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TABLEOFCONTENTSIntroduction...............................................................................................................................................................................................................3

EducationalGoalsforAstronomy1.................................................................................................................................................................4

MasterMaterialsListforAllLabs.....................................................................................................................................................................5

LabSafety...................................................................................................................................................................................................................6

Lesson#1:PlanetariumandStarShow.........................................................................................................................................................7

Lesson#2:SolarSystemTreasureHunt......................................................................................................................................................10

Lesson#3:MagneticTornadoes.....................................................................................................................................................................28

Lesson#4:SkyinaJar.........................................................................................................................................................................................31

Lesson#5:PlanetaryMagneticFields..........................................................................................................................................................34

Lesson#6:Seasons...............................................................................................................................................................................................36

Lesson#7:IndoorRainClouds........................................................................................................................................................................40

Lesson#8:Volcanoes..........................................................................................................................................................................................42

Lesson#9:StarGazing........................................................................................................................................................................................46

Lesson#10:SongoftheSun.............................................................................................................................................................................49

Lesson#11:SimpleMicroscope&Telescope............................................................................................................................................53

Lesson#12:StarCharting.................................................................................................................................................................................56

Astronomy1Evaluation.....................................................................................................................................................................................58

Astronomy1Quiz..................................................................................................................................................................................................59

Astronomy1LabPractical................................................................................................................................................................................60

AnswerstoExercisesandActivities..............................................................................................................................................................61

VocabularyfortheUnit.......................................................................................................................................................................................66


Introduction

GreetingsandwelcometothestudyofAstronomy.Thisunitwascreatedbyamechanicalengineer,universityinstructor,airplanepilot,astronomer,robot‐builderandrealrocketscientist…me!IhavethehappyopportunitytoteachyoueverythingIknowaboutastronomyoverthenextsetoflessons.Ipromisetogiveyoumybeststuffsoyoucantakeitandrunwithit…orfly!

Astrophysicscombinestheknowledgeoflight(electromagneticradiation),chemicalreactions,atoms,energy,andphysicalmotionallintoone.Togetthemostoutoftheselabs,therearereallyonlyacoupleofthingstokeepinmind.Sinceweareallheretohavefunandlearnsomethingnew,thisshouldn’tbetoohard.

Oneofthebestthingsyoucandoasthestudentistocultivateyourcuriosityaboutthings.Whydidthatmove?Howdidthatspin?What’sreallygoingonhere?

ThisunitonAstronomyischock‐fullofdemonstrationsandexperimentsfortwobigreasons.First,they’refun.Butmoreimportantly,thereasonwedoexperimentsinscienceistohoneyourobservationalskills.ScienceexperimentsreallyspeakforthemselvesmuchbetterthanIcaneverputintowordsorshowyouonavideo.AndI’mgoingtohityouwithalotofthesesciencedemonstrationsandexperimentstohelpyoudevelopyourobservingtechniques.

Scientistsnotonlylearntoobservewhat’sgoingonintheexperiment,buttheyalsolearnhowtoobservewhattheirexperimentistellingthem,whichisfoundbylookingatyourdata.It’snotenoughtoinventsomenewkindofexperimentifyoudon’tknowhowitwillperformwhentheconditionschangeabit,likeonMars.We’regoingtolearnhowtopredictwhatwethinkwillhappen,designexperimentsthatwilltestthisidea,andlookovertheresultswegottofigureoutwheretogofromthere.Scienceisaprocess,it’sawayofthinking,andwe’regoingtogetplentyofpracticeatit.

Goodluckwiththisastronomyunit!


FortheParent/Teacher:EducationalGoalsforAstronomy1

Astrophysicsisthebranchofastronomythatdealswiththephysicsoftheuniverse.Astronomersstudycelestialobjects(thingslikestars,planets,moons,asteroids,comets,galaxies,andsoforth)thatexistoutsideEarth’satmosphere.It’stheonefieldofstudythatcombinesthemostscience,engineeringandtechnologyareasinonefellswoop.Astronomyisalsooneoftheoldestsciencesontheplanet.We’regoingtobestudyingdifferentareaswithinastronomythatcoverthemoon,planets,stars,andotherobjects.

Herearethescientificconcepts:

Objectsintheskymoveinregularandpredictablepatterns.Thepatternsofstarsstaythesame,althoughtheyappeartomoveacrosstheskynightly,anddifferentstarscanbeseenindifferentseasons.

ThetiltoftheEarthanditslocationinorbitarethereasonsfortheseasons. TheEarthisoneofseveralplanetsthatorbittheSun,andtheMoonorbitstheEarth. ThesolarsystemconsistsofplanetsandotherbodiesthatorbittheSuninpredictablepaths. Oursolarsystemincludesrockyterrestrialplanets(Mercury,Venus,Earth,andMars),gasgiants(Jupiter

andSaturn),icegiants(UranusandNeptune),andassortedchunksoficeanddustthatmakeupvariouscometsandasteroids.

Twoplanets(CeresandPluto)havebeenreclassifiedafterastronomersfoundoutmoreinformationabouttheirneighbors.

TelescopesmagnifytheappearanceoftheMoonandtheplanets. TelescopesmagnifytheappearanceoftheSunusingspeciallensesandmakeitpossibletolocateSunspots

andsolarflares. Starsarethesourceoflightforallbrightobjectsinouterspace.TheMoonandplanetsshinebyreflected

Sunlight,notbytheirownlight. Thenumberofstarsthatcanbeseenthroughtelescopesisdramaticallygreaterthancanbeseenbythe

unaidedeye.

Bytheendofthelabsinthisunit,studentswillbeableto:

Designandbuildatelescopeusingopticalequipmentlikelenses. Knowhowtodemonstratehowthepositionofobjectsintheskychangesovertime. Knowthecelestialobjectsinthesolarsystemandhowtheyrelateandinteractwitheachother. Formulateandjustifypredictionsbasedoncause‐and‐effectrelationships. Conductmultipletrialstotestapredictionanddrawconclusionsabouttherelationshipsbetween

predictionsandresults. Constructandinterpretgraphsfrommeasurements. Followasetofwritteninstructionsforascientificinvestigation.


MasterMaterialsListforAllLabs

Thisisabrieflistofthematerialsthatyouwillneedtodoalloftheactivities,experimentsandprojectsinthisunit.Thesetofmaterialslistedbelowisjustforonelabgroup.Ifyouhaveaclassof10labgroups,you’llneedtoget10setsofthematerialslistedbelow.Mostmaterialsarereusable.

AluminumpanBakingsoda(1/4cup)BalloonBarmagnetCircular(disk)magnetCompassDirt(3cups)DollarbillDucttape(optional)Fingernailpolish(red,yellow,green,blue)Flashlights(3or4)Flexibletubing(18")‐optional

Flour(9cups)GlassjarHand‐heldmagnifyinglenses(2)HorseshoemagnetLiquidcrystalthermometers(2)LiquiddishsoapMarkerMaskingtapeMilk(coupledrops)Musicalinstruments(anyyoualreadyhave)PencilPenny

Plasticbottles(2litersodabottles)ProtractorRocksRulerSalt(4cups)Steelwasherwitha3/8inchholeStopwatchStringTape(clear,notfrosted)Vegetableoil(1/2cup)Waterbottle(empty)


LabSafetyGoggles:Theseshouldbewornwhenworkingwithchemicals,heat,fire,orprojectiles.Theseprotectyoureyesfromchemicalsplatter,explosions,andtinyfast‐movingobjectsaimedattheeyes.Ifyouwearglasses,youcanfindgogglesthatfitoverthem.Don’tsubstituteeyeglassesforgoggles,becauseofthelackofsideprotection.Eyeglassesdon’tprovidethisimportantprotection.

CleanupMesses:Yourlabareashouldbeneat,organized,andspotlessbeforeyoustart,duringyourexperiment,andwhenyouleave.Scientistswastemoretimehuntingforlostpapers,piecesofanexperiment,andtryingtorepositionsensitiveequipment…allofwhichcouldhaveeasilybeenavoidedhadtheybeentaughtorganizationalskillsfromthestart.

DisposeofPoisons:Ifapoisonoussubstancewasused,created,orproducedduringyourexperiment,youmustfollowtheproperhandlingproceduresfordisposal.You’llfinddetailsforthisintheexperimentsasneeded.

SpecialNotesonBatteries:Donotusealkalinebatterieswithyourexperiments.Findthesuper‐cheapkindofbatteries(usuallylabeled“HeavyDuty”or“SuperHeavyDuty”)becausethesetypesofbatterieshaveacarbon‐zinccore,whichdoesnotcontaintheacidthatalkalinebatterieshave.Thismeanswhenyouwireupcircuitsincorrectly(whichyoushouldexpecttodobecauseyouarelearning),thecircuitswillnotoverheatorleak.Ifyouusealkalinebatteries(likeEnergizerandDuracell)andyourstudentsshortacircuit,theirwiresandcomponentswillgetsuper‐hotandleakacid,whichisverydangerous.

NoEatingorDrinkingintheLab:Allfoodsanddrinksarebannedfromyourclassroomduringscienceexperimentation.Whenyoueatordrink,youruntheveryrealriskofingestingpartofyourexperiment.Forelectricityandmagnetismlabs,alwayswashyourhandsafterthelabisovertorinseofftheleadfromtheelectricalcomponents.

NoHorsePlay:Whenyougoofaround,accidentshappen,whichmeanschemicalsspill,circuitsshort,andallkindsofhazardscanoccurthatyouweren’texpecting.Neverthrowanythingtoanotherpersonandbecarefulwhereyouputyourhands–itcouldbeinthemiddleofasensitiveexperiment,especiallywithmagnetismandelectricity.Youdon’twanttoruntheriskofgettingshockedorelectrifiedwhenit’snotpartofyourexperiment.

Fire:Ifyouthinkthere’safireintheroom(evenifyou’renotsure),letyourteacherknowrightaway.Iftheyarenotaround(theyalwaysshouldbe),smotherthefirewithafireblanketoruseafireextinguisherandsendsomeonetofindanadult.Stop,drop,androll!

Questions:Ifyou’renotsureaboutsomething,stopandask,nomatterwhatit’sabout.Ifyoudon’tknowhowtoproperlyhandleachemical,dopartofanexperiment,ask!Ifyou’renotcomfortabledoingpartoftheexperiment,thendon’tdoit.


Lesson#1:PlanetariumandStarShowOverviewGreetingsandwelcometothestudyofastronomy!Thisfirstlessonissimplytogetyouexcitedandinterestedinastronomysoyoucandecidewhatitisthatyouwanttolearnaboutastronomylateron.

WhattoLearnWe’regoingtocoveralotinthispresentation,including:TheSun,anaveragestar,isthecentralandlargestbodyinthesolarsystemandiscomposedprimarilyofhydrogenandhelium.

ThesolarsystemincludestheEarth,Moon,Sun,eightotherplanetsandtheirsatellites,andsmallerobjectssuchasasteroidsandcomets.Thestructureandcompositionoftheuniversecanbelearnedfromthestudyofstarsandgalaxies.Galaxiesareclustersofbillionsofstars,andmayhavedifferentshapes.TheSunisoneofmanystarsinourownMilkyWaygalaxy.Starsmaydifferinsize,temperature,andcolor.

Materials

Popcorn(toeatifyou’dliketo) Pencil

Experiment

Beforewatchingthevideo,printoutyourworksheetsoyoucanjotthingsdownasyoulisten.Thengrabyourpencil(andahandfulofpopcorn)andfillitinasyougoalong,orsimplyenjoytheshowandfillitoutattheend.


PlanetariumStarShowTable

Planet InterestingFactYouDidn’tKnow‘TilNow


Reading

Astrophysicsisthebranchofastronomythatdealswiththephysicsoftheuniverse.Astronomersstudycelestialobjects(thingslikestars,planets,moons,asteroids,comets,galaxies,andsoforth)thatexistoutsideEarth’satmosphere.It’stheonefieldofstudythatcombinesthemostscience,engineeringandtechnologyareasinonefellswoop.Astronomyisalsooneoftheoldestsciencesontheplanet.

Earlyastronomerstrackedthemovementofthestarssoaccuratelythatinmostcases,we’veonlymademinoradjustmentstotheirdata.AlthoughGalileowasn’tthefirstpersontolookthroughatelescope,hewasthefirsttopointitatthestars.Originally,astronomywasusedforcelestialnavigationandwasinvolvedwiththemakingofcalendars,butnowadaysit’smostlyclassifiedinthefieldcalledastrophysics.

