strategic forest management plan 2002–2027

Prepared bythe Arabuko-Sokoke Forest

Management Team

Strategic ForestManagement Plan

2002–2027

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This strategic management plan is approved for implementation, and will be reviewed from time to timeas the need arises.

J.M. MUTIEAg. Chief Conservator of Forests

February 2002

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Message from the Permanent Secretaryof the Ministry of Environment andNatural Resources .......................................................... ivJoint message from implementing partners ............ vPreface .............................................................................. viExecutive summary ...................................................... vii

Part 1. The Strategic Plan .............................................. 11.1 Introduction to Arabuko-Sokoke Forest .................... 11.2 Policy, legal and institutional background ................ 61.3 Vision, purpose and strategic objectives ................... 71.4 The approach .............................................................. 81.5 The planning process ................................................. 91.6 Zonation ..................................................................... 111.7 Thematic areas .......................................................... 12

1.7.1 Biodiversity conservation ................................ 121.7.2 Subsistence use ................................................ 151.7.3 Eco-tourism and environmental education ..... 171.7.4 Problem animal management .......................... 191.7.5 Forest protection .............................................. 221.7.6 Commercial use ................................................ 241.7.7 Infrastructure development ............................. 251.7.8 Human resource development ........................ 281.7.9 Research and monitoring ................................. 29

1.8 Governance ............................................................... 321.9 Stakeholders .............................................................. 33

Part 2. Operational Planning Guidelines ................ 342.1 The planning framework .......................................... 342.2 Operational guidelines ............................................. 35

Part 3. Planning Information ..................................... 363.1 Institutions ................................................................. 363.2 Infrastructure ............................................................. 373.3 Human resources ...................................................... 403.4 Biodiversity ................................................................ 40

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3.5 Socio-economics ........................................................ 433.6 Forest resources ........................................................ 473.7 Eco-tourism ................................................................ 493.8 Economic evaluations ............................................... 503.9 Physical geography ................................................... 51

Part 4. Annexes ............................................................. 52Annex 1. Important documents consulted .................... 52Annex 2. Organisations and individuals involved

in the planning process ............................................ 54Annex 3. The Strategic Forest Management Plan

preparation process ................................................... 56Annex 4. The Arabuko-Sokoke Forest

Management Team .................................................... 56

List of Maps and FiguresMap 1. General location of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ...... 1Map 2. Administrative features of Arabuko-Sokoke

Forest ............................................................................ 2Map 3. Topography of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ............. 3Map 4. Vegetation types of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ...... 4Map 5. Population density surrounding

Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ............................................... 5Map 6. Forest management zones ................................. 10Map 7.1. Elephant raids before El Niño ........................ 20Map 7.2. Elephant exit and entry points in the

year 2000, after El Niño ............................................ 21Map 8. Illegal woodcutting in the years 2000

and 2001 ..................................................................... 23Map 9. Infrastructure within Arabuko-Sokoke

Forest .......................................................................... 26Figure 1. Vegetation types and areas in

Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ............................................. 41Figure 2. Numbers of eco-tourists visiting

Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, 1989–2001 ........................ 49

ASF Arabuko-Sokoke ForestASFGA Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Guides AssociationASFMCP Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Management and

Conservation ProjectASFMT Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Management TeamASSETS Arabuko-Sokoke Sustainable Eco-Tourism

Schemedbh Diameter at breast heightDFO District Forest OfficerDIFAAFA Dida Forest-Adjacent Area Forest AssociationEU European UnionFADA Forest-Adjacent Dwellers AssociationFD Forest DepartmentFoASF Friends of Arabuko-Sokoke ForestGIS Geographical Information System

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IPR Institute of Primate ResearchKARI Kenya Agricultural Research InstituteKEFRI Kenya Forestry Research InstituteKIFCON Kenya Indigenous Forest Conservation ProjectKSh Kenya ShillingsKWS Kenya Wildlife ServiceMENR Ministry of Environment and Natural ResourcesMoU Memorandum of UnderstandingNK Nature KenyaNMK National Museums of KenyaNPV Net Present ValueNTFP Non-timber forest productPFM Participatory Forest ManagementSFMP Strategic Forest Management PlanWCK Wildlife Clubs of Kenya

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The two main problems confronting the conservation andmanagement of forests are competition for land and anincreasing demand for a wide range of forest goods andservices. The pressure on forest land and the growingstock comes from two clearly defined but overlappinguser groups: the forest-adjacent communities, who usethe forest as a resource to supplement their economicactivities, and the small- or large-scale commercial users,whose main market for forest products is the urbanareas. The pressure exerted will, if not addressedappropriately, impact negatively on the object ofsustainability in forest management. This has put injeopardy the gains already made in alleviating the povertysituation in the country.

The government recognises the important role played bythe forest-adjacent communities in protecting andconserving forests that have formed part of their livelihood.In line with these traditions and the emerging global trendsof Participatory Forest Management, the government hasaccepted the concept of stakeholders’ involvement inplanning and management of forest resources.

Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is of immense importance to theforest-adjacent community, whose livelihood issubstantially dependent on its resources. The forest is richin biodiversity and recognised as an important birdsanctuary in mainland Africa as well as an important eco-tourism destination.

The Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Conservation and ManagementProject grew out of the realisation of the need to involvecommunity and other stakeholders in forest management,and to catalyse policy changes in the forestry sector in thecountry. The aim was to enhance conservation of itsbiodiversity, ecological functions, and socio-economic andcultural values. One major issue of concern in this forestarea is that of problem animals, which have contributedto the poverty levels of the adjacent communities.

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Management of this problem is a priority, in order to gainthe much-desired local community support for forestconservation. Forest-based income-generating activities likethe butterfly-farming and bee-keeping piloted by theproject have been significant in mitigating the effects ofpoverty in the community.

This Strategic Forest Management Plan, which has beendeveloped jointly, is a first step towards harmonising theinterests of the various stakeholders concerned with theconservation of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. In implementingthe activities and programmes in this document, thegovernment expects that important lessons will emergefrom the initiative, which will guide the formulation andadoption of similar plans in other areas in the country.

While the Ministry fully endorses the implementation ofthis plan, it is seriously constrained by inadequate provisionof the required resources. We would therefore wish toappeal to donors and well-wishers to support the effort ofthe participating partners.

At this point, the Ministry gratefully acknowledges thesupport from BirdLife International and the European Unionfor the technical and financial assistance they haveprovided, without which this document would have beenvery difficult to produce. This Plan is a means towards anend, and the government affirms its commitment in supportof all the planned activities and welcomes continuedcollaboration and partnership for the more challengingphase of implementation.

Ambassador FRANCIS MUTHAURAPermanent SecretaryMinistry of Environment and Natural Resources

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Arabuko-Sokoke forest is a life-supporting systemcomposed of diverse biological and edaphic resources thatare of local, national and global importance. It forms thecentrepiece of a world-renowned habitat for rare andendangered mammals and birds. Indeed, the concentrationof rare species accounts for its status as the second mostimportant site for conservation of threatened bird specieson the African mainland. The forest also maintains anunderground fresh water system and supports a mangroveecosystem located between the forest block and the ocean.It is recognised that an increased human population hasexerted enormous pressure on the finite resources, resultingin over-exploitation and an increased demand foragricultural development. The recent discovery of largedeposits of titanium and high quality silica sand remainpotential threats that require careful planning in themanagement of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest.

In view of the above, this Strategic Forest ManagementPlan is aimed at mitigating the challenges and threats thatthe Arabuko-Sokoke ecosystem is currently facing.

Considering that this plan has been developed jointly bya myriad of stakeholders through a very elaborateconsultative process that took over eighteen months, acommitted implementation process is equally envisagedby all those that have a stake in the plan.

The plan has identified four main forest management zones,with specific objectives and proposed types of operationalplans. It is envisaged that the plan will contribute to therestoration of degraded areas and the conservation of rarebirds and mammals, and ensure sustainable utilisation ofthe natural resources available in Arabuko-Sokoke.Similarly, the local community living adjacent to the forestwill actively participate in its management.

Finally, we wish to extend appreciation to the planningteam, the MoU Secretariat and to the other keystakeholders, and to make an earnest appeal for allcollaborators to work concertedly towards theimplementation of this strategic plan and the operationplans that will be developed thereafter.

J. M. MUTIEAg. Chief Conservator of ForestsForest Department

Dr P. K. KONUCHEDirectorKenya Forestry Research Institute

J. M. KIOKO, EBSAg. DirectorKenya Wildlife Service

Dr G. H. O. ABUNGUDirector GeneralNational Museums of Kenya

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The Strategic Forest Management Plan for Arabuko-SokokeForest is the outcome of a planning process lasting almost18 months during the period 2000–2002. The planningprocess was supported through the Arabuko-Sokoke ForestManagement and Conservation Project, which was financedby the European Union (DG VIII – Development) underits Tropical Forest budget line. The EU financing wasadministered by BirdLife International, working inpartnership with the institutional members of the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Management Team: the Forest Department,Kenya Wildlife Service, National Museums of Kenya andKenya Forestry Research Institute. In addition to theseinstitutional partners, there has been widespreadconsultation with many other organisations and individuals.

At the outset, the challenge was to produce a StrategicForest Management Plan for Arabuko-Sokoke Forest whichwould meet the needs of all stakeholders in the forest,and provide a useful document for managing the forestover the next 25 years. A plan which looked attractive butdid not have the consensus of all stakeholders, or a planwhich might be rapidly consigned to bookshelves andlibraries, would not meet this challenge, and it is hopedtherefore that this plan will provide a useful document formany people in future years. The task has been not only

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to follow a process, but also to define and test the planningprocess itself, since this has been a new experience notonly in Kenya, but also internationally. AlthoughParticipatory Forest Management at grassroots level is nowwell established in many places, there are few examplesavailable from elsewhere where a participatory planningprocess has been applied to preparation of a StrategicForest Management Plan. In many ways, therefore, thisPlan is unique and innovative in its development.

Whether the plan itself meets this challenge remains to beseen. However, it has taken forest management planningout of the exclusive realms of professional foresters andconservationists, and placed it within the framework ofwider civil society. Undoubtedly the product is not perfect,but it does represent a significant step forward, and astarting point for improvement which, it is hoped, willlead to the achievement of the plan’s vision and objectives.

Joram K. KagombeForest Management CoordinatorArabuko-Sokoke Forest Management Team

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Arabuko Sokoke Forest, covering 41,600 ha, is the largestsingle block of coastal forest remaining in East Africa. It isthe only forest reserve where the Forest Department hasinvited three partners to jointly manage the forest. Thethree partners are the Kenya Wildlife Service, KenyaForestry Research Institute and National Museums of Kenya.This is in recognition of the importance of the forest as abiodiversity hotspot and its link with neighbouringcommunities. Surrounding the forest are 54 villages, whoseinhabitants depend on the forest for their subsistence uses.

Arabuko Sokoke Forest needs to be protected andconserved for present and future generations. Strategiesfor conservation must address short- and long-term goalsof forest management. The Arabuko-Sokoke ForestManagement Team, other stakeholders and the localcommunity, with financial and technical assistance fromEuropean Union and BirdLife International, came togetherto develop a Strategic Forest Management Plan (SFMP).This plan will guide forest management operations for thenext 25 years. It is the first integrated management planto be developed for a Kenyan forest.

The plan was developed in a participatory way, with wideconsultation among the stakeholders. A review of paststudies and available data was carried out. A workshopfollowed, in which the vision and purpose of the planwere agreed. Thematic areas were identified, which formedthe basis for nine thematic workshops and one zonationworkshop, encompassing all stakeholders and disciplinesinvolved in the entire process. Workshop outcomes werepresented to the participants for discussions.

G-1-'3/#3</,%-<-3,/;"-3.-;6*The vision for the plan is to have an intact and fullyfunctioning forest ecosystem with no reduction in theexisting forest area by 2027. The purpose of the plan is toput in place sustainable forest management andconservation practices. This will be achieved by acombination of strategies and actions focusing on the mainissues. The strategies will focus on forest zonation,ecotourism, environmental education, problem animalmanagement, subsistence use of the forest, biodiversityconservation, commercial use of the forest, infrastructuredevelopment, human resource development, andmonitoring and research. The overriding principle for thestrategy is sustainability. Arabuko-Sokoke Forest shouldcontribute positively to sustainable development, and meetneeds of present and future generations.

A'3+*H+The forest has been overexploited over the last years.Most of the commercial trees have been harvested.Commercial exploitation at present is not a viable option,but the communities adjacent to the forest have continuedto depend on it for subsistence use, which they consideras their biggest benefit from the forest. The commercialharvesting that has taken place in the past and thecontinued subsistence use has not been covered by propermanagement guidelines. This lack of regulation, coupledwith rampant, illegal exploitation, has contributed to forestdegradation and loss of biodiversity.

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Arabuko-Sokoke Forest harbours unique endemic flora andfauna, which makes it an important area for biodiversity.Its rich biodiversity, especially bird species, makesArabuko-Sokoke Forest very important for eco-tourism.

The forest has contributed to the poverty of the adjacentcommunities, by harbouring animals such as elephantsand baboons that damage crops and may cause injury anddeath to human beings. Problem animal control has beena major preoccupation for the Kenya Wildlife Service. Someincome-generating activities have been introduced toreduce the poverty levels; the most successful have beenbutterfly-farming and bee-keeping. These activities aim toreduce unsustainable use of the forest and to provide analternative land use that is not vulnerable to animal damage.

I'3#+-'3/'B/+>*/B'"*1+The plan proposes four zones in and around the forest:• non-extractive zone, divided into a biodiversity

conservation sub-zone and eco-tourism sub-zone;• subsistence zone, divided into a community use sub-

zone and non-timber forest products sub-zone;• commercial zone; and• intervention zone.

?>*/)+"#+*,-./56#3The Strategic Plan proposes nine thematic areas formanagement of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. For each thematicarea, objectives and outputs are given as follows:

Biodiversity conservationTo conserve and enhance the unique biodiversity of theforest.• Increase understanding and knowledge of the forest

ecosystem.• Improve local awareness of biodiversity.• Reduce external threats and interference.• Restore degraded habitats.

Subsistence useTo enhance the sustainable livelihoods of the forest-adjacentcommunity.• Address causes of poverty amongst forest-adjacent

communities.• Develop partnerships between government and forest-

adjacent communities for shared benefits andresponsibilities.

• Develop a more systematic approach to local utilisationof forest resources.

Eco-tourism and environmental educationTo add value to the forest through revenue generation andimproved awareness.• Increase sustainable eco-tourism revenues. ·• Improve local benefits from ecotourism.• Focus on the longer-term benefits of environmental

education.

Problem animal managementTo reduce and mitigate damage caused by wildlife in forest-adjacent villages while maintaining the biodiversityconservation importance of the forest.

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• Control animal movement.• Improve effectiveness of patrolling.• Reduce impact of animal damage.

Forest protectionTo significantly reduce levels of poaching and illicit forestproduct harvesting.• Involve forest-adjacent communities in forest protection.• Improve the effectiveness of patrolling.• Encourage more appropriate legislation and deterrents.

Commercial useTo maximise the commercial potential of available forestresources whilst ensuring their sustainable use.• Utilise the productive potential of established

plantations.• Support local involvement in commercial forest-based

activity.

Infrastructure developmentTo establish and maintain the infrastructure necessary toachieve the multiple objectives of forest management at leastcost.• Maintain the road network.• Maintain buildings, services and equipment.• Develop and work with new institutional partnerships

to maximise the impact and utility of infrastructure.

Human resource developmentTo build an efficient team for the management of the forest.• Develop partnerships among stakeholders to improve

the skills base for effective forest management.• Build teams and encourage team-work.

Research and MonitoringTo obtain improved understanding of the forest and itsusage for better management and monitoring.• Fill knowledge and information gaps for management.• Improve technologies in management and introduce

new ones.• Monitor the activities carried out under the strategic

plan.

The plan gives actions to be carried out to achieve eachobjective. These are prioritised and responsibilities areassigned.

The plan proposes retention of the existing administrativeframework at Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. The four governmentdepartments should continue to work together, with thelocal community incorporated in the team through theForest-Adjacent Dwellers’ Association. It proposesestablishment of an Arabuko-Sokoke Forum, in which otherstakeholders, not represented in the management team,will participate. This will be supported throughestablishment of an Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Trust, whichwill solicit for support for conservation of the forest.

