THIS WAS DONE BY

CHIKUKUZA IGNATIUS

BBSCT (2007-2011 University of Zimbabwe)

Contents1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................3

2 Pearl Millet...............................................................................................................................................4

2.1Overview............................................................................................................................................4

2.2 Plant Description...............................................................................................................................4

2.3 Utilization..........................................................................................................................................5

2.4 How to Grow Pearl Millet..................................................................................................................5

2.5 Variety Selection and Seed Sources...................................................................................................5

2.6 Planting..............................................................................................................................................6

2.8 Fertility Management........................................................................................................................6

2.9 Harvesting and Storage......................................................................................................................7

2.1.0 Nutritional Table and Medicinal Value...........................................................................................7

3 Rapoko (Finger millet or Zviyo).................................................................................................................9

3.1 Oveview.............................................................................................................................................9

3.2 The origin and distribution of finger millet........................................................................................9

3.3 Requirements for growth and maturity...........................................................................................10

3.5 Harvesting........................................................................................................................................10

3.6 Storage............................................................................................................................................11

3.7 Nutritional Table..............................................................................................................................12

3.8 Health Benefits................................................................................................................................13

4 Sorghum (mapfunde)..............................................................................................................................14

4.2 Growth Habits..................................................................................................................................14

4.3 Environment Requirements.............................................................................................................15

4.3.1 Climate......................................................................................................................................15

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4.3.1 Soil............................................................................................................................................15

4.4 Harvesting........................................................................................................................................15

4.5 Drying and Storage..........................................................................................................................16

4.6 Nutritional Table and Medicinal Values...........................................................................................16

5 Maize......................................................................................................................................................17

5.1 Origins.............................................................................................................................................18

5.2 Importance......................................................................................................................................18

5.3 Production.......................................................................................................................................18

5.4 Harvesting........................................................................................................................................19

5.5 Consumption...................................................................................................................................19

5.6 Health benefits of Maize..................................................................................................................19

5.7 Nutritious and highly appetizing..................................................................................................20

5.7.1 Prevents constipation...............................................................................................................20

5.7.2 Reduces stomach acidity..........................................................................................................20

5.7.3 Combats the symptoms of certain cancers...............................................................................20

5.7.4 Reduce the risk of diabetes and heart diseases........................................................................20

5.8 Nutritional Table..............................................................................................................................21

6 Most Nutritious and Medicinal Grain that I Chose and Strategies to Promote it..................................22

6.1 Mission and Objectives....................................................................................................................22

6.2 Environmental Scan.........................................................................................................................22

6.3 Strategy Formulation.......................................................................................................................23

6.4 Strategy Implementation.................................................................................................................23

6.5 Evaluation and Control....................................................................................................................23

7 Issues in Emerging Economies like Zimbabwe........................................................................................24

8 Strategies for Food Security in Region (SADC)........................................................................................24

9 Zimbabwe's Food Security Strategies.....................................................................................................25

9.1Changes in Management and Infrastructure....................................................................................26

9.2 National Level Adaptations..............................................................................................................26

9.3 Infrastructural Developments..........................................................................................................27

9.4 Research and Development.............................................................................................................27

9.5 Education and Water Resources Management...............................................................................28

9.6 Input Costs and Product Pricing.......................................................................................................29

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10 Conclusion............................................................................................................................................29

References.................................................................................................................................................31

1 IntroductionThe life of mankind depends on food. Food comes in many forms, but that forms part of every meal is most important to the survival. Food type that forms main part of diet is called staple food. From nation to nation and continent to continent staple food differs according to climate, soils and perceptions. Since the formation of governments it has been their responsibilities to keep the nations with sufficient food. This essay serves to give the nutritional and medicinal values of each of the following grains plus a brief history of each and their requirements for growth, maturity and storage. After that I am going to give the strategies that Government of Zimbabwe (GOZ) can use to make sure that food supply for the nation is not jeopadised. For the second part of my essay I will take maize as reference and formulate strategies that GOZ can implement to keep it in right quantities.

In Southern Africa and Zimbabwe to be particular staple grains mainly include:

1. Mhunga (pearl millet)2. Mapfunde (sorghum)3. Rapoko (finger millet/zviyo)4. Maize (chibage/magwere)

Millet is one of the oldest foods known to humans and possibly the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. It is mentioned in the Bible, and was used during those times to make bread. Millet has been used in Africa and India as a staple food for thousands of years and it was grown as early as 2700 BC in China where it was the prevalent grain before rice became the dominant staple. It is documented that the plant was also grown by the lake dwellers of Switzerland during the Stone Age.

Today millet ranks as the sixth most important grain in the world, sustains 1/3 of the world’s population and is a significant part of the diet in northern China, Japan, Manchuria and various areas of the former Soviet Union, Africa, India, and Egypt.

Millet is a major crop in many of these countries, particularly Africa and the Indian subcontinent where the crop covers almost 100 million acres, and thrives in the hot dry climates that are not

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2 Pearl Millet

2.1Overview

Pearl millet was domesticated as a food crop in the tropical region of East Africa at least 4,000 years ago. Its use as a food grain has grown over the centuries, with an estimated 64 million acres of pearl millet being grown in Africa and India (this acreage is equivalent to the total U.S. corn crop). The crop is used for a variety of food products, and is even made into a type of beer.

Pearl millet is a warm season annual grass that is best known in the U.S. as a forage crop. Estimated U.S. area planted to pearl millet for forage use is 1.5 million acres. New varieties of pearl millet, however, are being developed for use as a grain crop. These new hybrid types of pearl millet are shorter in stature for easier combining, and higher in seed yield. Use of pearl millet grain on a commercial basis only began in the U.S. in the early 1990s, but has led to production on several thousand acres in Georgia and Florida. Most of this initial pearl millet production has been for poultry feed, although the crop shows good feed potential for other types of livestock as well. Some pearl millet has been grown for birdseed.

2.2 Plant Description

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Pearl millet is grown for grain has a growth habit similar to sorghum. Pearl millet planted in early summer when soils have warmed up. In Missouri, it reaches the stage of 50% flowering in about 60 to 70 days from planting. The flowers and seeds occur in a spike at the end of the stem or tillers, looking somewhat like a cattail or bulrush head. Including the grain head, the plant will typically be about 4 to 5 feet tall in Missouri, although height can vary from 3 to 6 feet depending on variety and growing conditions. The crop is primarily cross pollinated, and following pollination, it takes a flower about 30 more days to develop into a mature seed. Grain heads will mature a few weeks prior to leaf dry down, but seed shatter is not usually a problem. When planted around June 1 in Missouri, it will usually be ready to harvest in late September.