QuestionstoAnswer:

1. WhathappenedtoPluto?Whyisn’titaplanetanymore?

2. HowdoestheSunmakeenergy?

3. Whichplanetisyourfavoriteandwhy?

4. HowmanymoonsaroundJupiterandSaturncanyouseewithbinoculars?

5. What’sthedifferencebetweenagalaxyandablackhole?

6. HowmanyEarthscanfitinsidetheSun?


Lesson#2:SolarSystemTreasureHuntOverview:Funday!Yougettodonotone,buttwotreasurehuntstoday.Thefirstisonpaperandasksquestionsaboutthepresentationfromlasttime.Thesecondactivityhas10clueswithrealtreasure.Themoreyouknowaboutastronomy,thefasteryou’llmovethroughthese.

WhattoLearn:Todayyou’lldiscoverhowmuchyoualreadyknowaboutthespecificdetailsaboutalleightplanets,theSunanditscomposition,selectednaturalsatellites,andsmallerobjectssuchasasteroids,dwarfplanets,andcomets.

Materials

Apencil Printoutthecluecards(haveanadulthelperhidethemforyou)

Experiment

1. Therearetworoundsforthistreasurehunt:indoorsandoutdoors(iftheweather’scooperating).Inamoment,youaregoingtosearchyourindoorareaforanswerstotheseclues.

2. HavesomeoneelsecutouttheFirstTreasureHuntClueCardsandhidetheminplainviewforyoutofind.3. Whiletheyarehidingthecluesforyou,printouttheFirstTreasureHuntClueWorksheet.You’llusethis

whenyousearchfortheclues.4. Whenready,gofindyourcluecardsandfilloutyourworksheet!5. Whileyou’reworkingonfindingtheclues,yourassistantwillgetbusyhidingthecluesfromtheSecond

TreasureHunt.6. Onceyou’vecompletedthefirsttreasurehuntandcompletedyourworksheet,letyourassistantknowand

theywillhandyouthefirstcardfromtheSecondTreasureHuntandsendyouonyourway.


FirstTreasureHuntClueCards:Havesomeoneelsecuttheseoutandpasteinplainviewallovertheroomtofindeasily.Youwillbeanswering50questions.Somecardscontaininformationformorethanonequestion,soyou’llfindthereare37cluecardsforthefirstpartoftheactivity.

AllimagesprovidedcourtesyofNASA.

Shapeofoursolarsystemisapproximately

circular.

TheSunrotatesonceevery31daysatthepolesandonceevery27daysattheequator.

PlutoisnowpartoftheKuiperBelt.

Oursolarsystemhaseightplanets,theirmoons,asteroidsandcomets.

ThecoretemperatureoftheSunis15milliondegreesCelsius.


AplanetisanobjectthatorbitstheSun,ismassiveenoughforitsowngravitytomakeitround,andhascleareditsorbitofsmaller

objects.

Mercuryisthesecondhottestplanetat800oF(427oC).ThesidefacingawayfromtheSunis

‐280oF(‐173oC)

Venusisthehottestplanetat863oF(462oC).

AlthoughUranusismademostlyofhydrogenandhelium,it’sthecoldmethanegasthatgivesthe

blue‐greencolor.


TheSunismadeupof25%heliumand75%hydrogen.

VenustakeslongertospinonceonitsownaxisthanitdoestoorbittheSun.Notonlythat,it

rotatesintheoppositedirectionfromtherestoftheplanets.

Cometsaremadeofdustandice,makingthemjustlikedirtysnowballs.Wethinkthattheiceon

Mercurywasleftbyimpactsfromcomets.

TheEarth’satmosphereismadeupof21%oxygenand78%nitrogen,withtraceamountsof

othermolecules.

Venuswasnamedafterthegoddessofloveandbeautybecauseitisthebrightestobjectinthe

sky,otherthantheSunandMoon.

TheMooncausesbothoceanandlandtidesontheEarth.


ThetwomoonsofMarsarenamedafterFear/Panic(Phobos)andFleeing(Deimos).

Jupiterismadeofhydrogenandheliumwithametallichydrogencore.It’saslargeasitcanbewithoutshrinking.Ifyouaddedmoremass

(hydrogengas)toit,Jupiterwouldcondenseandgetsmaller.Ifyouincreaseditsmassby80X,it

wouldcompressandbecomeastar.

Ironoxide(rust)givesMarsitsredcolor.Thewhiteatthepolesaredryice(frozencarbon

dioxide)andwaterice.

1400EarthscanfitinsideofJupiter.IfJupiterwerethesizeofasoccerball,theEarthwouldbeamarble.Alltheotherplanetscanfittogether

insideJupiter.

Saturn’sringsaremademostlyoutoficetravellingat75,000mph.

ThereareshepherdmoonsinsideSaturn’srings.


Mercury,Venus,EarthandMarsarerockyterrestrialplanets.JupiterandSaturnaregas

giants.UranusandNeptuneareicegiants.Pluto,Ceres,Haumea,Makemake,andErisaredwarf

planets.

Titanhasanatmospheremademostlyofnitrogen.

WethinkSaturn’smoon,Iapetus,usedtohavearingaroundit.

Saturn’smoonMimasiswhereStarWarsgottheideafortheDeathStar.


UranusistheonlyplanetthatrollsaroundtheSun,tippedoveronitsside.

PhobosisslowlymovinginwardtowardMars,andwhenthetidalforcesinsidethismoonbecomestronger,theywilleithershatterthemoonintoameteorshowerorcausethebitsto

formaringaroundMars.

TheaveragedailywindspeedonNeptuneis1200mph.Neptuneradiates2.6timesasmuch

energyoutasitreceivesfromtheSun.

Neptune’sbluecolorisfromthemethanegas,butit’salsomadeupofhydrogenandhelium.Sinceit’sthefurthestplanetfromtheSun(30au,or4.5billionkm,or2billionmiles),it’salsothecoldest.

NotethatthefivedwarfplanetsarecolderobjectsthanNeptune,sincetheyarefurtherstill.

PlutoandCharonorbiteachother,andarealsoorbitedbyHydraandNix.


70%oftheEarthiscoveredbywater.2%ofthisislockedinice.

TheSunis1au(astronomicalunit)fromtheEarth.1auis93millionmiles.Ittakeslightabout

8minutestotravelthisdistance.

Venusisthehottestplanetbecauseittrapstheheatinsideonceitentersthethickatmosphere.ThevolcanoesonVenusaresoactivethatthe

planetisconstantlyresurfacingitself.

Bluestarsmeasureabove10,000K(17,540oFor9,727oC)atthesurface.Redstarsareabout2500K(4,040oFor2,227oC).OurSun,awhite

star,is6,000K(10,340oFor5,727oC).

Note:K(Kelvin)istheabsolutetemperaturescaleforCelsius.

ThePistolstarreleasesasmuchenergyinonesecondasourSundoesinoneyear.


12peoplehavewalkedontheMoon.Approximately7billionpeoplewalkontheEarth

today.

Jupiter’sgiantstorm,theGreatRedSpot,isactuallygettingsmaller.Thecurrentsizeisabout

twoEarthdiameters.


FirstTreasureHunt:Answerthequestionsbelowasyousearcharoundyouforcluestotheanswer.Goodluck!

1. TheshapeofourSolarSystemis_________________________.

2. Howmanyplanetsdowehaveinoursolarsystem?____________________________

3. Plutoisnowpartofthe___________________________Belt.

4. TheSunrotatesonceevery_____________________atitsequatorand___________________atthepoles.

5. ThecoretemperatureoftheSunis________________________________.

6. Aplanethasthreecriteria:itorbitsthe_____________________________________,has_________________________________

itsorbitofsmallerobjects,andislargeenoughsoitsown_______________________________makesitround.

7. Therearethreetypesofplanets:____________________________,___________________________________,and

________________________.

8. _______________________istheclosest,butnotthehottestplanet.ThesidefacingtheSungetsto

_______________________oF,andthesidefacingawayfromtheSungetsto____________________________oF.

9. Thesolarsystemincludes________________________planets,their____________________,the__________________atthe

center,andsmallerobjectssuchas________________________and____________________________.

10. TheSunismadeoutof75%___________________and25%_____________________.


11. Venusiscalledthegoddessof_______________________,becauseitlookssobrighttousfromEarth,butitreally

hasasurfacetemperatureof_______________________oF.

12. Cometsarereallydirty____________________________________________.

13. ____________________isthebrightestthinginthesky,otherthantheSunandMoon.

14. Cold_____________________iswhatgivesUranusitsblue‐greencolor.It’sclassifiedas_________________giant.

15. Onedayislongerthanayearon______________________________.Notonlythat,itrotates_____________________.

16. Earth’satmosphereismadeupof21%_______________and78%_________________.

17. TheMoonpullsonthesurfaceontheEarthandcausestidesonboththe____________and_______________.

18. Mars’smoonsarenamedafter________________________and___________________________.

19. ________________________givesMarsitsredcolor.

20. IftheEarthwasthesizeofamarble,Jupiterwouldbethesizeofa______________________________.

21. Jupitercanfit____________________________Earthsinside.

22. Ifyouaddedmoremassto_______________________________itwouldgetsmallerbecauseit’sabigballof

__________________________.


23. Jupiterismadeoutof__________________________and__________________________withametallic__________________

core.

24. ThevolcanoesonJupiter’smoon____________spewiceash_____________________mileshigh.

25. Saturnissurroundedbyringsmademostlyof__________________movingat__________________mph.

26. InsideSaturn’sringsare__________________.

27. Titanhasan________________________________mademostlyof__________________________,sothickthatifyou

strappedwingsontoyourarmsandflapped,you’dfly!

28. Scientiststhinkthat________________________usedtohavearingaroundit,anditcrasheddownontothe

surface.

29. Jupiterissolargethatallofthe________________inthesolarsystemcouldfitinsideofit.

30. _______________________looksjustliketheDeathStar.

31. Theplanet_____________________rollsaroundtheSunwhiletippedonitsside.

32. Phobosisslowlymovinginwardtoward________________andwilleithershatterorforma_________________

around__________________________.


33. OurbestguessisthattheiceonMercurywascausedby_____________________________________

34. AveragedailywindspeedonNeptuneis_____________mph.

35. Neptuneisagiantballof____________________,whichisalsoknownas_________________.

36. __________________andPlutoareapairofobjectsbecausetheybothrotatearoundapointoutsideofeach.

Thesetwoarealsoorbitedby______________and_______________.

37. SeventypercentoftheEarth'ssurfaceiscoveredby_________________________.

38. TheSunis__________________________________milesfromtheEarth,alsoknownas_______________________________.

39. Thehottestplanetis_________________________________________________becausetheheatthatcomesintotheplanet

gets________________________________________________________________________________________________.

40. Therearehowmanystarsareinoursolarsystem?___________________________________________

41. Whichcolorstarsarethehottest?____________________________________Coolest?_______________________________

42. The_____________________________staristhebiggestonewe’vefoundanditreleasesasmuchenergyinone

_________________________asourSundoesinoneyear.

43. Theplanetsandmoonsthatpeoplehavewalkedonare___________________________________________________


44. Jupiter's_____________________________isgetting_________________________.It’saboutthesizeoftwo

__________________rightnow.

45. __________________________and________________________aregasgiants,and_______________________and

_________________________areicegiants.

46. ____________________________isthecoldestplanetinoursolarsystem.

47. Thefivedwarfplanetsinoursolarsystemare:

______________________________________________________________________________________________________________

48. Ittakeslight_______________________________totravelfromtheSuntoEarth.

49. _____________________________hassomuchvolcanicactivitythatitconstantlyresurfacesitself.

50. WhatkindoficeisonMars?_____________________________and_______________________________________.

STOP!!!You’redonewiththefirstactivity!

Greatjobansweringthequestions!Stapleyourpaperstogether(orputyournameatthetopofeachpageattheveryleast)andturnitinsoyoucanstartonthesecondactivity.

Forthesecondtreasurehunt,selectoneofthefollowingthreepages.Eachpagehasasetofcluesdependingonwhereyoudoyourhunt.Youonlyneedtocompleteoneofthethreehunts.Remember,forthisnextpart,youMUSTfindthecluesinorder,meaningthatyouhavetofindtheobjecttheclueisdescribingoritdoesn’tcount.Havefun!


CluesforthePlaygroundHunt:Cuttheseoutandtapethemaroundtheplayground.Youcanaddapictureofeachobjectalongwiththeclueifyouwish.Makesureyou’vewarnedthekidsnottotaketheclues,butjustLOOKatthem.Inadditiontoaplayground,you’llneedtotossasoccerballandfootballonyourfieldfarapartfromeachother.Asyouplaceeachclueinitsproperspot,ripoffthetabontheleftwiththeinstructionsthatwerejustforyou.Makesureyou’vegotthetreasurewithyouwhenthekidscometearingbacktoyouwiththefinalclue.Havefun!

