a certain sample as follows. Identify vital few and useful many by drawing the pareto diagram.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R 1 8 3 5 0 0 44 0 0 38 0 1 31 1 1 0 16 1

Exercise (optional) The Quality Council appointed a project team to look into rework cost and inefficiencies in the company’s invoicing process. After discussing the problem, the team went on to draw the high level and the detailed flow diagram of the invoicing process. The team identified nine rework loops. In order to prioritize the rework loops to be taken up for further problem solving, the team identified that the criterion should be the ‘cost of rework’. The team identified the different levels of personnel associated with reworks for each rework loop. Data was collected on the number of invoices passing through each rework loop, and the average time spent on rework by the different levels of personnel. The data on average salary for each level was obtained from the personnel department. Average Salaries

LEVEL Rs ANNUAL Rs PER MINUTE Manager 84,000 Supervisor 68,000 Grade 7 58,000 Grade 6 50,000 Grade 5 44,000 Grade 4 36,000 Grade 3 32,000

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Rework Loops 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Number of Invoices requiring rework

24 14 3 41 17 29 38 5 13

Time Required per invoice in minutes Billing Dept.

Manager - - - - 30 - - - 30 Supervisor 20 - - 5 60 - 5 - 45 Grade 5 45 - 5 10 - 5 10 5 60 Grade 3 - 10 10 15 20 10 15 10 - Other Depts. Manager 10 - - - 15 - - - - Supervisor 10 - - 5 15 - - - - Grade 7 - - - - - 5 10 - - Grade 5 10 10 - - 10 - - - - Rework Cost per unit Total rework cost

Assumptions: 1. 50 workweeks per year 2. 40 work hours per week

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2.6 CONTROL CHARTS Control Charts are graphical representations showing if a process is under control. The most common type of control chart is the Xbar-R chart used for variables. Control charts are used to monitor processes. Procedure for plotting a Control Chart.

1. Determine the size of sample group. (Usually 4 to 10) 2. Design a suitable data sheet. 3. Collect data under standard operating conditions. 4. Calculate the average (Xbar) and the Range (R). R is the difference between

the largest and the smallest value in the group. 5. Calculate the average of averages.(Xdoublebar) 6. Calculate the average range.(Rbar) 7. Calculate the control limits for Xbar chart using the formulae:

UCL = Xdoublebar + A2.Rbar LCL = Xdoublebar - A2.Rbar (See table for values of A2)

8. Calculate the control limits for the R chart using the formulae:

UCL = D4.Rbar

LCL = D3.Rbar (See table for values of D3 and D4)

9. Draw graphs of Xbar against time and R against time showing control limits.

10. Look for process going out of control and for other trends. (See Tips on

Trends) Values of A2, D3 and D4

Group Size A2 D3 D4 4 0.729 0 2.282 5 0.577 0 2.115 6 0.483 0 2.004 8 0.373 0.136 1.864 10 0.308 0.223 1.777

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Exercise: The following table gives the weight in Kgs of copper bars produced at the smelter. Draw a control chart. Weights of bars

Time hrs

0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200

120 118 116 117 116 117 119 117 119 117 115 115 119 117 119 117 120 117 119 121 117 118 120 115 118 119 117 120 118 118 120 118 117 120 118 118 120 118 119 118 118 122 121 117 117 117 119 117 121 118 119 119 118 117 121 116

w e i g h t s (Kg) 120 117 118 118 119 118 119 117 Xbar R

Tips on Trends

1. A single observation out of control limits (special). 2. A series of seven consecutive points on the same side of the average 3. A series of seven consecutive readings showing an increasing or

decreasing trend. 4. A cyclic, periodic or recurring wavy pattern. Cause must be investigated. 5. Consecutive very high and very low readings. May indicate unnecessary

adjustments.

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2.7 HISTOGRAMS Histograms are used to study distribution patterns and draw conclusions based on the shape of the distribution. Histograms or Frequency Distribution Diagrams are bar charts showing the distribution pattern of observations grouped in convenient class intervals and arranged in order of magnitude. Procedure for drawing a Histogram: 1. Collect data (a minimum of 50 observations) on a specific item. 2. Calculate range (difference between maximum and minimum values ). 3. Divide the entire range of values into a convenient number of groups

(approximately equal to the square root of the number of observations), each representing an equal class interval.

4. Note the frequency of observations in each group. 5. Draw X-axis and Y-axis and decide the scales for class on X-axis and

the number of readings or frequency on the Y-axis. 6. Plot the points and draw bars. 7. Study the pattern of distribution and draw conclusions. Exercise: The following table shows measurements of the diameter of component X. The specifications are 0.90 to 1.00 cm.