Like any grain crop, pearl millet will yield best on fertile, well drained soils. However, it also performs relatively well on sandy soils under acidic soil conditions, and when available soil moisture and soil fertility are low. This adaptation reflects pearl millets origin in the Sahel region of Africa, where growing conditions are difficult. Pearl millet appears to have relatively fast root development, sending extensive roots both laterally and downward into the soil profile to take advantage of available moisture and nutrients. The crop does best when there are plenty of hot days, although it has been successfully produced in cooler areas such as North Dakota. In general, pearl millet fits in the same areas of adaptation as sorghum (milo), except that it is somewhat more drought tolerant and has a little earlier maturity. It also tolerates low soil pH better than sorghum.

2.3 Utilization

Although pearl millet was developed as a food crop and is still primarily used this way in Africa and India, its grain is most likely to be used for animal feed in the U.S. Several studies have been conducted on its potential for various types of animals, including poultry, ducks, cows, hogs, and catfish. In general, it performs comparably to corn in the diet for these animals, with small advantages in certain situations.Typically the protein content of pearl millet is 45% higher than feed corn and is also 40% higher in lysine. This higher protein and other feed characteristics have helped drive the interest in the grain by poultry producers and other livestock producers. Pearl millet is much lower in tannin than sorghum and its seed is about half the weight of a sorghum seed. Seeds are pointed at one end, rounded at the other and primarily light colored with a blue or gray tinge to them. 

2.4 How to Grow Pearl Millet

Although pearl millet has been researched as a grain crop alternative in the U.S. for less than a decade, basic production guidelines have been developed. Several field trials with pearl millet were conducted by the author at University of Missouri research farms during 1991-1994. In general, pearl millet management is very similar to growing sorghum. Pearl millet can be

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considered a “low-input” crop, but does respond to fertile soil conditions and good management practices. Variety Selection and Seed Sources

2.5 Variety Selection and Seed Sources

Development of grain-type pearl millet varieties is currently being done by university and USDA plant breeders, who can then release their cultivars as public varieties or under license to a private company. To date, the only available varieties are HGM 486 and HGM 686. HGM 686 has performed better in Missouri. HGM varieties are available from Crosbyton Seed (800-628-6551), a seed dealer in Texas. A new variety is expected for purchase in 2004. This variety is shorter season than HGM 686 and offers the potential as a double crop in southern Missouri. Pearl millet varieties are hybrids, so new seed much be purchased each year. Producers seeking grain-type pearl millet are cautioned to clarify that the seed they are purchasing is not a forage-type pearl millet. The forage types are much taller (7-8 feet) and have low seed yield. 

2.6 Planting

Soil temperatures should be at least 65°F or warmer before pearl millet is planted. In Missouri, optimum planting time is early June, with a range of mid-May to mid-June being appropriate. Pearl millet can potentially be planted as a double crop after winter wheat or winter canola in the southeastern part of the state, but it has too long a season for double cropping elsewhere in the state.

Seeding rate is recommended at 4 pounds per acre. An exact seeding rate is not critical, because pearl millet can partially compensate for a poor stand by increasing the number of tillers. Seeding depth should be 1/2 to 1 inch deep. No-till seeding is feasible, although the shallower seeding depth compared to corn or soybeans can make proper control of planter depth (through surface residue) more challenging.

A variety of row widths are appropriate with grain-type pearl millet. Previous work with pearl millet in Missouri has been based on 30 inch row widths. This allows row crop cultivation for weed control. At this row width, pearl millet will normally have enough leaf development to “close the row.” In other states, narrower rows have sometimes given a yield improvement over wide rows. The narrower rows prevent using a cultivator for weed control, but ground shading by millet leaves occurs earlier, helping suppress some weeds. On sandy soils, wider row spacings may be better since they will allow individual plants to develop more lateral roots, due to less row-to-row competition. Fertility Management

2.8 Fertility Management

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Pearl millet will respond to good soil fertility, but does not have a high nutrient demand. It can be considered similar to sorghum in its fertility needs; rates recommended for sorghum by a soil test lab can be applied to pearl millet. Millet may need somewhat less nitrogen than sorghum, because current varieties yield less than sorghum.

For conventional production, about 40 to 80 pounds of nitrogen fertilizer per acre should be applied on most Missouri soils. The lower amount is appropriate if the millet follows a legume such as soybeans. Since nitrogen needs are modest, fertilizer nitrogen can be applied sidedress rather than pre-plant if appropriate. Nitrogen needs can certainly be met from organic sources, such as animal manure or a leguminous cover crop.

Phosphorous and potassium needs of pearl millet have not been well studied, but again the rule of thumb is to use rates recommended by a soil test lab for sorghum. Phosphorous response is likely to be improved if the P is banded near the seed. Liming is probably not necessary on most Missouri soils for pearl millet, since it has been reported to be fairly tolerant of low soil pH.

2.9 Harvesting and Storage

Current pearl millet varieties produce seeds that are ready for harvest before the plant is dried down. Although the seeds are not likely to shatter, it is desirable to harvest as soon after seed maturity as plant dry down allows, avoiding unnecessary grain loss to birds or storm caused stem lodging. If pearl millet is planted by early June, leaf dry down is usually complete by late September, but weather conditions can greatly affect dry down. The plants will continue to stand after a frost, so a delayed harvest is possible.

An all crop or small grain combine header is appropriate for harvesting pearl millet. Combines must be adjusted to properly thresh the small seed of pearl millet. A good starting point for the combine settings are those recommended for sorghum. Air speed may need to be reduced, and screen sizes may need to be changed on combines that use replaceable threshing screens. Efficient threshing can help improve the value of the millet for livestock use, by minimizing chaff and other materials. Since the grain heads are at least three feet off the ground, cutter bars can be run above the ground.

More research is needed on appropriate storage methods for pearl millet, but current recommendations are that the grain be stored at a maximum moisture of 12-13%. Since the seed size is smaller than sorghum and corn, it is more difficult to force air through it in a grain drier. When trucking millet long distances, it is probably best to tarp the grain to prevent seed loss.

2.1.0 Nutritional Table and Medicinal Value

Constituent Range Mean

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Protein (g) 5.8 – 20.9 10.6Fat (g) 4.1 - 6.4 5.1Starch (g) 63.1 – 78.5 71.6Crude fibre (g) 1.1 – 1.8 1.3 Soluble Sugars (g) 1.4 – 2.6 2.1

Fig 1 Nutrient composition of pearl millet (per 100 g edible portion; 12 percent moisture)

Pearl millet contains more calories than wheat, probably because of its higher oil content of 4.2% which is 50% polyunsaturated. Pearl millet is rich in B vitamins, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc copper and manganese.