The Sun (CLUE #1): Show this clue to get started.

This object is hot, but not on fire. Explore the swings but don’t perspire!

Mercury (CLUE #2): Tape this clue under one of the

swings.

This planet is closest, but not the hottest. Check the football, and don’t be modest!

Venus (CLUE #3): Tape this clue to a football.

This planet is so hot it can melt a cannonball, Crush spaceships, rain acid, and is in a tree tall.

Earth (CLUE #4): Tape this clue in a tree (or plant).

Most of this planet is covered with water. Find some water that never gets hotter.

Mars (CLUE #5): Tape this clue near the drinking

fountain.

This planet is basically a rusty burp. Discover the slide and take a ride.

Jupiter (CLUE #6): Tape this clue at the top of a

slide.

A planet so large it can hold the rest, Explore the bars with infinite zest!

Saturn (CLUE #7): Tape this clue on the monkey

bars.

This planet had rings, but not made of gold. Explore near a door like an astronaut bold!

Uranus (CLUE #8): Tape this clue on the exterior of a

nearby door.

Smacked so hard it now rolls on its side, Find the window that is ever so wide.

Neptune (CLUE #9): Tape this clue on the exterior of a

window.

Check the soccer ball for hurricane, gigantic blue farts, and diamond rain.

Pluto (CLUE #10): Tape this clue on a soccer ball.

Instead of one there were two, then four… Visit your teacher for the one that is no more.


CluesfortheClassroomHunt:Cuttheseoutandhidetheminenvelopesaroundyourclassroom.Youcanaddapictureofeachobjectalongwiththeclueifyouwish.Thisisgreatforrainyschooldays.Remindthekidsthattheyhavetofindtherightclueandgoinorder!Youcannumberthemifyouwantto,orhavetheirlabpartnersholdthemaccountable.Alsoremindthemnottotaketheclues,butlookatthemandmoveon.Whenyouplacetheclueinitsproperspot,ripoffthetabontheleftwiththeinstructionsthatwerejustforyou.Placethetreasureunderyourdeskforthefinalclue.Havefun!


This object is hot, but not on fire. Explore the coats but don’t perspire!

Mercury (CLUE #2): Tape this clue with the coats.

This planet is closest, but not the hottest. Check the floor, and don’t be modest!

Venus (CLUE #3): Tape this clue in a corner on the

floor.

This planet is so hot it can melt a cannonball, Crush spaceships, rain acid, and is on an object tall.

Earth (CLUE #4): Tape this clue on something very tall.

Most of this planet is covered with water. Find some water but don’t make it hotter.

Mars (CLUE #5): Tape this clue to your sink or a water

bottle left out on the counter.

This planet is basically a rusty burp. Where would you take a bite and slurp?

Jupiter (CLUE #6): Tape this clue next to where they store lunches. You can also stick it right on a lunchbox.

A planet so large it can hold the rest, Explore our library with infinite zest!

Saturn (CLUE #7): Hide this clue with a stack of

books.

This planet had rings, but not made of gold. Explore the door like an astronaut bold!

Uranus (CLUE #8): Tape this clue on the classroom

door.


Neptune (CLUE #9): Tape this clue on a window.

Check the ceiling for hurricane, gigantic blue farts, and diamond rain.

Pluto (CLUE #10): Tape this clue on the ceiling.

Instead of one there were two, then four… Look under a desk for the one that is no more.


CluesfortheHouseholdHunt:Cuttheseoutandhidetheminenvelopesaroundyourhouse.Youcanaddapictureofeachobjectalongwiththeclueifyouwish.Thisisgreatforhomeworkassignments,homeschoolstudents,andhomestudyprograms.Remindthekidsthattheyhavetofindtherightclueandgoinorder!Whenyouplacetheclueinitsproperspot,ripofthetabontheleftwiththeinstructionsthatwerejustforyou.Placethetreasureinthemailboxforthefinalclue.Havefun!


This object is hot, but not on fire. Explore the dryer but don’t perspire!

Mercury (CLUE #2): Hide this in the dryer.

This planet is closest, but not the hottest. Check the sock drawer, and don’t be modest!

Venus (CLUE #3): Hide this in the sock drawer.

This planet is so hot it can melt a cannonball, Crush spaceships, rain acid, and is in a tree tall.

Earth (CLUE #4): Hide this clue in a tree (or plant).

Most of this planet is covered with water. Visit the bathtub without making it hotter.

Mars (CLUE #5): Hide this clue in the bathtub.

This planet is basically a rusty burp. Discover the refrigerator and take a slurp.

Jupiter (CLUE #6): Hide this clue next to the milk.

A planet so large it can hold the rest, Explore our library with infinite zest!

Saturn (CLUE #7): Hide this clue with a stack of

books.

This planet had rings, but not made of gold. Explore near the front door like an astronaut bold!

Uranus (CLUE #8): Hide this clue on the front door.


Neptune (CLUE #9): Hide this clue by sticking it on a

window.

Check the sink for hurricane, gigantic blue farts, and diamond rain.

Pluto (CLUE #10): Hide this clue in the sink.

Instead of one there were two, then four… Visit the mailbox for the one that is no more.


Reading

Oursolarsystemincludesrockyterrestrialplanets(Mercury,Venus,Earth,andMars),gasgiants(JupiterandSaturn),icegiants(UranusandNeptune),andassortedchunksoficeanddustthatmakeupvariouscometsandasteroids.

Twoplanets(CeresandPluto)havebeenreclassifiedafterastronomersfoundoutmoreinformationabouttheirneighbors.CeresisnowanasteroidintheAsteroidBeltbetweenMarsandJupiter.BeyondNeptune,theKuiperBeltholdsthechunksoficeanddust,likecometsandasteroidsaswellaslargerobjectslikedwarfplanetsErisandPluto.

BeyondtheKuiperbeltisanareacalledtheOortCloud,whichholdsanestimated1trillioncomets.TheOortCloudissofarawaythatit’sonlylooselyheldinorbitbyourSun,andconstantlybeingpulledgravitationallybypassingstarsandtheMilkyWayitself.TheVoyagerSpacecraftarebeyondtheheliosphere(theregioninfluencedgravitationallybyourSun)buthavenotreachedtheOortCloud.

TheSunholds99%ofthemassofoursolarsystem.TheSun’sequatortakesabout25daystorotatearoundonce,butthepolestake34days.YoumayhaveheardthattheSunisahugeballofburninggas.ButtheSunisnotonfire,likeacandle.Youcan’tblowitoutorreigniteit.So,wheredoestheenergycomefrom?

Thenuclearreactionsdeepinthecoretransform600milliontonspersecondofhydrogenintohelium.Thisgivesoffhugeamountsofenergywhichgraduallyworksitswayfromthe15million‐degreeCelsiustemperaturecoretothe15,000‐degreeCelsiussurface.

Starsliketolivetogetherinfamilies.Galaxiesaregroupsofstarsthatarepulledandheldtogetherbygravity.Somegalaxiesaresparsewhileothersarepackedsodenselyyoucan’tseethroughthem.Galaxiesalsoliketohangoutwithothergalaxies(calledgalaxyclusters),butnotallgalaxiesbelongtoclusters,andnotallstarsbelongtoagalaxy.

Activegalaxieshaveveryunusualbehavior.Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofactivegalaxies,includingradiogalaxies(edge‐onviewofgalaxiesemittingjets),quasars(3/4viewofthegalaxyemittingjets),blazars(alignedsowe’relookingstraightdownintotheblackholejet),andothers.Ourowngalaxy,theMilkyWay,hasasuper‐massiveblackholeatitscenter,whichiscurrentlyquietanddormant.

Dyingstarsblowoffshellsofheatedgasthatglowinbeautifulpatterns.WilliamHershel(1795)coinedtheterm“planetarynebula”becausetheoneshelookedatthrough18thcenturytelescopeslookedlikeplanets.Theyactuallyhavenothingtodowithplanets–theyareshellsofdustfeatheringaway.


Lesson#3:MagneticTornadoesOverview:ThislabisaphysicalmodelofwhathappensonMercurywhentwomagneticfieldscollideandformmagnetictornadoes.

WhattoLearn:You’llgettoinvestigatewhataninvisiblemagnetictornadolookslikewhenitsweepsacrossMercury.

Materials

Twoclearplasticbottles(2litersodabottlesworkbest) Steelwasherwitha3/8inchhole Rulerandstopwatch Glitterorconfetti(optional) Ducttape(optional)

Experiment

1. Determinethedifferentwaterconditions,suchas:changingthetemperature,changingthevolume(heightofwater),addinganothermoleculesuchasoil,isopropylalcohol,vinegar,anddishsoap,addingsolidpiecessuchasglitter,salt,sugar,orsmallgrains.Thedifferentmixtureswillgivedifferentvortexrotationspeedsanddifferentdraintimes.ThisisequivalenttochangingtheatmosphereonEarthandseeinghowitaffectsweather(notmagnetic)tornadoes.Writetheconditionsyouwishtotestinthedatatablebeforeyoustart.

2. Filloneofthesodabottleswithwaterusingthedatatable.Setthebottleuprightonthetable.3. Setthewasherontopofthebottleopening.Makesurethere’snocaponthebottle.4. Inverttheemptybottleoverthewater‐filledbottleandlineuptheopeningssotheycanbeeasilytaped

together.Youwanttotapethembeforetheygetwetwiththewasherbetweenthem.5. Placethetwobottlesonatableandwatchthewaterdripfromthetoptothelowerbottleasairbubbles

movefrombottomtotop.6. Invertsothewaterisinthetopbottleandcircleitacoupleoftimestostartawhirlpoolinthebottle.You

shouldseeavortexforminsideasthetopdrainsintothelowerbottle.Theholeinthevortexletstheairfromthelowerbottlefloweasilyintotheupperbottle,sotheupperdrainseasily.

7. Whenyou’vefinished,emptyyourbottleandaddadifferentsolutionandrepeattheexperiment.Filloutthedatatable.


MagneticTornadoesDataTable

Note:Waterheightismeasuredwhenallthewaterisinthelowercontainer.

WaterCondition HeightoftheWater HowLongDidItTaketoDraintoLowerBottle?

(measureinseconds)


Reading

Mercurylookspeacefulatfirstglance.However,whenyoumeasurethesurfacewithscientificinstruments,you’llseehowtheSunblastsawayanyhopeMercuryhasofathinatmospherewithitsradiationandsolarwind.Notonlythat,Mercuryisravagedbyinvisiblemagnetictornadoesthatstartfromtheplanet’sinteriormagneticfield.Ifyou’veeverexperiencedatornado,youknowhowterrifyingtheycanbe.Nowimaginetheyarethediameterofyourentireplanet.

ThesetornadoesaredifferentfromtheEarth’s,whichformwhentwoweathersystemssmackintoeachother,creatinginstabilityintheatmosphere.ThemagnetictornadoesonMercuryformwhentwomagneticfieldscollide.Thesemonstrouscyclonesformwithoutwarninganddisappearwithinminutes.

Magneticfields,liketheEarth’s,areinvisibleshieldsthatconstantlyprotectusfromtheSun.OurEarthisconstantlybeingbombardedwithhighenergyparticlesthataredeflectedoffthemagnetosphereofourplanet.Mercury’smagneticfieldisweakandit’sconstantlybeingblastedbysolarwind,whichalsocarriesamagneticfield.Whenthesetwofieldscollide,themagneticfieldsspiralandtwisttoformamagnetictornado.(SolarwindisastreamofhighenergyparticlesfromtheSun’souteratmosphere.)

QuestionstoAnswer

1. Defineanatmosphere.

2. Whatisamagneticfield?

3. Wheredomagneticfieldscomefrominplanets?

4. Whichplanetsdonothaveamagneticfield?


Lesson#4:SkyinaJarOverview:Haveyoueverwonderedwhytheskyisblue?Orwhythesunsetisred?Orwhatcoloroursunsetwouldbeifwehadabluegiantinsteadofawhitestar?Thislabwillanswerthosequestionsbyshowinghowlightisscatteredbytheatmosphere.

WhattoLearn:Particlesintheatmospheredeterminethecoloroftheplanetandthecolorsweseeonitssurface.Thecolorofthestaralsoaffectsthecolorofthesunsetandoftheplanet.

