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Studies in Continuing Education

ISSN: 0158-037X (Print) 1470-126X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/csce20

Stressors in early-stage doctoral students

Jon Cornwall, Elizabeth C. Mayland, Jacques van der Meer, Rachel A.Spronken-Smith, Charles Tustin & Phil Blyth

To cite this article: Jon Cornwall, Elizabeth C. Mayland, Jacques van der Meer, Rachel A.Spronken-Smith, Charles Tustin & Phil Blyth (2019) Stressors in early-stage doctoral students,Studies in Continuing Education, 41:3, 363-380, DOI: 10.1080/0158037X.2018.1534821

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2018.1534821

Published online: 25 Oct 2018.

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Stressors in early-stage doctoral students*Jon Cornwalla, Elizabeth C. Maylandb, Jacques van der Meer c,Rachel A. Spronken-Smithb, Charles Tustind and Phil Blythe

aCentre for Early Learning in Medicine, Otago Medical School, Dunedin, New Zealand; bGraduate ResearchSchool, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; cCollege of Education, University of Otago, Dunedin, NewZealand; dSt Margaret’s College, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand; eDepartment of the Dean, OtagoMedical School, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

ABSTRACTStress during doctoral study is common; however, its presence is ofconcern to students as it has a deleterious impact on well-beingand performance, and to the university which has a duty of care tostudents and the desire to promote a supportive researchenvironment. This article reports on the qualitative findings froman online survey that sought to identify students’ experiencesrelated to stress during the early-stage doctoral study. All newlyenrolled PhD students at the University of Otago (New Zealand)received invitations to participate and respond to two questionsrelated to stress during the early-stage doctoral study. In total, 152survey responses were acquired from 352 first-year PhD students(response rate 43.2%). Nine main areas of concern were identifiedfrom an inductive thematic analysis of participants’ responses. Keystressors were time pressure, uncertainty about doctoral processes,sense of belonging in scholarly communities, and financialpressures. Some findings are contrary to previous research withnovel perceptions on the student–supervisor relationship, differentfinancial issues, and transition stresses contrary to previousresearch; this may reflect the changed academic landscape ofdoctoral studies. Findings provide insight into potential supportstrategies to better support early-stage PhD students.

ARTICLE HISTORYReceived 1 November 2017Accepted 7 October 2018

KEYWORDSDoctoral education;doctorate; graduateeducation; doctoralexperience; stress; supportstrategies

Introduction

Doctoral education offers the opportunity to achieve one of the highest degrees attainablethrough university education. Many factors contribute to a ‘positive’ PhD experience forstudents (Manathunga 2005), but there are also factors that contribute to a poor experi-ence and performance, including stress (Manathunga 2005; El-Ghoroury et al. 2012).Stress is a personal experience that can be both positive and negative, however, chronicstress can damage physical and psychological well-being (Kinman 1998), leading topoor outcomes (Kinman and Court 2010; Anthony-McMann et al. 2016), decreased pro-ductivity (Kinman 1998; Anthony-McMann et al. 2016), and increased social costs(Kinman 1998; Kinman and Court 2010).

© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

CONTACT Jon Cornwall jon.cornwall@otago.ac.nz Centre for Early Learning in Medicine, Otago Medical School,PO Box 56 Dunedin, New Zealand*Research was undertaken at the University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.

STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION2019, VOL. 41, NO. 3, 363–380https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2018.1534821

Stress is common in graduate student populations (Toews et al. 1993; Kurtz-Costes,AndrewsHelmke, andÜlkü-Steiner 2006; Stubb, Pyhältö, and Lonka 2011, 2012) includingdoctoral students (e.g. Goplerud 1980; Lawson and Fuehrer 1989; Hockey 1994), where itnegatively influences completion rates and study duration (Cope and Hannah 1975; Man-athunga 2005;McAlpine andAmundsen 2009; Tomasz andDenicolo 2013). Globally, thereis increasing competition among universities to attract and retain postgraduate students(Ali-Choudhury, Bennett, and Savani 2009; Bansel 2011) with university reputation andstudent experience influencing students’ choice of university (Arambewela, Hall, andZuhair 2006; Merchant et al. 2015); these two factors are closely related, with universityreputation in part based on students’ impressions of their experience (Yang, Alessandri,and Kinsey 2008; Sung and Yang 2009; Fares, Achour, and Kachkar 2013; Merchant et al.2015). Understanding stress and stressors in early-stage doctoral students is thereforeimportant in order to provide a positive first impression and student experience, helpmini-mise attrition, prevent illness (Waight andGiordano 2018;Wisker andRobinson 2018), andto support research and skill development.

Being able to define stress is important so that it can be accurately identified. Acommon definition is Lazarus and Folkman’s (1984) cognitive theory of stress, whichsuggests stress is ‘a particular relationship between the person and the environmentthat is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangeringhis or her well-being’ (19). Within this definition, personal factors include such elementsas commitments and beliefs while environmental factors include intangible items such asthe novelty, ambiguity, or predictability of a situation (Lazarus and Folkman 1984). Thistheory recognises that, although sources of stress may vary by individual, there are sharedaspects of common experiences that may serve as potential risk factors for stress (Lazarusand Folkman 1984). In the context of this study, we discuss stress as it pertains to negativeexperiences in the early-stage doctoral process.

