strat i graphy

7/27/2019 Strat i Graphy

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0016-7622/2010-76-3-251/$ 1.00 GEOL. SOC. INDIA

JOURNAL GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA

Vol.76, September 2010, pp.251-266

Stratigraphic Correlation between Different GondwanaBasins of India

G. MUKHOPADHYAY, S. K. MUKHOPADHYAY, MANAS ROYCHOWDHURY and P. K. PARUIGeological Survey of India, Coal Wing, DK-6, Sector-II, Salt Lake, Kolkata - 700 091

Email: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Abstract. Gondwana Basins of India occur within the suture zones of Precambrian cratonic blocks of Peninsular India

along some linear belts. More than 99% of the total coal resource of the country is present within these basins. The

basins are demarcated by boundary faults having graben or half-graben geometry.

These basins preserve a thick sedimentary pile deposited over nearly 200 million years from latest Carboniferous toLower Cretaceous. However, due to lack of well-constrained data, age of most of the formations is assigned tentatively.

This has resulted in diversified views on both intra- and inter-basinal stratigraphic correlation particularly in case of

Upper Gondwana formations.

It is well recognised that there are distinct spatial and temporal similarities in lithological, faunal and floral distribution

in different Gondwana Basins of southern continents, including India, that were once part of supercontinent Gondwanaland.

To address the problems of Indian Gondwana stratigraphy, during the present study, some unique events, also recognised

in other parts of Gondwanaland, like marine flooding surfaces, large scale tectonic events or major change in depositional

environment have been used as a tool for temporal correlation within the Gondwana Basins of India. Many of these

events have been dated from different basins elsewhere. Considering these major events as time planes the total time

span of deposition in Gondwana Basins has been classified into seven time slots. Recognition of these time planes helps

in interbasinal correlation of different formations in Indian Gondwana basins and assigning the age, wherever available.

This approach also helps in better understanding of basinal history. Unless otherwise mentioned, the time scale proposed

by International Commission on Stratigraphy (2004) has been followed in this paper.

Keywords: Indian Gondwana Basins, Stratigraphy, Global events, Depositional history.

Formations of Lower Permian and Raniganj Formation and

its equivalents of Upper Permian age. Barakar Formation is

the major storehouse of coal in all the basins having more

than 90% of total resource of the country. Karharbari and

Raniganj Formations present only in a few basins.

Depositional pattern in individual basins shows wide

variation. The succession is dominated by arenaceous facies

in majority of the basins and formational contacts are blurreddue to absence of marker bed and close similarity of

lithocharacter. In many basins only Barakar Formation was

earlier distinguished separately from the post-Talchir strata,

that too only because of its coal content, while the overlying

lithopacks, deposited over unusually long time period, were

often clubbed under a single name like Pali (in Son Valley),

Kamthi (in Mahanadi, Wardha, Godavari) etc. Lack of well-

constrained age data, long range of available plant fossils

pose serious constraints not only in interbasinal stratigraphic

correlation but often created varying opinion about the

stratigraphy of a particular basin. One glaring example is

INTRODUCTION

Gondwana Basins of India account for nearly 99% of

coal resource of the country. The basins occur along major

river valleys either as discrete bodies or are unified by post-

Permian strata and are named after the Rivers Damodar,

Son, Mahanadi, Godavari etc or the linear hill ranges like

Satpura and Rajmahal. Upto five km thick strata, deposited

over 200 million years, from Upper Carboniferous to LowerCretaceous, are preserved in these basins and are clubbed

into Gondwana Supergroup. Upper Cretaceous Lameta-

Bagh beds and Deccan Trap have not been included within

Gondwana Supergroup since by that time India was

completely separated from the rest of Gondwanaland and

moved far towards north. Gondwana Supergroup is sub-

divided into Permo-carboniferous Lower Gondwana Group,

characterized by Gangomopteris-Glossopteris flora and

Mesozoic Upper Gondwana Group containingDicroidium

Lepidopteris-Ptylophylum flora. The coal seams are found

only in the lower group within Karharbari and Barakar


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JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.76, SEPT.2010

252 G. MUKHOPADHYAY AND OTHERS

Upper Kamthi of Godavari Valley. The existing correlation

scheme of different formations is shown in Table 1.

This paper addresses the problems by detailed analysis

of subsurface data and recognising the imprints of certain

events in different Gondwana basins of India that can be

correlated with Gondwanide events whose absolute age is

often available. This helps in assigning the age of various

formations in different basins more accurately as well as

understanding the geological history of the Gondwana

Basins of India.

GEOLOGICAL SETUP

The Gondwana Basins of Peninsular India occur along

four major linear belts namely (1) Trans-Indian basin belt

that include ENE-WSW trending Satpura and Son Valley

Basins and E-W to WNW-ESE trending Damodar-Koel

Valley Basins (2) NNW-SSE trending Wardha-Pranhita-

Godavari Valley Basin belt, (3) NW-SE trending Mahanadi

Valley Basin belt that swerves to WNW-ESE direction in

southernmost Talcher coalfield and (4) NNW-SSE trending

Purnea-Rajmahal-Galsi basin belt. The Gondwana Basins

of Bangladesh are often considered to be part of this fourth

belt with easternmost exposure of Gondwana sediments at

Singrimari in Meghalaya (Fig.1).

In addition, in the eastern part of Extra-Peninsular India

some isolated outcrops of Lower Gondwana Group occur

as thrusted sheets overriding the Neogene-Quaternary

sediments extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the east to

central Nepal in the west. Presence of Gondwana sediments

have also been established in boreholes drilled in the offshore

Bay of Bengal along the extension of Godavari and

Mahanadi Rivers.Apart from these traditional coal-bearing Gondwana

Basins, sediments identical to the non-coal bearing basal

part of Lower Gondwana Group of rocks are present in

Jaisalmer Basin of Rajasthan, Salt Range in Punjab

(Pakistan), along the Palaeo-Tethyan margin (stretching from

Kashmir to Garhwal Himalaya) and along East Coast (in

Palar and as a number of detached outliers). Besides, the

Mesozoic basins of Kachchh and Eastern Pericratonic basins

have temporally overlapping relation with Gondwana

Basins. Although these basins are not generally included in

the traditional Gondwana Basins, their geological history

Pe

rmia

n

Triassic

Jurassic

Cretaceous Damodar-Koel

valleyRajmahal Mahanadi Son Satpura Godavari

JabalpurChikiala/Gangapur

Middle

Lower Dubrajpur Kota

UpperSupraPanchet

Kamthi

Tiki Maleri

Middle

Pali

Denwa

Bhimaram

Yerrapalli

Lower PanchetPanchmarhi

UpperKamthi

MiddleKamthi

Upper

Raniganj Raniganj Raniganj Bijuri LowerKamthi

Barren

Measures

Barren

Measures

Barren

MeasuresMotur BarrenMeasures

Lower Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar Barakar

Talchir Talchir Talchir Talchir Talchir Talchir

Parsora

Bandhavgarh

Lower

Kamthi

KamthiGroup

MaleriGroup

Barakar

Late Carboniferous

Bansa bed

Bagra

Upper

? ?