Pearl millet is a gluten free grain and is the only grain that retains its alkaline properties after being cooked which is ideal for people with wheat allergies.

Pearl millet and sorghum have virtually the same nutritional value. However, Pearl millets have an advantage over forage sorghums in that they do not contain prussic acid which, in high doses, can cause poisoning. They also make better quality hay and silage, which is the main use in the United States of America. Market samples of pearl millet flour and bread from Saudi Arabia were analyzed for chemical composition and nutritional quality. Pearl millet flour contained, on a dry weight basis; 17.4% protein, 6.3% fat, 2.8% fiber and 2.2% ash. Lysine was the most limiting essential amino acid with a chemical score of 53 (FAO/WHO, 1973). Linoleic acid (44.8%), oleic acid (23.2%) and palmitic acid (22.3%) were the dominant fatty acids in millet oil followed by stearic acid (4.0%) and linolenic acid (2.9%). The in-vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) of millet flour was 75.6% and the calculated protein efficiency ratio (C-PER) was 1.38 in comparison to ANRC casein values of 90% and 2.50, respectively.

Pearl millet is highly nutritious, non-glutinous and it is not an acid forming food making it soothing and easy to digest. In fact, it is considered to be one of the least allergenic and most digestible grains available and it is a warming grain so will help to heat the body in cold or rainy seasons and climates.

As in sorghum, the seeds are also rich in phytochemicals, including Phytic acid, which is believed to lower cholesterol, and Phytate, which is associated with reduced cancer risk. Pearl millet has an interesting characteristic in that the hulls and seeds contain small amounts of goiterogenic substances that limit uptake of iodine to the thyroid. In large amounts these "thyroid function inhibitors" can cause goiter and some researchers feel this may explain, at least in part, the perplexing correlation between millet consumption and goiter incidence in some of the developing countries where millet constitutes a significant part of the diet. In many of these countries another contributing factor may be a lack of sufficient dietary iodine.

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3 Rapoko (Finger millet or Zviyo)

3.1 Overview

Finger millet (Hilu et al., 1979) is a small grain crop, which is indigenous to East Africa, especially Uganda and Ethiopian highlands (Haore et al., 2007). The crop is cultivated in diverse eco-geographical areas worldwide and displays high genetic variability (Hilu and de Wet, 1976), indicating that it can be improved through breeding. Finger millet is a hardy crop that is well adapted to arid highland areas in Africa and Asia. Its small and tough grain is easily stored and is a reliable food source in times of drought and crop failure.

3.2 The origin and distribution of finger millet

Finger millet is thought to have originated from Uganda or neighbouring Ethiopian highlandswhere wide diversity of the genus Eleusine exists (Hilu, et al., 1979; Werth et al., 1994).Eleusine species occupy diverse habitats, ranging from open, dry places to under-covers offorests from sea level to highlands and finger millet is grown extensively in the semi-arid

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regions of Africa and India (Werth et al., 1994). Finger millet production is increasing in Asia and India's yields have increased 50% since 1955 and Nepal’s land under the crop is expanding at 8% per year (NRC, 1996). The growth requirements and the location of center of origin and diversity in East Africa paint a promising future for the improvement of the crop, as the genetic variation needed for breeding should be readily available and growth conditions are what the crop is adapted to, hence yield and production should expand in this region as well.

3.3 Requirements for growth and maturity

Finger millet is endowed with a great range of adaptability to variations in season, soil, and temperature regimes. The water requirements of this crop is 350-400mm although it can also grow well in high rainfall areas. It is a crop of the regions receiving an annual rainfall of 500-2000mm. It is not sensitive to light and temperature.

Finger millet is predominantly cultivated on low fertility soils under varying soil moisture stress conditions. During the early vegetative growth stage finger millet can withstand short soil moisture stress conditions.

Early maturing varieties take 95-100 days while medium and late varieties take 105-110 and 115-120 days, respectively

3.4 Soil Fertility Management

For finger millet, the application of 5-10 tonnes per hectare of farm yard manure about a month before sowing has been found effective. It greatly helps in augmenting the water holding capacity of the soil and soil moisture conservation besides the improvement of its physicochemical and biological properties. The supply of organic manures also reduces the requirement of chemical fertilizers.

However, finger millet is predominantly grown on low fertility soils. It responds very well to the application of nutrients, especially nitrogen. The recommendation is to apply 80-100kg N, 40-50kg P2O5 and K2O each per hectare under irrigated conditions. This dose of nutrients should be reduced to half for dryland conditions.

3.5 Harvesting

Harvesting is done by removing the individual heads with sickles or small hand knives. This is sometimes preceded by breaking the stems (Aucland, 1921). Esele (1989) reported that, in

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Uganda, finger millet is harvested by a sharp hand or finger knife. The ears are cut with about 2 cm of stalk. The harvested ears are kept in a pile for a few days to ripen the grain further and to give the desirable taste. They are then sun-dried.

Hulse et al., (1980) reported that harvesting of finger millet is by pulling up the entire plant by the roots as soon as the grain is ripe in order to avoid excessive shattering, and is threshed immediately.

Although the literature surveyed does not show any evidence of mechanized harvesting of millets, it is envisaged that combine-harvesting of millets is possible. It may be particularly so for millet varieties which have uniform heights. However, the screen to retain good seed in the combine harvester would have to be very small, much smaller than that of maize and rice.

3.6 Storage

Storage of crops is an essential component of the whole production system. It facilitates several farmer objectives, namely, availing food for the future and avoiding food shortage, providing seed during the next growing season, allows the farmer to sell at a time when the price is good.

Scientific attention to the storage of finger millets has been considerably less than that for other cereals (McFarlane, et al., 1995). The main reason is that finger millet is regarded as minor grain crop despite their relative importance as food staple in many growing countries. The other notable reason is that farmers in the arid and semi-arid countries where millets are grown achieve quite impressive performance in grain storage by employing relatively simple traditional methods.

Finger millet have excellent storage properties and can be kept for up to 4-5 years in simple storage facilities such as traditional granaries. This is because the seeds are protected from insect attack by the hard hull covering the endosperm and because grain is usually harvested and stored in dry weather conditions (FAO and ICRISAT, 1996). Thus, although there may be large year to year variations in production, stock can be easily built up over the years.

Finger millet may be stored, after drying and threshing, as loose grain in bags or loose containers (McFarlane et al., 1995 ). They are commonly left on the field, prior to threshing, in stacks or piles of harvested plants. The detached heads may also be stored away from the field, in exposed stack or in traditional storage containers. However, the essential pre-requisites for storage of millets are the same as those for other grains.