How stress affects doctoral students

The majority of research on stress and postgraduate students has focused on doctoral orprofessional graduate students such as those in law or medicine (Shapiro, Shapiro, andSchwartz 2000), with research typically involving students at advanced time points intheir study (Mallinckrodt, Leong, and Kralj 1989; Anderson and Swazey 1998; Gradyet al. 2014; Acker and Haque 2015). Potential sources of stress in doctoral studentsinclude family social support (Mallinckrodt and Leong 1992; Clark, Murdock, and Koet-ting 2009; Myers et al. 2012), isolation (Mills 2009; Hopwood and Paulson 2012; Tomaszand Denicolo 2013; Grady et al. 2014), funding/financial limitations (Nelson et al. 2001;El-Ghouroury et al. 2012; Myers et al. 2012), coursework (Nelson et al. 2001), dissertationwork (Nelson et al. 2001; Hopwood and Paulson 2012), sleep deprivation and limited freetime (Nelson et al. 2001; El-Ghouroury et al. 2012). There are also special stressors thatmay affect international students (Robinson-Pant 2009), who may feel undervalued andisolated in a new academic environment.

There are limited data on stress in first-year graduate and doctoral students; these dataare not from homogenous student groups and are difficult to compare (Goplerud 1980;Lawson and Fuehrer 1989; Hockey 1994). Hockey (1994) investigated sources of stressin early-stage social science doctoral students, concluding that adaptation to postgraduate

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life and study was difficult, with student stressors including (1) the vague way in which thetask of completing a PhD was defined by the university, (2) intellectual isolation, (3) socialisolation, (4) lack of programme structure, (5) time pressures, (6) lack of confidence intheir abilities, (7) lack of confidence in supervisory relationships, and (8) uncertaintyabout their social role within their home department. Goplerud (1980) asked new entrygraduate psychology students in New York to record stressful events during their firstsix months of study, finding the quality of faculty–student interactions was importantin moderating stress. Similarly, Lawson and Fuehrer (1989) interviewed 21 first-yeargraduate students from history, English, and zoology, finding that stress decreasedstudent satisfaction and social support increased satisfaction within the school (Lawsonand Fuehrer 1989).

It is unclear how relevant previous findings are to current early-stage doctoral students,due to many factors. These factors include the altering conceptualisation of doctoral studyas preparation for an academic career (Malfroy 2011; Acker and Haque 2015), whilestudent profiles have also altered over time (Acker and Haque 2015); doctoral studentsare now increasingly female, older, juggling family responsibilities, working part time(Offerman 2011), and perhaps differ geographically in profile (Halse and Mowbray2011). Last, earlier studies on early-stage doctoral stress are from previous decades anda cross-section of geographical locations (Goplerud 1980; Lawson and Fuehrer 1989;Hockey 1994), and were from a limited number of disciplines (Goplerud 1980; Lawsonand Fuehrer 1989; Hockey 1994), all factors which may limit the applicability of thefindings.

The aim of this study

Because early-stage doctoral students have previously been identified as a group that are atspecific risk of withdrawing (Lovitts and Nelson 2000) and experience stressors unique tobeginning a doctoral programme (Goplerud 1980; Lawson and Fuehrer 1989; Hockey1994), this study aimed to identify aspects of the early stages of doctoral study that stu-dents appraised as stressful. This addresses a common element of many doctoral pro-grammes, in that while doctoral programmes may differ in length, design, andimplementation, every student will still partake in a first year of study, and results may,therefore, be broadly applicable in many situations or locations. Findings of this workare likely to facilitate the development of appropriate support mechanisms for early-stage PhD students, and allow universities to devise strategies to identify students whomay require additional support.

Method

This study presents analysis of qualitative data from a questionnaire completed by studyparticipants during their first year of full-time doctoral study. The study was undertaken atthe University of Otago, a research-intensive university in New Zealand. The study sentinvitations to participate to all students enrolling in a full-time PhD at the universitybetween January 2011 and March 2012 with the invitation to participate sent threetimes during the year to ensure all newly enrolled students had an opportunity to partici-pate. The study was approved by the University of Otago ethics committee (09-166).

STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 365

Study setting

In New Zealand, students are admitted to a doctoral degree following completion of anHonours or Master’s degree. Doctoral study in New Zealand primarily comprises indepen-dent research towards completion of a thesis and generally does not include coursework;the thesis is a single document and can include published papers, and full-time studentsare guided to complete at three years with the expectation of not going beyond four years.The examination includes an assessment of the thesis and usually an oral examination by apanel of domestic and international examiners. In New Zealand, international doctoralstudents pay the same tuition fees as domestic students. Scholarships are also availablethrough the universities for domestic and international students; eligible students canaccess government student loans to support themselves.