.951 .972 .943 .954 .965 .906 .957 .922 .963 .954 .985 .976 .947 .918 .953 .934 .945 .956 .937 .958 .959 .994 .955 .946 .937 .948 .929 .930 .965 .976 .967 .958 .929 .960 .941 .946 .957 .958 .979 .960 .951 .972 .987 .948 .939 .960 .951 .942 .953 .958 .979 .950 .971 .962 .913 .964 .969 .950 .931 .942 .953 .944 .935 .940 .961 .942 .933 .944 .985 .956

Draw Histogram. Distribution Patterns: Normal, Bimodal, Skewed, Plateau, Isolated Peak, Edge Peak, Comb

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SECTION 3 – REFERENCE READING 3.1 THOUGHT PROCESSES Two important thought processes As pointed out earlier, the number and names of problem- solving

steps listed are not as important as the logic and concepts that these

problem-solving steps represent.

There are two important thought process cycles that form the conceptual

’’backbone’’ of effective problem solving. These are

• The Divergent /convergent thinking cycle

• The Creative /Empirical thinking cycle

Divergent/convergent thinking refers to the cycle of first expanding the

team’s thinking and then narrowing it down to a focus.

Partner exercise: In Figure 3.1.1 below, mark which of the two kinds of

thinking is used at every step of problem solving with a tick mark. Discuss

with your partner before finalizing.

STEPS OF PROBLEM SOLVING DIVERGENT

THINKING

CONVERGENT

THINKING

1. List and prioritize problems

2. Define project and team

3. Analyze symptoms

4. Formulate theories of causes

5. Test theories

6. Identify root causes

7. Consider alternative solutions

8. Design solutions and controls

9. Address resistance to change

10.Implement solutions and controls

11.Check performance

12. Monitor control system

Figure 3.1.1: Divergent/Convergent Thinking

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We begin by formulating a long list of problems (divergent thinking ) and

then select one for a focus (convergent thinking). The purpose of

analyzing the symptoms and listing the theories of causes is to expand the

teams’ knowledge and understanding of the problem. But following this,

we need to converge and focus our efforts on the major root causes.

Similarly, we need to consider a variety of solutions before converging on

a single design, and we need to consider all the barriers to change before

getting down to the specific implementation tasks. Finally the control and

measurement tasks of the Holding the Gains phase of problem solving

must be focused and specific.

The cycle between divergent and convergent thinking is key to effective

problem solving for quality improvement. Quality improvement efforts are

often bogged down due to continual divergent thinking in the Project

Definition and Diagnostic Journey phases of problem solving. Council and

team members are consumed with ‘’yet another discussion’’ of items on

the list of problem, the latest symptom incident, or theories of causes. The

discussions never converge to focus on a specific project or to a design of

the tests needed to confirm or disprove a theory.

At the other extreme lies the danger of too much convergent thinking too

early in the process. The latest problem might not be the most important

one to devote the organization’s energies to. The one theory advanced by

the senior person on the team might not be the best explanation of what is

causing the problem. The solution that leaps first to mind might not be the

most effective or economical.

Effective problem–solving teams are keenly aware of the balance between

divergent and convergent thinking. They recognize the need to focus their

attention and energies in order to move on after broad discussion of

general facts and opinions before committing their resources to a specific

course of action.

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A second and related thought cycle is the cycle of creative and empirical

thinking.

Partner exercise: In Figure 3.1.2 below, mark which of the two kinds of

thinking is used at every step of problem solving with a tick mark. Discuss

with your partner before finalizing.

STEPS OF PROBLEM SOLVING CREATIVE

THINKING

EMPIRICAL

THINKING

1. List and prioritize problems

2. Define project and team

3. Analyze symptoms

4. Formulate theories of causes

5. Test theories

6. Identify root causes

7. Consider alternative solutions

8. Design solutions and controls

9. Address resistance to change

10.Implement solutions and controls

11.Check performance

12. Monitor control system

Figure 3.1.2: Creative/Empirical Thinking

There are points during problem solving when the team needs theories,

hunches, guesses, and opinions. Creative (or opinion-driven) thinking is

needed when compiling broad lists.

But there is an equally important need to rely solely on the facts at other

points in problem solving. Empirical(or data-driven) thinking is mandatory

at such times.

Again, effective problem-solving teams value the need for balance

between creative and empirical thinking. They create an environment for

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the team that makes it easy and acceptable for team members to express

opinions or unique ideas. But they do not make key decisions based on

opinions or hunches alone. Instead they get the data and facts before

taking their next steps.