Dharmaram

Table 1. Existing scheme of correlation of Gondwana Formations


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JOUR.GEOL.SOC.INDIA, VOL.76, SEPT. 2010

STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT GONDWANA BASINS OF INDIA 253

throws important light in the evolutionary history of

Gondwana geology of India. Special emphasis needs to begiven to Salt Range in Punjab (Pakistan), because it started

receiving sediments almost at the same time as Gondwana

Basins of Peninsular India after a long post-Cambrian hiatus

and being at the margin of Tethys, the fossiliferous

succession gives a very good idea about the sea level changes

with time along Indian plate boundary during the deposition

of Gondwana succession in interior basins.

All the traditional Gondwana Basins of India show

graben or half-graben geometry. Various theories have been

proposed to explain the origin of Gondwana Basins of India

that mainly revolved around the timing and role of boundary

faults in basin evolution i.e. whether the boundary faults

are intrinsic where sedimentation continuedpari-pasu withtectonism or the faults are much later phenomenon that

preserve part of much larger original basins. A number of

workers believed that the Gondwana Basins, initiated in

glacially modified basement depressions, were of much

larger dimension and might be a single master basin. The

remnants are now preserved due to faulting at a much later

stage, variously suggested as Middle Triassic, Jurassic,

Cretaceous or even younger, along the present day basin

boundary (Gee, 1932; Pascoe, 1968; Ahmed and Ahmed,

1977, Veevers and Tiwari, 1995). According to proponents

of rift basin model, the subsidence was tectonically

Dharwar Craton

Bastar

Craton

SinghbhumCraton

Bundelkhand Craton

Wardha-P

ranhita-Godavari

Mahanadi

Satpura Son

Damodar-Koel

Rajmahal

Singrimari

Extrapeninsular basins

Palar

Athgarh

Kachchha

Jaisalmer

Fig.1. Distribution of Gondwana basin belts of India.


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controlled from very beginning and faults were

contemporaneous but spread over a great period of time

(Fox, 1934).

Indian shield is a mosaic of a number of Archaean

cratonic blocks (Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986). All the

present day Gondwana Basins are situated within the suture

zone between these cratonic blocks (Fig.1). A number of

crustal scale shear zones are present within these belts. The

strong parallelism between the faults and the shear zones

within basement leads to the idea of reactivation of

Precambrian weak zones during Phanerozoic crustal

distension resulting in basin formation (Chatterjee and

Ghosh, 1970; Mitra, 1994; Biswas, 1999; Acharyya and Roy,

2000). The basins are also conceived to have formed initially

as Sag-type basins that were later on (post-Barakar)

converted into rift basins or pull-apart type basins (Biswaset al. 1993; Biswas, 1999). A detailed study of the Indian

basins reveals that the sedimentation in Gondwana Basins

of India evolved through a complex interplay of faulting,

changes in sea level and climate. The basinal geometry was

modified by tectonic movement during different periods

which can often be correlated with Gondwanide events.

GLOBAL SETUP AND TIME EVENTS

India along with the continents of southern hemisphere

was part of supercontinent Gondwanaland (Suess, 1885),

that existed as a single landmass since Cambrian till its

eventual break up in phases during Jurassic-Lower

Cretaceous. India, Madagascar, Western and Northern

Australia, East Antarctica formed East Gondwana while

Africa and South America were part of West Gondwana.

These two were sutured along Neo-Proterozoic mobile belt

of Arabia - Nubia - Ethiopia - Kenya - Mozambique

(Hoffman, 1991; Unrug, 1996).

No pre-Gondwana sedimentary record is preserved in

the entire interior part of Gondwanaland since unification.

During this time, sedimentation took place only in the

southern Palaeo-Pacific margin and northern Tethyanmargin. Gondwanaland collided with Laurasia during

Carboniferous between 330 and 320 Ma to form Pangea

and Ice sheets developed on the highlands (Veevers, 2004).

Initial sedimentation in all the basins of Gondwanaland

took place due to melting of glaciers. Multiple deglaciation

sequence has been recognised in many basins. The earliest

radiometric age, measured from juvenile magmatic zircon

associated with interglacial marine mudstone of Dwyka

Group from Kalahari Basin, Africa is 302 3 Ma (Bangert

et al. 1999). Veevers (2006) has considered 302 Ma

(Gzhelian) as the time of inception of Gondwana Basins.

Deglaciation caused rise in sea level and seawater inundated

the basins deep inside the Gondwanaland, which is

manifested by the occurrence ofEurydesmaand other marine

fauna all over the Gondwanaland countries during Early

Sakmarian at around 290 + 4 Ma (Bangert et al. 1999). Top

oftime slot Ihas been chosen at 290 Ma which corresponds

to top of Talchir Formation in India. Time slot Ithus ranges

from around 302 Ma (Gzhelian Stage, topmost series of

Pennsylvanian Series of Carboniferous) to 290 Ma (Early

Sakmarian Stage, Lower part of Cisuralian Series of

Permian) during which this early glacial or glacially

influenced sedimentation took place.

Following the Sakmarian marine transgression, near

shore environment prevailed in many basins in the interior

parts of the Gondwanaland with the advent of fluvial

environment in the marginal part of the basins underperiglacial climate (Collinson, 1996; Chakraborty et al.

2003; Eyles et al. 2003). The Lower part of Barakar

Formation or the Karharbari Formation in India can be

equated with these deposits.

Visser and Praekelt (1996) proposed that far field stress

generated due to oblique subduction of Panthalassan plate

is the causative factor for opening of Zambezian-type rift

basins in the interior part of Gondwanaland. A major phase

of basin opening is thought to have been operative at 2782

Ma, the second tectonic paroxysm of Cape Fold Belt of

South Africa (Halbich et al. 1983), with the opening of Natal

Trough as well as the rift system along East African Rift

Valley. This period is correlatable with the major coal

forming epoch almost over the entire Gondwanaland under

a warmer condition. In India, the major coal bearing part of

Barakar Formation was deposited.