Part 2 of the plan provides Operational Guidelines, whichshould be followed when Operational Plans are prepared.

Part 3 gives Planning Information, in the form of thematicprofiles of the forest. It also provides the basis for furtherproject development in the forest, which may attract furthersupport to conservation initiatives.

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M'.#+-'3Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is the largest single block ofindigenous coastal forest remaining in East Africa. It issituated in Kenya’s Coast Province and transverses Kilifiand Malindi Districts at a latitude of 3° 20’ S and longitude39° 50’ E (Maps 1 and 2).

?';',"#;>=/#3</#6+-+%<*The eastern part of the forest lies on a flat coastal plain atan altitude of about 45 m above sea level. This rises to aplateau of about 60–200 m in the central and westernparts of the forest (Map 3).

0'"*1+/#"*#The total forest area is approximately 41,600 ha.

)+#+%1The forest was originally declared as Crown Forest in 1932and was gazetted as a forest reserve in 1943. An additional2,675 ha at Kararacha in the south east was added in 1968.Within the forest area about 4,300 ha was designated as astrict Nature Reserve in 1977. This was extended in 1979by 1,635 ha (Table 1).

G*,*+#+-'3/+=;*1There are three major vegetation types in Arabuko-SokokeForest (Map 4).

Mixed Forest — This is a dense forest type which extendsto about 7,000 ha on wetter coastal sands in the east ofArabuko-Sokoke. It has a diverse tree flora includingAfzelia quanzensis, Hymenaea verrucosa, Combretumschumannii and Manilkara sansibarensis and the cycadEncephalartos hildebrandtii.

Brachystegia Forest — This is a more open forest coveringabout 7,700 ha, dominated by Brachystegia spiciformis ondrier and infertile white sands through the centre of theforest.

Cynometra Forest — This is a dense forest or thicket onthe north-west side of Arabuko-Sokoke, covering about23,500 ha on the red Magarini sands towards the westernside of the forest. It is dominated by trees of Cynometrawebberi and Manilkara sulcata, and the euphorbia speciesEuphorbia candelabrum, but with reducing numbers.Brachylaena huillensis also used to be abundant in thiszone, but its numbers have been severely reduced byextraction.

N-'<-@*"1-+=The forest has rich biodiversity, including a concentrationof endemic and endangered flora and fauna. It has beenranked as the second most important forest for conservationof threatened bird species in mainland Africa. More than230 bird species have been recorded, including six globallythreatened species: Clarke’s Weaver (endemic to the forestand its immediate surroundings), Sokoke Scops Owl, AmaniSunbird and Sokoke Pipit (all of which are near-endemics),Spotted Ground Thrush (a rare migrant) and East CoastAkalat (a rare species confined to East African coastalforests). Fifty-two mammal species have been recorded inthe forest, including 3 taxa which are globally threatened:the Golden-rumped Elephant-shrew (of which 90% of the

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known global population lives in the forest); the SokokeBushy-tailed Mongoose (one of the 5 mongoose speciesrecorded) and Ader’s Duiker (which has only one otherpopulation, in Zanzibar). The forest is also a refuge forsome of Kenya’s less common mammal species andsupports a herd of about 70 elephants. Diverse populationsof reptiles and invertebrates are present; the latterinclude more than 250 recorded species of butterfly(among which are 4 endemics). Over 600 recorded plantspecies are known, including 50 that are globally ornationally rare.

V%4#3/;';%6#+-'3/#<W#.*3+/+'/+>*/B'"*1+There are approximately 50 villages surrounding the forest,with a total population of about 104,000 (Map 5). Themain ethnic group in the area is the Giriama; they displacedthe former Sanya communities, who were originally forestdwellers and hunters. Today the forest-adjacent populationis mostly small scale subsistence farmers who utilise theforest for some of their livelihood requirements. The maincrops grown are maize, cassava and beans. Locally growncash crops include coconut, mango, cashew-nut andsesame. Farmers are increasingly taking up dairy farming,although levels are still low. There are no squatters withinthe forest. The shamba system has been used forestablishing exotic plantations in the past, but it was notvery successful due to crop raids by wild animals (mainlyelephants and baboons).

V-1+'"=Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is all that remains of what waspreviously a much more extensive forest. Populationgrowth, coupled with increasing demands for timber andland for agriculture, have contributed to a reduction inthe extent and condition of the forest. Much of the forestis now degraded, particularly through the removal ofcommercial timber species for carving and generalconstruction.

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5'6-.=The Kenya forest policy is laid down in Session Paper no.1 of 1968. This policy is being reviewed in the light of theKenya Forest Master Plan process.

The forest policy was one of the outputs of the KenyaForestry Master Plan project, which was a joint venture ofMENR and Finnish Development Assistance (FINNIDA).The project developed various scenarios in their 1994publication Kenya Forestry beyond 2000. The areas coveredwere: capacity of the forest to meet the local needs forwood and other forest products; meeting the demands forindustrial wood products; protecting biodiversity,promoting eco-tourism and conserving the forest; ensuringthat sustainable benefits from the forest which supportagriculture and mitigation of global warming continue. Thedocument established a good foundation for future forestrysector planning. The time-span for the Master Plan was 25years.

The proposed Forestry Policy (1994) under the KenyaForestry Master Plan contains seven policy objectives:

1. Increase the forest and tree cover of the country inorder to ensure an increasing supply of forest productsand services for meeting the basic needs of the presentand future generations and for enhancing the role offorestry in socio-economic development.

2. Conserve the remaining natural habitats and theirwildlife, rehabilitate them and conserve theirbiodiversity.

3. Contribute to sustainable agriculture by conserving thesoil and water resources by tree planting andappropriate forest management.

4. Support the Government policy of alleviating povertyand promoting rural development, by income basedon forest and tree resources, by providing employment,and by promoting equity and participation by localcommunities.

5. Fulfil the agreed national obligations under internationalenvironmental and other forestry-related conventionsand principles.

6. Manage the forest resources assigned for productiveuse efficiently for the maximum sustainable benefit,taking into account all direct and indirect economicand environmental impacts; also review the ways inwhich the forest and trees are valued, in order tofacilitate management decisions.

7. Recognise and maximise the benefits of a viable andefficient forest industry for the national economy anddevelopment.

The proposed policy statement on indigenous forest, inwhich category ASF falls, states that “all gazetted indigenousforests, woodland and bush land and mangroves shouldremain reserved”. They will be managed by state-approvedagencies which will allocate them primarily for: (1)regulated multi-purpose forestry, using the zoning conceptwhich does not endanger the conservation efforts of theforest; (2) preservation of biodiversity; (3) conservationof soil and water; and (4) providing products and services,mainly locally, on a subsistence basis, by communityparticipation where appropriate.

In the general management principles, the policy statesthat “the rationale of forest management depends on localconditions set by climate, soil and tree species, and theactual forest-related needs of the people, which incorporateboth social and cultural aspects. In all circumstances, theforest resources will be managed in a sustainable mannerwith due regard to environmental conservation. Reliableinformation on forest resources and their utilisation shouldbe ensured. This information should include forest healthmonitoring”.

M*,-16#+-'3The FD operates through the Forest Act Cap 385 of theLaws of Kenya. However, the Act is outdated and doesnot address current issues, realities and expectations. Anew Bill, the Forestry Bill 2000, was therefore prepared.The Bill has gone through all stages of development andis awaiting tabling in Parliament to become law. The Billis more comprehensive, covering aspects of communityparticipation and multiple stakeholders in forestry. Itproposes the establishment of a Kenya Forestry Service,which would be a corporate body responsible for: (a)formulation of policies, for approval by the Board,regarding the management, conservation and utilisation

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of all types of forest areas in the country; (b) managementof all indigenous forests for conservation purposes; (c)management of all private forests in consultation with theowners; (d) protection of all forests in Kenya in accordancewith the provisions of the Act.

There are about 77 statutes that deal with environmentallegislation. Until 1999 there was no framework forenvironmental legislation. Parliament passed theEnvironmental Management and Coordination Bill, 1999,on 15 December 1999 and it came into force on 14 January2000. This legislation establishes the national environmentalprinciples, provides guidance and gives coherence to goodenvironmental management. It also deals with cross-sectional issues such as overall environmental policyformulation, environmental planning, protection andconservation of the environment, environmental impactassessment, environmental audit and monitoring,environmental quality standards, environmentalprotection orders, institution coordination and conflictresolution. It will have impacts on other legislationdealing with the environment, such as: land tenure andland use legislation, forestry legislation, wildlife legislation,water laws, and agriculture legislation. The Act provides agood avenue for environmental protection and theestablishment of an operation framework under theNational Environment Management Agency (NEMA).However, NEMA is not yet operational but is expected tostart work soon.

Under the new Forest Bill, local communities will beallowed to participate in forest management. A pilotParticipatory Forest Management (PFM) project is underwayin the south-west of ASF, in the Dida Sub-location. Theconcept of community participation in forest managementhas been accepted by the government and, on the strengthof this, the Permanent Secretary (MENR) gave permissionin October 2000 for the Dida pilot project. This type ofpermission has been used in other forest reserves, likethe Ngong Road Forest Sanctuary. FD is working onnational guidelines for PFM.

!<4-3-1+"#+-@*/B"#4*Y'"&Four Government Departments work in partnership atArabuko-Sokoke Forest: Forest Department (FD), KenyaWildlife Service (KWS), Kenya Forestry Research Institute(KEFRI), and National Museums of Kenya (NMK). Day-to-day activities are co-ordinated through four working groupsoverseen by a Senior Management Committee (SMC). Thecombined membership of the four working groups, plusthe SMC, forms the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ManagementTeam (ASFMT). The working groups are the:• Forest management working group,• Rural development working group,• Tourism and education working group, and• Research and monitoring working group.

The four concerned departments are co-ordinated at thenational level by various memoranda of understanding(MoUs) and there is a Secretariat in Nairobi for thispurpose. The MoUs have been instrumental in guidingthe project and partners on the ground. At present, theASFMT does not have legal status. However, much hasbeen achieved through the goodwill and co-operation ofteam members.

L3+*"3#+-'3#6/;#"+3*"1>-;1BirdLife International (a term used here to include itspredecessor, the International Council for BirdPreservation), a global partnership of conservation NGOswhose co-ordinating Secretariat is based in the UK,has worked alongside the forest management team since1983, when a series of natural resource surveyswere undertaken. FD and KWS worked closely withBirdLife International when Arabuko-Sokoke Forest cameunder joint FD-KWS management (under their MoU) in1991. Between 1990 and 1992, the UK OverseasDevelopment Administration (ODA) funded the KenyaIndigenous Forest Conservation Project (KIFCON), whichundertook investigative work, and proposed pilotprojects for conserving indigenous forests in Kakamega,Mau and Arabuko-Sokoke. In the plan for Phase II, itwas proposed that a pilot programme in Arabuko-Sokoke would have been implemented by FD and KWS,supported by BirdLife International with funding fromODA. However, the withdrawal of ODA funds preventedthis.

With the withdrawal of ODA, the British DevelopmentDivision in East Africa provided bridging funds to continueessential work. These funds maintained the operations ofthe ASFMT and were vital in allowing for the review andreshaping of the project design before the start of theArabuko-Sokoke Forest Management and ConservationProject (ASFMCP) in 1996, which was financed by aEuropean Union (EU – DG VIII Tropical Forest budgetline) grant to the BirdLife International Secretariat. Duringthis project, the designated BirdLife International Partnerin Kenya, Nature Kenya (formerly the East Africa NaturalHistory Society), became increasingly involved. It is likelythat the future role of BirdLife International at Arabuko-Sokoke should be played increasingly, if not entirely, byNature Kenya, rather than by the BirdLife InternationalSecretariat.

The ASFMCP will be finalised with the production of thismanagement plan. The partnership in forest managementin ASF has been a test case of how multi-stakeholderinvolvement can strengthen forest management. The localcommunity has been involved in management throughthe Forest Adjacent Dwellers Association (FADA), formedin 1999. Future governance and institutional partnershipsare discussed under Section 8.

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?>*/@-1-'3Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is a unique and important asset.This long-term vision guides the purpose, objectives andapproach to the conservation and use of the forest atpresent, and into the future. The vision reflects the needto adapt the approach to forest resource managementto one which meets the continually changing needs ofsociety, and which incorporates the diversity of interestsand values which society attributes to the forest, both fortoday and for future generations. Whatever decisions andactions are taken today must lead towards the long-termvision—this is the challenge for sustainable forestmanagement.

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The vision is important because it spells out the directionin which to go and the means to get there.

5%";'1*The purpose sets the long-term goal which is expected tohave been achieved by the end of the 25 years.

• Sustainable forest management and conservationpractices established and in operation

)+"#+*,-./4#3#,*4*3+/'$W*.+-@*1The strategic forest management objectives determine thedirection to take in order to achieve the long-term vision.The strategic objectives for Arabuko-Sokoke Forest arebroadly defined by the national objectives for forestmanagement and conservation of indigenous forest inKenya, as expressed in National Forest Policy. SinceNational Policy Objectives are by definition broad, theyhave been further refined in this plan to fit the uniquelocal context of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest.

In order of priority, the strategic forest managementobjectives are:

1. To conserve and enhance the unique biodiversityof the forest.

2. To contribute towards meeting subsistence needsand improving the livelihoods of forest-adjacentcommunities.

3. To improve and develop the condition andpotential for utilisation of the forest.

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The strategic forest management objectives will be achievedby implementing different actions over a period of time.The way in which these actions are carried out is just asimportant to achieving the objectives as what is actuallydone. The following principles have been developed toguide the way actions are carried out to achieve the long-term vision.

• Relevant stakeholder participation in the planning andimplementation of all activities will be ensured.

In a multi-stakeholder society, all those who have a “stake”in the resource must be represented in any decision-makingprocess concerning its use. Although this may be time-consuming in the short term, it ensures thatcommunications and the common vision are used to resolvedifferences and reduces conflict in the longer term. Thisprinciple has guided the preparation of this strategic plan.

• Competing interests will be resolved and reconciled “onsite” as far as possible and prior to any implementationof any action.

This strategic plan establishes the broad umbrella orframework under which all types of activity are carriedout. It will be impossible to resolve all the varied differencesbetween diverse stakeholder interests at once. However,experience suggests that potential conflicts are best tackledon a site-by-site basis with the involvement of relevantstakeholders as close to the source of conflict as possible.In some cases a higher authority may need to be consulted.

• Working partnership arrangements will be establishedbetween government agencies and other stakeholdergroups in civil society in order to implement actions.

Experiences with Arabuko-Sokoke Forest to date suggestthat partnership arrangements between differentgovernment agencies and other groups in civil society canbe an effective way to create joint responsibility and“ownership” of actions. No single body or organisation hasthe sole right to plan, implement and benefit from actions,and best results will come through collaborative efforts.

• Transparency and openness will be built into workingpractices.

Good communication, common vision, and accountabilityfor actions can come only through the use of open andtransparent working practices. Civil society today demandsmore accountability, and the advance of communicationstechnology has made it much easier to adopt this style ofworking practice: both within the government agenciesconcerned, and between the government agencies andother stakeholder groups in society. Transparency worksboth from the top downwards, as well as from the bottomupwards.

• Priority will be given to forest resource conservationrather than to extractive development.

Indigenous forests in Kenya are unlikely ever to make asignificant contribution to meeting the commercial forestproduct needs of society and forest-based industry. Thehigh value of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is a feature of itsuniqueness and importance for conservation of biodiversityrather than its ability to supply forest products. Recognisingthis, any development or extractive use of the forestshould take place only insofar as it conserves or enhancesthe forest’s biodiversity value, rather than its economic value.

• Actions will be focused on the sustainable use of theforest rather than the sustainable yield of products.

A certain level of extractive use of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest,particularly its use for meeting subsistence forest productrequirements, can undoubtedly be achieved withoutcompromising its biodiversity value. While use of the forestat this level is both acceptable and desirable, it is unlikelythat all the subsistence needs of forest-adjacentcommunities can be met in this way. In general, the non-

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consumptive use of the forest, rather than its yield ofproducts, should be considered as a means of achievingsustainable forest management.