At the University of Otago, doctoral students are initially admitted on a provisionalbasis, with confirmation based upon satisfactory progress following a six-month or aone-year review. Approximately 82% of enrolled PhD students complete their doctorate,with a median time to thesis submission of 3.9 years (Spronken-Smith et al. 2015). Stu-dents may extend their enrolment beyond four full-time years on a case-by-case basis.Approximately, 60% of Otago doctoral students receive up to three years of fundingthrough University scholarships; those who do not may apply for funding through exter-nal funding bodies.

Questionnaire

Participants completed an online questionnaire that included two questions on stresswhich required free-text responses. The first question (‘If you are experiencing stressthat is negatively affecting your PhD, what are the top three things causing you stress(most to least)? These can be anything, including personal events away from University’)was designed to evoke responses about specific aspects of doctoral study that studentsperceived as stressful. Data review indicated participants typically utilised the secondshort-answer question (‘Is there anything else you would like to share about your PhDexperience so far?’) to expand upon their answer to the first question. Therefore, wedecided to include data from both questions in our analysis.

Data analysis

After data screening, inductive qualitative thematic analysis was used to analyse the short-answer responses (Hsieh and Shannon 2005). Individual responses were analysed andcoded with coding allocation assessed by two investigators; any disagreement in codingwas discussed in the wider investigator group to resolve allocation of all responses. Thismethodology was used to gain a broad understanding of doctoral student experiencewhile taking into consideration the subtleties of highly individualised tree-text responses(Guest, MacQueen, and Namey 2012), with themes emerging from the data to allowinsight into the experience of what stressors negatively affect doctoral students. In thisway, the data collection was directed toward discovering aspects of a common experienceand event, with the outcome providing a general summary of experiences that were sharedby (or common to) individuals undertaking doctoral study at this University.

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Responses were reviewed following importation into NVivo-10 software (QSR Inter-national Pty Ltd., Los Angeles, CA) to gain a general appreciation of the dataset, thenread word-for-word to code words or phrases that captured key concepts regardingsources of stress (Morse and Field 1996). These codes were grouped into meaningful clus-ters and, following discussion between researchers, clusters were combined into broaderthemes based upon their relationships and to the overall data. Criteria for inclusionwithin each category were refined and exemplars identified for each category and subca-tegory (Hsieh and Shannon 2005).

Results

Invitations to participate in the study were sent out to 352 students. In total, 212 (60.2%)participants responded to the invitation to participate. Of these, 17 did not enter a correctstudent identification number to enable data retrieval and cross-checking of PhD enrol-ment status with University databases. From the 195 valid (i.e. with student identificationnumber) responses to the invitation to participate, 43 participants accessed the survey butleft free-text questions blank, leaving 152 who provided written responses in either or bothquestions (first question n = 139, second question n = 87, both questions n = 75). All par-ticipants completed the study between the first 3 and 9 months of their doctoral study; thisspread is because students enroll at different times throughout the calendar year. Studentswere not asked to identify themselves as international in the survey; however, somerespondents provided information that identified these individuals as being fromanother country. Early stage doctoral students reported stress in nine general areas(Table 1); there was considerable overlap between each theme as each was interwoventhroughout the described experiences.

Time pressures

Time pressures, particularly those associated with finishing study within three years, werereported as stressful. This was indicated by frustration with the time taken to identifyresearch questions, with students anxious to progress to more active phases such as

Table 1. Frequency of main themes identified in dataset. Somethemes were identified multiple times for single individuals, givinga number higher than the total of responses from participants(n = 152).

Main themesNumber of references within

dataset

(1) Time pressure 105(2) Uncertainty of doctoral processes 90(3) Sense of belonging in scholarly community 87(6) Social isolation 69(5) Financial impact of study 58(6) Anticipation of future workload associatedwith PhD

54

(7) Doubt regarding abilities or strengths 52(8) Work/life balance 50(9) Engagement and effectiveness ofsupervision

41

STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 367

collecting data. Many indicated the pace was stressful: ‘the emphasis on reading articlesquickly, doing everything fast, in three years, even [though] I just started, hurry, hurry,not about learning and contributing to the field.’ This also impacted the relationshipbetween students and their home department when administrative issues delayed pro-gress. One participant reported increasing dissatisfaction with their home department fol-lowing the departure of the primary supervisor as the ‘scholarship [clock] was tickingincreasingly loudly as the department messes me around.’

Hockey (1994) reported time-related stress was mainly focused on study-related issues,however, our participants also identified time-related stress when balancing doctoral workwith employment or outside demands, expressing guilt for allowing job demands to taketime away from their study. As such, ‘normal’ delays such as waiting for ethics approval,equipment failure, or coordinating research activities created increased stress. Participantsused language that presented a negative view of this situation such as ‘wasted’ and ‘notdoing anything to achieve my goal’ or ‘not doing enough’.