Muchena (1991) reports that, in Zimbabwe, storage of finger millet is done in granaries made out of reeds and mud walls. Other traditional storage structures, which can be used to store millet, include sealed storage drum, mud straw bins and earthenware pot and jar.

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Underground storage of grains such as millet, sorghum and maize has been reported in different countries such as Somalia and Sudan.

3.7 Nutritional Table

In this below section depicts the in a typical content in 100 grams of finger millet (edible portion, 12% moisture). Major portion of finger millet is carbohydrate, followed by protein and fibre. It has the least amount of fat in them.

Constituent Amount

Protein (g) 7.7Fat (g) 1.5Ash (g) 2.6Crude (g) 3.6Carbohydrate (g) 72.6Energy(kcal) 336Ca(mg) 350

Fig 2 Nutrient composition of finger millet (per 100 g edible portion; 12 percent moisture)

Finger millet is one of those foods vegetarians love, because it is rich both in fiber, which makes your stomach feel full longer, and in protein, which helps you meet your daily protein needs from a complex carbohydrate rather than animal sources. And studies have shown a direct link between cutting back on meat and natural weight loss.

In the United States, millet is used mainly for fodder and birdseed, but this nutritious grain is a staple in the diets of a large portion of the world's population, including Africa and Asia. It has been cultivated for about 6,000 years. There are several varieties of millet available throughout the world. In Ethiopia, it is used to make porridge; in India, to make traditional bread) and in the Caribbean, it is cooked with peas and beans.

Finger millet tastes very good and is especially valuable as it contains the amino acid methionine. This nutrient is lacking in the diets of hundreds of millions of Africans who live on starchy staples such as cassava, plantain, polished rice and, or maize meal. Finger millet can be ground and cooked into cakes, puddings or porridge. The grain is made into a fermented drink (or beer) in Nepal and in many parts of Africa including Zimbabwe. The straw from finger millet is used as animal fodder. Finger millets are rich in B vitamins, especially niacin, B6 and folic acid, calcium, iron, potassium, magnesium and zinc.

Finger Millet is praised for its unique diet for reducing weight (least fat containing grain) and also good for diabetes, hyper cholesterol and triglycerides. The leaf juice has been given to women in childbirth, and the plant is reported to be diaphoretic, diuretic, and vermifuge (Watt and Breyer-

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Brandwijk, 1962). Finger millet is a folk remedy for leprosy, liver disease (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk, 1962), measles, pleurisy, pneumonia, and small pox (Duke and Wain, 1981). People with coelic disease can replace certain gluten-containing cereals in their diets with millet.

Finger millet is especially valuable as it contains the amino acid methionine, which is lacking in the diets of hundreds of millions of the poor who live on starchy staples such as cassava, plantain, polished rice, or maize meal. Finger millet can be ground and cooked into cakes, puddings or porridge. These millets should also be used after soaking and if possible partially fermented before use to get maximum nutrition. Like other cereals, sorghum and millets are predominantly starchy. The protein content is nearly equal among these grains and is comparable to that of wheat and maize. One of the characteristic features of the grain composition of millets is their high ash content. They are also relatively rich in iron and phosphorus. Finger millet has high fibre content and the highest calcium content among all the food grains. Generally, the whole grains are important sources of B-complex vitamins, which are mainly concentrated in the outer bran layers of the grain. Sorghum and millets do not contain vitamin A, although certain yellow endosperm varieties contain small amounts of 13-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A. No vitamin C is present in the raw millet grains.

3.8 Health Benefits

Millet is a remarkable source of protein, making it perfect for vegetarian diets. It's also a good source of niacin, copper, and manganese. You may want to give millet a try if you are allergic to wheat.

Millet is considered a whole grain and as such is rich in fiber and phytonutrients. Some researchers believe that it's the combination of phytonutrients and fiber that's responsible for the lower rate of colon cancer, rather than fiber alone, which doesn't appear to decrease colon cancer. One of the phytonutrients abundant in millet is called lignan. This phytonutrient may help prevent hormone-related cancers such as breast cancer and also help diminish the risk of heart disease.

Eating millet is also a good way to get magnesium and the B vitamin called niacin. Magnesium helps to relax the muscles that line the inside of your arteries, so it may reduce blood pressure. Magnesium is also suspected of being helpful for asthmatics and people who suffer migraine headache. Niacin may help keep blood cholesterol levels in check.

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4 Sorghum (mapfunde)

Sorghum is called "the camel of crops". It has earned this name because of its ability to grow in arid soils and withstand prolonged droughts. The crop plays a major role in the food security of millions of people in marginal agricultural areas. It occupies 25% or more of arable land in Mauritania, Gambia, Mali, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Niger, Somalia and Yemen, and globally it is the fifth largest cereal crop after wheat, rice, maize and barley.

4.1 Origin and distributionSorghum was first domesticated across a belt between Chad and western Ethiopia. The qualities of this hardy cereal were quickly appreciated in other parts of the world and already by the second and third millennia BC it was widespread across the Indian peninsula. Although the largest bulk producer today is the USA, about 90% of the area planted to sorghum lies in developing countries, mainly in Africa and Asia where it is grown for subsistence in smallholders’ fields.

4.2 Growth Habits

Grain sorghum is a grass similar to corn in vegetative appearance, but sorghum has more tillers and more finely branched roots than corn. Growth and development of sorghum is similar to corn, and other cereals. Sorghum seedlings are smaller than corn due to smaller seed size. Before the 1940s, most grain sorghums were 5-7 feet tall, which created harvesting problems. Today, sorghums have either two or three dwarfing genes in them, and are 2-4 feet tall. While there are several grain sorghum groups, most current grain sorghum hybrids have been developed by crossing Milo with Kafir. Other groups include Hegari, Feterita, Durra, Shallu, and Kaoliang.

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The grain sorghum head is a panicle, with spikelets in pairs. Sorghums are normally self-fertilized, but can cross pollinate. Hybrid sorghum seed is produced utilizing cytoplasmic male sterility. Sorghum flowers begin to open and pollinate soon after the panicle has completely emerged from the boot. Pollen shedding begins at the top of the panicle and progresses downward for 6-9 days. Pollination normally occurs between 2:00 and 8:00 a.m., and fertilization takes place 6-12 hours later.

Sorghum can branch from upper stalk nodes. If drought and heat damage the main panicle, branches can bear panicles and produce grain.