• Actions will be taken cautiously and their impact willbe carefully monitored.

Knowledge of the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ecosystem islimited. It will not always be possible to predict the impactof any action on its unique features. Research and studieswill contribute to building up understanding slowly, but,in the meantime, care must be taken to avoid any drasticaction which may have unpredictable consequences, andto monitor all that is done in order to understand theimpacts better. This is the precautionary principle.

• The planning guidelines developed in this strategy willbe used to underpin the preparation andimplementation of all operational plans.

The way in which things are done is as important as whatis done: particularly in a multi-stakeholder environmentwhich must be inclusive and transparent. This StrategicForest Management Plan contains guidelines for planningand implementing all types of activity within operationalforest management plans of various types. These havebeen prepared by looking at the knowledge andexperience gained to date, and should therefore beconsidered as “best practice” to guide the way in whichmanagement operations are implemented. As experienceand better understanding are gained over time, theseguidelines may alter to reflect this.

• All management actions will be carried out on the basisof approved operational plans conforming with thestrategies and principles outlined in this Strategic ForestManagement Plan.

This Strategic Forest Management Plan forms the broadframework for all forest management activities within andaround Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. However, it does notdescribe on a site-by-site basis what should take place orwhen. Different types of operational plan perform thisfunction (see Box). The Strategic Forest ManagementPlan provides the criteria by which operational plansare approved (both in terms of the activities containedwithin them, and the way in which they are to becarried out). Only those operational plans which complywith the objectives, principles and guidelines containedin the strategic plan should be approved forimplementation.

• The respective responsibilities and roles, as well as rightsand benefits of all relevant stakeholders, will beidentified for planning, implementing and monitoringactions in the forest.

The involvement of local people and other groups insociety as stakeholders in the planning and implementationprocess is not simply intended as a means of creatingbeneficiaries for the products and services in return fornot carrying out destructive activities. Participatory forestryis more concerned with the sharing of responsibilities inan agreed way, including sharing in protection,implementation of actions, and monitoring. This may thenresult in forest products also becoming available for sharing.Participatory planning will emphasise the respective rolesand responsibilities of stakeholders, particularly at the levelof forest-adjacent communities. Participatory forestmanagement plans will aim to formalise these rolesand responsibilities for both local communities andgovernment departments who are partners in sucharrangements.

• The knowledge base and understanding will be builtup through ongoing studies and research since it iscritical to better management of the forest resource.

Good, empirical information is fundamental to planning,implementation and monitoring. Arabuko-Sokoke Foresthas the ability to attract a wide range of research andstudies because of its biological uniqueness andimportance. Increased knowledge of ecological, social andenvironmental systems at Arabuko-Sokoke will help toimprove interventions and should be welcomed as beingfundamental to better management of the resource.

• The link between reward and effort, which is critical tosuccessful implementation of all actions, will bereinforced.

Implementation of this Strategic Forest Management Plan,and the achievement of its objectives and vision is whollydependent on individuals within the partner institutionsand other stakeholder groups. Unless there is a linkbetween their inputs as individuals (efforts) and the benefitsthey receive from the process (rewards), lack of motivationwill result. Organisational structures frequently do notprovide this link. As far as possible, emphasis will be puton institutional structures and human resourcedevelopment so as to facilitate such linkages.

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In accordance with the principles of the approach outlinedin section 1.4 this Strategic Forest Management Plan hasbeen prepared through an open and transparent processinvolving representatives of all the main stakeholdergroups. A series of thematic workshops was held,attended by representatives of different stakeholdergroups. During the preparation process there have beenwide-ranging discussions covering all the major areas ofinterest, and the final strategies and actions incorporatedinto the plan have been reached through a process ofconsensus.

A total of 12 workshops, visioning, zonation, nine thematicand final workshops were held; 25 to 60 participantsattended each workshop. A position paper was preparedbefore the zonation workshop and the thematic workshopsfor presentation and discussion. Details of the planningprocess are provided in Annex 1, while Annex 2 gives thenames of participants.

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It is proposed that Arabuko-Sokoke Forest be divided into4 main forest management zones, 2 of which each have 2sub-zones. Indicative zones have been identified, discussedand agreed between a wide range of stakeholder groupsthrough their representatives during thematic workshops.The primary management objective for each zonecorresponds broadly with one of the strategic managementobjectives for the forest, but there may also be othersubsidiary management objectives for any particular zone;i.e. zones can have multiple objectives.

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Tables 2 and 3 list the zones and give their maincharacteristics. All zones have multiple managementobjectives and multiple stakeholders. The Strategic ForestManagement Plan attempts to reconcile these differentobjectives and “stakes”, recognising that the forest needsto provide a wide range of goods and services to meet therequirements of today’s society. The Subsistence andNon-extractive Zones, and their sub-zones, requirecareful definition, and precise boundaries have beenproposed only adjacent to Dida (Map 6). Elsewhere, thesedistinctions will be subject to Operational Plans to bedeveloped.

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Nine themes representing the major issues or concerns withthe management of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest were identifiedduring initial stages of the Strategic Forest ManagementPlanning process. All these issues need to be addressed ifthe strategic objectives of the plan are to be achieved.

Thematic workshops were held, covering each theme, towhich all stakeholders or their representatives were invited.During the workshops, the main issues concerning eachtheme were discussed, and the strategies for addressingthem were agreed and prioritised.

In the plan, the section on each theme contains some keystrategies for addressing the identified issues. These indicatethe general means by which the particular issues orproblems will be addressed. Within each strategy there areseveral specific actions, which will be taken to implementthe strategy over the period of this strategic plan. Eachstrategy has been given a priority rating (1–4) to indicatehow soon it should be tackled (1 indicates highest priority).In addition, the lead institution and other institutions (shownin brackets) responsible for implementing and/or co-ordinating the action have been identified.

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J22+12Arabuko-Sokoke Forest has great importance as a uniqueecosystem which contains a number of rare and endangeredspecies. The forest is surrounded by a rapidly increasingpopulation which is highly dependent on it for subsistenceand commercial needs. Levels of unsustainable forest usehave intensified, with increasing human populationsresulting in higher levels of resource degradation. Recentstudies have indicated problems with the regeneration ofcertain tree species, such as Brachylaena huillensis, whichhas been a target for selective harvesting for many decades,leading to concern for its long-term future. Changes in foreststructure and composition such as this affect the already

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threatened bird and animal species that are adapted to theunique habitats found in the forest.

The already precarious status of some of the mostthreatened species found in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest isexacerbated by the fact that many of these species aredependent on areas of relatively undisturbed forest, whichare becoming less common as pressures increase. Forexample, forest-adapted birds at Arabuko-Sokoke dependmainly on habitat of a certain structure, and so are adverselyaffected by changes brought about by forest degradationthrough pole cutting and fuelwood harvesting. Removalof dry fuelwood reduces invertebrate abundance(especially of termites and beetles), and causes loss ofnest sites for hole- or ground-nesting birds. Hunting forfood is a more direct threat to several of the endangeredmammal species. Estimated populations of the mostthreatened bird species range from about 1,000 SokokeScops Owls to around 7,400 East Coast Akalats. It hasbeen variously estimated that a viable population sizeprobably requires a minimum of 500 pairs. Protection ofthe remaining undisturbed forest habitat is thereforeessential to ensure the survival of these species.

Awareness of the important biodiversity of the forest islow amongst forest-adjacent communities. Most of the rareor endangered species have little, if any, local significanceand provide no tangible benefits. People may not evenbe aware that these species are threatened, while they areonly too acutely aware of their own forest product needs.

The very existence of the forest is subject to increasingexternal economic pressures. The gravest of these is thepossibility of the mining of recently discovered titaniumdeposits in the underlying sands. There is also pressurefor forest excisions (the lifting of legal protection) toprovide more agricultural land for subsistence farmers.These threats stem from an underestimation of the manyvalues of biodiversity, and of the important contributionthe forest makes to local livelihoods through the goods,services and other attributes, such as its ethical and aestheticimportance.

K?L1(&%<1To conserve and enhance the unique biodiversity of theforest.

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Enhancing understanding and knowledge of theforest ecosystemBetter information and understanding of the forestecosystem is the key to sustainable biodiversityconservation. The contribution of researchers has beencritical to generating understanding and awareness of theimportance of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Opportunitiesshould continue to be sought for such research, makingsure that identified priority issues are addressed. However,it is not sufficient that knowledge and understanding ofthe forest should rest solely with researchers. Local peopletoo are a repository of knowledge about the forest. Theirparticipation and support will strengthen the knowledgebase. Measures will therefore be taken to increase thebenefits flowing to local people from research, throughtheir direct involvement. Research must address their needs

as well as those of biodiversity conservation, particularlywhere these concern sustainable utilisation of the forest.

Improving local awareness of biodiversity valuesThe strategy is to seek greater participation of localcommunities in research and other biodiversity activitiessuch as eco-tourism, with the result that biodiversity valueswill become of more direct relevance to them. This willstrengthen their awareness of the importance of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, and will promote their support for itssustainable management.

Countering external threats and interferenceMany of the actions required to counter external threatsto the existence of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest lie outside thescope of this Strategic Forest Management Plan. However,the plan will be used to promote Arabuko-Sokoke Forest

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to a wider audience, both for the purposes of generatingresources and for lobbying. The strategy is therefore toraise the profile of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest more widelyand continuously, rather than simply responding to specificexternal threats as they occur. The MoU arrangement,involving four government partners for implementing forestmanagement and conservation activities, has shown somesuccess (although it has not been without its initialproblems). It is proposed to extend this partnershipapproach, both by broadening it to include representativesof other stakeholders and strengthening it at the local level.

Restoring degraded habitatsConsiderable areas of the forest have already beendegraded through unsustainable utilisation. Some of thesedegraded areas probably still contain populations of theimportant bird and animal species, but numbers are nothigh enough to persist without recruitment from theremaining areas of higher-quality habitat. As a strategy,specific interventions will be undertaken in order to restoresome of these habitats. In some cases, a reduction in humanpressure will enable them to recover without furtherintervention.

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J22+12Subsistence use of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is probably thegreatest single threat to its unique biodiversity, but it isthe aspect of the forest which is most valued amongstforest-adjacent villages. Local communities are dependenton the forest for a range of their livelihood needs,including: fuelwood, poles, fruits, medicinal plants, bush-meat and fodder. As adjacent populations increase, forestresources dwindle, leading to degradation and adverseimpacts on biodiversity. However, forest dependencyleading to unsustainable utilisation is a symptom ofpoverty, not ignorance, and local people are only too awareof their impacts. It is important, therefore, to try toaddress the causes of poverty, rather than its effects. Peopledo not depend on forests through choice, but out ofnecessity. It is recognised that the poorer people are,the more they are dependent on the forest resources.This scenario correspondingly changes as livelihoodsimprove.

Attempts by the FD and KWS to control subsistence useof the forest have not been particularly successful. Withlimited resources and personnel there is little they can doto control its day-to-day use by the forest-adjacentcommunities who depend on it. On the other hand, forestsare productive, and renewable resources and sustainablemanagement for a range of forest products is possible ifutilisation is systematic and controlled. In addition, many

uses of the forest (such as bee-keeping and butterfly-farming) are non-destructive and can continue to providelivelihood benefits without endangering the forest resource.The success of the Kipepeo Project for butterfly-farmingand bee-keeping clearly demonstrates this.

Participatory forest management is an approach that isnow being widely used to address issues of unsustainablesubsistence forest use. This means involving localcommunities in the forest management planning process,and eliciting their support for sustainable levels ofutilisation. At Arabuko-Sokoke this approach is beingpiloted at Dida village and early indications are that itmay be a viable strategy. Despite experience withParticipatory Forest Management, it is too early to be sureof success. Both local communities and government officialsneed to be convinced of the potential value of thisapproach.

In addition to subsistence use, many secondary users alsodepend on forest products for their livelihoods. Inparticular, wood carvers in local towns and villages dependon obtaining supplies of good quality carving timber forthe manufacture of handicrafts. In the past, extraction ofsome of the highly valued timbers, particularly muhuhu(Brachylaena huillensis), has contributed significantly toforest degradation. This subsistence cutting still continues,although it is illegal. Similarly, poorer households mayearn a living from fuel collection (and sometimes poleharvesting), which they sell locally for cash income. Arecent study showed that the pole poachers have depletedthe forest of mature seed-producing trees and now resortto cutting young trees that have not reached seeding age.This has serious effects on regeneration.

K?L1(&%<1To enhance the sustainable livelihoods of the forest-adjacent community

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Mitigating the causes of poverty amongst forest-adjacent communitiesA strategy aimed at addressing the causes of povertyamongst forest-adjacent communities will be adopted. Thiswill include interventions seeking to support sustainablelivelihoods, with a particular focus on the poorer membersof the community who tend to be most forest-dependent.Particular attention will be given to supporting and

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promoting income generation activities which either utilisethe forest in non-destructive ways, or provide an alternativesource of income or forest products from outside the forest.Either way, it is hoped that pressure on the forest fromunsustainable use will be eased.

Developing partnerships between governmentagencies and forest-adjacent communitiesOver the past 3 years, Participatory Forest Managementand planning has been piloted in the Dida Sub-locationon the western side of the forest. This has involved forest-adjacent communities working closely in partnership withthe government: particularly the Forest Department. The

PFM pilot at Dida has attracted considerable enthusiasmand some success, and the local level institution has nowbeen registered. As a result, other villages have started toexpress interest in becoming involved in a similarundertaking. A phased approach will be taken to increasethe scale of this participatory approach, to cover all forest-adjacent communities around Arabuko-Sokoke in future.Although some of the required approaches for participatoryforestry at village level are now known, the legal andinstitutional framework needed to support it effectively isstill weak. Strengthening this will be a key action, throughinclusion of the Arabuko-Sokoke experiences into nationallevel decision-making.

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Developing a systematic approach to localutilisation of forest resourcesThe development of participatory approaches for forestmanagement implies that communities will themselves beresponsible for regulating their use of the forest. Pastattempts to regulate forest use by Forest Departmentsusually focused on timber production, whereasmanagement systems for the diverse range of locallyimportant products such as poles, fuelwood and wildanimals have received very little attention. The strategyfor encouraging sustainable levels of forest usage will focuson sensitising and educating forest-adjacent communitiesabout forest productive capacity, and at the same timeseeking alternative sources of forest products.

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J22+12The unique biodiversity of Arabuko-Sokoke is an importantasset, which can be used for the development of forest-based eco-tourism. Eco-tourism has the potential togenerate revenue in a non-destructive way and adds valueto the forest resource. It also creates wider awareness ofthe forest, its importance, and the need for its conservation.Although eco-tourism is broadly compatible withbiodiversity conservation, it is necessary to identify clearlyareas or zones within the forest where it can take placewithout any adverse impacts.

There has been some activity in the development of eco-tourism at Arabuko-Sokoke, but there is still furtherpotential. Few hotels outside Watamu have been involvedin promoting the forest as a tourist attraction and morevisitors from hotels in Malindi and Kilifi could be broughtto the forest. Special attention will be made to attract visitorsto the southern part of the forest. More promotionalactivities are required to attract more visitors. Thedevelopment of infrastructure and facilities is required tomake the forest an attractive eco-tourist destination andto create opportunities for eco-tourism.

At present, there is no mechanism in place for eco-tourismrevenue to contribute directly to sustainable forestmanagement and conservation. The amount raised fromvoluntary contributions has been small, and there is as yetno entry fee to the forest. Currently, most of the incomefrom tourism activities goes to local hotel and travelbusiness with very little direct benefit to local people.

The only group that benefits at present is the ArabukoSokoke Forest Guides, who charge a fee to take touristsinto the forest.

In the longer-term, environmental education is the key toensuring the future of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Withimproved understanding and appreciation of its importanceespecially amongst local people, there will be less pressurein the future for excisions and resistance to destructivedevelopments. A good start has been made in thedevelopment of environmental education, but furtheremphasis is required to ensure that there is widespreadand continuing understanding of the importance of theforest.

K?L1(&%<1To add value to the forest through income and revenuegeneration and improved awareness.