Lack of empirical thinking is the major fallacy behind some so-called

‘’creative problem-solving models.’’ These approaches are typified by their

reliance on voting among team members at key decision points.

Proponents of these approaches argue that such voting techniques are

data and fact based because the team members work in the process and

observe it everyday. There are two pitfalls in this argument. First, human

memory is a notoriously biased data-collection tool. People tend to

remember the problem or cause that happened recently, affected them

most seriously, or came at a particularly memorable moment for them.

The second pitfall lies at the heart of our discussion of breakthroughs in

chronic problem areas. Substantial breakthroughs in performance require

breakthroughs in knowledge. In many cases, chronic problems exist

precisely because no one knows the true extent and cause of the problem

.Team voting merely produces decisions: it cannot fill in the gaps in

knowledge.

There is also a danger in strict empirical thinking that does not allow for

unique ideas, suggestions, and points of view. Contrary to the beliefs of

some, the huge stores of data that currently exists in most organizations

do not contain all the answers to improve performance. The reason for this

is no one has ever asked the right questions that would result in the right

data being gathered. The situation that many organizations face

regarding the costs of poor quality is a prime example of this. The practice

of rework has never been questioned, and so, no one has ever collected

the data to quantify it. ‘’Question asking ‘’ is a creative-thinking process.

Without good, creative questions a problem-solving team will never cut the

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new windows into the process that are often needed in order to allow

empirical thinking to drive breakthroughs in knowledge.

While these two thought processes, divergent/convergent thinking and

creative/empirical thinking are related, they are not same.

Divergent/convergent thinking refers to the need to alternate and balance

between broad (‘’long list’’) views and focused (‘’short list’’) views.

Creative/empirical thinking refers to the need to alternate and balance

between opinion-driven (‘’hunches’’) and data-driven (‘’just the facts sir’’)

thinking.

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3.2 WHAT CAN GO WRONG Lack of Support From Senior Management, Improper Choice of Project,

Incorrect Problem and Mission Statements, are some of the most common

things that can go wrong

In addition to these, three of the common categories of errors and pitfalls

are outlined below.

The Missing phase, step or concept

Experience has shown that all of the breakthroughs, phases, conceptual

steps and thought processes of problem solving described above are

necessary for real, lasting quality improvement. Study of quality

improvement efforts that fail to achieve a breakthrough in performance in

some reasonable period of time, will almost point to some process flaw in

the team’s approach.

The best ways to avoid these pitfalls are to understand the concepts of

effective problem solving and be diligent in reviewing your team’s efforts

related to those concepts.

Lack of Time, Diagnostic Skills and Objectivity

The breakthroughs in knowledge that must precede breakthroughs in

performance require time for searching, skills in analyzing data and

objectivity of team members. When any of these is lacking, quality

improvement efforts fail

To avoid this pitfall, organization managers must;

• Give team the time to work on projects.

• Provide training and access to expert resources to help the team

members diagnose the cause of the problem.

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• Set an example of a commitment to objectivity in their own dealings

within the company.

For their part, quality improvement team members must

• Use team meeting and data-collection time wisely.

• Get training or additional skilled resources when needed

• Make a commitment to work from facts rather than opinions.

Premature Solutions Related to lack of conceptual understanding of good problem solving and

lack of objectivity is the pitfall of premature solutions. Or ‘’solutions in

search of problems. ‘‘ Many people seem to think that more training, a

new computer system, or something else is the answer-regardless of the

problem to apply it to.

The warning signs of this pitfall can come in the first meeting of the team.

Before any data has been collected, people are already saying ‘’if we just

had a…’’, ‘’What we really need is …’’.’’The problem is a lack of…’’,etc.

Another warning sign commonly occurs when the team begins discussing

theories of causes. Many times a statement that begins with ’’the lack of

…’’ is actually proposing a solution rather than a cause. Team members

must be constantly on guard for such statements and insist that the team

stick to the logic and progression of the steps of effective problem solving.

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3.3. PROBLEM SOLVING TEAM ROLES A typical size for a project team is six to eight persons. The level of

hierarchy from which these team members are drawn depends on the type

of problem, e.g. If the problem is strategic in nature, generally people from

higher and middle management will form the team. If however, the

problem is very technical in nature, people with specialized knowledge of

the processes involved will form the team.

For most general problems, middle and frontline management persons

form the team.