Materials

Glassjar Flashlight Fingernailpolish(red,yellow,green,blue) Cleartape Water Darkroom Fewdropsofmilk

Experiment

1. Makeyourroomasdarkaspossibleforthisexperimenttowork.2. Makesureyourlabelisremovedfromtheglassjaroryouwon’tbeabletoseewhat’sgoingon.3. Filltheclearglassjarwithwater.4. Addateaspoonortwoofmilk(orcornstarch)andswirl.5. Shinetheflashlightdownfromthetopandlookfromtheside–thewatershouldhaveabluishhue.The

smallmilkdropletsscatterthelightthesamewayouratmosphere’sdustparticlesscattersunlight.6. Tryshiningthelightupfromthebase–wheredoyouneedtolookinordertoseeafaintred/pinktint?If

not,it’sbecauseyouarelookingforhuesthatmatchourrealatmosphere,andthejarjustisn’tthatbig,norisyourflashlightstrongenough!Instead,lookforaveryslightcolorshift.Ifyoudothisexperimentafterbeinginthedarkforabout10minutes(lettingyoureyesadjusttothelackoflight),itiseasiertoseethesubtlecolorchanges.Justbecarefulthatyoudon’tletthebrilliantflashlightruinyournewlyacquirednightvision,oryou’llhavetostartthe10minutesalloveragain.

7. Ifyouarestillhavingtroubleseeingthecolorchanges,shineyourlightthroughthejarandontoanindexcardontheotherside.Youshouldseeslightcolorchangesonthewhitecard.

8. Covertheflashlightlenswithcleartape.9. Paintonthetape(notthelens)thefingernailpolishyouneedtocompletethetable.10. Repeatsteps7‐9andrecordyourdata.


SkyinaJarDataTable

FlashlightColor Location Color(s)

White Sideofjar

White BottomofJar

Red Sideofjar

Red BottomofJar

Yellow Sideofjar

Yellow BottomofJar

Green Sideofjar

Green BottomofJar

Blue Sideofjar

Blue BottomofJar

Reading

Whyisthesunsetred?Thecolorsyouseeintheskydependonhowlightbouncesaround.Thered/orangecolorsofsunsetandsunrisehappenbecauseofthelowangletheSunmakeswiththeatmosphere,skippingthelightoffdustanddirt(nottomentionsolidaerosols,soot,andsmog).Sunsetsareusuallymorespectacularthansunrises,asmore“stuff”floatsaroundattheendoftheday(therearelessparticlespresentinthemornings).Sometimesjustaftersunset,agreenflashcanbeseenejectingfromthesettingSun.

TheEarthappearsbluetotheastronautsinspacebecausetheshorter,fasterwavelengthsarereflectedofftheupperatmosphere.Thesunsetsappearredbecausetheslower,longerwavelengthsbounceofftheclouds.

Sunsetsonotherplanetsaredifferentbecausetheyarefarther(orcloser)totheSun,andalsobecausetheyhaveadifferentatmospherethanplanetEarth.TheimageshownhereisasunsetonMars.UranusandNeptuneappearbluebecausethemethaneintheupperatmospherereflectstheSun’slightandthemethaneabsorbstheredlight,allowingbluetobouncebackout.


QuestionstoAnswer

1. Whatcolorsdoesthesunsetgothrough?

2. Doesthecolorofthelightsourcematter?


Lesson#5:PlanetaryMagneticFieldsOverview:You’regoingtouseacompasstofigureoutthemagneticlinesofforcefromamagnetbymappingthetwodifferentpolesandhowthelinesofforceconnectthetwo.Amagneticfieldmustcomefromanorthpoleofamagnetandgotoasouthpoleofamagnet(oratomsthathaveturnedtothemagneticfield.)

WhattoLearn:Compassesareinfluencedbymagneticlinesofforce.Theselinesarenotnecessarilystraight.Whentheybend,thecompassneedlemoves.TheEarthhasahugemagneticfield.TheEarthhasaweakmagneticforce.ThemagneticfieldcomesfromthemovingelectronsinthecurrentsoftheEarth’smoltencore.TheEarthhasanorthandasouthmagneticpolewhichisdifferentfromthegeographicNorthandSouthPole.

Materials

Barmagnet Horseshoemagnet Circular(disk)magnet Compass String Ruler

Experiment

1. Tieastringaroundyourmagnet.2. Bringitclosetothecompass.3. Whichendisthenorthendofyourmagnet?Labelitwithapencilrightonthemagnet.4. Flipthemagnetaroundbytwistingthestringsothatthecompassflipstotheoppositepole.Labelthe

oppositesiteofthemagnetwiththeappropriateletter(NorS).5. Bringasecondmagnetclosetothefirstone.Whathappenswhenyoubringtwooppositepolestogether?

Whatifthepolesarethesame?

Nowuntieorcutthestringforthenextpartofyourlab.

6. Layapieceofpaperonyourdesk.7. Placethemagnetinthemiddleofthepaperandtracetheoutline.8. Draw12dots(justlikeonaclock)allthewayaroundthemagnet.Thesearethelocationswhereyouwill

placeyourcompass,somakesurethattheyarecloseenoughtothemagnetsothemagnetinfluencesthecompass.

9. Placeyourcompassononeofthedotsandlookatthedirectionthearrowispointing.Removethecompassanddrawthatexactarrowdirectionrightoveryourdot.Dothisforall12dots.

10. Drawanotherringofdotsaninchortwooutfromthefirstringandrepeatstep9.11. Repeatsteps6‐10withacircularmagnetonanewsheetofpaper.12. Repeatsteps6‐10forthehorseshoemagnetonanothersheetofpaper.


Reading

Rightunderyourfeet,there’samagnet.Goaheadtakealook.Liftupyourfeetandseewhat’sunderthere.Doyouseeit?It’shuge!Infact,it’sthelargestmagnetontheEarth.Asamatteroffact,itistheEarth!That’sright;theEarthisonehuge,gigantic,monolithicmagnet!We’regoingtouseamagnettosubstitutefortheEarthandplotoutthemagneticfieldlines.

ThemagneticpolewhichwasattractedtotheEarth’sNorthPolewaslabeledastheBorealor“north‐seekingpole”inthe1200s,whichwaslatershortenedto“northpole.”Toaddtotheconfusion,geologistscallthispoletheNorthMagneticPole.

QuestionstoAnswer

1. Howarethelinesofforcedifferentforthetwomagnets?

2. Howfarout(ininchesmeasuredfromthemagnet)doesthemagnetaffectthecompass?

3. Whatmakesthecompassmovearound?

4. Doyouthinkthecompass’snorth‐southindicatorisflipped,ortheEarth’sNorthPolewheretheSouthPoleis?Howdoyouknow?


Lesson#6:SeasonsOverview:OnecommonmisconceptionisthattheseasonsarecausedbyhowclosetheEarthistotheSun.Todayyougettodoanexperimentthatshowshowseasonsareaffectedbyaxistilt,notbydistancefromtheSun.Andyoualsofindoutwhichplanetdoesn’thavesunlightfor42years.

WhattoLearnTheseasonsarecausedbytheEarth’saxistiltof23.4ofromtheeclipticplane.

Materials

Brightlightsource(notfluorescent) Balloon Protractor Maskingtape 2liquidcrystalthermometers Ruler,yardstickormeterstick Marker

Experiment

1. Foralightsource,trylampswith100Wbulbs(withoutlampshades).Makesurethere’sroomtowalkallthewayaroundit.You’llwanttocirclethelampatadistanceofabout2feetaway.

2. Markonthefloorwithtapeandlabelthefourpositions:winter,spring,summer,andfall.Theyshouldbeatthe12,3,6,and9o’clockpositions.Winterisdirectlyacrossfromsummer.TheEarthrotatescounterclockwisearoundtheSunwhenviewedfromabove.

3. Blowupyourballoonsoit’sroughlyround‐shaped(don’tblowitupalltheway).Markandlabelthenorthandsouthpoleswithyourmarker.Drawanequatoraroundthemiddlecircumference.

4. TheEarthdoesn’tpointitsnorthpolestraightupasitgoesaroundtheSun.It’stiltedover23.4o.here’showyoufindthispointonyourballoon:

a. PuttheSouthPolemarkonthetable,withnorthpointingstraightup.FindthemidwaypointbetweentheequatorandtheNorthPoleandmakeatinymark.Thisisthe45olatitudepoint.You’llneedthistofindthe23omark.

b. Findthemidwaypointbetweenthe45omarkandtheNorthPoleandmakeanothermark,largerthistimeandlabelitwith23o.Whenthismarkispointingup,theEarthistiltedovertherightamount.

c. You’llneedtodothisthreemoretimessoyoucandrawalineconnectingthedots.Youwanttodrawthelatitudelineat23osoyoucanrotatetheballoonasyoumovearoundtothedifferentseasons.Thelinewillalwaysbepointedup.

5. Placethethermometersontheballoonattheselocations:a. FindthehalfwaypointbetweentheSouthPoleandtheequator.Putonethermometeronthismark.b. Puttheotherthermometeronthenorthernhemisphere’s45omarkfromabove.

6. Makesureyourlampisfacingtheballoonasyoustandonsummer.Lettheballoonbeheatedbythelampforacoupleofminutesandthenrecordthetemperatureinthedatatable.

7. Rotatethelamptopointtofall.Moveyourballoontofall,rotatingtheballoonsothatthethermometersarefacingthelamp.Waitafewmoreminutesandtakeanotherreading.


8. Rotatethelamptopointtowinter.Moveyourballoontowinter,rotatingtheballoonsothatthethermometersarefacingthelamp.Waitafewmoreminutesandtakeanotherreading.

9. Rotatethelamptopointtospring.Moveyourballoontospring,rotatingtheballoonsothatthethermometersarefacingthelamp.Waitafewmoreminutesandtakeanotherreading.You’vecompletedadatasetforplanetswithanaxistiltofabout23o,whichincludestheEarth,Mars,SaturnandNeptune.

10. Repeatsteps1‐9forMercury.NotethatMercurydoesnothaveanaxistilt,sotheNorthPolereallypointsstraightup.Jupiter(3.1oaxistilt)andVenus(2.7o)areverysimilar.TheMoon’saxistiltis6.7o,soyoucanapproximatethesefourobjectswitha0oaxistilt.

11. Repeatsteps1‐9forUranus.Sincetheaxistiltis97.8o,youcanapproximatethisbypointingthenorthpolestraightattheSunduringsummer(90oaxistilt).TheorbitforUranusis84years,whichmeans21yearspassesbetweeneachseason.Thenorthpolewillexperiencecontinuedsunlightfor42yearsfromspringthroughfall,thendarknessfor42years.


SeasonsDataTable

Don’tforgettocircleorlabelyourunits!NotethatUranus’saxistiltisapproximatedby90oandVenus,Jupiter,andMercury’saxistiltareapproximatedby0o

AxisTilt Season NorthernHemisphereTemperature(oC/oF)

SouthernHemisphereTemperature(oC/oF)

23o Summer

23o Fall

23o Winter

23o Spring

0o Summer

0o Fall

0o Winter

0o Spring

90o Summer

90o Fall

90o Winter

90o Spring

Reading

TheNorthandSouthPolesonlyexperiencetwoseasons:winterandsummer.DuringaSouthPolewinter,theSunwillnotriseforseveralmonths,andalsotheSundoesnotsetforseveralmonthsinthesummer.Wegointomoredetailabouthowthisworksinalaterlessonentitled:StarTrailsandPlanetPatterns.

Attheequator,there’sawetseasonandadryseasonduetothetropicalrainbelt.SincetheequatorisalwaysorientedatthesamepositiontotheSun,itreceivesthesameamountofsunlightandalwaysfeelslikesummer.

ThechangingoftheseasonsiscausedbytheangleoftheSun.Forexample,inJuneduringsummersolstice,theSunishighintheskyforlongerperiodsoftime,whichmakeswarmertemperaturesfortheNorthernHemisphere.DuringtheDecemberwintersolstice,theSunspendslesstimeintheskyandispositionedmuchlower.Thismakes


thewinterscolder.(Don’tforgetthatseasonsarealsoaffectedbyoceansandwinds,thoughthisisoutofthescopeofthisparticularactivity.)

QuestionstoAnswer

1. WhatisthemainreasonwehaveseasonsonEarth?

2. WhyaretherenosunsetsonUranusfordecades?

3. ArethereseasonsonVenus?


Lesson#7:IndoorRainCloudsOverview:Todayyougettovaporizeliquidoceansofmoleculesandmakeitrainwhentherisingclouddeckshitthecoldnessofspace.Soundlikefun?

WhattoLearn:Themovementofatmospheresondifferentplanetsisaffectedbythetemperatureoftheplanetandthemoleculesintheatmosphere.