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Increasing sustainable eco-tourism revenuesA strategy of increasing the number of visitors, andconsequently the level of revenue from eco-tourism willbe adopted. Visitors will be drawn into areas of theforest, which can sustain additional tourism withoutadverse effects. Recommendations on the marketing andpromotion of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest have been includedin the tourism development plan (Bliss, 2000). Furtherstudies may be required to identify and implementspecific marketing strategies, particularly for tourists fromthe adjacent resorts of Malindi and Kilifi and possiblyas far as Mombasa. A system of gate fees is proposed,

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with a proportion of the earnings being channelled backinto the forest to contribute towards its sustainablemanagement, and to help cover the additional costs ofextending the scope and range of eco-tourism activitiescurrently available.

Enhancing community benefits from eco-tourismOpportunities will be created for local communities tobenefit more from eco-tourism. These will include supportfor basic accommodation facilities in adjacent villages,and opportunities for local people to work more closelywith KWS and FD as Community Rangers. Visitor centreswill be extended to include marketing of local productsand crafts, and for cultural as well as educationalprogrammes.

Increasing the long-term benefits of environmentaleducationIn the long term, improved environmental education willlead to a better understanding of the importance ofconserving Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. The strategy will beto target a range of groups in society through differentactions, including school children, and national andinternational forest visitors.

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J22+12Crop-raiding by forest elephants and baboons causesconsiderable damage and occasionally loss of life in areasand farms adjacent to the forest (Maps 7.1 and 7.2). Theselosses are the main causes of antagonism by forest-adjacentcommunities towards forest conservation, and it is thereforedifficult to enlist local support for forest protection whiletheir livelihoods are being threatened by wildlife. Currently,the Wildlife Management and Conservation Act does notallow animals to be culled. Options for animal barriers,such as electric fences, are prohibitively expensive(particularly when compared with the value of the cropsbeing lost or damaged), and their effectiveness in Arabuko-Sokoke has yet to be assessed.

Information and understanding about elephant movementsand the carrying capacity of the forest to support thispopulation are inadequate, although the situation is knownto be dynamic. For example, following the high rainfallassociated with El Niño, there were considerably fewerelephant movements outside the forest as water sourceswithin the forest were sufficient. At present, KWS takes theresponsibility for problem animal control but is severelylimited by inadequate infrastructure, personnel andcommunication facilities.

Addressing the issue of problem animal management is apriority in this Strategic Forest Management Plan (SFMP). Ifthis is not done, local people will not support forest

conservation, and pressures for settlement and agriculturewill increase.

K?L1(&%<1To reduce and mitigate damage caused by wildlife in forest-adjacent areas and farms while maintaining the biodiversityconservation importance of the forest.

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Controlling animal movementThe priority strategy for addressing the problem of animaldamage to crops, livestock and human beings is to usebarriers (fences or game moats) to divert elephants awayfrom sensitive areas and to channel their movements e.g.by providing access corridors to sources of water outsidethe forest. This strategy can be effective if there is a goodunderstanding of elephant movements and of the capacityof the forest to support the current elephant population.In the case of baboons, trapping under licence needs tobe permitted on private farms outside the forest.

Improving the effectiveness of patrollingPatrolling can be a successful means of responding to crop-raiding by animals. The existing set-up should be madeeffective by improving the level of communication betweenKWS and local communities, and by ensuring that theyboth have adequate infrastructure and equipment.Patrolling should increasingly become a joint activity, withthe close participation of local communities most affectedby raiding animals.

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Reducing the impact of animal damageThere will always be a certain level of unavoidable damageby animals. This can best be mitigated by ensuring thatadequate compensation is available, and this will be moreeffective if village committees (similar to those beingestablished for participatory forestry) can be closelyinvolved in loss and damage assessment, and payment ofcompensation e.g. through a trust fund. Farmers’ livelihoodsare particularly vulnerable at present; their vulnerabilitywill be reduced by a programme of support for thediversification of activities in the intervention zone.

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J22+12Human pressure in the form of illegal utilisation andharvesting of forest products is the main cause of forestdegradation in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest (Map 8). Forestprotection is a major function of the FD, often in the formof joint patrols conducted with KWS staff. Traditionally,patrolling has been relied upon as the main protectionactivity but, despite these efforts, it has not been possibleto control the level of unregulated use.

The concept of legal and illegal use of forests has alteredover time. Inappropriate forest policy and legislation hasoften caused problems for local communities, and hascreated unenforceable protection demands. Emergingtrends support the participation of forest-adjacentcommunities as partners in forest management, andattempts are being made to devise systems where theycan benefit from sustainable levels of forest use. On theother hand, a licensing system is still in force which, inpractice, denies poorer households access to some of theresources they require. They therefore have to continueto use the forest illegally, and are alienated from theattempts by the Forest Department to protect the forest.

Most of the illegal use of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is fordomestic needs. Even where commercial extractionactivities occur, the individuals concerned carry out theseactivities as a means of earning a living, since they havefew sources of livelihood available to them. Although itmay now be possible to adopt new approaches, such as

Participatory Forest Management, to address the problemsof subsistence use, patrolling is likely to remain an importantstrategy for addressing commercial poaching. However,resources to do this are inevitably limited, and this reducesboth the effectiveness and efficiency of patrols. Studies haveshown that a good road network deters poaching, but thatexcessive road building facilitates entry by both governmentstaff and poachers. Illegal activities seem to increase wherethere are no good roads, and in forest locations furthestfrom the roads. However, maintaining the extensive roadnetwork of Arabuko-Sokoke is expensive.

There has been little success in addressing the issue ofmarket demand for illegally harvested products, particularlycarving-wood. While the demand remains high (andgovernment policies also promote handicrafts as aneconomic activity), it is likely that illegal activities willcontinue. Current efforts to promote good wood for carvingneed to be emphasised.

K?L1(&%<1To significantly reduce levels of illegal extraction of forestproducts.

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Involving forest-adjacent communities in forestprotectionExperience has shown that adequate levels of forestprotection cannot be achieved through confrontation andconflict between the managers and forest-adjacentcommunities. In practice, both local people and the

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government have a mutual interest in conserving the forest,and utilising forest products in a sustainable way.Consequently, the strategy will be to work together withcommunities to develop joint protection systems in returnfor agreed levels of utilisation and benefit-sharing withinthe capacity of the forest to meet subsistence needssustainably.

Improving the effectiveness of patrollingThe strategy will be one of continued patrolling, mainlytargeting commercial users of the forest.

Influencing formulation of appropriate legislationWhile demand for wood carving remains high, pressureon the forest, particularly for Brachylaena huillensis, will

be difficult to address. A complementary strategy oftargeting the markets for illegal products should beinstituted, with further efforts to seek alternative treespecies which can be grown outside the forest. Since it islocal communities who have closest contact with the forestand who are likely to be most aware of illegal activities, itis important that they should have the first opportunity toutilise any available forest resources through licensingsystems.

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J22+12Past commercial exploitation of Arabuko-Sokoke Forestfor timber and other products has contributed significantlyto its present degraded condition. Nowadays, most of thearea of the forest would not be considered viable forcommercial timber production, and this is therefore nolonger an important management objective, except for therelatively small area totalling about 700 ha which alreadyhas established plantations of a range of species includingGmelina arborea, Araucaria sp., Eucalyptus sp.,Casuarina sp. and Azadirachta indica (Neem). Existingplantations are in variable condition. Some are poorlystocked with species that have performed badly, whileothers are ready for harvesting or require some silviculturalintervention. Resources to establish and maintainplantations are limited. The local community has beeninvolved in supporting plantation establishment throughthe shamba system, but this system has not succeededwell due to wildlife damage to agricultural crops. Manyplantations have suffered from animal damage, which hasreduced their commercial value.

Commercial use of the forest also encompasses other forestproducts which are sold through a licensing system. Thevalue of poles, fuelwood, and non-timber products fromASF now exceeds that of timber. Suspension of licensedpole cutting in 1999, coupled with the ban on mangrovecutting, has increased illegal cutting of poles in the ASFand, even when the licensing system was in force, therewas minimal transparency, with local people involved onlyas labourers with little benefit.

K?L1(&%<1To maximise the commercial potential of available forestresources while ensuring their sustainable use.

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Utilising the productive potential of plantationsWhere plantations already exist, they should be broughtunder good management to protect, improve and utilise

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their commercial potential. However, there should be noincrease in the overall area under plantation. Improvedutilisation will require a better understanding of theplantation resources available and the potential forcommercialisation.

Promoting local involvement in commercial forest-based activitiesA strategy should be developed to open up opportunitiesfor local people to benefit from any commercial forestproduct utilisation. This should ensure that the greatestbenefits from the forest are made available to thosecommunities who are in the best position to work inpartnership with the Forest Department.

JK:K:/L3B"#1+"%.+%"*/<*@*6';4*3+

J22+12In order to achieve the forest management objectives forArabuko-Sokoke Forest, a certain level of infrastructure isrequired (Map 9). Roads, buildings and vehicles are allessential to sound management of the forest, but they cannotbe constructed, purchased or maintained withoutconsiderable financial expenditure. Since the forest itselfyields very little in terms of direct revenue, the maintenanceof a sound infrastructure base is an ongoing problem forforest management, where funds are always scarce.Maintenance of the extensive road network is a major issue,particularly as it has been shown that the incidence of illegalactivities increases as road quality deteriorates. Similarly,to maintain sufficient and well-motivated staff, the provisionof good quality housing and services is important. Lack offunds tends to reduce expenditure on such items, with theresult that morale and work quality deteriorates.

Communications equipment is required for improving theeffectiveness of forest management operations: particularlyproblem animal control and patrolling to control poaching.This requires vehicles, radios and telephones. Foradministrative functions, the provision of adequate officespace, equipment and computers is required. Since themain constraint for all these infrastructure items is the same,namely a lack of financial resources, the key issues are

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how to obtain such resources and, once these are available,how to prioritise amongst the various expenditure optionswhere all needs are critical in some way.

K?L1(&%<1To establish and maintain the infrastructure necessary toachieve the multiple objectives of forest management.

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Maintaining the road networkThe road network is critical to the effective functioning ofthe organisations involved in management of the forest.Although there has been a regular road maintenanceprogramme under the ASFMCP, priorities for maintenancehave not been identified in a systematic way. The strategyis to focus on road maintenance as a priority activity overother actions requiring infrastructure support.

Maintaining buildings, services and equipmentAs with roads, provision of buildings and services is criticalto the achievement of the multiple management objectivesof Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Resources for maintenance andextension of the existing infrastructure are likely to beinsufficient. The strategy should, therefore, ensure thatavailable resources are allocated according to agreedpriorities, and that there is a focus on maintaining existingassets, rather than creating new ones.

Developing institutional partnerships to maximisethe impact and utility of infrastructureMuch of the direct expenditure on infrastructure atArabuko-Sokoke Forest is by the Forestry Department.However, there are numerous other stakeholders whobenefit directly or indirectly. Local communities, touroperators and other government partners use this facilitywithout contributing to its maintenance. The strategyshould be to strengthen institutional partnerships ininfrastructure development.

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J22+12Human resource development concerns the institutionsand the individuals who are responsible for implementingthis Strategic Forest Management Plan for sustainable forestmanagement. Society has gone through many changesduring recent years, and the responsible institutions andindividuals need to be able to respond to these changesin order to meet the current requirements of all stakeholdergroups. In some cases there are inadequate skills amongstpartner organisations, implying that new skills need to beacquired. Many people involved in the management ofArabuko-Sokoke Forest will need to adopt newresponsibilities and roles. These will need to be clearlydefined, as well as the skills needed to implement them.

Individuals involved in the management of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest would also benefit from wider exposure toideas and developments from elsewhere. This wouldenable them to learn from others’ achievements andmistakes, and would strengthen the overall skills andknowledge base at Arabuko-Sokoke.

This SFMP requires that the institutions concerned operatein an open, accountable, and co-ordinated way. They needto ensure that the multiple stakeholders continue to beinvolved in the ongoing management of Arabuko-SokokeForest. This might include new institutional partnersincluding non-government organisations and localcommunities. Specifically, management of Arabuko-SokokeForest cannot be assigned to a single institution orindividual, and new ways of linking a range of organisationsin partnerships are required. There have been somesuccesses already, such as the MoU arrangement, whichhas involved close working relationship between the 4government partners within the ASFMCP. This has reducedthe level of mistrust between partners, and improved thelevel of their co-ordination. This partnership approach nowneeds to be extended and broadened to include communityand non-governmental organisations. Even whereinstitutional structures are in place, they cannot operateeffectively if shared vision and agreed common purposeare lacking. Problems have arisen in the past becausedifferent institutions and partners have different strategiesand objectives which are at times incompatible.

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The government institutions involved as partners in themanagement of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest have similarconstraints such as: high staff turnover, vacant posts, poorlevels of pay, uncertainty about continuity of employment,limited promotional opportunities, inadequateinfrastructure, and poor working and living conditions.This leads to poor motivation and less effective work.Team building and skills development for staff can onlybe effective if these underlying issues are addressed.

K?L1(&%<1To build an efficient team for the management of the forest.

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Developing partnership amongst stakeholdersThe strategy should be to enhance existing partnershiparrangements, which have been developed over the pastfour years, and to extend the approach to form newpartnerships as appropriate. The MoU arrangements willbe maintained, and broadened further to be representativeof all stakeholders. It will be more responsible for makingmanagement decisions. The MoU should be strengthenedby giving it legal status.

Improving skills for effective forest managementSkills development amongst the individuals and institutionsconcerned with the management of Arabuko-Sokoke Forestis critical to the long-term success of this SFMP. Therequired skills include: marketing, participatory processes,communications, micro-enterprise and small businessdevelopment, information technology, GIS, appropriatetechnologies, documentation and recording, and also someof the more traditional technical forestry, research andmonitoring skills. The strategy should be to conduct anassessment of necessary skills before embarking on anytraining programme, to ensure that key areas areaddressed.

Enhancing teams and encouraging team-workingThe causes of poor motivation and performance must beaddressed. The infrastructure and services used by staffshould be improved. Personnel needs should be re-assessed with a view to rationalising postings, as well asclarifying job descriptions and responsibilities in the lightof the agreed strategies and actions of the SFMP. Theemphasis should be on creating teams and working groupsresponsible for specific parts of the SFMP, and a system toreview and reward performance. This may be a difficultprocess for those concerned, but it will provide benefitsin the longer term.

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J22+12Research provides information and data for the planning,implementation and monitoring of programmes. Targetareas for research include: baseline data collection,development of new technologies, and trend analysislooking at past, present and future trends. Forestmanagement needs to be guided by high quality data andimprovements in technology. The role of research is to fillinformation gaps in management and to try out newtechnologies for adoption or adaptation to the site.

In the past, research studies have focused on the biologicalenvironment of the forest, without considering the usersof the forest. It has now become clear that sustainablemanagement of a natural resource must consider its users.The communities surrounding the forest have a longhistory of using the forest for their daily needs, and theyhave therefore accumulated much indigenous knowledgeabout the forest. Future research has to tap thisknowledge so that research becomes a two-way learningprocess where researchers and community members shareinformation.

Research should address management problems to makemanagement more efficient. The SFMP process conductedseveral thematic workshops, focusing on particular themes.In each of these, some issues of information gaps,knowledge and skills emerged and have been includedhere. Strategies and actions in research require multiplestakeholders, who can be grouped into producers,practitioners, professionals and consumers/users. The role

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and responsibility of each stakeholder group should beclearly defined. It is particularly important that researchshould be demand-driven by the needs of variousstakeholders to achieve sustainable forest management.In the past there has been a tendency for research to beresearcher-driven.

Research issues can be many and diverse with somerequiring short-term strategies and others long-terminterventions. It is therefore important to rank researchstrategies depending on the relevance of the issue tomanagement, feasibility, urgency, cost-effectiveness,existing knowledge gap and capacity to carry out theactivities.

The strategies and activities identified for the SFMPrequire monitoring to understand to what extent they areachieving the stated objectives. Monitoring is importantfor the re-prioritisation of activities and identifying newareas which need to be targeted. Monitoring involvesidentifying indicators for the objectives so that progresstowards these can be measured. These should be jointlyagreed. Once identified, further consideration is neededas to how and by whom these will be monitored.Participatory monitoring involving various stakeholdergroups is increasingly being accepted as the best form ofmonitoring.