Participants also referred to personal demands (such as spouses or dependent children)impacting their ability to manage deadlines. This was often associated with factors uniqueto the earliest stage of PhD study, such as settling into a new community:

The research proposition submission deadline [was stressful for me]: I thought the researchproposition submission deadline, which is within 3 months from the PhD start date, wasintended to be very strict and I was greatly worried about it because during the first fewweeks of my study, I could not concentrate on my study due to a long process of settlingin with my [family] in an unfurnished private flat. I am receiving the university’s full scholar-ship, and I was concerned that missing the deadline(s) could do serious harm to my scholar-ship status.

This quotation suggests that some of the time-related stress of trying to meet deadlines inthe early months of a PhD may be due to difficulties in balancing the separate demandsfrom both academic and personal environments.

Uncertainty of doctoral processes

In contrast to the highly structured nature of earlier academic study, the processes associ-ated with completing a doctorate are often ill-defined and ambiguous (Hockey 1994;McAlpine and Amundsen 2009). Participants commented about this lack of structure,noting uncertainty about whether they were proceeding appropriately created stress.Stress was related to uncertain research structure and content, with ‘finding a clear direc-tion’ frequently cited. Such uncertainty mirrors comments by doctoral students indifferent stages of study who have remarked on a lack of clarity around doctoral expec-tations, and incomplete understandings of what academic life entails (McAlpine andAmundsen 2009). The uncertainty was clearly an issue for some students:

Nothing is structured, nothing is planned out. It all has to come from me, so that is a majorchallenge right now.

Uncertainty was also caused by practical concerns: pressure to complete studies within thetimeframes allowed by the student visa and the scholarship compounded this stress, asparticipants reported it would be difficult to complete a PhD in the three years allottedfor their studies. The uncertainty surrounding timely completion was compounded for

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both international and domestic students by financial worries such as maintaining per-sonal finances once scholarship funding finished.

Comments also reflected uncertainty about unpredictable future stressors. In contrastto Hockey (1994), participants reported a conflict between their expectations of doctoralstudy and their actual experiences. Many participants responded it was ‘too early’ to beexperiencing stress, though this was nearly always coupled with belief that doctoralstudy should be stressful; several suggested their excitement about study caused them toview their experience through ‘rose-tinted glasses,’ while others stated they expectedstress to increase. For many, the uncertainty regarding which aspects of study would bestressful in the future was itself a source of stress. Future employment options were men-tioned in four responses, but did not appear to be a significant stressor.

Sense of belonging in scholarly community

A sense of academic community is an important factor in helping PhD students adjust totheir new role (Hockey 1994; El-Ghouroury et al. 2012). Similar to Hockey (1994), andparticipants commented on the stress and isolation experienced by those who had notfound their departments to be welcoming. In contrast to the isolation felt by those whohad not developed good departmental relationships, participants who experienced astrong departmental ‘community’ felt this ‘informal support in the form of shouldersand ears makes life easier.’ Participants reported the general culture of the departmentinfluenced the sense of community experienced: infighting within departments wascited as a source of stress. Students who were completing their degree at a distance felta detachment from the academic community because they did not get the ‘stimulationfrom discussion with members of my department.’

One frequent source of reported stress was the upheaval created by settling into anew community or department. This stress was caused by general problems such as‘getting access to network/e-mail/printers, etc.’ and by ‘still trying to figure out whereto live and basic stuff.’ For some coming from overseas, ‘navigating the new cultureof both the university and the city added to the stress of starting a new programme.’In particular, some students who were from considerably different cultures found theprocess of settling into the community challenging, similar to findings in otherstudies of international PhD students (Robinson-Pant 2009). This stress was partiallymitigated by positive interactions with students in similar positions. In particular,one participant found that meeting others just starting their PhD helped mitigatestress. The series of workshops provided by the university on how to approach the‘PhD Journey’ were also cited as helpful.

Social isolation

For students, the difficulties in balancing time between academic work and their personallife made a PhD ‘a very lonely adventure.’ In Hockey’s (1994), Robinson-Pant’s (2009),and in this project, isolation resulted from physical relocation to a new city or newsocial community. Relocation to a new city resulted for some in being isolated from exist-ing social communities, requiring them to establish new friendships and support systems.Participants expressed stress related to being separated from partners and family, and

STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 369

anticipation that study would prohibit them from maintaining or establishing these net-works was a stressor:

The feeling that I have no social life and that I would have to run behind my experiments forcoming three years without getting any chance to explore New Zealand or make new friends[is stressful].

In addition, many participants described a sense of isolation from the academic andresearch community within the university. For some, this was particularly lonely becausethey did not feel connected to others going through the same experience: ‘The feeling of iso-lation that is almost inherent to PhD study is sometimes stressful, especially since I am juststarting the programme and the isolation isn’t necessarily always by choice, but ratherbecause meeting other PhD students takes time.’ For others, isolation occurred more atan academic level due to a lack of collaboration or camaraderiewith departmentalmembers.

In some cases, the ‘opportunity’ or ‘huge privilege’ offered by the PhD created conflictbetween participants and their family and friends due to a ‘lack of understanding… aboutwhat my study entails in the way of input/energy/commitment.’ As a result, participantsreported that maintaining a healthy relationship with loved ones could be problematic. Inaddition, the time required at the beginning of a PhD to learn ‘new things’ sometimesresulted in participants feeling that they had to ‘[lose] their social life.’