The Top of Time Slot IIis fixed at 271 Ma in topmost

Kungurian, at the Cisuralian-Guadalupian boundary, when

another Marine transgression started affecting marginal low-

lying areas in Gondwanaland. Sibumasu (South and North

China-Burma-Malaya-Sumatra) and Qiangtang separated

from Gondwanaland along the Indo-Australian margin with

the opening of Neo-Tethys (Metcalfe, 1996). In the westernpart of the Gondwanaland transgression took place under

an arid to semiarid condition as in Oman, Madagascar,

Tanzania and further north in Africa, Amazon Basin, South

America (Kreuser, 1996). In Madagascar, Productus bearing

Vahitola limestone was deposited at the top of Sakoa Group

(Wopfner, 1993). The increasing aridity might have been

resulted due to the volcanism in Tethyan margin and South

America and rotation of western part of Gondwanaland

towards equator (Acharyya, 2000). However, humid climate

prevailed in eastern and southern part of Gondwanaland. In

India, Ironstone-shale bearing Barren Measures in eastern


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part (Damodar Valley and southern part of Mahanadi Valley)

and red clay dominated Motur Formation in western part

(Satpura, Wardha and northern part of Godavari Valley)

were deposited in peripheral basins respectively while the

basins, in the interior part, received sand-dominated fluvial

sediments during this period.

Guadalupian-Lopingian boundary at around 260 Ma is

characterised by global regression (Gradstein et al. 2004).

Coal forming period that ushered in Late Permian in southern

and eastern part of Gondwanaland viz. India (coal bearing

sediments of Raniganj Formation and its equivalents),

Australia, Antarctica and South Africa is likely to coincide

with this regressive phase. This regressive phase is associated

with renewed rifting. In Madagascar, Sakamena Group

deposited during this time with an unconformity with the

underlying Sakoa Group (McElhinny, 1977).End of Permian is one of the five major extinction events

in earth history. The sea level regressed to a large extent.

Nearly 80% of marine genera perished. The Glossopteris

and other peat-forming plants faded out during this global

extinction (Retallack et al. 1996). Coal formation completely

ceased. The sharp fall in 13C at the very end of the Permian

is correlated with decrease in productivity and burial of

organic carbon (Faure et al. 1996). Siberian flood basalt

erupted at 250 Ma that continued into Early Triassic. Time

Slot IIIranges from 271 Ma (Kungurian) to 251 Ma (P-T

boundary). In India, Barren Measures (Ironstone shale),

Motur Formations were deposited during the early part

followed by Raniganj, Bijori, Lower Kamthi Formations

during the latter part of this time slot.

Globally Triassic is dominated by a progressive

transgression that began in latest Permian and peaks in

Anisian-Ladinian boundary (Gradstein et al. 2004). The

advent of Triassic is marked by marine limestone-shale

deposit in Madagascar (Sakamena II) and Salt Range

(Ceratite bed). By early Triassic, the arid climate of western

Gondwanaland extended over the eastern part marked by

the deposition of red bed all over Gondwanaland.

Major deformation took place in the foreland basinsalong southern Panthalassan margin of Gondwanaland

during Ladinian (233 Ma) which Veevers (2004) termed as

Gondwanide II followed by Pangean Extension II during

which renewed rifting was associated with partial return of

coal forming environment as observed in Australia, South

Africa, Antarctica. However, the effect of these events are

not that much well-recognisable in the northern basins of

Gondwanaland during this time. In most of the Indian basins

sedimentation continued uninterrupted upto Early Norian.

Time Slot IVcovers the period from P-T boundary (251Ma)

to Early Norian. In India, arkosic to subarkosic sandstone -

red clay bearing Panchet Formation in Damodar Valley

Basins, Pali-Tiki Formation in Son Valley Basins, Lower

Panchmarhi-Denwa in Satpura Basin, Lower Kamthi in

Mahanadi Valley, Middle Kamthi and Yerapalli-Bhimaram-

Maleri members of Maleri Formation (Ramana Murty, 1996)

in Godavari Valley Basin were deposited during this period.

The latter part of Upper Triassic is dominated by a

regression with mass extinction and very poor sedimentary

record in Late Norian and Rhaetian (Hallam, 1996). Pangea

remained a single landmass. In the western Australia, end

Triassic is marked by faulting and deep erosion of strata

(Veevers, 2006). Triassic-Jurassic boundary witnessed the

maximum outpouring of basalt in geological history in

Central Atlantic igneous province at around 200 Ma (Hames

et al. 2000). The time slot Vwhich starts at Late Norian

continued, as discussed later, upto Early JurassicPliensbachian. This is followed by the resumption of

sedimentation with distinctly different character under

renewed tectonic movement. Time slot V, the period of

mostly nondeposition with concomitant erosion and tilting

has been tentatively assigned an age from Late Norian to

Pliensbachian. In the northern part of Godavari Valley

fossiliferous red clays (gypsum bearing, Yadgiri and Rao,

1988) of Dharmaram Member of Maleri Formation were

deposited during this time slot. As discussed later, lower

part of Bagra Formation in Satpura Basin may be the only

other example. Unlike the overlying quartzarenitic

sandstone, feldspar continues to be a constituent of the

sediments deposited during this time (Yadgiri and Rao, 1988,

Dutta and Laha, 1977).

During Lower Jurassic, thick quartzarenitic coarse-

grained sandstone was deposited in many basins associated

with renewed rifting in the interior part of Gondwanaland

as in western Australia, Madagascar and India. Tholeiitic

basalt erupted in southern part of Africa, Antarctica and

Australia between 184-179 Ma (Veevers, 2006). Deposition

in inland basins coincides with Pangean breakup through

opening of the rift oceans that started at Oxfordian, Upper

Jurassic (around 160 Ma). Africa and South America startedsplitting from the Gondwanaland. These deposits are mostly

unfossiliferous, particularly at the lower part, and the

available plant fossils have very long range. The span of

Time Slot VIis taken to be Pliensbachian (Lower Jurassic)

to Oxfordian (Upper Jurassic) (~185-160 Ma). In India,

Suprapanchet in Damodar Valley, Dubrajpur in Rajmahal,

Upper part of Kamthi in Mahanadi Valley, Mahadeva,

Parsora, Bandhavgarh in Son Valley, Upper part of

Panchmarhi and Upper part of Bagra (?) in Satpura, Upper

Kamthi and Kota in Godavari Valley were likely to be

deposited during this time.


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Upper Jurassic deposits are rare in Gondwanaland

interior. Release of stress due to break up of Pangea

might be the reason of lack of subsidence in the rift basins

resulting in non-deposition. A prominent unconformity is

present at the top of the deposits of time slot VI.

However, the marginal basins, with open marine connection,

continued receiving sediment. The western pericratonic

basins of India (Kachchh in Gujarat and Jaisalmir-Bikaner-

Nagaur in Rajasthan) opened up during the breaking up of

East and West Gondwanaland. No time slot is named for

this period since it represents complete nondeposition in

peninsular basins.