K?L1(&%<1To obtain improved understanding of the forest and itsusage for better management and monitoring

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Improving evaluation of the biodiversityimportance of the forestThe priority given to conservation of ASF is due to itsunique biodiversity. To understand the value ofbiodiversity, it is necessary to know the range of faunaand flora in the forest. A biodiversity inventory of theforest is needed to document the location and extent offorest species. The information collected will form baseline

data that can be used to compare past and future trendsin biodiversity. The information will also expand anddiversify the range of products and services available fromthe forest. Sustainable extraction levels of products andservices from the forest need to be known and agreed bypartners to ensure that it is utilised without compromisingits biodiversity value. This requires data on the ecologyand growth levels of particular species. Utilisation ofindigenous knowledge is important in biodiversity research.Although the concept of forest zonation has been acceptedin this plan, indicators for zonation and for describingforest condition are yet to be developed and agreed bypartners. Finally, the information obtained needs to bedisseminated to the local community and otherstakeholders.

Enhancing sustainable use of the forest by localcommunitiesThe strategy is to conduct research which will enable thecommunities living around the forest to continue gettingits benefits without compromising its biodiversity value.This should be done through understanding the resourcesthe community use in the forest, and the supply/demandstatus of those products and services in order to computeextraction levels. Equitable benefit-sharing mechanismsshould be developed to act as incentives to thosecontributing to forest conservation. The problem of povertyshould be handled through diversification and expansionof existing income-generation activities. Improvement inmarketing strategies and adding value to products andservices will give improved benefits for communitymembers. Gender balance should be encouraged in allactivities through the involvement of women in forest

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associations, and by working for attitude change to lessenthe burdens women currently carry.

Improving production and management of theforest for commercial useThe strategy is to understand the factors that have led topoor performance of plantation species and put correctiveactions into place. For the natural forest, there is a needto address the current stock and decide whetherexploitation is possible. A monitoring system needs to bedeveloped to address the dynamics of the forest ecosystemcondition in relation to its use.

Improving tourism impacts and benefits for thecommunityResearch will focus on ensuring that localcommunities realise tangible benefits from eco-tourism.Tourism growth will be monitored to establish the optimalnumbers which would have least impact on theenvironment.

Improving problem animal control mitigationThe strategy should be to use research data and findingsto improve on the strategies adopted for mitigating damagecaused by problem animals. This will be through betterunderstanding of animal behaviour related to crop raidsand carrying capacities, and through the quantification ofdamage caused by animals and the development ofpossible compensation schemes.

Improving strategies in forest protectionReporting systems for illegal activities in the forest shouldbe improved and information about the relationshipbetween poaching and market demand on one hand andinfrastructure on the other should be improved to enablecontrol and monitoring systems for forest protection to bemade more effective.

Carrying out general research and monitoringThe absence of criteria and indicators for biologicalmonitoring has been a barrier to understanding trends orchanges in biodiversity. The strategy is to develop suchcriteria and indicators which can be used for monitoringchanges in biodiversity in the forest. Biodiversity surveysand inventories should be carried out to determine thecurrent status, and act as baselines for future monitoring.Participatory monitoring should be combined withconventional monitoring.

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Governance concerns the way in which the organisationsresponsible for making management decisions and carryingout management activities are accountable to the widergroup of stakeholders. Arabuko-Sokoke Forest willcontinue to be managed under the existing partnershiparrangements, involving a number of different stakeholdergroups. The Forest Department has the legal mandate tomanage the resources but has increasingly entered intopartnership with other stakeholders; such partnerships areexpected to expand.

The governance structure therefore sets out those whoare responsible for taking action and for monitoring. Thefollowing governance structure is proposed for Arabuko-Sokoke Forest during the Strategic Forest Management Planperiod.

!"#$%&'()'&'&*/0'"*1+/2#3#,*4*3+/?*#4The partnership arrangements for managing Arabuko-Sokoke Forest are formalised in the form of various MoUsbetween the organisations involved. The MoU betweenthe institutions has no legal structure, but builds on themandates of the institutions and the need to work closelyto achieve quality results and avoid duplication of effort.The current MoU is between FD and KWS, with NMKbeing enjoined in the Addendum. A Memorandum ofConsultative Collaboration (MoCC) has also beendeveloped between KEFRI and FD. The MoU needs to bestrengthened to bring on board the four institutions asequal partners. It is worth noting that KEFRI and KWS areat an advanced stage of preparing a new MoU.Strengthening of the MoU will ensure that the ASFMT hasgreater ability to resist external pressures on the forestcoming from conflicting interests, and will also have greaterdecentralised decision-making powers.

The ASFMT is expected to be responsible for day-to-daymanagement of the forest. It will be composed ofrepresentatives of the 4 main government institutionsconcerned (Forest Department, Kenya Wildlife Service,National Museums of Kenya, and Kenya Forestry ResearchInstitute). The management team will be extended toinclude local community representatives andrepresentatives of local NGOs concerned with aspects ofthe forest. At present, day-to-day forest managementactivity is largely the responsibility of the Forest Departmentin collaboration with KWS. By using a series of workinggroups with a specific focus on different themes, it isexpected that there will be more involvement of these 4partners. The local community represented by FADA willbe incorporated in the ASFMT. Other stakeholders workingat ASF will be co-opted into specific working groups wherethey have an interest. The wider representation in theteam will improve decision-making and ownership ofactions decided by the group.

The Forest Management Team will be responsible forrecommending operational plans for approval by the ChiefConservator of Forests or his representative. Approval willbe on the basis of whether the operational plan “fits” withinthe overall strategy outlined in this Strategic Plan. Otherfactors to be considered include prioritisation of activities,availability of funds, adherence to the guidelines developed

in this SFMP and technical feasibility. The approval of anyoperation plan will also depend on whether it fits withinthe overall national forest policy.

The ASFMT will be responsible for producing an annualprogress report (Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Annual Report)with formats to be designated for each theme. The formatwill be circulated to all stakeholders and be discussed inthe annual Arabuko Sokoke Forum meeting (see below).This report will be used for informing the annual Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Forum meeting, and in disseminatinginformation and experiences concerning the forest, bothnationally and internationally.

The ASFMT have had the ASFMCP project as their commonfunding agent and this has enhanced teamwork. Thisfunding ended in January 2002. The challenge the teamhas now is to continue working together, with or withouta common funding agency. Members of the team were inagreement that continuation of the team is necessary andwill serve the interests of conservation of the forest.However, due to differences in institutional mandates andapproaches, problems can arise on the ground. The SFMPshould guide team members in realising the common visionfor ASF. The heads of institutions are expected to supportthe team on the ground in realising the common vision.

a'"&-3,/R"'%;1A series of working groups will be established and willoperate as at present, covering different themes. Workinggroups will have a more specific remit than the ASFMTand may not necessarily have representatives from all thepartners. One organisation or individual will normally takethe lead for each working group. It is expected that eachidentified strategy will come within the remit of oneworking group, which will be expected to report on itsprogress annually. The main responsibility of workinggroups will be to take the lead in implementing agreedoperational plans after approval, and following theguidelines in the SFMP. ASFMT may create additionalworking groups when necessary. Working groups couldalso merge when funding levels are low.

!"#$%&'()'&'&*/0'"*1+/0'"%4This is a new part of the proposed governance structure,which follows directly from the broad stakeholderparticipation process used to prepare this plan. It isexpected that the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Forum willconsist of representatives of all concerned stakeholdergroups. The forum will meet at least once a year to reviewoverall progress in implementation of the Strategic ForestManagement Plan, and will consider whether:a) the overall objectives and the thematic objectives of

the SFMP are being met, andb) prioritised actions are being implemented.

In order to inform this meeting, the ASFMT will producean annual report covering all operational plans which willbecome the Annual Progress Report for the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. The forum will be responsible for updatingand revising the strategic plan.

!"#$%&'()'&'&*/0'"*1+/?"%1+Long-term partnership at ASF requires technical andfinancial support from participating stakeholders and other

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interested parties in order to realise the goals set out inthe plan. A Trust Fund has been proposed as a long-termmeasure for ensuring continued support for ASF.Participating institutions, the local community and other

stakeholders will be able to contribute to and draw fromthe fund. The members of the Trust will seek funding andensure that the money is used to support continuedconservation of ASF.

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2%6+-;6*/1+#&*>'6<*"1/#3</4%6+-;6*/'$W*.+-@*1Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, like all forests in Kenya, has tomeet the requirements of multiple stakeholders in today’ssociety. This is a complex and diverse group of people toinvolve in a planning process. It is no longer appropriatefor one stakeholder to plan and implement actions withoutconsensus and agreement from the others. Previous top-down and centralised planning models are therefore nolonger appropriate.

If every stakeholder were involved in every planningdecision from the start, the result would be an unwieldyand inflexible plan which would be unlikely to beimplemented. To avoid this, there has been a longconsultative process leading to this Strategic ForestManagement Plan. This provides the framework withinwhich future planning decisions for the next 25 years willbe made. Operational Plans of different types and fordifferent purposes will be prepared on an on-going basisduring the 25-year implementation period of the StrategicForest Management Plan. During preparation ofOperational Plans, stakeholders will be closely involvedthrough a participatory process, and conflicts will beresolved on a site-by-site basis. This is normally referredto as “bottom-up” planning. Operational Plans may onlybe approved if they conform with the provisions of theStrategic Plan and the guidelines within it.

The planning framework consists of the Strategic ForestManagement Plan with a series of Operational Plans fittingwithin it.

The boxes below compare the features of the StrategicForest Management Plan with Operational Plans.

?>*/;%";'1*/'B/';*"#+-'3#6/,%-<*6-3*1One of the important and agreed principles in the approachto forest management is that the way in which forestmanagement actions are implemented is just as importantas what is done. This means that best practice must befollowed in planning and implementation. Guidelines willbe needed to identify and support best practice for thepreparation of operational plans of different kinds. Themain part of the Strategic Forest Management Plan therefore

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identifies the actions needed to achieve the objectives.Operational guidelines show how to plan for those actionsto ensure that they are as effective as possible. This meansthat it will become necessary for operational guidelines tobe prepared for each different type of Operational Plan.In some cases these should be simple guidelines basedon common sense and previous experience, while in others(for example, operational guidelines for Participatory ForestManagement) these should emerge out of a process oftesting and monitoring.

!;;"'@#6Approval is the means of deciding whether a particularOperational Plan complies with, or fits within, theframework of the Strategic Forest Management Plan. A

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series of questions need to be asked before approving anOperational Plan:• Is it technically feasible?• Are funds available to implement it?• Has best practice been followed in the process of preparing

the plan (as identified in the operational guidelines)?• Does the plan comply with the prioritised strategies and

actions in this SFMP?

2'3-+'"-3,Monitoring should be included as part of the operationalplan, rather than being treated as a separate exercise carriedout after implementation. The operational guidelinesshould indicate the monitoring arrangements.

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For each type of Operational Plan, the following need tobe considered:

• What is the type of plan to be prepared?Depending on the type of activity proposed, theOperational Plans would differ in their style and content.

• What is its duration?What should be the period of the Operational Plan? Somecan be annual plans, others may continue for several years.

• Who should prepare it?Which institution should take the lead responsibility forpreparing the plan? Participatory plans will clearly needto have the strong involvement of local people.

• Which stakeholder groups need to be involved?As well as the lead institution, there may be a need forstakeholder consultation with different groups who arelikely to be affected by the plan. These need to be identifiedat the outset and brought into the planning process.

• What are the proposed institutional or partnershiparrangements for implementation?

These should be agreed and described within theOperational Plan itself.

• Who should approve the Operational Plan?This should be defined at the outset. Most OperationalPlans would be locally approved because they fall withinthe framework of this Strategic Forest Management Plan,which is already approved at a national level.

• Which zones would have such plans?It can be expected that since different activities are likelyto take place in different zones, there will be differenttypes of Operational Plan for activities in different zones.

• Are there any technical criteria for carrying outoperations under the plan?

What are the means of ascertaining that Operational Plansare technically correct?

• What are the monitoring arrangements for the plan?It is essential that the site-monitoring arrangements aredetailed in the actual Operational Plan, and thus becomepart of the plan itself. Site indicators will need to beidentified for each Operational Plan, to determine whetherthe plan’s objectives are being achieved.

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The administrative framework and partnership weredescribed in Section 2. In this section, the mandates of thefour government partners are described in greater detail.

0'"*1+"=/O*;#"+4*3+This is the main institution in the forestry sector, and islocated in the Ministry of Environment and NaturalResources (MENR). Among FD’s functions are:• formulation of policies for management and

conservation of forests,• preparation and implementation of management plans,• management and protection of Kenya’s gazetted forests,• establishment and management of forest plantations,• promotion of on-farm forestry, and• promotion of environmental awareness.

FD operates some 160 forest stations, reporting to 65District Forest Offices who in turn report to eight ProvincialForest Offices. In the past, FD has concentrated onindustrial forestry (80% of the budget), but is now givinggreater attention to afforestation on smallholder farmlandand the conservation of natural forests. FD’s resources arelimited and its composition is inadequate for keeping thedepartment fully operational. A high percentage of FD’stotal budget goes to salaries and allowances.

FD administers the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Reserve. Asthe forest falls under two different Districts, two DistrictForest Officers (DFOs) manage it. The DFO Kilifi Districtis based at the District Forest Headquarters in Kilifi, and isresponsible for the southern half of the forest, while theDFO Malindi is based at Gede Forest Station and isresponsible for the northern half. Both DFOs report to theProvincial Forest Officer, Coast Province who is responsibleto the Chief Conservator of Forests in Nairobi.

There are three forest stations in Arabuko-Sokoke: Gede,Jilore and Sokoke. The Forester in charge of each stationis responsible for the day-to-day administration andmanagement of the forest in his station.

g*3=#/a-6<6-B*/)*"@-.*/^ga)_The forests provide one of Kenya’s major wildlife habitats,and the parastatal KWS is responsible for the protectionof the nation’s wildlife. KWS’s responsibilities include:• formulation of policies for management and

conservation of wild flora and fauna,• advice to Government on the establishment of National

Parks and Reserves,• preparation and implementation of management plans

for National Parks and Reserves,• promotion of wildlife conservation education,• co-ordination and implementation of wildlife

conservation and management research, and• advice to Government, local authorities and landowners

on optimal methods for the conservation of wildlife.

KWS has the responsibility for controlling problem animals.This is a major issue at Arabuko-Sokoke. KWS requiresresources for implementing forest-based tourismdevelopment and conservation education.

?>*/0O(ga)/2*4'"#3<%4/'B/h3<*"1+#3<-3,On 5 December 1991, a Memorandum of Understanding(MoU) was signed by the Directors of KWS and FD,covering the management of the forests and the protectionof wildlife within indigenous forest reserves. Arabuko-Sokoke is one of these forests. Under the MoU, KWShas the responsibility for the development of forest-based tourism in conjunction with FD. It will assist FD inthe management of selected natural forests. The NationalMuseums of Kenya subsequently enjoined to the MoUunder an Addendum which recognised their role incataloguing, researching and conserving forest biodiversity.

g*3=#/0'"*1+"=/E*1*#".>/L31+-+%+*/^gC0EL_KEFRI was separated from the Kenya Agricultural ResearchInstitute in 1986. Its mission is to enhance the social andeconomic welfare of Kenyans through user-orientedresearch for the sustainable development of forests, andallied natural resources. The mandate of KEFRI is to:• conduct research in forestry,• co-operate with other research bodies and NGOs within

and outside Kenya carrying out similar research,• liaise with other organisations and institutions of higher

learning in training and on matters of forestry research,and

• disseminate research findings.

KEFRI has 94 university graduate research scientists at PhD,MSc and BSc level in forestry and allied natural resources,distributed within the research and developmentprogrammes in 17 research centres in various ecologicalzones of Kenya. There is a good infrastructure for researchand training, which includes modern equipment, printingand communication facilities, catering and accommodation.KEFRI has developed methodologies for the establishmentof exotic and indigenous tree species, and has also screenedover 100 species, provenances and species for matching.It has developed water harvesting techniques for improvedtree survival and growth in the dry areas. The GedeRegional Research Centre has 3 research scientists, whohave experience in farm forestry, soil fertility management,botany, forest resource surveys, community forestry,extension and dissemination.