4.3 Environment Requirements

4.3.1 Climate

Low temperature, not length of growing season, is the limiting factor for production in most of the Upper Midwest. Average temperatures of at least 80°F during July are needed for maximum grain sorghum yields, and day-time temperatures of at least 90°F are needed for maximum photosynthesis. For example, normal average temperatures for July are about 75°F in southern Wisconsin. Night temperatures below 55°F for a week at the heading and pollination stage may result in heads with very little grain. Normal night temperatures during August range from about 65°F in southern to 60°F in central Wisconsin. In September, the range is from 55°F in southern to 50°F in central Wisconsin. In southern and central Minnesota, July and August temperatures are similar to those for southern Wisconsin. Therefore, low temperatures may prevent successful production of grain sorghum in central and northern Wisconsin and Minnesota or as a late-planted emergency grain crop in southern Wisconsin and Minnesota. Plants should complete heading by early August to insure excellent grain set.

Soil temperature at planting time is critical for grain sorghum. Sorghum seed needs soil temperatures of 60-65°F for good emergence.

4.3.1 Soil

Sorghum is more tolerant of wet soils and flooding than most of the grain crops-an interesting phenomenon in relation to its drought tolerance. However, most of the poorly drained, wet soils in Wisconsin and Minnesota are too cold for grain sorghum.

4.4 Harvesting

Nearly all grain sorghum is harvested as a standing crop with a combine. Combining time will depend on the fall weather and the availability of grain drying facilities. Sorghum grain can be threshed free of the head when the seed Moisture is 20-25 percent. The seed is physiologically

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mature at even higher moisture levels. Frost will generally kill the top of the plant and help to lower the moisture content. Some hybrids have a loose, open type head which hastens field drying.

Sorghum seed is easily damaged in the threshing operation, especially when the grain is dry. The combine platform should be operated as high as possible to minimize the mass of stems entering the combine. If necessary, the cylinder speed can be reduced to one-half that used for wheat to prevent cracking the seed. However, grain moisture will normally be higher and faster cylinder speeds can be used. The recommended cylinder speed is 750-1300 R.P.M. but loss determinations should be made to refine the combine adjustments. An average loss of 19-22 kernels per square foot is equal to one bushel per acre loss.

The grain sorghum crop can be harvested for high-moisture grain silage. When fed to livestock, its digestibility will be increased by grinding or rolling. High moisture grain sorghum can be combined and ensiled when the grain is about 25-30% moisture.

4.5 Drying and Storage

Grain sorghum can be dried with corn drying equipment. However, because the grain is smaller in size, fans may need to be operated at higher static pressure than used for corn. Also, grain sorghum needs to be somewhat drier than corn for safe storage since there is less air movement through the grain. Grain should be stored at 13% moisture and in clean bins. The grain should not be heated over 200°F since feeding values are reduced by high temperature.

4.6 Nutritional Table and Medicinal Values

Constituent Amount

Protein (g) 10.4Fat (g) 3.1Ash (g) 1.6Crude (g) 2.0Carbohydrate (g) 70.7Energy(kcal) 329Ca(mg) 25

Fig 3:Nutrient composition of sorghum (per 100 g edible portion; 12 percent moisture)

Sorghum is a nutritious cereal which makes a healthy diet. It is cooked as porridge for breakfast or along with other dishes. Sorghum is rich in potassium and phosphorus. It has good amount of calcium with small amounts of iron and sodium. In terms of its Vitamin content, sorghum has a good amount of thiamin and niacin with small amounts of riboflavin. In terms of the Calorie

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content of Sorghum; 100g of Sorghum have 339 calories and of these, 28 calories are from fat. Sorghum makes a healthy diet and can be milled into gluten-free flour. It is good in treatment of celiac disease and wheat allergies. It keeps bones and teeth healthy giving energy to the body. It also maintains the health of heart, controls diabetes, arthritis and weight of the body.

Unrefined sorghum fits into the U.S. Food and Drug Administration’s definition of a whole grain, of which the agency recommends people eat at least three ounces per day. Nutritionally, it is similar to maize, but it is higher in protein and lower in vitamin A.

Unlike wheat and barley, sorghum contains no gluten, making it a viable grain choice for those who have trouble digesting the substance. Sorghum also has a neutral taste that makes it a choice ingredient for snack food products.

Some species of sorghum can contain levels of hydrogen cynacide, hordenine and nitrates lethal to grazing animals in the early stages of the plant's growth. Stressed plants, even at later stages of growth, can also contain toxic levels of cyanide. In China, sorghum is fermented and distilled to produce ‘maotai’, which is regarded as one of the country's most famous liquors. Sorghum was ground and the flour was a main alternative of wheat in north China for a long time. In India, and other places, sweet sorghum stalks are used for producing bio-fuel by squeezing the juice and then fermenting into ethanol. Texas A&M University in the United States is currently running trials to find the best varieties for ethanol production from sorghum leaves and stalks in the USA.

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5 Maize

5.1 Origins

Maize or corn is a cereal crop that is grown widely throughout the world in a range of agroecological environments. More maize is produced annually than any other grain. About 50 species exist and consist of different colors, textures and grain shapes and sizes. White, yellow and red are the most common types. The white and yellow varieties are preferred by most people depending on the region.Maize was introduced into Africa in the 1500s and has since become one of Africa's dominant food crops. Like many other regions, it is consumed as a vegetable although it is a grain crop. The grains are rich in vitamins A, C and E, carbohydrates, and essential minerals, and contain 9% protein. They are also rich in dietary fiber and calories which are a good source of energy.

5.2 ImportanceMaize is the most important cereal crop in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and an important staple food for more than 1.2 billion people in SSA and Latin America. All parts of the crop can be used for food and non-food products. In industrialized countries, maize is largely used as livestock feed and as a raw material for industrial products. Maize accounts for 30−50% of low-income household expenditures in Eastern and Southern Africa. A heavy reliance on maize in the diet, however, can lead to malnutrition and vitamin deficiency diseases such as night blindness and kwashiorkor.

5.3 Production

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Worldwide production of maize is 785 million tons, with the largest producer, the United States, producing 42%. Africa produces 6.5% and the largest African producer is Nigeria with nearly 8 million tons, followed by South Africa. Africa imports 28% of the required maize from countries outside the continent.Most maize production in Africa is rain fed. Irregular rainfall can trigger famines during occasional droughts.The maize-growing season in the SADC region runs from October to April/May. Farmers usually prepare their fields during the southern hemisphere's spring rains in October/November and plant their crops in December. Typically, there is a two-week dry spell in early January, which often coincides with the critical flowering period for maize. The rains resume by late January and continue through February/March. The maize harvest begins in April and can continue for some months.

5.4 HarvestingAccording to 2007 FAO estimates, 158 million hectares of maize are harvested worldwide. Africa harvests 29 million hectares, with Nigeria, the largest producer in SSA, harvesting 3%, followed by Tanzania.