Sedimentation in Peninsular India resumed, albeit in a

limited scale in peninsular basins, during Early Cretaceous

Aptian Stage and is the beginning ofTime Slot VII. Tholeiitic

basalt erupted in India, in the form of Rajmahal Trap andrelated volcanics, western Australia and Antarctica over a

protracted period of time. India got separated from

Antarctica and Australia, with the opening of Indian Ocean,

in the east and Madagascar from west and continued its

northward journey marking the end of Gondwana

sedimentation at the end of Albian. The top of time slot VII

is selected at 105 Ma during Albian based on the youngest

age of Rajmahal Trap related volcanism. Jabalpur, Bansa

Bed, Gangapur/Chikiala, Umia plant bed, deposits within

the pericratonic basins along East Coast, Infra-Rajmahal bed

in Rajmahal Master basin were deposited during this period.

STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION IN INDIAN

GONDWANA BASINS CORRESPONDING TO

TIME SLOTS

The Gondwana Basins of Peninsular India preserve thick

succession of unmetamorphosed coal bearing predominantly

siliciclastic sediments, Gondwana Supergroup, deposited

under a wide range of depositional environment from glacial,

glaciofluvial, glaciomarine, fluvial, lacustrine to shallow

marine over a prolonged period. More than 5 km thick

sediment is present in Godavari, Satpura, Son Valley Basins.From rank study of coal seams of Jharia coalfield in Damodar

Valley (Bardhan and Ghosh, 1999), an equal amount of

thickness of sediment was assumed, a substantial part of

which has been thought to be removed during subsequent

erosion. As already mentioned, barring the basal Talchir and

coal bearing Barakar Formation, overlying Permian and a

major part of Triassic or even younger strata has often been

clubbed into single formation earlier like Pali in Son Valley

and Kamthi in Wardha-Pranhita-Godavari Valley Basin belt

and Mahanadi Valley Basin belt. In last few decades, with

the available surface and subsurface data, these broad units

have been subdivided and separate horizons, equivalent to

Barren Measures and Raniganj Formation of Damodar

Valley Basins, have been clearly distinguished in all the

major basins. However, the problem still persists with the

classification of post-Permian strata. Most of these

formations could not be assigned any specific age due to

lack of precise palaeontological or radiometric age data.

Palynological age data, though available and often used as

an additional tool in this paper, is yet to be well established.

As a result, the interbasinal correlation of different

formations poses serious constraints. Hence an attempt has

been made here to distinguish correlatable stratigraphic

horizons in different basins in the light of above-mentioned

seven time slots (Table 2). In absence of well accepted formal

name, the subdivisions proposed here for the broad units

are, designated by using informal prefix such as Lower,Middle, Upper before the widely used names.

Time Slot I : Gzhelian (Upper Carboniferous) to Early

Sakmarian (Cisuralian - Lower Permian) (302-290 Ma)

The glacially influenced deposit which is ubiquitous at

the base in all the Indian Gondwana Basins are named as

Talchir Formation in peninsular part and by various names

like Bap bed, Boulder bed etc. along Tethyan margin. It

comprises diamictite, conglomerate, sandstone, shale,

rhythmically alternating shale and sandstone with or without

dropstones and thin marl bands.

The deposition of Talchir Formation is considered to

have started during Upper Carboniferous, similar to the other

parts of Gondwanaland (Pascoe, 1968). Absence of

characteristic Upper Carboniferous fossils or palynoflora

within peninsular basins leads some workers to consider

the whole of Talchir Formation as of Permian age (Tiwari,

1996; Vijaya, 1996). However, palaeontological samples

were collected mostly from upper part and the lower part

yielded no fossil record (Sen, 1995). Talchir Formation

attains more than 500 m thickness in many basins (Raniganj,

Godavari, GSI exploration data). Multiple deglaciation

sequences, similar in number to the southern marginal basinsof Gondwanaland where undoubted Upper Carboniferous

age has been established, are reported from a number of

Indian basins (Casshyap and Qidwai, 1974; De, 1979). India

was at much Lower latitude than these basins. It is expected

that the effect of deglaciation should be simultaneous if not

earlier in Gondwana Basins of India. Hence an Upper

Carboniferous age of initiation of Gondwana Basins of India

is a distinct possibility.

Undisputed glacial imprint is present at the basal part of

the succession everywhere (Pascoe, 1968). The nature of

sediment and associated sedimentary structures clearly


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indicate marine influence in the upper part of the succession

(Chakraborty, 1993; Mukhopadhyay and Bhattacharya,

1996, Ghosh et al. 2004). Marine fossils dominated by

Eurydesma and other Pelecypods, Brachiopods, Bryozoans,

foraminifera has been recorded from the top of Talchir and

equivalent formation from many basins like Umaria,

Manendragarh, Daltonganj, Satpura and Rajasthan withinpeninsular India and all along the Tethyan margin (Reed,

1939; Ghosh, 1954; Mishra et al. 1961; Dutt, 1965; Dutt

and Shah, 1969; Dickins and Shah, 1977; Ranga Rao et al.

1977; Ghosh, 2003). Sporadic occurrence of various types

of marine fossils are also reported from Raniganj, Bokaro,

Rajmahal, Jharia, Ramgarh, Godavari, Athgarh, Palar Basins

(Venkatachala and Rawat, 1973; Tewari et al. 1981; Rawat

and Jain, 1985; Ghosh et al. 1987; Tewari, et al., 1987;

Banerjee and DRozario, 1988; Chaudhuri and Mondal,

1989; Pal et al. 1994). The top of Talchir Formation, thus

can reasonably be correlated with Gondwanide transgressive

event, i.e. time plane 1 and can be assigned Early Sakmarian

age (290 Ma).

The fossil assemblage of Daltonganj, Manendragarh are

rich inEurydesma fauna similar to Eastern Himalaya while

that of Umaria and Salt Range are rich in Productus which

lead Shastry and Shah (1964) to visualise two marine fronts,

one from the east and other from the west. Marine incursionfrom northern Tethyan margin has also been envisaged