D#+-'3#6/2%1*%41/'B/g*3=#/^D2g_The National Museum of Kenya (NMK) is the nationalrepository for the prehistoric, cultural and biologicalspecimens of Kenya. It maintains comprehensive referencecollections and educational exhibits, and undertakesresearch in the botanical and zoological sciences. Until1939, the Museum was administered by the East AfricaNatural History Society. It was then handed over to theGovernment, becoming the National Museums of Kenya.

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It remains an internationally recognised centre for researchand education.

The mandate of NMK is to collect, document, preserve,study and present Kenya’s past and present cultural andnatural heritage, and enhance knowledge, appreciation,respect, management and use of these resources for thebenefit of Kenya and the world.

SK7 L3B"#1+"%.+%"*

N%-6<-3,1These include the District Forest Offices, Forest Stations,KEFRI, KWS and NMK offices, outposts for both FDForest Guards and KWS Game Rangers, and the

accommodation facilities for all staff members housed inall the institutions.

There are two District Forest Offices: one in Malindi andone in Kilifi. The former has two forest stations (Gede andJilore) and a new outpost at Malanga, while the latter hasone station (Sokoke) and one outpost at Kararacha. BothKWS Game Rangers and FD Forest Guards occupy theseoutposts. The office of the KWS officer in charge (Warden)for the ASF is in Gede. The KEFRI and NMK offices arealso situated at Gede. Table 5 shows the buildings andhousing capacity for the ASF and the Gede Ruins Museum.

N%-6<-3,1/-11%*1There is an urgent need to repair the existing staff housesand put up extra accommodation facilities within the

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different institutions. A full-time service camp is requiredfor Dida. There is an urgent need for a KWS warden’shouse in Gede forest station and a forester’s house inSokoke forest station. Extra office space is needed,especially at Gede, with the priority being for FD, KEFRI,NMK and KWS in that order. Jilore station requiresrenovation. KEFRI and NMK require a fully equippedlaboratory where they can conduct analysis of samplescollected.

Cf%-;4*3+Table 6 summarises the capital equipment in place withinthe ASFMT institutions.

G*>-.6*1ASF has nine serviceable vehicles, nine motorcycles and aboat (Table 7), as well as bicycles.

G*>-.6*/-11%*1There is a need to look into the future requirements ofvehicles and other means of transport for managers in allinstitutions, community extension officers and othercommunity representatives and members. This is one of

the factors that determines working efficiency. Both Jiloreand Sokoke stations require independent vehicles. Otherrequirements include a mini-bus for awareness activities, amotor boat and canoe for the needs of aquatic areas, and aworkshop for vehicle maintenance. Motorised mowers arealso needed for all institutions, offices, stations and outposts.

0'"*1+/"'#<1The recommendations of the road assessment survey(Otieno 2001) needs to be implemented. The extent ofthe forest road network requires careful considerationbecause excessive opening of the forest may lead toincreased ecological disturbance through noise, and alsoreduced vegetation cover (habitat destruction) which wouldbe harmful to shy animals and may possibly cause injuryto wild animals via accidents. Serious consideration shouldalso be taken into account because a good road systemcan lead to increased illegal activities.

0'"*1+/"'#<1X/+"#.&1X/B''+;#+>1/#3</"%33-3,+"#-61/^2#;/e_The forest boundary road is over 100 km whilst themotorable road network inside the forest is over 110 km.There is a 5 km walking trail close to Gede forest stationfor running and a 10 km running trail is also in place. Thelatter is used mainly by the Watamu Hash Harriers. Theforest boundary road is, in some places, little more than arough track. A network of old logging tracks of differentclasses further serves the boundary road. This has had theeffect of increasing illegal activities.

E'#</3*+Y'"&/'%+1-<*/!)0The Mombasa-Malindi Garissa B8 main tarmac road skirtsthe eastern boundary of the forest while the southern andsouth-western parts of the forest are served by the Kilifi-

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Vitengeni road (see Map 9). The northern part of the forestis well served by the Malindi to Sala Gate road, whichleads to the Tsavo East National Park.

E'#</-11%*1Establishment and maintenance of the necessary minimumroad network inside the forest area is required taking intoconsideration the proposed campsites, picnic areas andother areas of special interest, as well as any possibleecological and habit destruction and disturbance. Routeswhich lead to habitat fragmentation must be avoided. Allthe roads should be well maintained at all times of the year.

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?*6*;>'3*/#3</"#<-'/B#.-6-+-*1All the Kilifi and Malindi KWS bases can communicate withall other outlets by use of VHF radios, while the FD districtoffices, the Gede KEFRI and the NMK head office in Gedehave telephone facilities. There are ten radio handsets.

C6*.+"-.-+=/1%;;6=All the offices in Gede (KEFRI, FD, NMK and KWS) haveelectric power supply. The KEFRI office has an inverterwhich ensures electricity supplies when mains electricityis lacking. The offices in Sokoke, Dida and Jilore do nothave a power supply, except for some solar panels whichare used only for supporting communication equipment.The power extension at Gede needs to be expanded tocover the staff houses not yet having a supply.

0''+/;#+"'6/*f%-;4*3+The foot patrol team of Forest Guards and Rangers hasbeen equipped with the items shown in Table 8. This notonly boosts the morale of the staff, but also increases theefficiency and effectiveness of ground patrolling.

0-"*(B-,>+-3,/*f%-;4*3+A wide range of fire-fighting equipment, including a sirenand fire beaters, was purchased in early 2000. However,more equipment is needed. Forest-adjacent communitieshave been sensitised to the dangers of forest fire and theaction needed in the event of fires. Participatory ForestManagement (PFM) is seen as an effective tool in earlywarning of fire outbreaks. In areas more prone to forestfires, establishment of firebreaks and fire towers is necessary.

0'"*1+/1%"@*=1Spartan Air Services of Canada did the first reconnaissancefor timber in 1967, based on 1966 photography. Their

report indicated that more indigenous forest was to beopened and converted into plantations. However, thisscenario changed in the early 1970s when the Governmentdeclared that no more indigenous forest would be clearedto create exotic plantations.

0'"*1+/$*#.'3-3,This exercise was undertaken in late 2000 and early 2001.By use of GPS, all the beacon positions were geo-located.All beacons which had been illegally removed werereplaced. This exercise is now complete, and informationhas been forwarded to the Ministry of Land for processingof the title deed for the forest.

a#+*"/"*1'%".*1The ASF is well endowed with 26 seasonal water pools.During the dry season, the surrounding communitymembers also draw water from these pools. The poolscontribute significantly as a source of water for wild animalswithin the forest. Some of the large water pools includeLake Arabuko to the north, Lake Jilore (west), Lake Sokokein the south and Lake Kararacha to the south-east.

Offices in Gede, Kilifi and Jilore have piped water. Inaddition to domestic consumption, the water is used innursery seedling production. Sokoke has water catchmentand storage tanks of up to 55,000 litre capacity. The newoutposts at Malanga and Kararacha have water storagetanks of 30,000 litres each.

G-1-+'"/B#.-6-+-*1At Gede forest station, there is a well-manned informationcentre where visitors are given an insight into the forestbefore entering it. Refreshments are also available at anearby kiosk. A tree platform located within walkingdistance (about 1.5 km) is available, especially for birdwatchers. For visitors who wish to spend the night at Gede,a camping site is available.

)-,3$'#"<1/#3</1-,3;'1+1The ASFMT has put up extra signposts and is upgradingthe existing signboards and fire rating boards. The signshelp to direct visitors to all parts of the forest. All theentry points on the forest boundaries are elegantly indicatedby sign boards depicting the endemic Golden-rumpedElephant Shrew.

!-";'"+1/#3</1*#/"'%+*1Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is 25 km south of MalindiAirport and 80 km north of Moi International Airport,Mombasa.

Z+>*"/-3B"#1+"%.+%"*/3**<1• Updated site plans for all stations and offices (especially

Gede) to meet future demand for development,conservation, management and eco-tourism.

• A centralised well-linked computer system (includinglaboratory) and a new post of System Manager tooversee the running and maintenance of the computersystem.

• An upgraded GIS system and a data centre to provideservices to management institutions.

• A web site for ASF.• Electrification of staff houses at all outposts currently

without power. At Sokoke and Kararacha, step-down

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transformers could provide mains electricity. At Jiloreand Malanga other options need to be explored asthere are no mains electricity supplies within reasonabledistances.

• Community resource centres at various strategic sitessuch as Dida and Kakuyuni with one centre serving 3sub-locations; these centres will serve as training andmeeting bases for exchange of information.

• A canteen to meet the needs of staff and visitors atGede.

• Improvements to security and communications insideand outside the forest to enable visitors to stay overnightat camp-sites without fear. All stations and outpostsshould be linked by an efficient HF/VHFR/UHF Radiocommunication system.

• Community-run campsites at strategic areas such asNyari View point and selected water pool spots toimprove eco-tourism options.

• Fire towers at various sites (including Kakuyuni,Kararacha, Sokoke and Mida) which will have multi-purpose uses.

• Connection of all offices and residential buildings topiped water with water meters. Boreholes may be anoption in some places.

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The current status of the concerned governmentdepartments at Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is shown inTable 9.

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Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ranks highly as a site forconservation on all levels of biodiversity: from ecosystemsand species to genes. It is the largest remaining protectedfragment of a coastal forest mosaic that once stretchedfrom southern Somalia to northern Mozambique. Theendemic, threatened and rare species of Arabuko-SokokeForest are relics of the flora and fauna of this coastal forestmosaic (Burgess et al. 1998, Burgess and Clarke 2000).The East African coastal forests, together with those of theEastern Arc, have been ranked as the eighth most importantregion for biodiversity on the planet and rank first in termsof density of endemics (Myers et al. 2000).

A large proportion of the forest species whose distributionis restricted to the coastal forests is threatened: 50% ofplant species, 60% of bird species and 65% of mammalspecies. Most of the endemics have a narrow distributionrange, often exhibiting single-site endemism or with ascattered, disjunct distribution range. A database is availableat the Gede Forest Station library which includes anannotated bibliography and species lists for the main groups.

G*,*+#+-'3Approximately 600 species of plants are known at Arabuko-Sokoke. One of the reasons for this diversity is the varietyof soils and climatic conditions (especially rainfall) acrossthe forest. The vegetation has been variously classified,but the most widely accepted classification recognises threetypes as follows.

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Cynometra Forest — This is a Lowland Evergreen Dryforest and occupies about 220 km2. The canopy is closedand the understorey is tangled with many saplings andlianas. Cycads are common in areas with the highest rainfall.The richest forest is in the south, with a canopy height ofover 15m; in the north, the forest is more impoverishedand shorter (4 m or lower). Cynometra webberi andManilkara sansibarensis are the dominant tree species inthis forest type. Brachylaena huillensis, which has beenheavily poached for the wood carving industry, wasformerly common in this vegetation type.

Brachystegia Forest — This is a form of “miombo” woodlandor Lowland Woodland which occupies about 70 km2. It isfloristically and structurally defined; however, it mergeswith the Cynometra zone and there is evidence that

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Cynometra may be invading it. Canopy coverage rarelyexceeds 50% and the shrub layer is diverse due to adequatesunlight. Numerous thickets, cycads and knee-high grassesare also present. Brachystegia spiciformis is the dominanttree species.

Mixed Forest — This is Lowland Rain Forest which occupiesan area of about 6.5 km2. The forest is dense, with a nearlycontinuous canopy as low as 10–12 m and an understoreyof tangled shrubs and small trees with moderate leaf litter.Structurally it is similar to the southern, high CynometraForest. Afzelia quanzensis was formerly one of the moreimportant tree species although recent surveys have shownthat regeneration of this species is poor. Close to the GedeForest Station the canopy is higher and the under-storeyless tangled.

2#44#61There are thought to be 52 mammal species in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Several are of particularly high conservationconcern. Three species, the Golden-rumped Elephant-Shrew(Rhynchocyon chrysopygus), Ader’s Duiker (Cephalophusadersi) and the Sokoke Bushy-Tailed Mongoose (Bdeogale(crassicauda) omnivora) are globally threatened, near-endemic species. Ninety percent of the world’s populationof the Golden-rumped Elephant Shrew is found in the forest,and Ader’s Duiker is only found in ASF and in Jozani Forestin Zanzibar. The six other antelope species are Red, Blueand Common Duikers (Cephalophus natalensis,Cephalophus monticola and Sylvicapra grimmia); CommonWaterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), Bushbuck (Tragelaphusscriptus) and Suni (Neotragus moschatus). Larger mammalsare fewer, but there are between 80-100 African Elephant(Loxodonta africana) in the forest which cause much

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damage to crops in adjacent farmlands. Carnivores includeAfrican Civet (Viverra civetta); Blotched Genet (Genettatigrina) and Caracal (Felis caracal). The African GoldenCat (Felis aurata), which is rare in Kenya, is thought tooccur in the forest but this has yet to be confirmed. Primatespecies include Sykes’ Monkeys (Cercopithecus albogularis),Yellow Baboons (Papio cynocephalus), Vervet Monkeys(Cercopithecus aethiops) and Bush babies (Galago spp.).

N-"<1Arabuko-Sokoke Forest and several other much smallerforest fragments in coastal Somalia, Kenya and Tanzaniatogether form the East African coastal forests Endemic BirdArea. Arabuko-Sokoke Forest has been ranked as the secondmost important forest for the conservation of threatenedbird species on the mainland of Africa. The 270 bird speciesknown from it include six globally threatened and three

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near-threatened species (including 5 restricted-rangespecies), and 8 regionally threatened species.

Clarke’s Weaver is an endemic while the Sokoke ScopsOwl (which is known from only one other site in Tanzania),the Sokoke Pipit and Amani Sunbird are near-endemics.Important populations of the Spotted Ground Thrush andthe East Coast Akalat also occur in the Forest.

Most forest birds at Arabuko-Sokoke depend on habitat ofa certain structure, unlike other animals (e.g. butterflies)which respond to plant species. This means that disturbance(e.g. from selective logging) that changes forest structurecan have a significant impact on these forest birds. Thethree main forest types differ in their structure withvegetation density decreasing from Cynometra > Mixed >Brachystegia.

Disturbance differs according to forest type althoughdisturbed Mixed (Afzelia) Forest changes least in structure,perhaps because of its greater floristic diversity. The othertwo types show significant structural change in terms ofcanopy density and stem numbers as a result of pole andfuelwood removal and logging. Pole removal opens up theunderstorey and fuelwood removal (including dead woodremoval) reduces invertebrate abundance (especiallytermites and beetles) and removes nest sites for hole- orground-nesting birds.

Threatened and forest-specialist birds show preferences forparticular habitat types. All of the six threatened speciesshow strong reactions to disturbance, and some alreadyhave very patchy distributions as a result. Large parts ofthe forest are probably ‘sinks’ for particular threatenedspecies; this means that they hold low-density populationswhich cannot maintain themselves and persist by

recruitment from higher-quality habitat nearby. Thereforeprotection of high-quality habitat is essential for the survivalof these species.

E*;+-6*1/#3</#4;>-$-#31Arabuko-Sokoke Forest holds at least 41 species of snake,21 lizards and 2 tortoises. Despite this richness in reptiles,the amphibian fauna includes rarer species: among the 25amphibian species are Bunty’s Dwarf Toad (Mertensophrynemicranotis), a coastal endemic, and Ornate Tree Frog(Leptopelis flavomaculatus), a near-endemic.

L31*.+1/#3</'+>*"/-3@*"+*$"#+*1This group comprises the largest number of speciesalthough (with the exception of butterflies) it is the leaststudied. More than half of the 263 butterfly species knownfrom the Kenyan coast have been recorded in the forest,of which Acraea matuapa, Charaxes blanda kenyae,Baliochila latimarginata and Baliochila stygia areendemic. Some taxa in the group have potential to beused as ecological indicators, which can complement theinformation already used for the birds. Dragonflies arealso an important invertebrate group which contains anumber of rare and unusual species in Arabuko-Sokoke.