5.5 ConsumptionNinety percent of white maize consumption is in Africa and Central America. It fetches premium prices in Southern Africa where it represents the main staple food. Yellow maize is preferred in most parts of South America and the Caribbean. It is also the preferred animal feed in many regions as it gives a yellow color to poultry, egg yolks and animal fat.Maize is processed and prepared in various forms depending on the country. Ground maize is prepared into porridge in Eastern and Southern Africa, while maize flour is prepared into porridge in West Africa. Ground maize is also fried or baked in many countries. In all parts of Africa, green (fresh) maize is boiled or roasted on its cob and served as a snack. Popcorn is also a popular snack.

5.6 Health benefits of Maize

Maize is commonly known as corn and is the most cultivated crop on Earth. Globally, maize is the most cultivated staple crop and is used as a primary source of nutrition. Many people also use it as fodder.

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5.7.1 Nutritious and highly appetizingMaize flour is used to make nutritious bread which is highly palatable, and is easily broken down in the body. When taken at intervals, bread helps to clean the colon and the dextrose produced is commonly used for medicinal purposes.

5.7.2 Prevents constipationPopcorn is a wholesome staple food made by heating small grains. It is easily digested by the body. In addition, it is practically starch-free and not fattening, and is converted into intermediate carbohydrates and dextrine, which is easily absorbed in the body. It promotes peristalsis and is also beneficial in preventing constipation.

5.7.3 Reduces stomach acidityCorn facilitates the removal of toxic food substance and also accelerates the passage of faeces through the intestine. Additionally, it protects the digestive tract thus promoting function of the gall-bladder and reducing stomach acidity.

5.7.4 Combats the symptoms of certain cancersCereals generally wheat, rice, millet, oatmeal and corn should be eaten in large quantities since they are sources of carbohydrates and starch. According to recent studies, the use of corn helps to combat the effects of certain cancers, as it reduces the development of cancer.

5.7.5 Reduce the risk of diabetes and heart diseasesCorn is low in cholesterol and fat content. Cereal or whole grains are great sources of vitamins and minerals, magnesium, fiber and complex carbohydrates. The fiber in whole grains helps to prevent the risk of heart diseases and diabetes, and all its nutrients boost the immune system.The main shortcoming is that most people are not aware of the numerous health benefits of maize, hence fail to include it in their nutrition.

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5.8 Nutritional Table

Constituent Amount

Protein (g) 9.2Fat (g) 4.6Ash (g) 1.2Crude fibre (g) 2.8Carbohydrate (g) 73.0Energy(kcal) 358Ca(mg) 26

Fig 4: Nutrient composition of maize (per 100 g edible portion; 12 percent moisture)

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6 Most Nutritious and Medicinal Grain that I Chose and Strategies to Promote itIn my assignment I am going to take maize as the most important grain in Zimbabwe. For the Government of Zimbabwe (GOZ) and citizens this crop forms the main part of every household meal so it remains the responsibility of GOZ to ensure that maize is available in appropriate quantities so that the nation will not starve. To ensure that strategies should be derived and be implemented to ensure future food needs are met.

In today's highly competitive environment, budget-oriented planning or forecast-based planning methods are insufficient for a country like Zimbabwe to survive and prosper with constant food supply. The government must engage in strategic planning that clearly defines objectives and assesses both the internal(within Zimbabwe) and external (outside Zimbabwe) situation to formulate strategy, implement the strategy, evaluate the progress, and make adjustments as necessary to maintain a viable food supply.

6.1 Mission and Objectives

The GOZ branch of Ministry of Agriculture should have a mission statement describing the country's vision on maize and forward-looking visionary goals that guide the pursuit of future opportunities pertaining maize.

Guided by that vision, the ministry leaders can define measurable financial and strategic objectives. Financial objectives involve measures such as capital targets involved to empower subsistence farming. Strategic objectives are related Zimbabwe's agriculture position, and may include measures such as number of people that GMB can sustain locally and regionally.

6.2 Environmental Scan

However it is worth noting that before the above is done the environmental scan should be done to see the viability of the mission and vision. Environmental scan involves the analysis of the government funds in securing inputs, land, farming skills and labour.

The internal analysis can identify the firm's strengths and weaknesses and the external analysis reveals opportunities and threats. A profile of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats is generated by means of a SWOT analysis

An industry analysis can be performed using a framework developed by Michael Porter known as Porter's five forces. This framework evaluates entry barriers, suppliers, customers, substitute products, and industry rivalry.

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6.3 Strategy Formulation

Given the information from the environmental scan, the GOZ and ministry should match its strengths to the opportunities that it has identified, while addressing its weaknesses (within Zimbabwe) and external threats (from other countries).

To attain superior food supply, the Zimbabwean government seeks to develop a competitive advantage over other maize producing countries. A competitive advantage can be based on cost. Michael Porter identified three industry-independent generic strategies from which the firm can choose.

6.4 Strategy Implementation

The selected strategy is implemented by means of programs, budgets, and procedures. Implementation involves organization of Zimbabwe's resources and motivation of the citizens to achieve objectives.

The way in which the strategy is implemented can have a significant impact on whether it will be successful. In Ministry of Agriculture, those who implement the strategy likely will be different people from those who formulated it. For this reason, care must be taken to communicate the strategy and the reasoning behind it. Otherwise, the implementation might not succeed if the strategy is misunderstood or if lower-level farmers resist its implementation because they do not understand why the particular strategy was selected.

6.5 Evaluation and Control

All being said and done implementation of the strategy must be monitored and adjustments made as needed to ensure consistence of availability of maize. Evaluation and control consists of the following step

1. Define parameters to be measured2. Define target values for those parameters3. Perform measurements4. Compare measured results to the pre-defined standard5. Make necessary changes

Strategy of maize in Zimbabwe can be formulated on three different levels:

a. Country levelb. Commercial level c. Subsistence level.

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While strategy may be about competing and surviving as a country, one can argue that grains, not countries compete. The role of the Ministry then is to manage subsistence units and grains so that each is supplied in desired quality and quantities competitively and so that each contributes to Government’s purposes.

7 Issues in Emerging Economies like Zimbabwe

When developing strategies GOZ should put in mind that Zimbabwe is an emerging economy, capital markets are relatively inefficient. There is a lack of information, the cost of capital is high, and venture capital is virtually nonexistent. Because of the scarcity of high-quality educational institution, peasant farmers usually lack good farming skills. There is of lacking communications infrastructure in most cases.

8 Strategies for Food Security in Region (SADC) While certain climatic events can be predicted with greater accuracy, and in timelier fashion than ever before, the complexity of issues involved in any particular country's response to drought makes the process of estimating the value of such forecasts an extremely difficult and imprecise endeavor.