(Veevers and Tiwari, 1995; Ravi Shanker et al. 1996). Ghosh

(2003) proposed a single marine front from east. However,

considering the wide occurrence of marine imprints in almost

all the basins, particularly the marine occurrences in Palar

Basin as well as in Damodar Valley Basins and southern

part of Mahanadi Valley, it is difficult to explain all the

marine occurrences by incursion either from east or north

only. It is more likely that a major trough existed in between

India and Australia-Antarctica, like the Malagasy trough

separating India-Madagascar and Africa (Wopfner, 1991),

Talchir Talchir Talchir Talchir Talchir

Lr. Barakar/Karharbari

Lr. Barakar Lr. Barakar Lr. Barakar Lr. Barakar

Up. Barakar Up. Barakar Up. Barakar Up. Barakar Up. Barakar

Barren

Measures

Barren

MeasuresBarren

MeasuresMotur

Bijuri Lr. KamthiRaniganj Raniganj

Panchet Pali Lr. Panchmarhi Middle Kamthi

Yerapalli/

Bhimaram

TikiDenwa

Maleri

DharmaramLr. Bagra

Up. Panchmarhi

/ Up. Bagra

Kota /

Up. KamthiBandhavgarh

/ParsoraDubrajpurSuprapanchet

JabalpurBansa bed

Talchir

Lr. Barakar

Up. Barakar

Raniganj

Barren

Measures

Lr. Kamthi

Up. Kamthi

Damodar-

Koel

Rajmahal Southern

MahanadiSon Satpura Godavari

Rajmahal

TrapInfra-Rajmahal

Nondeposition/Erosion

Chikiala/

Gangapur

Carboniferous

Permian

Triassic

Jurassic

Cretaceous

Gzhelian

Norian

Cisuralian

Guadalupian

Lopingian

Rhaetian

Carnian

Lower

Middle

Upper

Albian

Aptian

Pliensbachian

Sakmarian

Kungurian

Asselian

Ladinian

Anisian

Artinskian

Time Slot

VII

Time Slot

VI

Time SlotV

Time Slot

IV

Time Slot

III

Time SlotII

Time Slot

I

105Ma

118Ma

200Ma

160Ma

210Ma

184Ma

251Ma

271Ma

278Ma

290Ma

302Ma

260Ma

299Ma

Upper

Lower

Middle

Lower

Oxfordian

Table 2. Correlation of Gondwana formations based on present scheme


8/16



which had intermittent connection with the Tethys. During

high stands, seawater entered into the inland basins from

the main Tethys in the north as well as from the eastern and

western tongues of Tethys (Fig. 2).

Time Slot II : early Sakmarian to Kungurian (Cisuralian-

Guadalupian boundary Lower and Middle Permian) (290-

271 Ma)

Following early Sakmarian high stand, the transgressive

phase continued for a prolonged period with a reduced

level. Predominantly finer clastic dominated, well sorted

sediment of Lower part of Barakar Formation was deposited

in deeper part of most of the basins. The slow rate of

sedimentation is evidenced by intense bioturbation (Duttand Mukhopadhyay, 2001). Near marine environment is

reported from Son Valley Basins, Daltonganj, North

Karanpura basin (De 1979; Dutt and Mukhopadhyay, 2001).

Tidal effect has been demonstrated in Satpura Basin (Ghosh

et al. 2004). The thickness of these deposits is fairly constant

ranging from 150 to 200 m in most of the basins. Fluvial

condition prevailed in smaller basins and marginal part of

larger basins with the deposition of coarse clastics with coal

that has often been designated as Karharbari Formation (Raja

Rao, 1987). Coal seams associated with Karharbari

Formation are present in the small subsidiary basins like

Giridih, Daltonganj, Deogarh group of coalfields, lying north

of the main Damodar Valley Basins, Talcher, North

Karanpura, Bisrampur coalfields and proximal part of some

larger basins of Damodar Valley and Mahanadi Valley.

Marine environment still prevailed in areas close to Tethyan

margin as exemplified by the occurrence ofEurydesma in

equivalent Badhaura Formation, overlying Bap bed in

Rajasthan (Ranga Rao et al. 1977). A general review of

Damodar-Koel Valley Basins reveal that the basinal

morphology is identical during the deposition of Talchir

Formation and Lower Barakar/Karharbari and their

disposition is unrelated with the present day boundary

fault. Besides lithological distinctiveness, this zone also

has a distinctive floral and palynological character(Gondwanidium, Buriadia flora and Palynozone II of Tiwari,

1996) quite similar to underlying shaly Talchir Formation

but distinctly different from overlying coal bearing fluvial

Barakar Formation. In many basins, Karharbari Formation

is overlain by a thick oligomictic quartz pebble conglomerate

similar to that reported from the top of fluviatile Fairchild

Formation in Transantarctic mountain, Antarctica where they

have been considered to represent a temporary pause in

sedimentation (Collinson, 1996). Major basin forming

tectonic movement post-dates this period.

With retreat of the sea, fluvial environment spreads over

India

Africa

Arabia

Antarctica

Australia

Madagascar

Tethys

Fig.2. Likely pathways for Permian marine incursions


9/16



the entire span of Indian peninsula. The boundary faults came

into existence by reactivation of preexisting shear zones

within basement in response to large-scale tectonic

movement rendering the present day shape of the basins.

Basinal area enlarged, most conspicuous in Damodar Valley.

The initial Sag basins now become tectonically controlled.

This change over may be correlatable with the 2782 Ma

(Artinskian) paroxysm of Cape Fold Belt. Individual basins

in different belts opened up, as proposed by Chakraborty et

al. (2003), either as pull-apart basins or as purely rift basin

depending upon the orientation of the pre-existing fracture

system under a northeastward bulk extension. Subsidence

and deposition took place only in those peninsular basins

which were affected by these faults. Some northwest trending

troughs in off shore Bay of Bengal continue to receive

sediments during Permo-Triassic period (Chandra et al.1996). Deposition ceased in many basins due to lack of

tectonic subsidence. The basins of Rajasthan, Palar and other

troughs along east coast and many outliers beyond the

present day basin margin preserve only Talchir and/or basal

Barakar/Karharbari Formation.

The early sediment during syn-rift stage is mostly arkosic

sandstone with thick inertinite rich coal in all the basins.

Protected peat swamps, developed in distal flood plains or

slow subsiding lacustrine environment, has been proposed

for the deposition of coal seams within Barakar Formation

(Jowett, 1925; Pascoe, 1968; Casshyap, 1970; Casshyap and

Tiwari, 1984, 1987). In the relatively smaller basins, like

those of Damodar Valley, split nature of the seams near the

peripheral part is accounted for by the oscillating nature of

the fluvial front along the periphery of the coal swamp.

Tranquil conditions, however, prevailed in the basin centre

where thick coal seams devoid of sandy interbeds could

form. The ash content also decreases towards the centre of

the basins. Two major coal-forming phases can be recognised

within the Barakar Formation (Laskar, 1977). The first one

is present just above the Karharbari/Lower Barakar

sediments and represents the thickest seam in all the

coalfields of India. Synsedimentary faults, subbasinalstructures, fault-controlled character of the seams are quite

evident from subsurface data. The second phase of thick

coal development within Barakar Formation is restricted

only in the eastern part of Peninsular India. There is a distinct

increase of finer clastics with degeneration of coal seams

from these seams onward within the Barakar Formation in

eastern Indian basins.