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M'.#6/.'44%3-+-*1Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is surrounded on all sides by villagecommunities. There are 18 sub-locations with a totalpopulation of about 130,000 people extending around theforest including 54 villages actually bordering on the forestand having a population of about 104,000 people. Thesepeople are predominantly of the Giriama tribe who settledin the area west of the forest over 100 years ago and moved

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on to areas east of the forest in the 1950s and 1960s. Averagehousehold size is more than 13, and 55% of the householdsconsist of multiple families. The population density of KilifiDistrict has risen from 47 to 60 people per km2 between1989 and 1997 (Government of Kenya 1997b). The originalpopulation of the surrounding area were the hunter-gathererSanya tribe. Prior to forest gazettement in 1932, they usedthe forest freely for their subsistence needs. A small groupof Sanya still lives on the northern side of the forest.

Subsistence agriculture is the main occupation of thesurrounding population. This is based on production ofmaize, cassava and beans, with income supplemented bycash crops such as cashew, mango and coconut.Agricultural land is generally poor, and crop yields arelow. The mean size of farm holdings is 6.9 ha (0.5 ha percapita), with farms growing an average of 1.6 ha of maize.Most households own goats (average of 5 per household)but tsetse fly and a lack of grazing are constraints to cattlekeeping. Many illegal uses of the forest for subsistence orincome generation still continue. Forest use includescollection of fuelwood, poles and herbs, and hunting ofwildlife for meat. Participatory assessments with localcommunities indicate that building-poles are perhaps thesingle most important product used from the forest.Communities on the eastern side of the forest rely on itmore heavily than those on the west, because of differencesin the availability of trees on private land.

For 20% of households, wage employment provides themajor source of income, while additional income is earnedfrom sales of cash crops and forest products. In 1991, 8%of forest-adjacent households earned income from theforest. This included income from legally or illegallyobtained forest products, employment as local forest stationstaff, fuelwood licensees and cutters, woodcarvers andherbalists. More recently, bee-keeping and butterfly-farming have been developed as new income-generatingactivities which, although based on the forest, are non-destructive. In the past, most cash beneficiaries from theforest were men, although this is changing; for example,more than 70% of registered butterfly farmers are women.

About 35–40% of households are headed by women(absent husbands, widows, divorcees or single women).Women tend to be marginalised in decision making andresource allocation, and undertake a disproportionateburden of work, including fuelwood and water collection.

Secondary forest users outside the immediate forest-adjacent community include carvers working throughhandicraft co-operatives in Malindi, and, more significantly,illegal cutters of timber, poles and fuelwood.

Pressure on the forest for both subsistence and incomeneeds appears to be increasing. A comparison of 1991data with a study undertaken in 2000 has shown thatfuelwood collection, pole cutting and hunting have allincreased. This is despite the current moratorium on issuinglicences for fuelwood, and the best attempts at control bythe Forest Department and KWS.

)%$1-1+*3.*/%1*/'B/+>*/B'"*1+Subsistence use of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest is long-established, and predates its gazettement as a reserve. At

present, most subsistence use is illegal, although in practiceit cannot be controlled by regulation alone. Subsistencecan be considered in two ways:• domestic use through direct harvesting for home

consumption, mainly of fuelwood, building poles,mushrooms and meat; and

• commercial use through products harvested for salerather than for domestic consumption (such as carving-wood, poles, butterflies and bush-meat); income fromthese sources is often critical to the survival of thehousehold.

There has been a tendency for previously domestic usageto become more commercialised. This pushes prices upand over-exploitation results.

0%*6Y''<60–90% of the forest-adjacent community use the forestfor their supplies of heating, cooking and lighting fuel.This is obtained both legally (through licences) andillegally. Mogaka (1991) showed that people moved up to1 km into the forest to collect their subsistence needs forfuel, but more recent information from a participatory forestmapping exercise at Dida in 2000 shows that this distancehas now increased to more than 2 km. Fuelwoodpreferences have also altered over the past 10 years, partlyin response to diminishing supplies of preferred species.

Fuelwood use is location-specific with the communitieson the eastern side of the forest relying more heavily on itthan on the western side where people have greater accessto fuel from their farms.

R"#11Grass is used by farmers through direct livestock grazing,and/or grass-cutting. This is important during the dry seasonand it is suggested that dairy farmers could maintain theforest boundary and beat boundaries by cutting grass fortheir animals.

0"%-+1/#3</@*,*+#$6*1A range of fruits and vegetables are collected from theforest. These are eaten as snacks, which are importantdietary supplements, particularly during lean food times.In 1991 no fruits were being sold outside the area, but, by2000, fruit from Arabuko-Sokoke was being sold as faraway as Kongowea Market in Mombasa. The forest alsohas many vegetables which forest-adjacent communities

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harvest for food. Some of these may also have potentialto be domesticated.

2*<-.-3#6/;6#3+1Lukando (1991) identified 80 medicinal plants used inArabuko-Sokoke Forest and estimated that there were 219herbalists working around the area. Use of medicinal plantsfrom the forest is becoming increasingly commercialised,with plants now being collected for sale in herbal clinicsin Nairobi and other urban centres.

5'6*1Poles are an important forest product used by thecommunities to build houses and sheds. They are mostlyobtained from the forest. Alternatives such as Casuarinaare suitable for roofing but not for the walls where theytend to rot. The licence system for poles used to operatethrough licensed individuals who were often urban-based.This system encouraged the local communities to cut polesillegally. Under a moratorium introduced in 2000, such

licensing was suspended. It is anticipated that pole-woodextraction will resume under the framework of ParticipatoryForest Management and therefore benefit the communitiesdirectly and legally.

a''<(.#"@-3,Wood-carving is an income-generating activity which beganin Arabuko-Sokoke in the 1950s and expanded greatly inthe 60s and 70s. The Kamba community used to carve theparts of trees that were not suitable as timber. With theintensified patrolling that began in the 1990s, they havechanged their approach: they now train local people toprepare unfinished masks which are then completed bythe experienced carvers in Malindi. This strategy hascontributed to the livelihoods of the local people, but hasalso increased pressure on the forest.

?-4$*"The timber used for subsistence is obtained from the forestillegally. This applies to both domestic use and (in smallquantities) for sale to urban-based furniture, constructionand tourism industries.

V'3*=There are very few traditional honey gatherers in theforest. The positioning of ‘Kenya top bar’ hives inside theforest has been affected by security concerns. In theParticipatory Forest Management site near Kafitsoni, fivebeehives have been sited in the forest. Now that bee-keepers’ user groups have been formed, these securityissues will be resolved.

A recent study indicated that hives in the Arabuko-Sokokearea have a mean productivity of 4.7 kg per hive per year,although this is highly variable. About 500 hives weremaintained by bee-keepers supported by the ASFCMP in2001. Assuming that two-thirds of these hives areproductive, about 330 hives were productive. Other hivesmaintained by traditional bee-keepers add a total of about50 traditional log-hives.

N%++*"B6-*1Butterfly farming is the most successful income-generatingactivity around Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. Farmers producepupae from flying cages located in forest-adjacent villages,and sell these to the Kipepeo Project in Gede for export.

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2%1>"''41Nine species of mushrooms are eaten by forest-adjacentcommunities, but these are too perishable to allowcommercial exploitation.

N%1>(4*#+Mogaka (1991) estimated the total number of small mammalstrapped annually to be about 576,450, with a cash valuefor meat of about KSh 807,000. Patrol teams now report arise in the number of traps laid by poachers, but that feweranimals are being caught, suggesting that small mammalsare becoming scarce. Reported sightings of antelopes arealso declining. Animal traps can be found right in the heart

of the forest. However, the largest forest animals such aselephant and buffalo are not hunted for meat.

)'.-'(*.'3'4-./.>#3,*1/#3</;*".*;+-'31/'B+>*/B'"*1+X/JeeJ9788JIn 1991, a socio-economic study showed that:• annual income was usually KSh 5–10,000• poorer households earned mainly from hunting• mean annual income per capita was KSh 1,470• 96.6% of the households around the forest were headed

by men, with an average family size of 13.05 persons• farm size averaged 4.8 ha, and• although there were no Kayas (sacred forests) in ASF,

the forest had cultural value for the making of Koma(a human statue curved from a log to represent a deadrelative) and Kigongo (a human statue that representeda prominent relative who could have been a herbalistor traditional doctor).

Also in 1991, many local people thought that the forestshould be given up for settlement: 41,763 ha of forestcould settle at least 7,585 farmers. This was especially theview of the people to the south (Ngerenyi) and east (Roka-Matsangoni), where land pressure was already high. TheSanya people wanted to go back to the forest for huntingand gathering as they had done before. An annual reviewof forest product prices resulted in increased illegalactivities including corruption, and local people preferredto bribe or compromise Forest Guards in order to collectfuelwood. Instead of paying for the monthly fuelwoodlicence of KSh 30, they paid KSh 5–20. This led tounsustainable and uncontrolled exploitation of the forest.Local people also wanted a ban on the issue of licenses tooutsiders for poles and fuelwood, so that they themselvescould control the removal and use of such products.

An economic evaluation (Contingent Valuation Method)was conducted in 2001, covering 322 persons (0.48% ofthe population), targeting forest-adjacent dwellers or theforest community who have a traditional association withthe forest in relation to their livelihood, culture or religion(Wandago 2001). This revealed significant changes inperceptions and attitudes since 1991. The forest is stillreferred to as foro (belonging to the forest people or thegovernment), but local people are better aware of theirrights to use resources. In 2001, most people interviewedstill saw the forest as a liability because of losses fromanimal damage without compensation.

Other observations were that:• fuelwood is not in short supply; most farms have plenty

of dry mango, cashew and coconut waste for cooking,while others rely on trust land for their needs;

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• rural development priorities were provision of hospitals,schools and water;

• clearing the entire forest and converting it to agriculturecannot solve the land problem;

• newly-formed associations like FADA, DIFAAFA areuseful, but they should be independent of the provincialadministration and change their approach in recruitingnew members;

• bee-keeping and butterfly-farming are ranked high asrevenue sources for locals;

• poverty and malnutrition are common among the forestcommunity, but highly nutritious local foods exist; and

• sanitation is a problem: most people use the forest asa toilet, yet most fresh water wells are in the forest,raising the risk of water-borne disease.

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V-1+'"=Prior to the 20th century, Arabuko-Sokoke Forest was muchmore extensive than it now is. It provided a range of locallyimportant forest products for trade including timber, gumcopal and for musk (from civets). The forest was alsoused for a variety of traditional subsistence uses, such ashunting and other foods, mainly by the Sanya, who werea forest-dwelling tribe of hunter-gatherers.

After the 1920s, Swedish and other European timbermerchants arrived, and began to remove commerciallyviable timber—particularly Afzelia quanzensis andBrachylaena huillensis—thereby creating employment andopportunities which resulted in an influx of people. Greaterpopulations put greater pressure on the land, and areaswere cleared for agricultural settlements and for sisal andcashew plantations. Quarrying for sand also began.Increasing populations in the coastal towns of Malindi andMombasa provided an expanding market for timber, polesand fuelwood, which exacerbated the pressures. Thedemand for building materials for the hotel and tourismindustry has added to this.

With the increase in logging and pressure on the forest,concern over the status of the forest arose and Arabuko-Sokoke was proclaimed a Crown Forest in 1932 and wasgazetted in 1943 covering an area of 39,100 ha. In the1960s part of the forest covering 4,300 ha was againgazetted as a Strict Nature Reserve by the ForestDepartment. All forestry-related activities were terminatedwithin the Nature Reserve in an effort to conservebiodiversity and provide data on tree regeneration. In 1968,the Kararacha extension was added totalling 2,700 ha. Thisextended the forest as far as the coast at Mida Creek andincreased the range of key habitats available.

0'"*1+/.'3<-+-'3A forest inventory was carried out in 1991 (Blackett 1994).The results are summarised in Table 19, according to thethree main forest types, along with those of anotherinventory was completed under the ASFMCP during 2000–01 (Muchiri et al. 2001).

It is difficult to compare the results from the two inventoriesbecause the parameters being used are not the same. Ingeneral, all the forest types have low basal area and

growing stock, indicating that forest condition is generallypoor. This is probably due to several decades of commerciallogging and subsistence use. Regeneration is adequateoverall. However another study (Omenda 2001) has shownthat although overall figures for regeneration are high,certain species do not appear to be regenerating well;these include Afzelia and Brachylaena. This has givensome cause for concern for the future of the forest interms of species composition.

Commercial volume is calculated in both inventories byapplying volume formulae to the growing stock. However,local volume tables for the main species concerned donot exist, and the equations used are general ones derivedfrom elsewhere and may not be particularly accurate.Although Muchiri et al. (2001) does not attempt to calculatecommercial volumes, Blackett (1994) estimated very lowcommercial volume figures (based on stems > 50 cmdiameter at breast height, dbh). These were from zero inCynometra Forest, 3.5m3/ha in Mixed Forest, and 8.6m3/hain Brachystegia Forest. This indicates that there iseffectively no commercial potential for timber harvestingin the forest.

Yield estimates are difficult due to the absence of growthinformation about these forest types and the mainconstituent species. Blackett (1994) calculates projectedyields based on an increment of 1% of the growing stock,giving an average of 39,000 m3 per year for the wholeforest, of which most would be in the form of fuelwood.

D#+%"#6/"*,*3*"#+-'3Omenda (2000) assessed natural regeneration for two ofthe key tree species: Brachylaena huillensis andBrachystegia spiciformis.

Brachylaena huillensisResults• The forest structure of Cynometra thicket and

Cynometra-Manilkara-Brachylaena shows a history ofdisturbance, particularly with regard to B. huillensis.

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• B. huillensis is disproportionately well represented inthe lower size class (for dbh < 5 cm) with very fewreproductive stage mature trees.

• Overall, latent regeneration of B. huillensis is lowerthan is necessary to perpetuate the species into themature stages in the long term.

• There is lower representation in the smaller seedlingsize class, which is contrary to the norm.

As would be expected, the majority of the dominant andco-dominant crown class trees are of Manilkara sulcata,Cynometra webberi and B. huillensis. In this dominantcrown class, B. huillensis accounts for around 16% of theupper storey stems but only 5–6 % of the total in bothforest types.

Another factor that may compound the situation is poorseed dispersal in B. huillensis: up to 98% of seed landswithin 14 m of the parent tree. Furthermore, the specieshas heavy pre-dispersal predation by insects: 10–20% ofviable seeds at time of dispersal and only about 2% ofdispersal seed capable of germinating.

Management implications for Brachylaena• There is a need to understand the reproductive cycles

of the species and the ideal sex ratio in a forest.

• Mature reproductive trees (seed bearers) must beprotected, otherwise there will be a shortage of seedfor regeneration.

• Adequate populations at all stages of developmentshould be selected and protected to ensure a morestable population structure.

• Outside the natural forest, the species should be plantedin an admixture with other species, as heightperformance and form are both undermined whenraised in a monoculture.

Brachystegia spiciformisResults• The forest structure of B. spiciformis woodland shows

signs of past disturbances.• B. spiciformis species is the dominant upper storey

species in a loose association with a few other co-dominant species.

• Latent regeneration of B. spiciformis is extremely low:little regeneration is taking place.

• Specific environmental factors seem to be decisive intriggering germination and thus also regeneration; thecritical factor is likely to be light.

• Dense over-storey by any species or group ofspecies appears to inhibit germination and regenerationof B. spiciformis; this implies that some canopy opening

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and disturbance may encourage this species toregenerate.

• Height and diameter figures indicate that thepopulation/age structure of B. spiciformis is not idealfor a mature undisturbed forest.

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C.'(+'%"-14/+"*3<1Arabuko-Sokoke Forest has achieved a reputation as oneof Africa’s most remarkable forests for birds. Increasinglyit is reported in journals and magazines, and it is rapidlygaining a position where anyone who has an interest inbirds and who is holidaying in Kenya will wish to visit it.