Materials

Glassoficewater Glassofhotwater Towel Ruler

Experiment

1. Pleasebecarefulwiththislab!Thehotwatercanburnyou!2. Taketwoclearglassesthatfitsnuglytogetherwhenstacked.(Cylindricalglasseswithstraightsideswork

well.)3. Filloneglasshalf‐fullwithicewaterandtheotherhalf‐fullwithveryhotwater(definitelyanadultjob–

andtakecarenottoshattertheglasswiththehotwater!).Besuretoleaveenoughairspaceforthecloudstoforminthehotglass.

4. Placethecoldglassdirectlyontopofthehotglassandwaitseveralminutes.Ifthesealholdsbetweentheglasses,araincloudwillformjustbelowthebottomofthecoldglass,anditactuallyrainsinsidetheglass!(Youcanuseadamptowelaroundtherimtohelpmakeabetterseal,ifneeded.)

5. Completethedatatable.Measurethewaterheightcarefullywithyourruler.Ifyouhave2”ofwaterinthehotwaterglass,thenwrite2”.Pleasebecarefulwhenmeasuringhotwater!


IndoorRainCloudsDataTable

HotWaterHeight IceWaterHeight Howwelldiditrain?

Reading

Thisexperimentdemonstratesstatechangesofmatter.Whenhotvaporrises(likefromthehotcoreofagaseousplanet)andhitsacoldfront(likethecoldnessofouterspaceintheupperatmosphere),thevaporcondensesintoliquiddropsandrains,orcanevenfreezesolidintoicechunks.NeptuneandUranusbothhavemethaneiceintheirupperatmospheres.BothJupiterandSaturnhaveupperclouddecksofwatervaporandcloudsofammonia.Thewatervaporcloudsarerightatthefreezingtemperatureofwater.

QuestionstoAnswer

1. Whichcombinationmadeitrainthebest?Whydidthiswork?

2. Drawyourexperimentaldiagram,labelingthedifferentcomponents:

3. Addinlabelsforthedifferentphasesofmatter.Canyouidentifyallthreestatesofmatterinyourexperiment?


Lesson#8:VolcanoesOverview:Marshassomeofthebiggestcanyonsandthehighestvolcanoesinthesolarsystem.VallesMarinerismeasures2,800feetwideand4milesdeep.That’s40timesthesizeoftheGrandCanyon.AndOlympusMonsis15½mileshigh,nearlythreetimesthesizeofMountEverest.Sohowdoesthishappen?That’swhatthislabwillhelpyoufigureout.

WhattoLearn:ThereactionyouaremakingtodayissimilartotheactionMarssawwithitsshieldvolcanoes.Thegasproducediscarbondioxide.Thebubblesthatgettrappedinsidemakepockets,andthedishsoaphelpsthemstayasbubbleslongenoughforyoutocatchtheminaction.

Experiment

1. Dothislaboutdoors,becauseofthemessitmakesthatseemstofloweverywhere.Findanice‐weatherdayanddothisoutside.Thereareacoupleofchoiceswiththisexperiment.Yougettopickwhatthevolcanoismadeoutof(therearetwodifferentdoughrecipes),andalsowhichkindofchemicalreactionyou’dliketodemonstrate(therearetwodifferentoneshere,too).Ifyou’reinahurry,useaslabofclayforthedoughandusethefirstsetofchemicals.

2. Ifyou’dliketofilloutthedatatablefortheirexperiment(thisisquestionable,asit’sgoingtobeamessylab),thenyou’llneedmeasuringcups.

3. Thefirstthingyouwilldoismixupvolcanodough.Therearetwodifferentrecipesprovidedwiththislab:StandardVolcanoDoughisjustlikeplaydough,andEarthyVolcanoDoughlooksmoreliketherealthing.Yourteacherwillletyouknowwhichoneyouaretomake.Thenproceedtothechemicalreactionthatyourteacherhasselectedforyou.MakingtheVolcanoStandardVolcanoDough

a. Mixtogether6cupsflour,2cupssalt,½cupvegetableoil,and2cupswarmwater.b. Theresultingmixtureshouldbefirmbutsmooth.c. Standawaterorsodabottleinaroastingpanandmoldthedougharounditintoavolcanoshape.

EarthyVolcanoDough

a. Mix2½cupsflour,2½cupsdirt,1cupsand,and1½cupssalt.b. Addwaterbythecupuntilthemixturestickstogether.c. Buildthevolcanoaroundanemptywaterbottleonadisposableturkey‐styleroastingpan.d. Itwilldryintwodaysifyouhavethetime,butwhywait?Youcaneruptwhenwetifthemixtureis

stiffenough!(Andifit'snot,addmoreflouruntilitis.)ChemicalReactions:SodaVolcanoes

a. Fillthebottlemostofthewaywithwarmwaterandabitofredfoodcoloring.b. Addasplashofliquidsoapand¼cupbakingsoda.Stirgently.c. Whenready,addvinegarinasteadystreamandwatchthatlavaflow.


AirPressureSulfurVolcanoesa. Wrapthevolcanodougharoundan18”pieceofclear,flexibletubing.b. Shapethedoughintoavolcanoandplaceinadisposableroastingpan.c. Pushandpullthetubefromthebottomuntiltheotherendofthetubeisjustbelowthevolcanotip.

Ifyouclogtheendsofthetubingwithclay,justtrimawaytheclogwithscissors.d. Usingyourfingers,shapetheinsidetopofthevolcanotoresembleasmallpapercup.e. Yoursolutionneedsachambertomixandgrowinbeforeoverflowingdownthemountain.The

tubegoesatthebottomoftheclay‐cupspace.f. BesurethevolcanoisSEALEDtothecookiesheetatthebottom.Youwon’twantthesolution

runningoutofthebottomofthevolcanoinsteadofpoppingoutthetop!

MakeyourchemicalreactantsforAirPressureSulfurVolcanoes:g. Solution1:Fillonebuckethalfwaywithwarmwaterandadd1to2cupsbakingsoda.Add1cupof

liquiddishsoapandstirverygentlysoyoudon’tmaketoomanybubbles.h. Solution2:Fillasecondbuckethalfwaywithwaterandadd1cupofaluminumsulfate(alsocalled

alum.)Addredfoodcoloringandstir.i. Puttingitalltogether:CountONE(andpourinSolution1)…TWO(inhaleaironly!)……andTHREE

(pourinSolution2asyouputyourlipstothetubefromthebottomofthevolcanoandpuffashardasyoucan!)Lavashouldnotonlyflowbutburpandspitallovertheplace!

SodaVolcanoesDataTable

HowMuchBakingSoda? HowMuchVinegar? HowLongDidItReact?(measureinseconds)


AirPressureSulfurVolcanoesDataTable

Note:Don’tblowthroughthetubewhentakingyourdata.

HowMuchSolution1? HowMuchSolution2? HowLongDidItReact?(measureinseconds)

Reading

Haveyouevernoticedhowlotsofvolcanicrockshavebubblesinside?Thegasthatbubbledupthroughtherocksastheycooledgivesthemaporousappearance.

Whatdoyouthinkwouldhappenifthelavadoesn’tmakeitallthewayoutofthevolcano?Itcoolsandcoatstheinside,andthengetsreheatedwiththenextexplosion.Thiscanhappenoverandoveragain,makingthelavaundergosomeprettyradialchanges,molecularlyspeaking.

ThereactionthekidsaremakingtodayissimilartotheactionMarssawwithitsshieldvolcanoes.Thegasproducediscarbondioxide.Thebubblesthatgettrappedinsidemakepockets,andthedishsoaphelpsthemstayasbubbleslongenoughforyoutocatchtheminaction.

Marsisalitterboxforvolcanoes.Someofthesevolcanoesaredead,butothersaresimplydormant.NearlyallvolcanoesonMarsareshieldvolcanoes,createdbycurrentsandhotspotsbeneaththesurface(justliketheonesinHawaii).TherearesomanyvolcanoesonMarsthatscientistshavedrawnlinestocorralthemintovolcanicprovinces.Withouttectonicplates,thecurrentsunderthevolcanoescanfloweasilyandfreely.


QuestionstoAnswer

1. HowisthisactivitysimilartothevolcanoesonMars?

2. Whatgasisproducedwiththisreaction?

3. Whichplanetshavevolcanoes?


Lesson#9:StarGazingOverview:We’regoingtolearnhowtogostargazingusingplanetariumsoftware,andhowtocustomizetoyourlocationintheworldsoyouknowwhatyou’relookingatwhenyoulookupintotheskytonight!

WhattoLearn:Telescopesandbinocularsareprettyuselessunlessyouknowwheretopointthem.Iamgoingtoshowyousomestandardconstellationsandhowtofindtheminthenightsky,soyou’llneverbelostagainintheoceanofstarsoverhead.

Materials:

Planetariumsoftware(Stellariumisfreeatthislink:http://www.stellarium.org/) ORuseastarwheel(http://www.skyandtelescope.com/letsgo/familyfun/Make_a_Star_Wheel.html)

LabTime:

You’reabouttolocateseveraldifferentcelestialobjectsbyfirstfindingtheminyourplanetariumsoftware(orafterassemblingyourstarwheel.

1. Ifyouhaven’talready,customizeyourplanetariumsoftwaretoyourlocationbyenteringinyourlocationandelevation.

2. Nowadjustthetimesothatit’ssettothetimeyou’dliketostargazetonight.Whattimewillyoustargazetonight?Writeithere…Time:_________________________

3. ForfolksintheNorthernHemisphere,findtheBigDipper(orthePlough).ForSouthernHemispherefolks,findtheSouthernCross(ortheCrux,butitreallylookslikeabigkite).Theseareoneofthemostrecognizablepatterns,andeasyforbeginnerstofind.

4. ForNortherners,usetheBigDippertolocatePolaris,theNorthStar.ThetwostarsattheedgeofthedipperpointstraighttotheNorthStar.

5. ForSoutherners,usetheSouthernCrosstofindthesouthpoleofthesky(sometimescalledthe“southpolepit”sincethere’snostarthereattheexactpolepointofthesouthernsky).ThelongerbarinthecrosspointsalmostexactlytowardtheSouthPole.

6. UsingtheSearchoption,findtheplanetsthatwillbevisibletonightbytypingintheirnameintothesearchwindow.Whichoneswillbevisibleforyoutonight?PlanetName: Whereisitinthesky?(Whereshouldyoulook?)

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________


7. InStellarium,clickthe“Search”icon,thenthe“Lists”tab,andselect“Constellations”.Selecttwodifferent

constellationsyou’dliketofindtonightthatarevisibletoyou,andrecordinformationaboutthemhere:ConstellationName: PointerStars/LocationIndicators(Howwillyoufindit?):

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

8. Whenyou’reready,flipovertotheobservingdatatable,grabaflashlight,pencil,andthengooutsidetologyourobservations,justlikearealscientist!

ObservingTip:Trytoobservewhenthemoonislessthanfirstquarterphaseormorethanthreequarters(meaningthatthemoonislessthan50%illuminated).Youdon’tneedanyfancyviewingequipment,onlyyourlogsheet,andifyoucandoit,bringyourplanetariumsoftwareprogramwithyououtsidetohelpyoulocatetheobjects.Startsmall,andfindacoupleofthingsonthefirstnight.Ifyoudon’tfigureitoutthefirsttime,tryagainthenextnight.IlearnedthenorthernskybylearningonenewconstellationeverytimeIwentstargazing,andprettysoonIhadalotofthemthatIcouldidentifyeasily.

Note:Thisisn’tsomethingthat’sgoingtoworkbyosmosis.Youwillhavetogooutside,figureoutwheretolook,andfindtheobject.Figureoutwhatyou’relookingfor,andaboutwhereyoucanexpecttofindit,andpracticeandtestyourselfoverandoveruntilyoucansuccessfullyfinditeverytime.Ifyou’regettingfrustrated,it’stimetostopandhaveasipofhotcocoabeforeyoutryagain.Thisissupposedtobeafuntreasurehunt,somakeitenjoyable!

HowtoFindtheNorthStar(Polaris) HowtoFindtheSouthPole


AstronomyStarGazingObservationalLog

ObservingDate:_________________________Lat/Long:___________________________SiteElev:________________________

ObservingLocation/Site:____________________________________________________________MoonPhase:_________________

Weatherconditions:_________________________________________DimmestStarVisibleOverhead:___________________

Notes:_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Time:(UTCorLocalTime)

SketchofObjectObserved:

ObjectNameorClassification:

Notes:


Lesson#10:SongoftheSunOverview:HelioseismologyisthestudyofwaveoscillationsintheSun.Bystudyingthewaves,scientistscantellwhat’sgoingoninsidetheSun.It’sbelikestudyingearthquakestolearnwhat’sgoingoninsidetheearth.TheSunisfilledwithsound,andstudyingthesesoundwavesiscurrentlytheonlywayscientistscantellwhat’sgoingoninside,sincethelightweseefromtheSunisjustfromtheuppersurface.