Time Slot III Kungurian to P-T boundary (Guadalupian and

Lopingian - Middle and Upper Permian) (271-251 Ma)

In Extra Peninsular India the middle Permian marine

transgression is well documented by the deposition of Amb

bed of Lower Productus limestone in Salt Range and eastern

frontal basins of Himalaya. This event has been assigned

271 Ma age (Gradstein et al. 2004). Similar Productus

bearing Vahitola limestone was also deposited in

Madagascar simultaneously. The effect of this transgressive

event is manifested by the deposition of thick clay dominated

sequence in the basins of Damodar-Koel Valley extending

upto Ramkola-Tatapani in Son-Valley, in Talchir and Ib-

Raigarh Basin in Mahanadi Valley in eastern India and

Satpura, Wardha, Kamptee and northern part of Godavari

Valley Basin in western part of India. In the eastern

basins the succession is represented by Barren Measures

that is characterized by grey to black coloured shale with

ironstone bands/nodules, conformably overlies the Barakar

Formation. While in the western India the equivalent MoturFormation is represented by Red-green mottled clay with

calcretes that was deposited, probably after a break in

sedimentation, over the Barakar Formation (Fox, 1931).

Marine influence can be recognised by the presence of

Bryozoa (Raniganj Basin), Foraminifera (Satpura Basin),

high content of P2O

5(up to 30% in Ib and Mand-Raigarh,

West Bokaro, South Karanpura Basins), chamosite

(Northern part of Godavari Valley), preponderance of wave

generated structures, including Hummockey cross

stratification and extensive burrowing dominated by

Skolithos and Cruziana ichnofacies (Bose and Sengupta,

1993; Sengupta et al. 1996; Dutt and Mukhopadhyay, 2001).

Connection with Tethys was established through the same

pathways as Early Sakmarian (Fig.2). However, in major

part of Son Valley, southern part of Godavari Valley and in

the northern part of Mahanadi Valley, which were probably

located at higher altitudes, the Barren Measures is mostly

arenaceous.

Raniganj Formation and its equivalents, deposited during

successive regression, overlies the Barren Measures/Motur.

A coarsening upward motif is recognised in Raniganj

Formation from many basins. Analysis of sub-surface data

points towards a tectonic movement at the base of RaniganjFormation in many basins. Boundary faults got reactivated

as evidenced by the occurrence of Raniganj Formation

immediately above basement along the southern faulted

margin in some basins like Raniganj, Jharia, Ib etc. Coal

forming environment reappeared, however, economic coal

deposits are present only in Raniganj, Jharia and Singrauli

Basin. It can be correlated with similar coal-bearing

formations associated with Late Permian regression in

Australia, Antarctica or South Africa. The basal part is a

heterolithic unit followed upward by sandstone which is

often calcareous towards the top. In Salt Range a temporary


10/16



regression is marked by the occurrence of Glossopteris

bearing carbonaceous shale-sandstone horizon within

Wargal that has been assigned 260 Ma age (Pascoe, 1968;

Gradstein et al. 2004). Accordingly Barren Measures-

Raniganj transition may be assigned around 260 Ma i.e.

Guadallupian-Lopingian boundary. Depositional

environment was more anoxic than the underlying

Karharbari or Barakar Formation. Glossopteris flora, which

was the main source of vegetal matter for the Permian coals,

reached its acme in development during the deposition of

Raniganj and its equivalent formation.

Raniganj Formation is likely to end well within Permian.

A disconformity marked by Palaeosol and profuse

calcretisation at the top of Raniganj and equivalent

formations has been recognised, particularly at the proximal

part of many basins. Gee (1932) has proposed adisconformable relation between Raniganj and overlying

Panchet Formation in Raniganj Basin. Palaeosl horizons

have been reported from many coalfields at the contact

between Raniganj Formation and overlying Triassic

deposits. Bijori Formation in Satpura Basin has been

assigned an age of Early Tatarian based on fossil evidence

leaving a small window at the top of Permian. The

depositional mode also shows sudden change from finer

facies of Raniganj Formation to coarse clastic dominated

Early Triassic deposits in most of the basins except Godavari

Valley and Damodar Valley. The Permo-Triassic hiatus has

been recognised in Salt Range also. Although no lithological

break is apparent between the Permian Productus limestone

and Triassic ceratite bed but a disconformity has been

advocated by Gee based on distinctly different fossil

assemblage (Pascoe, 1968). The Otoceras woodwardi

bearing basal part of Triassic section in Salt Range

(Greisbach, 1880) represents the base of Triassic at 251 Ma

(Gradstein et al., 2004).

Time Slot IV P-T boundary to Early Norian (251-~210 Ma)

The advent of Triassic is marked by arid climate in

most of the basins. Coarse clastic dominated quartzo-feldspathic sandstone with lenses of conglomerate and thin

persistent variegated to red mudstone/siltstone were

deposited in some basins like Mahanadi (lower part of

Kamthi Formation), Satpura (lower part of Panchmarhi

Formation) and Son (Pali Formation). In Satpura and

Son Valley the sandstone grades into clay dominated

Denwa and Tiki Formation respectively by Middle Triassic.

However, in Godavari Valley (Middle Kamthi/Maleri

Formation) and in Damodar Valley (Panchet Formation)

clay-rich sediments were deposited from the beginning of

Triassic. Warm to hot climate with low seasonal rainfall and

annual deficit in water budget as indicated by presence of

peloids has been suggested for the clay rich upper part of

Triassic deposits (Sarkar, 1988). Although fossils are rare

within the coarse grained sandstone but the clayey formations

contain abundant fossils. Presence ofLystosaurus and

other fossils (Panchet Formation in Raniganj Basin and

Mangli bed in Wardha Basin), typical Triassic flora, Estherid

(Ghosh and Shah, 1977; Datta and Ghosh, 2001) indicate

that the sedimentation started almost at the dawn of Triassic.

The beginning of Triassic witness the arrival of new set of

mioflora forms like Densisporites, Lundbladispora,

Playfordiaspora, Lunatisporites, Klausipollenites,

Alisporites and Falcisporites which is followed by non

taeniate dissacates (Ghosh et al. 1996). The fossil

assemblage of Panchet, Tiki, Denwa and Maleri Formation

(excluding Dharmaram Member) indicate that thesedimentation in all the basins stopped by Early Norian

(Chatterjee and Roychowdhury, 1974; Kutty et al. 1987;

Kutty and Sengupta, 1989; Bandopadhyay, 1999;

Bandopadhyay and Sengupta, 1999).

The Middle Triassic Gondwanide II event (Veevers,

2004) is not manifested in any basin. The only deposit in

Indian basins that has been correlated with the Pangean

Extension II event of Veever (2004) is the Bhimaram

Member of Maleri Formation in Godavari Valley which

laterally grades into Maleri clay (Ramana Murty, 1996).

Time Slot V: Late Norian to Pliensbachian (Lower Jurassic)

In almost all the peninsular basins of India there is a

pronounced Post-Early Norian hiatus. This hiatus is marked

by deep erosion, faulting, tilting of strata and complete

change of depositional milieu and the break between the

underlying and younger deposits of Lower Jurassic age is

the most easily recognizable break in sedimentation within

Gondwana Basins of India. Sedimentation continued only

in part of Godavari Valley Basin in the form of Dharmaram

Member upto Early Jurassic under a very arid condition

(Yadgiri and Rao, 1988). Although there is no appreciable

break in sedimentation, but no faunal member of the Malerihave been found in the Dharmaram Member. Two faunal

assemblages have been found within Dharmaram. The lower

part is of late Norian age (Kutty and Sengupta, 1989) while

upper horizon marks the onset of Jurassic (Yadgiri and Rao,

1988). Analysis of fault pattern indicate a break between

Maleri and Kota Formations (King, 1988; Veveers and

Tewari, 1995).