Understanding ENSO and how it affects climate around the globe is certainly a key element to providing an effective means of response to climate-related anomalies. However, equally important for us is to understand how broader societal policies can enhance or inhibit the value of a reliable forecast. A full account of past drought episodes and responses to them that bear on present drought economics and politics in Southern Africa covers a wide-range of issues.

The planning of national food supplies from one harvest to the next is undertaken by all countries. Planning involves grains in storage as well as crops in the field. This information may focus only on the national scale. It can also focus on local areas' food balance. Numerous organizations exist in Southern Africa that keep track of food supplies and provide early warning of potential food shortages.

The Southern African Development Community (SADC) is a regional organization formed in August 1992. SADC members have identified several areas of regional concern, including food security. They delegated responsibility for this important area to Zimbabwe, because it has been a major regional surplus maize producer and exporter.

SADC's original food security goals included increasing food availability through greater domestic production, expanded grain storage, and reduction in post-harvest losses (Thompson, 1993). The community's objectives changed dramatically when the region's largest maize

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supplier, the RSA, joined SADC in August 1994. This move was taken after the apartheid government allowed free elections and Nelson Mandela was elected.

The Regional Early Warning System (REWS) consists of National Early Warning Units (NEWUs) located in each member state (usually within the Ministry of Agriculture) and a Regional Early Warning Unit (REWU) in Harare, Zimbabwe. The main objective of REWS is to provide SADC states and members of the international community with early warning on food insecurity in the region. They regularly monitor food production, supplies and requirements. REWS produces and disseminates the "Quarterly Food Security Bulletin" as well as monthly updates. The information contained in the bulletins is based on information from the NEWUs. The REWU uses this information to draw up regional food security prospects.

The objective of SADC's Regional Remote Sensing Project is to enhance national and regional capabilities in remote sensing and Geographical Information Systems, particularly so these technologies may be used in early warning and food security. During the growing season, it provides monthly information on crop growth and development and the moisture potential of clouds. The remote sensing project works closely with REWS and often provides information on a drought situation, before the REWU receives such information from the NEWUs.

Information from SADC's REWS and Remote Sensing Project is distributed to a wide audience including government decision makers, major international food donors such as the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the European Union (EU), the UN's World Food Programme (WFP), and other relief agencies, such as UNICEF. The purpose of the information is to provide early warning of a potential drought situation so that decision makers can secure food supplies to cover projected deficits

A controversial question often arises in food-security planning -- should governments stabilize food prices? In the long-run, a liberalized market (that is, without government intervention) allows prices to achieve efficient transactions between producers and consumers. In theory, free-market trade encourages a country, for example Zimbabwe, to take advantage of its maize production, and realize higher returns by exporting it to foreign markets. It would then import other goods it is not as efficient at producing. Staple foods in developing countries, however, are too important for food security to view in such a simple framework.

9 Zimbabwe's Food Security Strategies

Throughout the 1980s, Zimbabwe played an important role in fulfilling regional food security objectives. In the late 1980s, Zimbabwe transformed its maize marketing structure, consolidating storage of maize reserves and requiring farmers to market their crops through the Grain Marketing Board (GMB). The Grain Marketing Board (GMB) is the centralized governing body

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that traditionally has controlled producer prices, access to and prices of inputs, the marketing and transport of maize, and consumer prices

The following specific objectives should be derived by GOZ to ensure constant food supply:

To provide results of crop simulation models using observed baseline data, climate change scenarios with or without simulations of direct effects of CO2 on crop growth, irrigated production, and adaptation responses, such as planting dates and appropriate maize varieties.

To evaluate effects of climate change by quantifying crop yield, season length, growing season precipitation, and evapotranspiration.

To identify and evaluate possible measures in agricultural practices that would lessen any adverse effects of climate change.

To project the economic consequences and implications of climate change (global warming).

9.1Changes in Management and Infrastructure

Changes in management practices can offset many of the potentially negative impacts of climate change (Smith and Mueller-Vollmer 1993). The timing of various farming operations (e.g., planting dates, application of fertilizers, pesticides, and weedicides) will become more critical if farmers are to reduce their vulnerability to the impacts of climate change. Besides the timing of the various operations, planting densities and application rates of agro-chemicals and fertilizers will also be of major importance. The use of conservation tillage, intercropping and crop rotation practices will enhance the long-term sustainability of soils and improve the resilience of crops to changes due to climate change (EPA 1992). Farmers may also consider the use of greenhouses for the production of some of their products.

Changes in the types of agricultural production and irrigation systems will require significant changes in farm layout and the types of capital equipment employed. In areas where there is a need to use irrigation systems, there may be need for additional water reservoirs or boreholes. Parry and Duinker (1990) have noted that because of the large costs involved in infrastructural changes, only small incremental adjustments may occur without changes in government policy.

9.2 National Level Adaptations

Agriculture is affected in many ways by a wide range of government policies that influence input costs, product pricing and marketing arrangements. Parry and Duinker (1990) have noted that relatively minor alterations to these policies can have a marked and quite rapid effect on agriculture. Thus, changes in government policy as a result of climate change or anticipated change would have a very significant influence on how agriculture ultimately responds.

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Government policies pertaining to land and water resources, which represent the basic foundation for agricultural production, should be more explicit in having the implementing agencies give due consideration to the possible impacts of climate change. Given the uncertainties about the magnitude and rate of change (especially at finer scales), the prospects of government acting directly to promote adaptation to anticipated change are rather limited. It is, thus, imperative that any anticipatory measures considered allow the greatest flexibility in order to allow these measures to be revised as new information about the magnitude and direction of climate change becomes available. Through its policies on infrastructural developments, research and development, education and water resources management, and product pricing, government can put both reactive and anticipatory adaptive measures into place. Ideally, a policy- relevant research program could help identify appropriate actions as the current state of knowledge evolves (OTA 1993).

9.3 Infrastructural Developments

The government is currently constructing a number of medium- to large-sized dams throughout the country. Even though this may be a reaction to droughts of the recent past, this can still be considered to be anticipatory. Increasing the capacity and number of such dams at this stage would be less costly than at a later stage. With the construction of these dams, irrigation schemes can also be established. Some irrigation schemes are already operational in some areas. Rukuni (1993), cited in Rukuni (1994), notes that there is growing evidence of high rates of return to investments in smallholder irrigation schemes, and that large areas of shallow ground water could be put to intensive cultivation if research focused on some aspects of environmental protection as well as on developing low volume water pumps. There is a need for government to undertake a major review of land-use planning with due consideration given to an integrated resources management approach.