WhattoLearn:Moleculesarevibratingbackandforthatfairlyhighratesofspeed,creatingwaves.Energymovesfromplacetoplacebywaves.Soundenergymovesbylongitudinalwaves(thewavesthatarelikeaslinky).Themoleculesvibratebackandforth,crashingintothemoleculesnexttothem,causingthemtovibrate,andsoonandsoforth.Allsoundscomefromvibrations.

Materials

Musicalinstruments:triangles,glassbottlesthatcanbeblownacross,metalforks,tuningforks,recorders,jawharps,harmonicas,etc.Whateveryouhavewillworkfine.

Experiment

1. Yourteacherwillpulloutabinofmusicalinstrumentsofvarioustypes.2. Assignonestudenttobethenoisemaker.Therestwilllistenwiththeireyesclosedandrecordtheir

observations.3. Everyoneshutstheireyesexceptforthenoisemaker.4. Thenoisemakerselectsaninstrumentandplaysitonce.Everyoneelselistens.5. Thenoisemakerselectsanotherinstrumentandplaysitonce.Everyonelistens.6. Thenoisemakerselectsathirdinstrumentandplaysitonce.Everyonelistens.7. Thenoisemakerselectsoneofthethreeinstrumentsandplaysitasitmoves.Forexample,ifyou’replaying

thetriangle,youcanhititandspinit.Orhititasyouarewalkingpasttheclosed‐eyelisteners.Soundchangeswhentheobjectismoving,somakethesoundtheyhearappeartobedifferentsomehow.

8. Thenoisemakerputstheinstrumentsbackandeveryoneopenstheireyesandrecordstheirdatainthetable.

9. Switchrolesandfindanewnoisemakerforthenexttrial.Repeatsteps2‐8.


SongoftheSunDataTable

Makesureyoureyesareclosedwhentheinstrumentsareplayed!Fortheinstrumentcolumnstwothroughfour,writedowna1,2,or3fortheinstrumentyouthinkanswersthequestionbest.

NOTE:Youdon’thavetoknowwhattheinstrumentwas,justwhereitwasplayedinsequence.

Thenoisemakerwillletyouknowaftereveryonehasplacedtheirguessesontheirdatatableforthetrial.

Trial#Whichmadethehighestnote?

Whichmadethelowestnote?

Whichonemoved?

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Reading

TheSunislikethebiggestmusicalinstrumentyou’veeverseen.Apianohas88keys,whichmeansyoucanplay88differentmusicalnotes.TheSunhas10million.

Toplayaguitar,youpluckoneofthesixstrings.Toplaythepiano,youhitakeyandsoundcomesout.Toplaytheflute,youblowacrossahole.Drumsrequiresmackingthingstogether.SohowdoyouplaytheSun?

Moleculesarevibratingbackandforthatfairlyhighratesofspeed,creatingwaves.Energymovesfromplacetoplacebywaves.Soundenergymovesbylongitudinalwaves(thewavesthatarelikeaslinky).Themolecules


vibratebackandforth,crashingintothemoleculesnexttothem,causingthemtovibrate,andsoonandsoforth.Allsoundscomefromvibrations.

Wavesarethewayenergymovesfromplacetoplace.Soundmovesfromamouthtoanearbywaves.Lightmovesfromalightbulbtoabookpagetoyoureyesbywaves.Wavesareeverywhere.Asyousittherereadingthis,youaresurroundedbyradiowaves,televisionwaves,cellphonewaves,lightwaves,soundwavesandmore.(Ifyouhappentobereadingthisinaboatorabathtub,you’resurroundedbywaterwavesaswell.)Therearewaveseverywhere!

Doyourememberwhereallwavescomefrom?Vibratingparticles.Wavescomefromvibratingparticlesandaremadeupofvibratingparticles.

Here’sruleonewhenitcomestowaves…thewavesmove,theparticlesdon’t.Thewavemovesfromplacetoplace.Thewavecarriestheenergyfromplacetoplace.Theparticleshowever,stayput.Hereareacoupleofexamplestokeepinmind.

Ifyou’veeverseenacrowdofpeopledothe“wave”inthestandsofasportingeventyoumayhavenoticedthatthepeopleonly“vibrated”upanddown.Theydidnotmovealongthewave.Thewave,however,movedthroughthestands.

Anotherexamplewouldbeaduckfloatingonawavylake.Theduckismovingupanddown(vibrating)justlikethewaterparticlesbutheisnotmovingwiththewaves.Thewavesmove,buttheparticlesdon’t.WhenItalktoyou,thevibratingairmoleculesthatmadethesoundinmymouthdonottravelacrosstheroomintoyourears.(WhichisespeciallyhandyifI’vejusteatenanonionsandwich!)Theenergyfrommymouthismoved,bywaves,acrosstheroom.

Convectionstartsthewavesmoving.You’veseenconvectionwhenahotpotofwaterbubblesup.Youcanevenhearitwhenitstartstoboilifyoulistencarefully.JustbelowthesurfaceoftheSun,theenergythatstarteddeepinthecorehasbubbleduptothesurfacetomakegiganticbubblesemergethatarebiggerthanthestateofAlaska.It’salsoanoisyprocess,andthesoundwavesstaytrappedbeneaththesurface,makingwavesappearonthesurfaceoftheSun.ThismakestheSun’ssurfacelooklikeit’smovingupanddown.

ScientistsusespecialcamerastowatchthesurfaceoftheSunwiggleandmove,andtheylookforpatternssotheycandeterminewhat’sgoingondowninsidetheSun.SincethesoundisinsidetheSununderthepartwecansee,weusesoundtodiscoverwhat’sinsidetheSun.

HaveyoueverheardtheSun?ThevideoisanactualrecordingofthesongoftheSun.

Ifyou’veeverbeeninsideanunfurnishedroom,you’veheardechoesindoors.Soundbouncesallaroundtheroom,justlikeitdoesinsidethesurfaceoftheSun.

Cansoundwavestravelthroughspace?No.Soundrequiresamediumtotravelthrough,sinceittravelsbyvibratingmolecules,andtherearen’tenoughmoleculesinspacetodothiswith(thereareacouplerandomonesfloatingaroundhereandthere,butwaytoofaraparttobeusefulforsoundwaves).

Ifyouhaveaslinky,takeitoutandstretchitouttoitsfulllengthonthetableortheground,askingsomeonetohelpyouholdoneend.Nowmovetheslinkyquicklytotheleftandbackagain,andwatchthewavetraveldownthelengthandreturn.Nowmoveyourendquicklyupandthenbackdownthetable,makingalongitudinalwave.Whenthiswavefinishes,takeyourendandshoveitquicklytowardyourhelper,thenpullbackagaintomakea


compressionwave.Pointouttothestudenthowwhenthewavereturns,it’sanecho.That’swhathappensinsidetheSunwhenthesoundwaveshitthesurfaceoftheSun.Theydon’tgothroughthesurface,butgettrappedbeneathitastheyechoofftheinsidesurfaceoftheSun.

QuestionstoAnswer

1. Whatdidyounoticethatisdifferentaboutthesoundsyouheard?

2. Howcanyoutellthattwosoundsaredifferentthatcamefromthesameinstrument?(Movementcausessoundwavestosounddifferent.)

3. Whatdidyounoticeaboutyourguesses?Whatkindofinstrumentswereyoumorecorrectabout?


Lesson#11:SimpleMicroscope&TelescopeOverview:Didyouknowyoucancreateacompoundmicroscopeandarefractortelescopeusingthesamematerials?It'sallinhowyouusethemtobendthelight.Thesetwoexperimentscoverthefundamentalbasicsofhowtwodouble‐convexlensescanbeusedtomakeobjectsappearlargerwhenrightupcloseorfartheraway.

WhattoLearn:Thingslikelensesandmirrorscanbendandbouncelighttomakeinterestingthings,likecompoundmicroscopesandreflectortelescopes.Telescopesmagnifytheappearanceofsomedistantobjectsinthesky,includingthemoonandtheplanets.Thenumberofstarsthatcanbeseenthroughtelescopesisdramaticallygreaterthancanbeseenbytheunaidedeye.

Materials

Awindow Dollarbill Penny Twohand‐heldmagnifyinglenses Ruler

Experiment

1. Placeapennyonthetable.2. Holdonemagnifierabovethepennyandlookthroughit.3. Bringthesecondmagnifyinglensabovethefirstsonowyou’relookingthroughboth.Movethesecondlens

closerand/orfurtherfromthepennyuntilthepennycomesintosharpfocus.You’vejustmadeacompoundmicroscope.

4. Who’sinsidethebuildingonanolderpenny?5. Tryfindingthespider/owlonthedollarbill.(Hint:It’sinacornernexttothe“1”.)6. Keepingthedistancebetweenthemagnifiersaboutthesame,slowlyliftupthemagnifiersuntilyou’renow

lookingthroughbothtoawindow.7. Adjustthedistanceuntilyourimagecomesintosharp(andupside‐down)focus.You’vejustmadea

refractortelescope,justlikeGalileoused400yearsago.8. Findeightdifferentitemstolookatthroughyourmagnifiers.Makefourofthemup‐closesoyouusethe

magnifiersasamicroscope,andfourofthemfar‐awayobjectssoyouusethemagnifierslikeatelescope.Completethedatatable.


SimpleMicroscope&TelescopeDataTable

Forthelasttwocolumns,measurewithyourrulercarefully.Don’tforgettolabelyourunits!

MagnificationUsed:______________________________________________(multiplythemagnificationofbothlensestogether)

ObjectLookedAt

DidyouusetheMagnifiersasaMicroscopeor

Telescope?

HowFarApartaretheLenses?

HowFarisyourEyefromtheEyepiece?

Reading

WhatIlikebestaboutthisactivityishoweasilywecanbreakdownthebasicideasofsomethingthatseemsmuchmorecomplexandintimidating,likeatelescopeormicroscope,inawaythatkidsreallyunderstand.

Whenabeamoflighthitsadifferentsubstance(likeawindowpaneoralens),thespeedatwhichthelighttravelschanges.(Soundwavesdothis,too!)Insomecases,thischangeturnsintoachangeinthedirectionofthebeam.


Forexample,ifyoustickapencilisaglassofwaterandlookthroughthesideoftheglass,you'llnoticethatthepencilappearsshifted.Thespeedoflightisslowerinthewater(140,000milespersecond)thanintheair(186,000milespersecond).Thisiscalledopticaldensity,andtheresultisbentlightbeamsandbrokenpencils.

You'llnoticethatthepencildoesn'talwaysappearbroken.Dependingonwhereyoureyeballsare,youcanseeanintactorbrokenpencil.Whenlightentersanewsubstance(likegoingfromairtowater)perpendiculartothesurface(lookingstraighton),refractionsdonotoccur.

However,ifyoulookattheglassatanangle,thendependingonyoursightangle,you'llseeadifferentamountofshiftinthepencil.Wheredoyouneedtolooktoseethegreatestshiftinthetwohalvesofthepencil?

Whydoesthepencilappearbent?Isitalwaysbent?Doesthetemperatureofthewateraffecthowbentthepencillooks?Whatifyouputtwopencilsinthere?

Dependingonifthelightisgoingfromalightertoanopticallydensermaterial(orviceversa),itwillbenddifferentamounts.Glassisopticallydenserthanwater,whichisdenserthanair.

Notonlycanyouchangetheshapeofobjectsbybendinglight(brokenpencilorwhole?),butyoucanalsochangethesize.Magnifyinglenses,telescopes,andmicroscopesusethisideatomakeobjectsappeardifferentsizes.

QuestionstoAnswer

1. Canlightchangespeeds?

2. CanyouseeALLlightwithyoureyes?

3. Givethreeexamplesofalightsource.

4. What'sthedifferencebetweenamicroscopeandatelescope?

5. Whyisthetelescopeimageupside‐down?


Lesson#12:StarChartingOverview:IfyouwanttogetfromNewYorktoLosAngelesbycar,you’dpulloutamap.Ifyouwanttofindthenearestgasstation,you’dpulloutasmallermap.Whatifyouwantedtofindournearestneighboroutsideoursolarsystem?Astarchartisamapofthenightsky,dividedintosmallerparts(grids)soyoudon’tgettoooverwhelmed.Astronomersusethesestarchartstolocatestars,planets,moons,comets,asteroids,clusters,groups,binarystars,blackholes,pulsars,galaxies,planetarynebulae,supernovae,quasars,andmorewildthingsintheintergalacticzoo.