One of the most problematic horizon in Gondwana

stratigraphy is Bagra Formation in Satpura Basin. Bagra

Formation comprises essentially of conglomerate, variegated

shale and frequent bands of limestone and dolomite. The


11/16



conglomerate contains clasts of banded jasper, sandstone,

vein quartz, black chert, green phyllite, epidote granite, pink

quartzite and pink feldspar (Dutta and Laha, 1977). Along

the northern margin of the basin the formation directly

overlies the metamorphic rocks while in the south it grades

to clay of the upper part of Denwa Formation (Raja Rao,

1983). The Denwa ends up with a thick red mudstone and

the Bagra starts with another red mudstone and both coalesce

to form a very thick red mudstone unit (Dutta and Laha,

1977) which led many workers to club them together

(Crookshank, 1936, Peter and Shing, 2001). No Fossil record

has so far been recovered from this formation to fix its age.

The contact between Bagra Formation and overlying

Jabalpur Formation is an unconformity. Based on the

occurrence of clasts of northern source area it has been

considered to be deposited after a regional reversal ofpalaeoslope and hence assigned an Upper Jurassic to Early

Cretaceous age. However, considering the presence of

feldspar (Dutta and Laha, 1977) and comparing with

Godavari Basin it is tempting to consider the lower clay

dominated part of Bagra Formation as equivalent to

Dharmaram Member of Maleri Formation and the upper

part with the younger Early Jurassic deposits. A break is

also evident along the Tethyan margin during this time slot

(Pascoe, 1968).

Time Slot VI: Pliensbachian to Oxfordian (185-160 Ma)

The hill forming sandstones in all the basin belts occur

as capping over the earlier formations and are likely to be

deposited during Early Jurassic. Very coarse to coarse-

grained sandstone, conglomerates and the pebbly sandstone

lenses constitute about 85% of this sequence (Casshyap and

Tewari, 1984). Clay, mostly red and white, occur as clasts

and thin lenses within the sandstone. The sandstone is almost

devoid of feldspar and show large scale cross stratification.

A low angle unconformity at the base is characteristically

present in all the basins and the nature of the deposit is

identical. These rocks, barring their quartzarenitic

composition, are quite similar to the underlying EarlyTriassic sandstone-dominated deposits. The close similarity

between these deposits and the Early Triassic sandstone

poses major problem in Upper Gondwana stratigraphy of

India. However, a closer scrutiny of lithology and contact

relation with underlying lithounit can help in distinguishing

the two. The quartzofeldspathic lower part of Panchmarhi

Formation conformably overlies Bijori Formation and shows

gradational contact with overlying Denwa Formation that

continues upto Early Norian. In contrast, the quartzarenitic

upper part of Panchmarhi Formation which is separated from

the underlying quartzofeldspathic lower part with a thick

quartz pebble conglomerate bed, as exposed in the

Panchmarhi-Dhupgarh road section, always rests

unconformably over the Bijori Formation wherever, the two

are in contact (Crookshank, 1936). Few thin marl bands are

present within Upper part of Panchmarhi Formation as

exposed at the top of Dhupgarh hill. Kamthi Formation in

Mahanadi Valley can be classified into two parts. The lower

part is coarse-grained feldspathic sandstone with greenish

white shale and the upper part is cross-bedded ferruginous

quartzarenitic sandstone with bands of variegated shale

containing plant fossils. An Upper Triassic age has been

assigned based on plant fossils all of which extends well

into Early Jurassic (Chakraborty, 1989; Chakraborti and

Chakraborty, 2001). The fossil assemblage of Parsora/

Bandhavgarh/Hartala also indicates Early Jurassic age (Sukh

Dev, 1987; Kundu et al. 1993; Tarafdar et al. 1993). SimilarlyUpper Kamthi Formation in Godavari Valley not only

unconformably lies over the Early Triassic Middle Kamthi

and all other older formations, but also been reported to

overlie Maleri Formation at places (Dutta, 1996). Early

Jurassic plant fossils have been reported from this horizon

from the southern part of the basin which led to considering

the upper part as Kota Formation (Lakshminarayan and

Kutumba Rao, 1988). Subsurface data also clubs the Upper

Kamthi with lower part of Kota Formation (Raiverman,

1986). Fossil is almost absent. The only fossil bearing strata

is present in the upper part of Kota Formation which

indicates that the sedimentation continued upto Middle

Jurassic (Govindan, 1974; Yadgiri and Rao, 1988). The plant

fossils of Dubrajpur Formation also supports Jurassic age

(Ball, 1877; Sah and Shah, 1974; Sengupta, 1988). No

meaningful fossil record has yet been found within

Suprapanchet. Considering the close similarity of lithology

and structural set up it is quite logical to consider that the

deposits represent a new depositional environment, distinctly

different from the underlying Gondwana deposits. The fossil

assemblage of Dharmaram Member of Maleri Formation,

that underlies the deposits of Time Slot VI (i.e. Kota

Formation in Godavari Valley) has an Early Jurassic affinity.The palaenological samples collected from Kota Formation

gives a Pliensbachian age (Vijaya, 2000). In western

Australia, almost identical sediments were deposited during

Early Jurassic and continued upto Middle Jurassic.

Considering the above facts an Early Jurassic age may be

assigned for initiation of these deposits in all the basins of

India under renewed rifting. The upper limit of this time

slot may be fixed at Middle Jurassic based on the age of

fossil within Kota Formation (Bandopadhyay, 1999).

Opening of Kachchha Basin in Gujarat and Bikaner-Nagaur-

Jaisalmer Basins in Rajasthan with marine sediments and


12/16



the closing of the Inland basins took place almost at the

same time. Deposition in most of the Gondwana Basins in

India stopped after this time slot except in some isolated

pockets where Lower Cretaceous sediments were deposited

after a long break.

Time Slot VII: Aptian-Albian (Lower Cretaceous)

(125-105 Ma)

These sediments were deposited over the deposits of

time slot VI after a break in sedimentation and include

Jabalpur Formation in Satpura Basin, Bansa bed in Son

Valley, Gangapur/Chikiala bed in Godavari Valley,

Infratrappean bed in Rajmahal master basin. Age of these

inland deposits has variously been assigned Late Jurassic to

Lower Cretaceous. Sedimentation continued in the western

pericratonic basin and started afresh in the easternpericratonic basins. The fossil record from the coastal basins

as well as palynological data has assigned Early Cretaceous

age (Aptian-Albian) to these deposits. Thin coal bands/

carbonaceous shale developed in Bhuj Formation in

Kachchh, Jabalpur, Chikiala and Infratrappean bed of

Rajmahal master basin after a long break since Permian.