Financial impact of study

Although Hockey (1994) reported financial concerns were a stressor, they appeared relatedto finishing study within an allotted timeframe. In this study, stress related to financialimpact was interwoven throughout both uncertainty and time pressure themes. The antici-pation of future financial concerns was raised, with one participant asking ‘If I could notfinish in appropriate time (according to scholarship period) what should I do for myexpenses?’ In addition, many participants reported that continued employment wasrequired in order to meet their monthly financial obligations, regardless of scholarshipstatus. For those without a scholarship, this involved trying to juggle finances in order topay basic living expenses. For those on a scholarship, finance was also a concern:

If I could not finish in appropriate time (according to my scholarship period) what should Ido for my expenses?

The financial impact of study also emerged as a stressor in unexpected ways for some.Even participants whose financial status was stable reported the financial impact of return-ing to study created stress due to having less income. Social isolation was also impacted;one international participant stated their financial restraints meant that they were unableto go home and see family. Another reported that they were ‘away from my family andcannot get them here due to financial constraints.’ Financial concerns extended frompurely personal issues to research-related expenses; participants expressed stress regardingobtaining ‘travel grants for my field work.’

Anticipation of future workload associated with PhD

Although the workload associated with the early phases of a doctorate was a weak theme(6th ranked), anticipation of workload created noteworthy stress. Early stages of the

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degree focus on planning the research, setting up experimental protocols, obtaining ethicsapproval, and completing a literature review; many responses suggested that these activi-ties created stress. Students are also often required to present research proposals or pre-liminary results in front of research groups or colleagues; presentations were cited as asignificant source of stress in eight participants, with those who spoke English as asecond language describing presentations as particularly troublesome. For participantswho worked in laboratory settings, adjusting to the long or erratic hours requiredcreated both mental and physical stress. Finally, although only two participants indicatedstress related to pressure to publish, it is noteworthy this common academic pressure waspresent even in the earliest phases of the doctoral study.

Work/life balance

Maintaining a healthy balance between doctoral-related tasks and time spent on family,social, or recreational activities was frequently reported. In particular, participantsexpressed guilt about doctoral work taking attention away from their children andspouses. Focus on doctoral studies may also create stress during one-off special eventssuch as holidays due to the long-term nature of doctoral study; one participant reportedthat ‘trying to prepare for the arrival of relations for Christmas and the holidays [is stress-ful] when I have a chapter deadline in February.’

One unique stressor for those from overseas countries was ‘being away from mycountry, which is in a bad situation right now.’ Worry about the safety of family andloved ones may be particularly acute in the early stages of doctoral study, when newsocial/support networks may not be established. While briefly mentioned by Hockey(1994), these issues were not discussed in detail, perhaps reflecting differences in thetwo study populations. It was also noted that undertaking a doctoral degree did not pre-clude individuals from experiencing other major life stressors: many participants listedsuch events as ‘imminent twins,’ ‘infertility issues,’ and ‘aging parents and family healthissues’ as stressors.

Doubt regarding abilities or strengths

A lack of confidence in experience or knowledge created stress for participants. This wasgenerated by participants’ expectations to complete specific aspects of their research (‘notfeeling competent to do statistical analyses on my own’) and by their concern about others’(supervisors and other lab members) perceptions of their abilities (‘fear that my supervisormight not be satisfied with my work’). This doubt was reflected in participants’ concernsthat their research may not ‘make a significant contribution’ to the academic community.

Participants also doubted their ability to maintain motivation over the duration of theirPhD, saying the ‘lack of structure’ presented problems for remaining motivated. Participantsdescribed themselves as ‘lazy’ and expressed that ‘staying motivated is going to be difficult.’

Engagement and effectiveness of supervision

The quality and effectiveness of the supervisory relationship is important in helping stu-dents adjust to doctoral life (Hockey 1994; El-Ghouroury et al. 2012; McAlpine andMcKinnon 2013), and supervisory quality as a source of stress was seen in our study,

STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 371

albeit being one of the least common reported source of stress (Table 1). Supervision part-nerships were identified as stressful for three main reasons: (1) an early change of super-visors, (2) perceived poor supervisor availability, and (3) conflict between supervisors.Three participants reported that their primary supervisor departed soon after studyinitiation, and they needed to find a replacement. One participant commented:

This totally floored me, and even though I am sure I will manage to find someone else, in myopinion he was the best qualified in my Dep[artment] for the job of supervising me and thatis why I chose to work with him. It has unsettled me, and I don’t really feel as though I havethe ‘head-space’ to be able to deal with it at the moment. I am unsure of the process to find areplacement, and I feel it is unfair to expect me to find out for myself - my supervisor shouldhave briefed me fully on the next steps when he informed me he was leaving.