The following general rules are required to be kept in mind when

composing the team;

1. The person must be impacted by the problem. That is he must be

either the supplier, or the customer, or the process owner of the

process where the problem is manifesting. In some cases, the person

may not be any of the three entities mentioned above, but is severely

impacted by the problem, e.g. The problem may be shop floor related,

but the resulting low productivity is having serious implications on cash

flow. In this case a finance person may be able to contribute to the

team’s progress. In short, every team member must have a stake in

the problem.

2. The persons on the team must be able to give time for team meetings

and also for doing work outside the team meetings.

3. The team members must be trained in the fundamentals of problem

solving.

4. Every member must be a “team player”. Teamwork alone results in fast

pace of problem solving.

5. Team members must have an eager disposition, always striving to look

at something new, and not be bogged down by old ideas.

6. Team membership should be congruent in terms of hierarchy level,

e.g. in a team comprising senior people, a single junior is likely to keep

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quiet and not contribute. Similarly, in a junior team, a very senior

person will have a tendency to make his opinion always accepted

because of his authority.

7. Sometimes specialists like diagnosticians/ statisticians or technical

experts may be warranted, depending on the nature of the problem.

However, many problems of not having proper membership can be solved

if the facilitator is experienced

Team roles The teams generally consist of the following;

1. Team Leader

2. Secretary or scribe

3. Full time team members

The team leader is usually the person who is most impacted by the

problem. Alternatively, the person who is likely to be involved in designing

the remedy may be the team leader.

Team Leader It must be remembered that the leader is not the ‘boss’. He is one among

equals. He however has some specific responsibilities in addition to the

shared responsibilities of team members.

• Shared responsibilities: The team leader shares with all members the

responsibility for completing the project. This involves attending

meetings, contributing ideas during the meeting, helping analyze

situations during the meetings, collecting and analyzing data outside

meetings, meeting and interviewing people who may help the team

progress, etc.

• Unshared responsibilities:

1. Housekeeping: Seeing that the agendas are published in advance;

that minutes and reports are published in time

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2. Attendance: Stimulating and helping members attend regularly and

in person.

3. Homework: Assigning all the tasks, which need to be completed

between meetings.

4. Keeping the meetings on track: Assuring that the agenda is

followed. Preventing anyone from dominating the meeting,

stimulating participation and the flow of ideas, utilizing group

problem solving techniques.

Secretary The secretary is responsible for ensuring that all facilities required for the

meeting to run effectively are taken care of. In addition the secretary is

responsible for preparing and publishing agendas, summaries of studies

and findings, progress reports and minutes. In most cases the secretary is

the central avenue for storing all the data and information.

Methods used to select the secretary include:

• The project team “elects” a secretary from its membership

• The team leader asks for volunteers from the members and appoints

one of them

• The team leader brings in an “outsider” to act as a secretary. (This

should be resorted to only in extreme situations)

Role of a Facilitator The facilitator is not a regular team member. His role is like that of a

catalyst. The responsibilities of the facilitator are:

• Provide assistance in team building. He has to stimulate those unsure

of contributing and restrain those who are overenthusiastic.

• Assist in discussion of case studies and experience of other teams.

• Assist the team leader in his role.

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• Report progress to the quality council

• Monitor need for additional know-how

• Revitalize a bogged down project

• Act as a liaison between the team and the organization

• Provide feedback and encouragement

• Step in and assist when necessary

The most important qualities, which the facilitator must possess, are: wide

acceptance across the company, good interpersonal and communication

skills, and knowledge and experience of problem solving.

On- Call Team Members Apart from the regular team members, sometimes, need is felt for

attendance in a team meeting of a person who is not a team member. ,

e.g. there may be a problem suspected with reference to process

capability, and there may be an expert on process capability in the

organization. Since this person may not be directly connected with the

problem, he would not be part of the regular team. However, when

discussions on process capability are taking place, it may be useful to

have this person attend the meeting. Such persons are called “on- call

members”.

It should be remembered that, sometimes, a continuing need of a

particular person might be felt depending on where the data trail has led.

In such situations it may be better to co-opt that person on the team

permanently.

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3.4 EFFECTIVE MEETINGS Effective meetings are a result of proper planning of the meeting and

proper conducting of the meeting.

Planning a meeting consists of

• Setting objectives

• Developing an agenda

Conducting the meeting is done by

• Opening the meeting

• Following the agenda

• Closing the meeting

Setting objectives: When setting meeting objectives, team members

should think in terms of specific and observable end results.

Setting an objective with a specific end result involves answering the

question, “What are we trying to achieve?”