These basins were possibly opened up in response to the

stress that ultimately led to separation of Australia and

Antarctica from India.

This phase of sedimentation is followed by an extensive

eruption of basic magma with a maximum thickness of

around 600 m in the eastern part of India known as Rajmahal

Trap that covers the Gondwana sediments of Damodar

Valley and Rajmahal master basin and extends in the

Bengal Basin. Volcanic flows in Meghalaya, better known

as Sylhet Trap, are considered to be equivalent. Subsurface

data confirm the extension of Rajmahal Trap in the

Surma Basin. According to the latest absolute dating,

Rajmahal Trap erupted between 115-118 Ma (Bakshi,

1986), approximately at the same age as Bunbury basalts in

Western Australia and is considered to be related to the rifting

of India from Australia and Antarctica (Storey, 1995).

Besides these extrusive magmatism, a large number oflamprophyre dykes and sills are found to be restricted within

the Gondwana Basins of Damodar Valley Basins. It is

interesting to note that the lamprophyric intrusives are

restricted mostly in Permian sediments, rarely intrudes

Panchet Formation of Triassic age but nowhere they intrude

within the Suprapanchet or equivalent formations. However,

K-Ar age of these lamprophyres ranges from 105 to 121

Ma and are believed to be true crystallisation age which

correlates them with Rajmahal Trap (Sarkar et al. 1980).

The upper boundary of time slot VII is fixed at 105 Ma

(Albian). This marks the end of Gondwana sediments in

India as henceforth Indian plate got detached from the

rest of Gondwanaland and moved northward as a separate

plate.

SUMMARY

The Gondwana Basins of India represent about 200

Million years of geological record of Peninsular India. The

basins originally evolved as sag basins but later on switched

over to fault controlled basins in response to large-scale

tectonic movements many of which are pan-Gondwanaland

events.

The predominantly siliciclastic sediments in these

basins are mostly deposited under continental set up.

However, marine influence can be visualised in Early

Permian and Middle Permian strata of Gondwana Basinsof India.

Gondwana deposits are scattered in a number of basins.

Various nomenclatures have been proposed in different

basins. Due to close similarity of lithology and poor exposure

level, the contact relation between different formations is

blurred in most cases. Fossils are restricted only in few

horizons and well-constrained fossils are extremely rare.

No radiometric age data is available for any of the horizons.

No volcanism, that is characteristic of most of the rift basins,

is present in Gondwana Basins of India during the entire

period of sedimentation except Rajmahal Trap in eastern

basins, that marks the end of Gondwana Supergroup

and occurs at the top. The present approach, thus took

cognisance of the surface and subsurface data accrued

from different basins and well-dated events in other parts

of Gondwanaland, particularly those that affect the

surrounding areas of India. Such type of combined

approach, incorporating the essence of various schemes,

provide important tool in classifying the Gondwana

succession in different basins into some time slots and

help in resolving long standing controversies in both

intra- and inter-basinal correlation.

Initial sedimentation in Gondwana Basins of India tookplace during latest Carboniferous in sag type basins over

the Precambrian basement through multiple deglaciation.

Widespread transgression inundated almost all the basins

during Early Sakmarian at around 290 Ma as evidenced by

marine fossils at the top of Talchir Formation. Tethyan

marine front entered into the interior area from north, east

and west. Near marine condition prevailed during the

deposition of Lower part of Barakar Formation in the deeper

part of many basins. However, coal bearing Karharbari

Formation was deposited in small subsidiary basins of

Damodar Valley or in the marginal part of the larger basins


13/16



where fluvial condition was established. Coal seams

associated with Karharbari Formation or Lower part of

Barakar Formation are generally low ash, inertinite rich and

have small lateral continuity. This deposits represents around

12 Million years i.e. upto 278 Ma.

During the subsequent regressive phase coal bearing

part of Barakar Formation was deposited in a tectonically

active environment. The thickest coal seam in all the basins

has some striking similarity both in their stratigraphic

disposition as well as petrographic make up and can be

considered to have deposited more or less at the same time

under similar tectono-sedimentary environment. In many

basins of eastern India another thick coal seam developed

within Barakar Formation that marks a distinct change in

coal character as well as nature of associated sediments.

This can be assigned 271 Ma age. The clay dominatedupper part of Barakar Formation and overlying Barren

Measures in Damodar Valley, southern Mahanadi Valley

were deposited subsequently. This thick upper coal is absent

in most other basins and a temporary break in sedimentation

is evident.

Coal forming environment reappeared in the succeeding

regressive phase during the deposition of Raniganj and

equivalent formations. Although major coal deposits are

found only in Raniganj, Jharia and Singrauli coalfields but

thin coal seams/bands are present in almost all the coalfields.

The formational contact between Barren measures

Raniganj can roughly be assigned 260 Ma.

Large scale extinction occurred across the plant and

animal kingdom all over the earth during latest Permian with

temporary cessation of sedimentation in most of the

Gondwana Basins of India.

Advent of Triassic at 251 Ma ushered renewed

sedimentation under an arid environment in all the basins

of India. New species appeared that could sustain the arid

condition.

Sedimentation in most of the Indian Gondwana Basins

came to a halt within Early Norian except in Godavari Basin

(and probably also in Satpura Basin). This is followed by a

period of nondeposition, basinal tilting, erosion and major

faulting. A distinctly different depositional milieu was

established during Early Jurassic around Plensbachian when

the nature of sediments changed completely. During Middle

Jurassic new basins opened up along the western margin of

Peninsular India at around 160 Ma. India along with other

constituents of eastern Gondwana started separating from

western Gondwana.

The last phase of sedimentation took place in some

isolated areas within the Gondwana Basins during Early

Cretaceous (Aptian-Albian). Pericratonic basins along theeastern coast opened up. Extrusion of tholeiitic lava took

place in the form of Rajmahal Trap and Lamprophyre dykes/

sills were emplaced within Gondwana Basins in the eastern

part of India. India got separated from Antarctica and

Australia marking the end of the history of Indian Gondwana

Basins.

Acknowledgement: The authors are grateful to the

Director General, Geological Survey of India for kindly

permitting to present the paper in the national symposium

organized by Geological Society of India at Trivandrum.

Sincere thanks are due to Dr. D.I. Cole, Council for

Geoscience, South Africa and a number of scientists of Coal

Wing, GSI for extending their scientific wisdom through

interactions, both in field and across the table. Authors are

thankful to the anonymous reviewer of this journal for his

useful comments and suggestions. The views expressedin

this paper are of the authors and not necessarily of GSI.

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