Because being accepted into a PhD in New Zealand is dependent on securing a supervisor,losing support of a supervisor early is likely unsettling. Another participant describedfeeling that he/she was in ‘limbo’ after being told their supervisor was leaving. Participantsalso reported supervisor availability, either physically or intellectually, was a stressor; oneparticipant found having both supervisors on leave made it ‘hard to properly engage’them, impacting this relationship and resulting in feeling less supported. Others foundsupervisors were distracted by other issues, leaving little time for focused interactions;one participant was frustrated the supervisor was too ‘busy’ to make ‘decisions such asfinancial costs for the lab’. Conflict between supervisors at such an early stage of researchand language barriers exacerbated feelings of detachment.

Discussion

This article describes the sources of stress described by 152 doctoral students from a singleNew Zealand university during the early stages of the doctoral study, representing thelargest work undertaken on student stress in this stage of the doctoral study. Resultsconfirm the presence of sources of stress that have not previously been reported, as wellas identifying sources of stress that have been described in the few other studies on thisspecific topic (Goplerud 1980; Lawson and Fuehrer 1989; Hockey 1994). Unique differ-ences identified in this study include novel observations on the student–supervisorrelationship, anticipation of stress, financial concerns, and stressors related specificelements of the transition to becoming a PhD student.

Supervisory relationship expectations

Participants in Hockey’s (1994) study reported relationships with their supervisors asstressful because they lacked the confidence in their own knowledge to express opinionsduring meetings, suggesting these students viewed their relationship within the conven-tional transmission model in which a knowledgeable ‘master’ imparts knowledge to anunknowing apprentice (Bartlett and Mercer 2000; McCormack 2004; McAlpine andMcKinnon 2013). In contrast to relationship dynamics, supervision-related stress in ourparticipants was related to unmet expectations for consistent communication and pro-fessional demeanour – none reported that an unequal power relationship or lack of confi-dence led to stress interacting with their supervisor. Instead, participants reportedfrustration with their perceived inability to access supervisors, at discomfort associated

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with conflict between co-supervisors, and at poor communication from supervisors. It ispossible this difference reflects the growing shift in student–supervisor dynamics from ahierarchical relationship to more collaborative models of supervision (Wisker, Robinson,and Shacham 2007), in which a supervisor is viewed as a colleague. It may also reflectchanges over time in other elements, such as the altered demographic profile of doctoralsupervisors. At present, it is unclear whether variables in supervisor demographics such asgender (Brown and Watson 2010), age, or ethnicity may influence student outcomes.

The emphasis on collaborative supervisory relationships may also reflect demographicchanges in students undertaking doctoral studies. As more non-traditional students returnto study later in life, many bring related knowledge and experience to their supervisoryrelationships. This may result in the development of different types of ‘adult’ relationships(in contrast to ‘traditional’ young student–supervisor relationships) between students andsupervisors, such as two independent adults on a journey (Bartlett and Mercer 2000) or asa collaborative relationship (Wisker, Robinson, and Shacham 2007). In addition, changesto modern communication styles over the past twenty years, such as the increasingreliance on ‘instant’ communication such as email and mobile phone texting, mayinfluence students’ perceptions of acceptable timeframes for responding to questions orissues. As such, the early phases of establishing a relationship with a supervisor todaymay vary from those previously identified in Hockey’s 1994 study.

Uncertainty about the supervisory role can be a source of stress (Lofstrom and Pyhalto2015), and early clarification about roles could result in a better understanding of roles andexpectations. To this end, student–supervisor contracts are purported to be a useful tool toprovide an open platform for information sharing between the parties (Hockey 1996). TheUniversity of Otago also holds regular workshops for PhD supervisors, which could alsobe a useful vehicle for providing information about negotiating appropriate communi-cation and expectations in this relationship during the doctoral journey. Such workshopsshould include the provision of information relating to supervisors understanding aboutthe roles of empathy and engagement in the student–supervisor relationship, and itsimportance to doctoral student health in providing a foundation for effective supervisoryrelationships with students (Wisker and Robinson 2018).

Anticipation of stress

Expectations about the PhD experience also emerged as a unique source of stress. Manyparticipants reported they were not currently experiencing stress because they felt it wastoo early in the process. However, they indicated that their understanding of the PhDprocess suggested that they would soon be experiencing stress, though it was unclearwhere it would come from.

Students entering a doctoral programme of study may not understand what the PhDexperience will be like (Ehrenberg 2005). There is a common perception of the PhD can-didate as ‘downtrodden’ and overworked (Anderson and Swazey 1998), and this percep-tion perhaps exacerbated by information provided by other students currently completinga PhD (Bartlett and Mercer 2000). Another possible explanation for students’ anticipationof stress is the changing employment landscape following completion of a PhD. In con-trast to Hockey’s (1994) results, several participants reported they were concernedabout future employment prospects after completion, providing a sense of uncertainty

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regarding future employment options post-graduation. This may be increasingly relevantto students in today’s doctoral programmes.