Example: The following meeting objective does not contain an end result:

“Mr. Rao will discuss findings on the new photocopying machine.”

A better objective would be:

“Mr. Rao will discuss findings on the new photocopying machine so that

we can determine if we need any additional machines.”

Setting an objective with observable end result involves asking the

question,” How will we know that our objective has been achieved.”

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Example: The following objective does not contain an observable end result:

“Discuss the findings from the customer complaint analysis report.”

A better objective would be:

“Discuss the findings from the customer complaint analysis report and

identify the six most critical areas.”

Exercise: The following meeting objectives are deliberately vague. Rewrite

each objective so that it has a specific, observable end result.

1. Review the problem assigned by the quality council.

2. Analyze cost of poor quality at the production stage.

3. Discuss recommendations given by the foreign consultants.

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Exercise: For the next two meetings you are expected to attend, write

meeting objectives with specific, observable end results.

1.

2.

Developing an Agenda Most agendas are so brief that they say nothing. A well-developed

agenda, on the other hand, analyzes and defines each item closely. There

are four factors to consider when developing an agenda:

• Logistics of the meeting

• Sequence of agenda items

• Who is responsible for what

• Background material

Logistics describes the who, where and when of the meeting. It is as

important to specify the finishing time, as the starting time.

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While sequencing agenda items, the following tips are useful:

1. Start with a unifying item. Some items unite the team while others divide

members. The team leader should choose the first item carefully because

it can affect the atmosphere of the meeting. It is also a good idea to end

the meeting with a unifying item.

2. Be creative earlier on. During the early part of the meeting, team

members tend to be more lively and creative. If an item needs mental

energy, bright ideas, and clear heads, put it high on the list.

3. Reserve a key item for the end. If there is one item of great interest and

concern to all, it may be a good idea to reserve it until the end of the

meeting and get other useful work done first. Then, the key item can

capture the team’s attention as its concentration begins to wane.

Who is responsible for what It is important to list the team members responsible for each agenda item

and the amount of time allotted to each item.

Distributing Background Material, along with the agenda, not only saves

time, but also brings team members up to speed, allowing them to

formulate useful questions in advance. The material should be brief and

provide a short summary.

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CONDUCTING THE MEETING How to Open the Meeting If the meeting opens on the right tone, it sets the trend for proper conduct

of the meeting. To open the meeting:

• State the purpose

• Explain how it is going to be achieved

To state the purpose, mention why the team is meeting and what it needs

to accomplish. When preparing an opening statement, refer to the

meeting objectives.

Example

‘’Today, we’re going to discuss the new machine capabilities and

determine if the production targets can be revised upwards’’.

The second part of an opening statement lets the project team know how

the day’s mission will be accomplished

Example;

‘’To do this, Manu Shah will give a brief presentation on what’s happening

in the smelter department. Then we’ll discuss the pros and cons of making

specific changes and finalize the production targets before we leave’’

Exercise

Using the objectives you developed earlier, make an appropriate opening

statement to start the meeting. You will be asked to share your

statements with the group

1. State the purpose of the meeting;

2. Explain how the purpose will be accomplished;

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Following the Agenda It is the responsibility of the team leader to ensure that the agenda is

followed. It is also essential that the time allotted to each agenda item be

adhered to. If for some reason, a particular item seems to be taking a

longer time, the leader has to decide if the further agenda is required to be

modified. However, with proper planning, this can be avoided.

The team leader/facilitator has to be good at tackling attempts to ‘hijack’

the agenda.

How to close the meeting Closing a meeting skillfully ensures that everyone understands what has

been agreed to and how the next steps should be carried out. To close a

meeting;

• Summarize what has taken place

• Confirm the next steps.

Summarize what has taken place

Summarizing helps ensure that everyone shares the same understanding

of what has occurred during the meeting. This helps unify the team in its

decisions and actions. The summary can be general, but it is a good idea

to review the basic points.

Example;

‘’Based on what we discussed today, we have concluded that we should

develop a survey to be given to our customers’’

Confirm the next steps

Confirming the next steps reinforces what the team members have agreed

to do and enables them to begin. To confirm the next steps, simply

itemize what will happen next, who will perform each step, and when each

step will be completed.

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Example

‘’James, you will meet with Hari Haran and report to us by the next

meeting the customers we should target. Mallika and Arjun will design the

survey form and have a rough draft for us to look at by the end of the

month….’’

Exercise

Think of a project team meeting or another meeting you attended recently

Write closing statements and be prepared to share them with the group.

1. Summarize what has taken place

.

2. Confirm the next steps