9.4 Research and Development

Government support for research and development can have significant impacts on the agricultural sector. Its policy and support for research and development in the private sector will also be of major significance. The availability of facilities, level of funding and outlook on private sector initiative will greatly influence the rate at which maize varieties, agricultural technologies, and management systems adaptable to climate change can be implemented. There is a need for research on crops varieties that are more tolerant to disease and drought conditions. Research on short-season high-yielding crop varieties will be of paramount importance to adaptation. Government expectations to increase maize production from 300,000 tons in 1990 to about 487,000 tons in 1995, and to a level of national self-sufficiency thereafter (GOZ 1991) are very noble. These expectations should, however, be considered in the context of future climate changes. Thus, in order to realize and sustain these expectations in an environment of changed

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climate, the government needs to commit itself to supporting an intensified program of research into higher-yielding, drought-hardy, and disease- and pest-tolerant maize varieties.

Other research areas requiring increased government support are agro-chemicals and fertilizer development. The government will also need to support research on diseases and pests, both those currently afflicting the agricultural sector and those that may come about due to climate change.

There will also be need for research in effective storage systems for agricultural products. The government recognizes the utility of improvements to storage, processing, and preservation techniques in overcoming production shortages (GOZ 1991). It, however, has not made a firm commitment to undertaking such improvements. From events of the recent past, however, it has been evident that the rural majority are hardest hit in the event of a drought. Thus, the government should seriously consider supporting research in a more decentralized manner and maintaining these strategic reserves with increased local participation. An enabling environment and government support would encourage the private sector to invest more resources into these areas of research. The government should also establish seed banks for crop varieties adaptable to different climatic conditions.

There is a need to bridge the institutional separation of research and extension services, as this has tended to minimize the responsibility for developing technology that is farmer- based and problem- oriented. It is also important that government fully utilize information from research and development bodies in its formulation and/or reformulation of policies impacting on the agricultural sector. The government should carefully examine the inadvertent damage to the capacities of research and development institutions as a result of budgetary and staff cuts under the Economic and Structural Adjustment Programme. There is also a need for improved incentives to attract and retain outstanding scientists in these research and development institutions.

9.5 Education and Water Resources Management

In Zimbabwe, a fairly significant amount of agricultural produce comes from the small scale and subsistence farmers. The greatest challenge to government lies in the sensitization of subsistence farmers to the impacts of climate change. These farmers already operate in the most marginal areas and are certainly the most vulnerable group. There is need for a more intensified approach to making these farmers conscientious with regard to the need for crop diversification, crop switching, conservation tillage, and water conservation.

Eicher (1993) singles out political leadership as one of the most underrated ingredients of agricultural development (cited in Rukuni 1994). There is, thus, a need to empower adequately the small-scale and subsistence farmers so that they have their own political voice and clout. This

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would enable them to organize themselves into unions, commodity groups, and cooperatives in order for government to get a balanced view of the rural majority. Hence, with an enhanced awareness of their rights and an enabling environment, consistent with human rights and democratic governance, it would be legally and institutionally easier for the farmers to form such groupings. Such groupings would enhance the flow of information to the farmers, thereby making it easier to communicate research results with respect to adaptations to climate change.

There will be a need for government to review current policy on water rights. The new policy should reflect the need to conserve and utilize water resources more efficiently. It should reflect the increasing need to share equitably a diminishing resource. The government can support and offer incentives to farmers undertaking infrastructural developments that will lead to the conservation or increased availability of water resources. There will also be a need for government to explore the possibilities of interbasin water transfers in order to enhance the sustainability of areas that become intensively used for agricultural production or become marginal as a result of climate change.

9.6 Input Costs and Product Pricing

The implementation of the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme has resulted in major reform and commercialization, particularly with respect to market and trade liberalization. Market liberalization, however, should not result in the marginalization of the small-scale and subsistence farmers. There is, therefore, a need for government to establish and strengthen existing institutions that are geared toward extending credit to small-scale and subsistence farmers, and facilitate cost-effective marketing of their produce. There are many cases of successful national public agricultural research stories that show that smallholder farmers can seize market opportunities in a favorable macroeconomic environment (Rukuni 1994). However, input costs and product pricing can function as incentives or disincentives in determining which agricultural products to produce. Thus, pricing policy can be used to steer the agricultural sector in a direction more adaptable to climate change. Through pricing policy, government can actively influence crop switching, water conservation measures, and a host of other management activities, making the agricultural sector adaptable to climate change.

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10 ConclusionThe estimated effects of climate change as evidenced in the simulated maize yields are indicative of the potential problems ahead of us. New and fluctuating weather patterns could have severe negative impacts on economic activities, particularly in the natural resources sector. Zimbabwe, which is highly dependent on the agricultural production sector, could see a rapid deterioration in the livelihood of her citizens as a result of climate change. Without the appropriate policies or adaptive strategies in place, the smallholder farmers will find it extremely difficult to operate sustainable agricultural production systems in an environment with changed climatic conditions. The potential solutions to agricultural sector problems resulting from climate change will require increased financial resources, a greater commitment to research efforts to develop and acquire new technologies, and the development and application of fairly high managerial skills.

If Zimbabwe is to remain the breadbasket of the SADC Region and meet the growing demands for food locally and regionally, the sustainable growth of the agricultural production sector should be given the highest priority in all national development programs. Climate change compounds the need to increase the efforts to improve the knowledge and skills of farmers, remove constraints to farmer adaptability and innovation, and expand the options available to farmers. An expansion of the diversity of crops and farm technologies available will improve the chances of adapting successfully to a future in which existing farming systems are threatened by climate change. Thus, anticipatory measures will enhance the adaptability of farmers by speeding up the rate at which farming systems can be adapted to climate change, and will significantly lower the potentially high costs associated with adjustment.

Constraints to adjusting to climate change are numerous. The considerable uncertainties about the magnitude and extent of the impacts of climate change make it relatively difficult to come up with appropriate responses (policy formulation and strategy development). Because of these uncertainties, any anticipatory measures undertaken should be of maximum flexibility in order for them to be beneficial to the agricultural sector even without climate change, and they should allow for readjustment as more knowledge about climate change is gained. The decline in the provision of resources to support agricultural research and extension is also another problem. More research and extension programs will enhance our capacities to adapt to climate change.

With a fully liberalized market, prices would fluctuate and real incomes decline. Many households would not have access to food, introducing risks of famine (Drèze and Sen, 1989; Sen, 1981). Zimbabwe is particularly sensitive to such effects, because they have large climate-related variations in staple food production. Prices fluctuate under free-market conditions, because there is an inelastic demand for staple foods (i.e. demand for the goods does not change very much in response to price changes because they are essential commodities) (Pinckney, 1993). Food is one of the costliest items in the budget of poor rural farmers. Thus, when prices go up, real income for this group goes down. In Zimbabwe, between 50 and 100 percent of farm households in dry areas are net purchasers of grain.

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