Uncertainty about the stress that comes with not understanding the context of a PhDresearch project appears to be a central factor in completion of PhD degrees (Devos et al.2017). To ameliorate the impact of stress that may be associated with gaining an understand-ing of doctoral research, the sharing of experiences in peer groups is a useful tool (McAlpineet al. 2012) and student workshops on the ‘PhD journey’, such as those conducted here at theUniversityofOtago,mayprovide insight intoPhDprocesses that students canuse as referencepoints for their own thoughts, experiences and expectations about doctoral study. In such away, studentsmay gain an appreciation of what to expect, learn how tomeasure and appreci-ate their performance, and make sense of their PhD project and journey (Devos et al. 2017).Workshops such as this, and information about what to expect in doctoral study, may, there-fore, provide a useful vehicle for countering stress in early-stage doctoral students.

Importance of personal transitions on stress

The importance of transitions on the development of stress during the early stages of aPhD was apparent, suggesting that informing new and pre-PhD students about therigours associated with such study may assist in preparing students. Participants citedtransitions in relationships, physical communities, social communities, and general priori-ties as sources of stress in the first few months of the PhD. While the shift in physical andsocial communities was mentioned by Hockey (1994), he argues they are specific to indi-vidual students and are difficult to apply to large groups. However, because of the preva-lence and commonality of transitions as stressors in our data, it appears important torecognise the impact such shifts have on early stage students’ ability to focus on theirPhD. Early stage doctoral students should, however, be encouraged to find work–lifebalance within this transition period, where acquiring a good work–life balance wasitself reported as a stressor; this lack of balance has been shown to be a source of motiv-ation for dropping out of doctoral study (Castello et al. 2017). Addressing work–lifebalance may help address the social isolation reported, which is perhaps influenced bygender and different social roles (Brown and Watson 2010).

Supervisory relationships may be particularly important in assisting with the difficultystudents face with transitions (McAlpine and McKinnon 2013; Wisker and Robinson2013). Because supervisors have likely experienced the trials being a PhD student, theyare in a unique position to provide support. This form of support was advocated byHockey (1994) who felt supervision should be made up of intellectual and pastoral dimen-sions, with this echoed by recent research on supervision styles (Manathunga 2005) andsuggestions for ameliorating emotional exhausation on doctoral students (Hunterand Devine 2016). In addition, a strong research community within the university andsocial links within the department may help to alleviate the stress associated withtransitions, and university support outside the department may be valuable in attenuatingsupervisory relationship stress (McAlpine et al. 2012). Participants noted universityworkshops were instrumental in facilitating a sense of belonging and to integrate theminto their new social community, and peer support initiatives are also useful in creatinga positive research community and providing postgraduate support (Buissink-Smith,Hart, and van der Meer 2013; van der Meer, Spowart, and Hart 2013).

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Emphasis on financial impact

Inadequate funding has been reported as a hurdle to successful graduate student com-pletion (Lavriviere 2013). Although finances were mentioned briefly as a source ofstress by Hockey (1994), the importance of financial concerns on stress levels for early pro-gramme PhD students in our study was evident by the wide range of situations that financewas mentioned. Participants reported financial stress related to transitional issues likefinding acceptable accommodation, paying medical bills, and maintaining an incomestream in the absence of a scholarship. These examples highlight the unique financialimpact starting a PhD may have on students with or without scholarships.

Although no demographic information about participants was collected in this study, therange of financial issues commented on by PhD students may be indicative of the increasingnumber of non-traditional PhD students (including women, minorities, and those remainingemployed) in recent decades (Offerman 2011). Sources of financial stressmay be different forthese students than for the ‘traditional’ young student enrolled full time in study (Acker andHaque 2015). In some cases, the conflict between time demands from a job and from PhDstudy resulted in increased stress. Financial stress was exacerbated for some early-stage inter-national students due to their need to support family members who accompanied them toNew Zealand. Juggling the demands of family, mortgages, part-time employment andother outside commitments while settling into a new role as PhD student created conflict,and thus stress, for many students. Financial stress may also impact on the social andemotional well-being of PhD students by exacerbating their sense of isolation; some partici-pants said they could not afford to travel home or fly family over for a visit.

In circumstances where financial support underpins stress, it is difficult to nominate onespecific solution given the multiplexity contributing to this state. Budget and financialadvice are generally available for students at most universities, however when issues suchas impending scholarship completion are illuminated by circumstances outside of a doctoralcandidates control (such as resourcing of equipment, or lack of data due to a third party con-tribution not being finalised), then solutions will generally be unique and specific. Regularmeetings between supervisors and candidates, as well as the existence of candidate – super-visor contracts (Hockey 1996)may assist with providing surety to candidates in these circum-stances and amelioratingdifficulties by allowing forward planning to frame solutions for thosepotentially difficult situations that may exist on the horizon of a doctoral programme.

Although we did not correlate data with scholarship status, it appeared that financialstress affected those with and without scholarship funding; participants reported theyfound their change in financial status (even with a scholarship) after returning to study fol-lowing a period of stable income to be stressful. Finally, itmay be that the changing academicenvironment, with fewer jobs now available for graduates, is now increasing the stressduring the task of doctoral study because of the financial uncertainty that comes with thecompletion of a doctorate. However, this was not a key theme in our findings and thereforethe effect of potential employment on early-stage doctoral stress remains unclear.