WhattoLearn:Howtofindtwoconstellationsintheskytonight,andhowtogetthoseconstellationsdownonpaperwithsomedegreeofaccuracy.

Materials

Dark,cloud‐freenight Twofriends String Rocks Pencil

Experiment

1. Tapeyourstringtothepencil.2. Looselywrapthestringaroundyourfingerseveraltimessothatthetipofthepencilisaboutaninchabove

theground.3. Findaconstellation.Pointtoastarintheconstellation.4. Haveasecondpersonplacearockunderthepenciltip.5. Whenthey’veplacedtherockinposition,pointtoanotherstar.6. Haveasecondpersonplacearockunderthepenciltipagain.7. Repeatthisprocessuntilallthestarshaverocksundertheirpositions.8. Youshouldseeasmallversionoftheconstellationonyourpaper.

Reading

Peoplehavebeenchartingstarssincelongbeforepaperwasinvented.Infact,we’vefoundstarchartsonrocks,insidebuildings,andevenonivorytusks.Celestialcartographyisthescienceofmappingthestars,galaxies,andastronomicalobjectsonacelestialsphere.

Celestialnavigation(astronavigation)madeitpossibleforsailorstocrossoceansbysightingtheSun,Moon,planets,oroneofthe57pre‐selectednavigationalstarsalongwiththevisiblehorizon.

Watchthevideothatshowshowthestarsappeartomovedifferently,dependingonwhichpartoftheEarthyou’reviewingfrom.What’sthedifferencebetweenlivingontheequatororinAntarctica(explainedinvideo)?

ThefirstthingtostarchartistheBigDipper,orothereasy‐to‐findconstellation(alternates:CassiopeiafornorthernhemisphereortheSouthernCrossforthesouthernhemisphere).TheBigDipperisalwaysvisibleinthenorthernhemisphereallyearlong,sothismakesforagoodtarget.


Useglow–in‐the‐darkstarsinsteadofrocks,andchargethemwithaquickflashfromacamera(oraflashlight).Keepyourhandasstillasyoucanwhilethesecondpersonlinestherockintoposition.Youcanalsounrollalargesheetof(butcherorcraft)paperandusemarkerstocreateamorepermanentstarchart.

QuestionstoAnswer:

1. Ifyouhaveconstellationsonyourclassceiling,chartthemonaseparatepagemarkingthepositionsoftherockswithX’s.

2. Tonight,findtwoconstellationsthatyouwillchart.BringthemwithyoutomorrowusingthetechniqueoutlinedaboveinExperiment.


Astronomy1Evaluation

StudentWorksheet

Overview:Today,you’regoingtotaketwodifferenttests:thequizandthelabpractical.You’regoingtotakethewrittenquizfirst,andthelabpracticalattheendofthislab.Thelabpracticalisn’tapapertest–it’swhereyougettoshowyourteacherthatyouknowhowtodosomething.

LabTest&Homework

1. Yourteacherwillaskyoutosharehowmuchyouunderstandaboutastronomy.Sincescienceissomuchmorethanjustreadingabookorcirclingtherightanswer,thisisanimportantpartofthetesttofindoutwhatyoureallyunderstand.

2. Whileyouarewaitingtoshowhowmuchofthisstuffyoualreadyknow,yougettochoosewhichhomeworkassignmentyouwanttocomplete.Theassignmentisduetomorrow,andhalfthecreditisforcreativityandtheotherhalfisforcontent,soreallyletyourimaginationflyasyouworkthroughit.Chooseone:a. Writeashortstoryorskitaboutgravityfromtheperspectiveoftheplanetorobject(likeasunor

moon).You’llreadthisaloudtoyourclass.b. Makeaposterthatteachesoneofthemainconceptsofastronomyyouenjoyedmost.Whenyou’re

finished,you’lluseittoteachtoaclassofyoungerstudentsanddemonstratetheprinciplesthatyou’velearned.

c. Writeandperformapoemorsongaboutastronomy,telescopes,gravity,moonsoratmospheres.Thiswillbeperformedforyourclass.


Astronomy1QuizStudentQuizSheet

Name__________________________________________________________

1. Whyisn’tPlutoaplanetanymore?

2. HowmanyEarthscanfitinsidetheSun?

3. Whatarecometsmadeoutof?

4. WhatistheEarth’satmospheremadeupof?

5. HowmanyEarthsfitinsideJupiter?

6. HowfaristheEarthfromthesun?

7. Whatisanatmosphere?

8. Whatisamagneticfield?

9. Aresunsetsthesamecoloronallplanets?

10. Whatmakesacompassneedlemovearound?

11. WhydowehaveseasonsonEarth?Doallplanetshaveseasons?

12. Namethreeplanetsthathavevolcanoes(activeorextinct)?

13. Canyoudetectallkindsoflightwithyoureyes?

14. Whyisthetelescopeimageupside‐down?


Astronomy1LabPracticalStudentWorksheet

Thisisyourchancetoshowhowmuchyouhavepickeduponimportantkeyconcepts,andifthereareanyholes.Youalsowillbeworkingonahomeworkassignmentasyoudothistestindividuallywithateacher.

Materials:

Twohandheldmagnifiers Sheetofpaper BallwithatoothpickstickingoutofthetopandbottomtorepresenttheEarth’snorthandsouthpoles(or

useaglobeifyouhaveone) Strongflashlight

LabPractical:

Designandbuildanexperimentthatshowshowarefractortelescopeworks.

DemonstratewhytheEarthhasseasons.


AnswerstoExercisesandActivitiesLesson#1:PlanetariumandStarShow

1.WhathappenedtoPluto?(Plutowasreclassifiedasadwarfplanet.BeyondNeptune,theKuiperBeltholdsthechunksoficeanddust,likecometsandasteroidsaswellaslargerobjectslikedwarfplanetsErisandPluto.)

2.HowdoestheSunmakeenergy?(Thenuclearreactionsdeepinthecoretransform600milliontonspersecondofhydrogenintoheliumbysmackingprotonstogether,callednuclearfusion.)

3.Whichplanetisyourfavoriteandwhy?(Refertostudentresponses.)

4.HowmanymoonsaroundJupiterandSaturncanyouseewithbinoculars?(Foureach.)

5.What’sthedifferencebetweenagalaxyandablackhole?(Galaxiesaregroupsofstarsthatarepulledandheldtogetherbygravity.Blackholesaretheleftoverremnantsofasupernovaexplosionthatrequireanescapevelocitygreaterthanthespeedoflight.)

6.HowmanyEarthscanfitinsidetheSun?(1.3million)

Lesson#2:SolarSystemTreasureHunt

1.TheshapeofourSolarSystemiscircular.

2.Howmanyplanetsdowehaveinoursolarsystem?8

3.PlutoisnowpartoftheKuiperBelt.

4.TheSunrotatesonceevery27daysatitsequatorand31daysatthepoles.

5.ThecoretemperatureoftheSunis15milliondegreesCelsius.

6.Aplanethasthreecriteria:ItorbitstheSun,hascleareditsorbitofsmallerobjects,andislargeenoughsoitsowngravitymakesitround.

7.Therearethreetypesofplanets:rockyterrestrial,gasgiantsandicegiants.

8.Mercuryistheclosest,butnotthehottestplanet.ThesidefacingtheSungetsto800oF,andthesidefacingawayfromtheSungetsto‐280oF.

9.Thesolarsystemincludeseightplanets,theirmoons,theSunatthecenter,andsmallerobjectssuchascometsandasteroids.

10.TheSunismadeoutof75%hydrogenand25%helium.

11.VenusiscalledthegoddessoflovebecauseitlookssobrighttousfromEarth,butitreallyhasasurfacetemperatureof863oF.


12.Cometsarereallydirtysnowballs.

13.Venusisthebrightestthinginthesky,otherthantheSunandMoon.

14.ColdmethaneiswhatgivesUranusitsblue‐greencolor.It’sclassifiedasanicegiant.

15.OnedayislongerthanayearonVenus.Notonlythat,itrotatesintheoppositedirection.

16.Earth’satmosphereismadeupof21%oxygenand78%nitrogen

17.TheMoonpullsonthesurfaceontheEarthandcausestidesonboththelandandocean.

18.Mars’smoonsarenamedafterFear/PanicandFleeing/Flight.

19.Ironoxide(rust)givesMarsitsredcolor.

20.IftheEarthwasthesizeofamarble,Jupiterwouldbethesizeofasoccerball.

21.Jupitercanfit1,321Earthsinside.

22.IfyouaddedmoremasstoJupiteritwouldgetsmallerbecauseit’sabigballofgas.

23.Jupiterismadeoutofhydrogenandheliumwithametallichydrogencore.

24.ThevolcanoesonJupiter’smoonIospewitsiceash300mileshigh.

25.Saturnissurroundedbyringsmademostlyoficemovingat75,000mph.

26.InsideSaturn’sringsareshepherdmoons.

27.Titanhasanatmospheremademostlyofnitrogensothickthatifyoustrappedwingsontoyourarmsandflapped,you’dfly!

28.ScientiststhinkthatIapetususedtohavearingaroundit,anditcrasheddownontothesurface.

29.Jupiterissolargethatalloftheplanetsinthesolarsystemcouldfitinsideofit.

30.MimaslooksjustliketheDeathStar.

31.TheplanetUranusrollsaroundtheSunwhiletippedonitsside.

32.PhobosisslowlymovinginwardtowardMarsandwilleithershatterorformaringaroundMars.

33.OurbestguessisthattheiceonMercurywascausedbycomets.

34.AveragedailywindspeedonNeptuneis1,200mph.

35.Neptuneisagiantballofgas,whichisalsoknownasanicegiant.

36.CharonandPlutoareapairofobjectsbecausetheybothrotatearoundapointoutsideofeach.ThesetwoarealsoorbitedbyHydraandNix.

37.SeventypercentoftheEarth'ssurfaceiscoveredbywater.

38.TheSunis93millionmilesfromtheEarth,alsoknownas1AU.


39.ThehottestplanetisVenusbecausetheheatthatcomesintotheplanetgetstrappedinside.

40.Therearehowmanystarsareinoursolarsystem?One.TheSun.

41.Whichcolorstarsarethehottest?Blue.Coolest?Red.

42.ThePistolstaristhebiggestonewe’vefoundanditreleasesasmuchenergyinonesecondasourSundoesinoneyear.

43.TheplanetsandmoonsthatpeoplehavewalkedonareEarthandtheMoon.

44.Jupiter'sGreatRedSpotisgettingsmaller.It’saboutthesizeoftwoEarthsrightnow.

45.JupiterandSaturnaregasgiants,andUranusandNeptuneareicegiants.

46.Neptuneisthecoldestplanetinoursolarsystem.

47.Thefivedwarfplanetsinoursolarsystemare:Eris,Makemake,Haumea,Pluto,andCeres.

48.Ittakeslight8minutestotravelfromtheSuntoEarth.

49.Venushassomuchvolcanicactivitythatitconstantlyresurfacesitself.

50.WhatkindoficeisonMars?Dryiceandwaterice.

Lesson#3:MagneticTornadoes

1.Defineanatmosphere.(Anenvelopesurroundinganobjectlikeaplanetoramoonthatisheldinplacebytheobject’sgravitationalfield.)

2.Whatisamagneticfield?(Aforcefieldaroundamagnet.)

3.Wheredomagneticfieldscomefrominplanets?(Wethinktheyoriginatefromthemoltenmetalliccoreofaplanet.Whenthecorecoolsoff,themagneticfielddisappears.)

4.Whichplanetsdonothaveamagneticfield?(Venusdoesnotbecauseofitssuper‐slowrotation,andMarsdoesnothaveaplanet‐widemagneticfield,thoughitdoeshavemagnetichotspots.)

Lesson#4:SkyinaJar

1.Whatcolorsdoesthesunsetgothrough?(ThesunsetgoesthroughthecolorsoftherainbowastheSunsetslowerinthesky,startingwithyellow,thenorange,andthenredasitsets.)

2.Doesthecolorofthelightsourcematter?(Yes.Whitelightgivesthebestresults.)


Lesson#5:PlanetaryMagneticFields

1.Howarethelinesofforcedifferentforthetwomagnets?(Sincethisisgoingtodependonthekindofmagnetsyouuse,refertothedatacollected.)

2.Howfarout(ininchesmeasuredfromthemagnet)doesthemagnetaffectthecompass?(Sincethisisgoingtodependonthekindofmagnetsyouuse,refertothedatacollected.)