The forest has attracted tourists since at least the early1970s. The number has increased only slowly because ofa lack of serious marketing to tourists. However, specialistbirdwatching tours already visit and the number of suchvisits is increasing. Birdwatching is a rapidly growing leisureactivity in the west, and the large potential market createdby the forest’s unique bird fauna can be tapped further.Many birdwatching tours to East Africa include Arabuko-Sokoke on their itinerary, and other birdwatchers visit theforest as individual enthusiasts, because of what they haveheard from friends and read in journals or otherpublications.

On the ground, the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest GuidesAssociation (ASFGA) supplies forest guides to such groups.ASFGA is gaining increasing recognition from foreignbirdwatchers, helping the association to market forestbirdwatching activity internationally.

Recognition of the importance of environmental awarenessamongst tourists is growing. Private tour operations,environmental organisations, local communities,professional associations and even airlines play anincreasingly important role in educating visitors. There isa growing body of information about the forest in thelocal hotels of Malindi and Watamu, and these hotels havebeen organising forest excursions for some of their visitors,mostly for the specific purpose of birdwatching.Hemingway’s, Turtle Bay Beach Club and Ocean Sportshave all arranged for tourists to visit the forest.

Fortunately Arabuko-Sokoke is one of the safest forests inKenya, and visitors can walk without fear of being injuredby wild animals or harassed by bandits. Members of thelocal community also pass through the forest withoutproblems.

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Information and Education CentreThe Information and Education Centre at Gede ForestStation is managed by KWS personnel. From here, guidesto the forest can be arranged through ASFGA on paymentof a small fee. In addition, there is equipment available(binoculars, telescopes), as well as interpretation displaysabout the forest and its wildlife.

Self-guided trailsVisitors can follow several trails of varying length on footat their own pace. Brochures from the Information andEducation Centre show routes and features of interest. Theseensure that there is minimal disturbance from tourists, andthat visitors can confidently find their own way in the forest.Additional trails have been designated as running routes.

Visitor accommodationThere is no permanent accommodation for visitors in theforest at present, although a small campsite has beenestablished at Gede, for which visitors need to bring theirown tents and camping equipment. Hotel accommodationis available at the nearby resorts of Malindi and Watamu,and transport from these locations to the forest can beeasily arranged.

Tree house and observation pointsA tree platform at the old sand quarry (near Gede) ispopular with visitors. This can provide overnightaccommodation (camping) for birdwatchers who wish tobe in the forest at dusk and in the early morning. Thecentre of the forest has a viewing point at Nyari Cliffs,which can be reached by vehicle.

Driving trailThere is a 63 km of driving trail in the forest. Drives arepossible from the southern area at Kararacha up to theNyari Cliffs viewpoint. Visitors can use four wheel drivevehicles, particularly during the dry season when the sandysoils are soft.

E*@*3%*/.'66*.+-'3Entrance to the forest is presently free for all visitors.However, surveys have shown that price is a relativelyunimportant factor when choosing an eco-tour, and thateven when price is a concern tourists are willing to pay ifthey know that the fees are being used to enhance theirexperience or conserve the special area they have cometo see. In a recent study undertaken at the Informationand Education Centre, about 95% of tourists questionedindicated that they would not have cancelled their trip ifthere were entrance fees pegged at US$ 5 for non residentsor KSh 100 for residents. This willingness to pay has alsobeen demonstrated by the ASFGA who have beencollecting guiding fees from the visitors.

For entry into the forest, there are effectively 3 gates: atSokoke Station, Kararacha and Gede Station. There is

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potential at these points to establish other tourism-relatedactivities such as handicraft shops and kiosks to bring somebenefits to local communities.

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Two economic evaluations of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest havebeen carried out recently, by Emerton (1992) andWandango (2001).

Emerton calculated the Net Present Value (NPV) of theforest under three different future options taking intoconsideration management costs.1. A continuation of the (then) prevailing management

regime. This yielded a NPV of KSh 38 million in 1992(equivalent to KSh 368 million in 2001, using a realinterest rate of 6.2%).

2. A strategy of conservation and sustainable developmentthrough KIFCON intervention. This gave an additionalNPV of KSh 134 million, making a total of KSh 172million (equivalent to KSh 1.6 billion in 2001)

3. To clear fell the entire forest and convert it to the prevailingsmallholder agricultural system. This yielded a NPV ofKSh 170 million (equivalent to KSh 1.6 billion in 2001)

These figures assumed that substantial revenues fromsustainable utilisation under the second option would comefrom plantation development and eco-tourism. However,in practice, neither of these yielded any significant revenuesin the nine years since the valuation. The NPV in the firstoption is far less than that of the third—and even withconservation interventions a conversion to agriculture stillseems better. Option and existence values were ignored,as they were considered unquantifiable with the dataavailable at that time.

O-"*.+(%1*/@#6%*The direct-use value of an indigenous forest comprisesthe total value of all direct uses including wood and non-wood products (NTFPs), and non-extractive activities suchas recreation, education and habitation.

For wood, data from the recently concluded inventory(Muchiri et al. 2001) are used. Although the information

contained in this is sufficient for this exercise, the projectedyield estimates are somewhat unreliable because theyassumed a mean annual increment of 0.5% of the totalvolume in the absence of any growth data. For Arabuko-Sokoke a lesser figure taking into consideration theunmanaged nature of the forest, its condition, and sitequality would be implied. Therefore a figure of 0.2% ofthe volume has been assumed to be a better estimate ofthe Mean Annual Increment.

The value of the total available production (23,049 m3 perannum) is obtained by multiplying this by current prices.These can be calculated from known volumes ofcommercial indigenous species. For saw logs the pricerange is from KSh 1,982–4,681 per m3, with a mean priceof KSh 3,515 per m3. For poles, stacked wood prices forfuelwood can be used, giving KSh 77 per m3.

If the forest is harvested sustainably with only the MeanAnnual Increment being removed each year, more thanKSh 31 million would be realised annually.

NTFPs form the second set of products from the forest.Surveys indicate that subsistence use of these appears tobe increasing, although most is carried out illegally. Mostrespondents were only able to state what they collected,but could not quantify it or place a market value on theproducts.

Butterfly farming and bee-keeping are examples of NTFPbusiness enterprises and conservation projects that havepotential for future expansion. An individual can earn upto KSh 16,000 per year from these, giving potential earningsfrom the whole forest as slightly over KSh 1 billion peryear. The sustainability of these activities needs continuingassessment, and much needs to be done on pricing,marketing and quantification of the products.

The third direct benefit is recreation. Preliminary resultsof a ‘willingness to pay’ estimate for conserving forests forrecreation gives KSh 964 per person. This therefore impliesthat the whole forest has a recreational value ofapproximately KSh 65 million for local people.

The total direct use value of the forest is thereforeapproximately KSh 1.2 billion per annum. Based on thestanding stock data, the capital stock value of the forest isabout KSh 17 billion. Addition of flora and fauna wouldincrease this value further.

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L3<-"*.+(%1*/@#6%*The indirect-use value refers to the environmental goodsand services that forests provide, including:• carbon storage or sink function,• reduced air pollution,• water catchment areas,• nutrient cycling, and• regulation of microclimate.

Forest destruction and degradation implies loss of manyof these environmental benefits, although this woulddepend on the subsequent alternative land use. Forestsprovide long-lived storage sinks in the carbon cycle, bytying up carbon in wood and soil and accumulating it forhundreds of years before returning it to the atmosphereby respiration, decomposition, erosion or burning. It hasbeen estimated by Wandago (2001) that Arabuko-SokokeForest has potential for storing carbon worth KSh 12.2billion

Z;+-'3/#3</*H-1+*3.*/@#6%*Non-use values are difficult to estimate because in mostcases they are not reflected in people’s behaviour and areunobservable. The non-use values of a forest are madeup of both option and existence values.

Option value is the value people put on conserving aforest for future uses which are not carried out now, butwhere future opportunities would be forgone if the forestswere to be destroyed today. This value is additional to thedirect use values. For ASF, using the mean values ofcompensation to locals (KSh 1,400,852) and the populationfigures (67,622) the product of the two gives a value ofabout to KSh 94.67 billion. Adding this value to the directuse value (KSh 1.2 billion) then ASF has an option valueof KSh 95.87 billion.

Existence value relates to the intrinsic worth of the forest,regardless of its actual use. It is the value people derivefrom knowing that a forest exists, even if they never visitit. It includes cultural, aesthetic, heritage and bequestvalues. This value category can be estimated by deductingpeople’s use value from their total ‘willingness to pay’ forconservation.

Using the figures obtained from the survey the total‘willingness to pay’ for the conservation of ASF is KSh1.87 billion. The direct use value was KSh 1.1 billion, sothe existence value is the difference between the two:KSh 670 million.

A'4;#"-1'3/'B/B'"*1+/.'31*"@#+-'3/Y-+>#,"-.%6+%"*Current data show that a farmer can earn KSh 10,007 perha annually from crops and KSh 14,867 per ha fromanimals, giving a total of KSh 24,874 per ha. If the wholeof ASF (41,763 ha) were converted to agriculture, thepotential earnings would be about KSh 1 billion per annum.

This value can be added to the value of timber sold whenthe whole forest is cleared, giving an opportunity cost ofKSh 16.089 billion. This figure is part of the conservationcosts. Another benefit would be lack of crop damage bywild animals if the forest were cleared but there would beno indirect, option or existence values in this case.

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A6-4#+*Rainfall is the most important climatic factor, which,together with soil type, determines the type of vegetationin each zone. Rainfall is bimodal in pattern, beginning inApril with the advent of the monsoon which ends in June,with a second period of rainfall during November andDecember. January and February are the driest months.The annual average rainfall varies from less than 600 mmin the north-west part of the forest to over 1000 mm atGede in the east.

Temperatures remain high for most of the year with a dailymean of 25° C, varying little from month to month, althoughMarch is usually the hottest month. Humidity remains highall year because of the proximity of the Indian Ocean.

?';',"#;>=The eastern part of the forest lies on a flat coastal plain atan altitude of about 45 m. The remainder is plateau whichbegins its rise along a line running roughly SW–NE throughthe centre of the forest. The plateau reaches a height of60–135 m above sea level.

R*'6',=X/1'-61/#3</Y#+*"/"*1'%".*1The coastal plain is characterised by deep, loose, coarsesands and coral rags. These are largely infertile soils,although well drained. The plateau consists of underlyingJurassic sediments and has very characteristic red Magarinisoils, which are deep and heavily leached. The dividingline between these two soil types is very distinct and isalso marked by a series of seasonal pools at the base ofthe plateau, which disappear during the dry season. Thereare no perennial rivers or streams within the forest. Thedividing line between these soils is reflected in a sharpvegetation change from Cynometra Forest on the red soilsto Brachystegia Forest on the sands.

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Ayiemba, W.O. (1997) A Study of the Butterfly Biodiversityin the Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya. MSc Thesis.Nairobi, Kenya: University of Nairobi.

Ayiemba, W.O. (1998) Biodiversity utilisation by localcommunities: impacts of butterfly-farming on wildpopulations of butterflies and on community attitudesto forest conservation (Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya).Unpublished Report from Kipepeo Project toBiodiversity Support Programme.

Ayiemba W. (2001) Position paper on biodiversityconservation in Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. UnpublishedASFMCP Discussion Paper.

Bagine R.K., J.M. Muhangani and J.M. Ruthiiri (1992).Arabuko-Sokoke Forest invertebrate report. UnpublishedKIFCON Report. Nairobi: Karura Forest Station.

Bennun, L.A. and Waiyaki E.M. (1991). Arabuko-SokokeForest, ornithological report. Unpublished KIFCONReport. Nairobi: Karura Forest Station.

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BirdLife International (2000) Threatened Birds of the World.Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions andBirdLife International.

Blackett, H.L. (1994) Arabuko-Sokoke Forest: ForestInventory Report No.2. Unpublished KIFCON Report.Nairobi: Karura Forest Station.

Bliss, T. (2000) Tourism development plan for Arabuko-Sokoke Forest. January 1999–December 2001.Unpublished ASFMCP Report.

Branney, P. (2000) Arabuko-Sokoke Forest ManagementPlanning Consultancy, September 2000. UnpublishedASFMCP Report.

Britton, P.L. and Zimmerman, D.A. (1979). The Avifaunaof Sokoke Forest, Kenya. Journal of the East AfricaNatural History Society and National Museums of Kenya169: 1–5.

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Collar, N.J. and Stuart, S.N. (1988) Key Forests for threatenedbirds in Africa. Monograph 3. Cambridge, UK:International Council for Bird Preservation.

Davies A.G., Odhiambo, O.G., Kibanya P. and Kwambai, J.(1992). Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Mammal Survey. Unpub-lished KIFCON Report. Nairobi: Karura Forest Station.

Emerton, L. (1994) Summary of the Current value of Use ofArabuko-Sokoke Forest. Unpublished KIFCON Report.Nairobi: Karura Forest Station.

Fitzgibbon, C.D. and Fanshawe, J.H. (1992). The influenceof hunting on the fauna of Arabuko-Sokoke Forest,Kenya. Unpublished KIFCON Report. Nairobi: KaruraForest Station.

Fishpool, L.D.C. and Evans, M.I., eds (2001). Importantbird areas in Africa and associated islands. Prioritysites for conservation. Newbury and Cambridge, UK:Pisces Publications and BirdLife International (BirdLifeConservation Series No. 11)

Fitzgibbon, C.D. (1994) The distribution and abundanceof the golden-rumped elephant shrew Rhynchocyonchrysopygus in Kenyan coastal forests. BiologicalConservation 67: 153–160.

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Gordon, I.J. and Ayiemba, W.O. (1996) Using ButterflyDiversity for Income Generation. pp 143–147 inProceedings of the African Forest Policy Forum. Nairobi,August 29–30, 1996. Vol. 2 Full Text Presentations.World Bank Africa Region Environment Group.

Gordon, I.J. and Ayiemba, W.O. (1998) Kipepeo Project,Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, Kenya. In Dubai InternationalAward, World Habitat Day Seminars: Lessons learnedfrom Best Practices. 4th October 1998, Dubai, UAE.

Government of Kenya (1982). The Forestry Act. Nairobi:Government Printers.

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Kagombe, J.K. (2001a) Human Resources Development forArabuko-Sokoke Forest. Unpublished ASFMCPDiscussion Paper.

Kagombe, J.K. (2001b) Proceedings of the workshop onHuman resource development. Unpublished ASFMCPReport.

Kagombe, J.K. and Ayiemba, W. (2001) Proceedings of theworkshop on Biodiversity conservation. UnpublishedASFMCP Report.

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Kagombe J.K. and Mbuvi, M.T.E. (2001b) Proceedings ofthe workshop on Research and Monitoring. UnpublishedASFMCP Report.

Kagombe, J.K. and Muchiri, F. (2001) Proceedings of theworkshop on Commercial use of the forest. UnpublishedASFMCP Report.

Kagombe, J.K. and Mwavita, M.M. (2001a) Proceedings ofthe workshop on Ecotourism and Environmentaleducation. Unpublished ASFMCP Report.

Kagombe, J.K. and Mwavita, M.M. (2001b). Proceedingsof the workshop on Problem Animal Management.Unpublished ASFMCP Report.

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Kagombe, J.K. and Mwendwa, K. (2000) Proceedings ofthe workshop on forest Zonation. Unpublished ASFMCPReport.

Kagombe, J.K., Mbuvi, M.T.E., and Mathenge, J. (2001)Proceedings of the workshop on Subsistence use of theforest. Unpublished ASFMCP Report.

KIFCON (1992) Arabuko-Sokoke Forest Pilot ProjectVolume 2: Working Papers. Unpublished KIFCONReport. Nairobi: Karura Forest Station.

KIFCON/Birdlife International (1993). Arabuko-SokokeForest Pilot Project Implementation Document.Unpublished KIFCON Report. Nairobi: Karura ForestStation.

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Mbuvi M.T.E. (2001) Subsistence use of Arabuko-SokokeForest. Unpublished ASFMCP Discussion Paper.

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Mogaka H.R. (1991) Local utilisation of Arabuko-SokokeForest Reserve. Unpublished KIFCON Report. Nairobi:Karura Forest Station.

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Muchiri F. (2001) Commercial use of Arabuko-SokokeForest. Unpublished ASFMCP Discussion paper.

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strategic forest management plan 2002–2027

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