Study limitations

There are some limitations to this study. Because the structure of the doctorate at the Uni-versity of Otago generally does not include coursework, findings may not be applicable to

STUDIES IN CONTINUING EDUCATION 375

students enrolled in some PhD programmes as it is not clear whether different studymodes (e.g. thesis versus coursework) have unique stressors. It is also unknownwhether part-time doctoral students would report the same stressors to those undertakingtheir studies full-time, and whether situations affecting financial support produce differentstressors. Despite this, there are likely similarities between the programme at this univer-sity and other doctoral programmes that mean findings are likely generalisable. Further,we did not report on the demographic profile of the participants, which may have pro-vided further insight into stressors. The data presented is from 2011 to 2012; however,there have been no significant changes in PhD delivery and support at this University,and it is likely still representative of the current PhD ‘student experience’ at this university.Last, definitions of stress may vary and although sources of stress may vary by individual,there are shared aspects of common experiences that may serve as potential risk factors forstress (Lazarus and Folkman 1984) which validate the data presented.

Conclusions

This study provides insight into the sources of stress for 152 full-time first-year doctoralstudents, identifying previously unreported stressors that include novel perceptions of thesupervisory relationship, the impact that financial concerns have on many areas of life, theimportance of the myriad of life transitions associated with the first year of study, andstudent perceptions of the PhD experience. Many sources of stress remain unchangedfrom those identified in students twenty years ago, including issues such as uncertaintyassociated with the ambiguous nature of a PhD, doubt regarding the ability to completethe task, financial impact of study, obtaining a work/study balance, and social isolation.Furthermore, the themes identified clearly indicate areas where universities could startto address issues and explore options for student support, and in what form. In linewith suggestions for tackling workplace stress in academic staff in the United Kingdom(Kinman and Court 2010), approaches to addressing stress in first-year doctoral studentscould also include examining how any organisational changes are managed, the way inwhich work objectives are negotiated, and how appropriate and effective support fromsupervisors, managers and peers can be delivered. In addition, universities coulddevelop specific workshops that target early doctoral students in order to provide themwith resources about the nuanced stressors that exist at the formative stages of their doc-toral work, such as ensuring students are able to make sense of their progress withoutexperiencing too much distress, as this appears to be a central factor in students complet-ing doctoral studies (Devos et al. 2017). There also needs to be an adequate mental healthservice provision and effective student access to this, given many students may requiresuch services (Waight and Giordano 2018).

Further research into the effects of the identified stressors is required to allow a deeperunderstanding of their impact and to facilitate the development of effective support strat-egies for early stage PhD students. This may include a closer examination as to preciselyhow stress is being managed by universities, both inside or outside departments. It mayalso address how the experience of stress within a PhD can be positively influenced toprovide skills that can help students copewith future ‘real life’ andwork situations. Findingswould enable universities to provide more effective support for new doctoral students, withthe intent of enabling more timely and enjoyable completion of doctoral studies. Last, it is

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acknowledged that these stressors are likely influenced by personal stress andmay be part ofa complex interplay between personal stress and doctoral stress (Brown andWatson 2010;McAlpine and McKinnon 2013), and additional work is required to explore how these twotypes of stress may interact or influence student outcome.

Notes on contributors

Dr Jon Cornwall is Education Advisor in the Centre for Early Learning in Medicine at the OtagoMedical School, University of Otago, New Zealand. He has interests in student wellbeing andbioethical issues relating to the use of posthumous human assets such as body donation anddata donation.

Dr Elizabeth Mayland is a lecturer in the School of Health & Society at the University of Wollon-gong, Australia. She obtained her PhD in Medicine and Psychology at Otago University. Herresearch explores the intersection between sociocultural environments and individual experiencesin medical, educational, and industrial settings.

Dr Jacques van der Meer works at the University of Otago College of Education, in Dunedin, NewZealand. His research areas are related to student transition and induction into higher education,student engagement, peer-learning, student wellbeing and student leadership. He also has an inter-est in student retention and achievement, especially of under-represented minorities. He has a back-ground in adult, community, and secondary education, including counselling.

Dr Rachel Spronken-Smith is a Professor of Higher Education and Geography and currently Deanof the Graduate Research School at the University of Otago, New Zealand. She has research interestsin doctoral education, graduate outcomes and undergraduate research and inquiry.

Dr Charles Tustin holds a doctorate in industrial/organisational psychology and has held a varietyof academic and management positions in universities in South Africa, Australia and New Zealandincluding 11 years as the Director of Graduate Research Services at the University of Otago. Cur-rently, he is the Master of St Margaret’s College, an independent residential college for students atthat university.

Dr Phil Blyth is a Senior Lecturer of eLearning in Medicine, University of Otago, New Zealand. Hegained his medical qualifications and PhD (Bioengineering) from the University of Auckland. Hisresearch interests include medical education and he has developed surgical simulation apps. Asidefrom a focus on eLearning, he teaches anatomy and practices medicine within the emergencydepartment.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

ORCID

Jacques van der Meer http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2575-0249

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