3.Whatmakesthecompassmovearound?(Themagneticlinesofforcethatareinvisibletoyoureye.)

4.Doyouthinkthecompass’snorth‐southindicatorisflipped,ortheEarth’sNorthPolewheretheSouthPoleis?Howdoyouknow?(It’sanarbitrarydenotation,buttheEarth’sNorthPoleisdeemedtobenorth.)

Lesson#6:Seasons

1.WhatisthemainreasonwehaveseasonsonEarth?(Becausetheaxisistilted23.4o,exposingonehemispheretomoresunlighteachdayandwarmingtheplanet.)

2.WhyaretherenosunsetsonUranusfordecades?(TheorbitforUranusis84years,whichmeans21yearspassbetweeneachseason.Thenorthpolewillexperiencecontinuedsunlightfor42yearsfromspringthroughfall,thendarknessfor42years.)

3.ArethereseasonsonVenus?(No.It’sthesametemperature(460oC)everywhereyougoontheplanetfortworeasons:firsttheaxistiltmakesalmostdifferencebetweensummerandwinter.Second,thethickatmospheretrapstheheat,whichflowsaroundtheplanet.)

Lesson#7:IndoorRainClouds

1.Whichcombinationmadeitrainthebest?Whydidthiswork?(Thegreaterthetemperaturedifference,thebetterthisexperimentwillwork.Themorewateryouhave,thelessthetemperaturewillfluctuateforeachglass,thusmakingitabletorainforlongerperiodsoftime.)

2.Drawyourexperimentaldiagramhere,labelingthedifferentcomponents:

3.Addinlabelsforthedifferentphasesofmatter.Canyouidentifyallthreestatesofmatterinyourexperiment?(Ice=solid;water=liquid,gasbetweentwoglassesiswatervapor,nitrogen,andoxygen.)

Lesson#8:Volcanoes

1.HowisthisactivitysimilartothevolcanoesonMars?(Thebubblesthatgettrappedinsidemakepockets,andthedishsoaphelpsthemstayasbubbleslongenoughforyoutocatchtheminaction).

2.Whatgasisproducedwiththisreaction?(Carbondioxide)

3.Whichplanetshavevolcanoes,activeorextinct?(Mercury,Mars,Venus,Earth,Io(moonofJupiter),Triton(moonofNeptune),Enceladus(moonofSaturn),andourveryownMoon.)


Lesson#10:SongoftheSun

1.Whatdidyounoticethatisdifferentaboutthesoundsyouheard?

2.Howcanyoutellthattwosoundsaredifferentthatcamefromthesameinstrument?(Movementcausessoundwavestosounddifferent.)

3.Whatdidyounoticeaboutyourguesses?Whatkindofinstrumentswereyoumorecorrectabout?

Lesson#11:SimpleMicroscope&Telescope

1.Canlightchangespeeds?(Yes,whenittravelsthroughdifferentmediums.)

2.CanyouseeALLlightwithyoureyes?(No,onlyvisiblelight,likearainbow.)

3.Givethreeexamplesofalightsource.(Answerwillvary,butherearemine:Sun,acandle,andaglowstick.)

4.What'sthedifferencebetweenamicroscopeandatelescope?(Amicroscopemagnifiesanimagebeforethefocalpoint;atelescopemagnifiesanimageafterthefocalpoint.Bothareusedtomakeimagesappearcloserandlarger.Amicroscopeisusedwhenobjectsarenear;atelescopeisusedforfarawayobjects.)

5.Whyisthetelescopeimageupside‐down?(Becauseyou’vefocusedtheimagebeyondthefocalpoint.)

Lesson#12:StarCharting

1.Ifyouhaveconstellationsonyourclassceiling,chartthemonaseparatepagemarkingthepositionsoftherockswithX’s.

2.Tonight,findtwoconstellationsthatyouwillchart.BringthemwithyoutomorrowusingthetechniqueoutlinedaboveinLabTime.


VocabularyfortheUnitAsteroid.ObjectinorbitaroundtheSun,intermediateinsizebetweenmeteoroidsandplanets.

Asteroidbelt.Theregionofthesolarsysteminwhichmostasteroidshavetheirorbits,betweenMarsandJupiter.

BlackholesaretheleftoversofaBIGsupernova.Whenastarexplodes,itcollapsesdownintoawhitedwarforaneutronstar.However,ifthestarislargeenough,thereisnothingtokeepitfromcollapsing,soitcontinuestocollapseforever.Itbecomessosmallanddensethatthegravitationalpullissogreatthatlightitselfcan’tescape.

Centerofmass.Meanpositionofthemassesthatcompriseasystemorlargerbody:fortwobodies,thecenterofmassisapointonthelinejoiningthem.Forabinarystarsystem,themotionofeachstarcanbecomputedaboutthecenterofmass.

Comet.Smallbodyinthesolarsystem,inorbitaroundtheSun.SomeofitsfrozenmaterialvaporizesduringthecloserpartsofitsapproachtotheSuntoproducethecharacteristictail,behindtherighthead.

Conjunction.Closestapparentapproachoftwocelestialobjects.PlanetaryconjunctionswereonceconsideredimportantomensforeventsonEarth.

Constellation.Agroupofstarsthatseemedtosuggesttheshapeofsomegod,person,animalorobject.Nowatermusedtodesignatearegionofthesky.Thereare88constellations.

Darkmatter:Matterinthecosmosthatisundetectablebecauseitdoesn’tglow.Darkmatter,someofitintheformofas‐yet‐undiscoveredexoticparticles,isthoughttocomprisemostoftheuniverse.

Eclipse.Blockingoflightfromonebodybyanotherthatpassesinfrontofit.Eclipsecanbetotalorpartial.

Eclipsepath.NarrowpathontheEarth’ssurfacetracedbytheMoon’sshadowduringaneclipse.

Eclipsingbinarystar.Binarystarwhosemutualorbitisviewedalmostedge‐onsothatlightobservedisregularlydecreasedeachtimeonestareclipsestheother.

Ecliptic.PaththattheSunappearstofollow,againstthestarsonthecelestialsphere,duringthecourseofayear.

Eclipticplane.PlanedefinedbytheEarth’sorbitaroundtheSun.

Electromagneticwave:Astructureconsistingofelectricandmagneticfieldsinwhicheachkindoffieldgeneratestheothertokeepthestructurepropagatingthroughemptyspaceatthespeedoflight.ElectromagneticwavesincluderadioandTVsignals,infraredradiation,visiblelight,ultravioletlight,X‐rays,andgammarays.

Ellipse.Typeofclosedcurvewhoseshapeisspecifiedintermsofitsdistancefromoneortwopoints.Acircleisaspecialformofellipse.Inappearance,anellipseisoval‐shaped.

Escapespeed:Thespeedneededtoescapetoinfinitelygreatdistancefromagravitatingobject.ForEarth,escapespeedfromthesurfaceisabout7milespersecond;forablackhole,escapespeedexceedsthespeedoflight.

Equinox.TwodayseachyearwhentheSunisaboveandbelowthehorizonforequallengthsoftime.


Eventhorizon:Asphericalsurfacesurroundingablackholeandmarkingthe“pointofnoreturn”fromwhichnothingcanescape.

Field:Awayofdescribinginteractingobjectsthatavoidsactionatadistance.Inthefieldview,oneobjectcreatesafieldthatpervadesspace;asecondobjectrespondstothefieldinitsimmediatevicinity.Examplesincludetheelectricfield,themagneticfield,andthegravitationalfield.

Galaxiesaregroupsofstarsthatarepulledandheldtogetherbygravity.

Globularclustersaremassivegroupsofstarsheldtogetherbygravity,usinghousingbetweentensofthousandstomillionsofstars(thinkNewYorkCity).

Gravitationallensingisonewaywecan“see”ablackhole.Whenlightleavesastar,itcontinuesinastraightlineuntilyankedonbythegravityofablackhole,whichbendsthelightandchangesitscourseandshowsupasstreaksormultiple,distortedimagesonyourphotograph.

Gravitationaltimedilation:Theslowingoftimeinregionsofintensegravity(largespacetimecurvature).

Gravitationalwaves:Literally,“ripples”inthefabricofspacetime.Theypropagateatthespeedoflightandresultintransientdistortionsinspaceandtime.

Gravity:AccordingtoNewton,anattractiveforcethatactsbetweenallmatterintheuniverse.AccordingtoEinstein,ageometricalpropertyofspacetime(spacetimecurvature)thatresultsinthestraightestpathsnotbeingEuclideanstraightlines.

Latitude.Coordinateusedtomeasure(indegrees)theangulardistanceofapointorcelestialobjectsaboveorbelowanequator.

Lightyear.Distancethatlighttravelsin1year.

Longitude.Coordinateusedtospecifythepositionofapointordirectionaround(orparallelto)anequator.

TheKuiperBeltisanicyregionthatextendsfromjustbeyondNeptune(from3.7billionmilesto7.4billionmilesfromthesun).Thisiswheremostcometsandasteroidsfromoursolarsystemhangout.

NeutronstarswithHUGEmagneticfieldsareknownasmagnetars.

Magneticfield.Regionsurroundingamagnetorelectriccurrent,inwhichmagneticforcecanbedetectedinsucharegion,high‐speedelectricallychargedparticleswillgenerallymovealongcurvedpathsandradiateenergy.

Magneticpole.OneofthetworegionsonEarthtowhichacompassneedlewillpoint.Polesalsoexistonmagnets,andthemagneticfieldsofsomeelectriccurrentscanhaveanequivalentbehavior.

Magnetoshpere.Regionsurroundingstarorplanet(includingEarth)inwhichamagneticfieldexists.

Meridian.Greatcircle,onthecelestialsphereortheEarth,thatpassesthroughbothnorthandsouthpolesandanobserver’szenithorlocation.

Meteor.Glowingtrailintheupperatmosphere,producedbymeteoroidburningupasitmovesathighspeed.


Meteorshower.NumerousmeteorsseeninshorttimespanastheEarthmovesthroughacloudofmeteoroids,probablyremnantsofacometandstillfollowingthecomet’sorbit.

Meteorite.RemnantofmeteoroidthathasbeenpartiallyerodedinpassagethroughtheEarth’satmospherebeforehittingthesurface.Termnowalsoappliedtosimilarbodiesthatcollidewiththesurfacesoftheotherplanetsandtheirsatellites,producingcraters.

Meteoroid.Largerock(butmuchsmallerthanminorplanets)movinginanorbitinthesolarsystem.MeteoroidsthatenterintheEarth’satmospherearetermedmeteorsormeteorites,dependingontheirbehavior.

Neutronstarsareformedfromstarsthatgosupernova,butaren’tbigandfatenoughtoturnintoablackhole.

TheOortCloudliesjustbeyondtheKuiperbelt,housinganestimated1trillioncomets.

Orbit.Pathtracedoutbyoneobjectaroundanother.

Thevisiblesurfaceofthesuniscalledthephotosphere,andismademostlyofplasma(remembertheplasmagrapeexperiment?)thatbubblesuphotandcoldregionsofgas.

Dyingstarsblowoffshellsofheatedgasthatglowinbeautifulpatternscalledplanetarynebula.

Pulsarsareatypeofneutronstarthatspinsveryfast,spewsjetsofhigh‐energyx‐rayparticlesoutthepoles,andhaslargemagneticfields.

Oursolarsystemincludesrockyterrestrialplanets(Mercury,Venus,Earth,andMars),gasgiants(JupiterandSaturn),icegiants(UranusandNeptune),andassortedchunksoficeanddustthatmakeupvariouscomets(dustysnowballs)andasteroids(chunksofrock).

Spacetime:Thefour‐dimensionalcontinuuminwhichtheeventsoftheuniversetakeplace.Accordingtorelativity,spacetimebreaksdownintospaceandtimeindifferentwaysfordifferentobservers.

Spacetimecurvature:ThegeometricalpropertyofspacetimethatcausesitsgeometrytodifferfromordinaryEuclideangeometry.Thecurvatureiscausedbythepresenceofmassiveobjects,andotherobjectsnaturallyfollowthestraightestpossiblepathsincurvedspacetime.Thisistheessenceofgeneralrelativity’sdescriptionofgravity.

Spacetimeinterval:Afour‐dimensional“distance”inspacetime.Unlikeintervalsoftimeordistance,whicharedifferentforobserversinrelativemotion,thespacetimeintervalbetweentwoeventshasthesamevalueforallobservers.

Specialtheoryofrelativity:Einstein’sstatementthatthelawsofphysicsarethesameforallobserversinuniformmotion.

strro onoom my...astronomy is also one of the oldest sciences on the planet. we’re going to be...

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